Eur J Nutr (2004) [Suppl 1] 43 : I/12–I/17

DOI 10.1007/s00394-004-1104-8

Jörg Hinrichs Mediterranean milk and milk products

■ Summary Milk and dairy prod- nutrition. The milk proteins are valuable whey proteins which con-
ucts are part of a healthy Mediter- characterized by a high content of tain a higher amount of the amino
ranean diet which, besides cow’s essential amino acids. Beyond that acids lysine, methionine and cys-
milk, also consists of sheep’s, goat’s macromolecules, which have vari- teic acid in comparison to casein
and buffalo’s milk – alone or as a ous biological functions, are avail- and, additionally, to soy protein, are
mixture – as raw material. The fat able or may be formed by proteoly- made usable for human nutrition.
and protein composition of the sis in milk. Taking this into Finally, it is pointed out on the ba-
milk of the various animal species consideration, the technology of sis of individual examples that
differs only slightly, but in every different well-known Italian and technologies to enrich whey pro-
case it has a high priority in human German cheese types is presented teins in cheese are already available
and the differences as well as corre- and in use. Thus, the flavor of low
spondences regarding nutrition are fat cheese is improved and the
Professor Jörg Hinrichs (
) discussed. nutritional value is increased.
Dept. for Animal Foodstuff Technology Especially Ricotta and Mascar-
Institute for Food Technology pone are discussed in detail. Ri- ■ Key words milk – cheese –
University of Hohenheim
Garbenstr. 21
cotta represents a special feature as technology – whey protein – fat
70599 Stuttgart, Germany this cheese is traditionally made of replacement
E-Mail: jh-lth@uni-hohenheim.de whey and cream. Thus the highly

The milk of the various species indicates only small dif-

Introduction ferences in fat and protein composition, and they have a
high priority in human nutrition. The high nutritional
Health and the prevention of diseases are playing an in- value of the milk protein fractions casein and whey pro-
creasingly meaningful role in nutrition. This paper aims tein both depend on the content of essential amino acids
to evaluate similarities and differences between German and the metabolic utilization. In addition, whey proteins
and Mediterranean milk products. However, it is worth present a high level of lysine, sulfur containing amino
noting that not all milk components can be discussed acids, methionine and cysteic acid, tryptophan and thre-
here for their relevance to this topic. Moreover, the func- onine, which are limited in different dietary protein
tion of special milk components has already been de- sources.
scribed in detail elsewhere [29]. The paper will focus on Research for more than a century has demonstrated
milk proteins in relation to traditional milk processing that milk contains protein with native or latent biologi-
and will consider new technologies. cal functionality. Activities of the native state are im-
Milk and dairy products are part of a healthy puted to indigenous bioactive molecules including me-
Mediterranean diet which, besides cow’s milk, also uses diator and hormone-like substances, immunoglobulins
sheep’s, goat’s and buffalo’s milk – alone or as a mixture and enzyme systems. Most of these components are con-
– as raw material. Altogether, the proportion of the non- tained in the whey protein fraction and exert a specific
EJN 1104

cow’s milk dairy products remains small; however, a or non-specific activity against a great variety of patho-
larger product variety results due to their availability. genic and non-pathogenic strains as well as food
 J. Hinrichs I/13
Incorporation of whey proteins in cheese

spoilage microorganisms. In addition, they are known to eases in the future. Nevertheless, milk and milk products
stimulate the growth and differentiation of cells, and to have played a key role in human nutrition for centuries
enhance passive immunity and the regulation of immu- because of their high nutritional value. To cover this pro-
nity. The primary function of the components is related tein source, the milk, which is perishable, has always
to the promotion of the cow’s and the newborn calf ’s been and still is converted into several cheese products
health. But due to their physiological function some of with a longer shelf-life while preserving its nutrients. In
the components, notably immunoglobulins, lactoferrin order to preserve a product without thermal treatment
and lactoperoxidase and lysozyme, have been recog- and appropriate packaging, it is necessary to lower its
nized as potential for functional food, dietary supple- water activity (aw-value). One possibility is to add rennet
ments and pharmaceuticals. to the milk in order to obtain gelling and dehydration af-
Latent biological functionality only becomes active ter cutting, but valuable whey proteins are also sepa-
upon hydrolysis by certain proteolytic enzymes during rated at the same time as the water. Up to now a broad
processing, e. g. through the addition of chymosin in range of different available cheeses has been based
cheese-making, or during digestion, e. g. by pepsin and mainly on regional conditions and the production tech-
trypsin. Bioactive peptides have been described and nology, which has been repeatedly adapted and opti-
tested for their physiological functionality derived from mized.
the hydrolysis of casein fractions, α-lactalbumin and β- The introduction has shown that milk and milk pro-
lactoglobulin. For example, the glyco-macropeptide is ducts contain highly valuable nutrients as well as bioac-
released from κ-casein during cheese-making due to the tive molecules. But this leads us to the question as to
addition of rennet (chymosin) and is lost in the whey. In whether there are special technologies for Mediter-
vitro studies have shown that the glyco-macropeptide ranean milk products which may use the potential of the
binds bacterial toxins, inhibits the adhesion of bacteria milk source better than others. In order to illuminate
and viruses and promotes the growth of bifido-bacteria differences in processing and nutrition, Table 2 shows
[2]. Table 1 shows that many bioactive peptides are de- the composition of several cheese types which are well-
rived from the hydrolysis of milk proteins. They have known in northern Europe and Italy. The table is verti-
gastrotestinal functions, a protective and defense func- cally arranged according to decreasing protein content,
tion or a physiological function such as an ACE-(An- and horizontally according to decreasing duration of
giotensin Converting Enzyme)inhibitory effect (see ripening.
[3]). Additionally, there are bioactive peptides from First of all, there are cheeses belonging to the hard
α- and β-casein that are able to bind minerals. cheese group that are mostly produced from raw milk
The above considerations demonstrate that milk re- and have long maturing times. Interestingly, the Italian
presents not only a source for nitrogen and essential cheeses such as Parmesan, Pecorino and Grana Padano
amino acids but also contains bioactive peptides which have long maturing periods and are mainly used for the
are released by digestion or processing. The latter may seasoning of food, e. g. noodles. As mentioned previ-
find use in the prevention and treatment of human dis- ously, a high amount of bioactive peptides was probably
formed in these products through ripening. But in
Bergkäse as well as in Emmentaler, both made from raw
Table 1 Bioactive peptides from milk proteins [1]
milk, these bioactive peptides also appear during ripen-
Bioactive peptide Protein precursor Bioactivity ing. In all cases, most of the native bioactive molecules
and the valuable whey proteins are lost in the whey.
Casomorphins αS1-, β-Casein Opiod, agonist Types of soft cheese are another interesting group. It
α-Lactorphin α-Lactalbumin Opiod, agonist has to be pointed out that beyond this group of cheese,
β-Lactorphin β-Lactoglobulin Opiod, agonist the technology for processing some Italian products dif-
Serum albumin Serorphin Opiod, agonist fers from typical German cheese-making, e. g. for But-
Lactoferroxin Lactoferrin Opiod, antagonist terkäse (butter cheese). Mozzarella and Provolone are
Casoxins κ-Casein Opiod, antagonist so-called “Pasta Filata” cheese. In this technology the
Casokinins α-, β-Casein ACE inhibitory curd grains are cut into small pieces and are then
Lactokinins β-Lactoglobulin ACE inhibitoriy warmed up by applying hot water in order to melt the
Casocidin αS2-Casein Antimicrobial grains. The melted grains are intensively kneaded to
Lactoferricin Lactoferrin Antimicrobial
form a continuous matrix. While warming up, the re-
maining microorganisms are inactivated to a large part.
Isracidin αS1-Casein Immuno-modulating/
antimicrobial Maturation is reduced and only achieved by non-inacti-
Immunopeptides α-, β-Casein Immuno-modulating vated enzymes. Therefore, this cheese is mostly con-
Casoplatelins κ-Casein, Transferrin Antithrombotic
sumed unripened, e. g. au gratin or with vegetables. In
Germany, these cheese types are already being produced
Phosphopeptides α-, β-Casein Mineral binding
and are available on the market. They mostly contain the
I/14 European Journal of Nutrition (2004) Vol. 43, Supplement 1
© Steinkopff Verlag 2004

Table 2 Composition of various cheese types (adapted from various sources)

Cheese type Protein (g/100g) Fat in TS (g/100g) Fat (g/100g) Ca (g/kg) P (g/kg) Milk source Ripening

Parmesan 36.5 – 26.0 13.0 8.5 Cow up to 2 (3) years

Pecorino 50 31.0 Sheep 8 months
Grana Padano 36 24.1 11.0 7.0 Cow 12–18 months
Gruyere 29.8 48 32.3 10.0 6.1 Cow 8 months
Bergkäse 28.0 50 31.0 Cow 3–12 months
Emmentaler 27.9 45 29.0 10.8 8.6 Cow 3–12 months
Edamer 25.5 45 26.0 7.5 4.5 Cow 6 weeks
Cheddar 25.4 50 32.2 8.0 5.0 Cow up to 2 years
Gouda 25.4 45 29.0 8.2 4.4 Cow 6 weeks to 1 year
Bel Paese 25.4 49 30.2 6.0 4.8 Cow ripened
Camembert 22.0 45 22.3 4.0 4.0 Cow ripened
Butterkäse 21.1 50 28.8 6.9 4.2 Cow ripened
Mozzarella 19.9 40 16.1 6.3 4.3 Buffalo, cow unripened
Provolone 19.9 40 16.1 6.3 4.3 Cow ripened
Gorgonzola 19.4 50 31.2 6.1 3.6 Cow ripened
Feta 17.0 45 18.1 4.3 3.3 Sheep, goat, cow 10 to 15 days
Hüttenkäse 14.7 20 4.6 0.8 1.6 Cow unripened
Quarg (skim) 12.5 0.25 0.9 1.6 Cow unripened
Quarg 11.1 40 11.4 1.0 1.9 Cow unripened
Zi(e)ger 9.5 60 15.0 2.7 2.7 Whey unripened
Ricotta 10.0 60 15.0 2.7 2.7 Whey unripened
Mascarpone 5.5 80 40 4.0 8.0 Cow unripened

Ca calcium; P phosphor; TS total solids

casein fractions, precursors and some bioactive pep- so doing whey proteins are transformed into a source of
tides such as the glyco-macropeptide. The valuable whey nutrition, although whey is used for feeding in tradi-
proteins also become lost in the whey during cheese- tional German cheese-making.
making. However, Mascarpone also represents an interesting
Up to this point only small differences have been cheese processing method in which direct acidification
found between traditional German and Italian tech- is applied (see Fig. 1). Cream is heated and, while stir-
nologies, although the cheese “Ricotta” has to be dis- ring, acid is added in order to force the coagulation of
cussed in detail, as there is no comparable product. The the matrix. In addition, during the intensive heating the
cheese is made from cow’s milk whey. It is white, creamy whey protein denatures and aggregates or sticks to the
and mild and is primarily used as an ingredient in casein micelles and the fat globule membrane. As a re-
lasagna. (Zieger is also made from whey but the flavor is sult of this reaction whey proteins partly remain in the
different.) Some milk or cream is added to the whey in cheese matrix during the draining step. After a total of
order to increase the fat content. The mixed whey is about 20 h of draining one obtains Mascarpone, which is
heated up to 70 °C, and citric acid is added to encourage often used in desserts because of its mild flavor and
destabilization of the whey proteins. Heating up to 90 °C creamy consistency. The shelf life of the traditionally
and holding enhances the coagulation and creaming of manufactured products is limited as re-contaminants
the whey grains. The grains are skimmed off and put in may grow and hygienic problems may arise during the
baskets to drain for two days. The differences to tradi- long draining period of 20 h.
tional German processing have to be emphasized: 1) The
valuable whey proteins are gained for food. 2) Whey pro-
teins coagulate when whey is heated-up and the pH Integrating valuable whey proteins in cheese
value is decreased by directly adding acid. Then the pro- by ultrafiltration
teins can be separated from the watery milk phase (per-
meate). It has to be noted that besides fermentation usu- In traditional rennet cheese manufacturing only 6 to 30
ally applied in Germany, direct acidification is a useful kg of the milk constituents in the form of curd is re-
and common process step in Italian milk processing. In covered from 100 kg milk depending upon the type of
 J. Hinrichs I/15
Incorporation of whey proteins in cheese

Whey drainage is totally eliminated in comparison to

the traditional process in Fig. 1 when ultrafiltration is
integrated prior to heating and direct acidification. The
separated permeate contains lactose and milk salts,
which are further concentrated by nanofiltration and/or
reverse osmosis, purified and applied for dietary sup-
plements or pharmacy.Most of the milk constituents,es-
pecially the valuable whey proteins, are recovered in the
cheese matrix. Besides the increase of the nutrient value
the hygienic status of the Mascarpone production is en-
hanced by elimination of the drainage, which leads to a
prolonged shelf-life.
The same procedure may be used for other cheese
products. However, when applying membrane technol-
ogy in order to recover most of the valuable constituents
of raw milk also in other cheese types, the concentrated
milk and the altered composition of the resulting cheese
may influence ripening as well as the functional proper-
ties. Therefore, it is necessary to study traditional
Fig. 1 Scheme for the traditional processing of Mascarpone processes and, at the same time, the potential of new
technologies. This enables the processing conditions to
be adapted beyond the scope of high nutritional value
cheese, while the rest is left over in the form of whey. The and the flavor of cheese products depending on the tech-
caseins form the essential structure of the cheese matrix nology applied.
(see Fig. 2A), which constitute about 80 % of the milk
proteins. The remaining 20 %, the whey proteins, are lost
to a large extent in the whey. In the meantime different
technologies have been tried and tested, and some are
now well established as integrating whey proteins into
cheese and thus improve the recovery of the nutrients of
the raw material milk. Whey proteins may be incorpo-
rated into cheese in principle both in a native form and
in a denatured state [4–9]. Ultrafiltration technology has
meanwhile been established on an industrial scale in
modern dairies enabling valuable whey proteins and
Fig. 2 Model for the casein network in cheese. A Rennet gel with immobilized fat
other milk constituents to be retained in the cheese. Ex- globules. B Rennet gel with immobilized fat globules and whey protein particles
amples of cheese made with this technology are fresh (WPP)
cheese (i. e. Quarg), fresh cream cheese, soft cheese (i. e.
Camembert) and also Mediterranean cheese types such
as Pasta Filata (i. e. Mozzarella), Feta cheese, Cheddar
cheese, cheese base, cottage cheese and butter cheese
[10–13].
Ultrafiltration may be integrated into the cheese-
making process either for “partial” or for “full” concen-
tration. In the latter application curd cutting and whey
drainage are entirely eliminated and 100 % of the whey
proteins of milk are retained in the cheese matrix.When
milk is ultrafiltered, the fat globules are also recovered in
addition to the caseins and whey proteins. An example
serves to demonstrate how ultrafiltration technology
can be applied in order to improve the quality of milk
products. Ultrafiltration enables the concentration of
whole milk as well as cream and the standardization of Fig. 3 Applying membrane technology for Mascarpone processing
the cheese milk prior to cheese-making [14]. The
process for a modern Mascarpone production is
schematically demonstrated in Fig. 3 as an example.
I/16 European Journal of Nutrition (2004) Vol. 43, Supplement 1
© Steinkopff Verlag 2004

Cheese fortified with whey protein particles To conclude, whey protein particles are integrated
into the cheese network just like fat globules. Now the
When adding denatured whey proteins to cheese milk it question arises whether whey protein particles also in-
was shown that these are mechanically retained in the fluence the flavor in the same manner. Fig. 4 shows a
rennet-induced gel network [15]. The addition of whey sensory test on the creamy texture. The white columns
protein leads to an increased yield but may result in a represent standard soft cheese with varying fat contents
slightly poorer quality in the cheese flavor and texture. in comparison with the gray columns for soft cheeses
An improved yield is attributed to both an increased re- fortified with whey protein particles. The texture of the
tention of serum in the cheese matrix and the incorpo- cheeses fortified with whey proteins was creamier than
ration of whey proteins. In particular, denatured and the control cheese with the same fat content. As a result,
highly hydrated whey proteins obstruct syneresis so that whey proteins act as efficient fat replacements in the
less water drains off during the cheese-making process cheese matrix, so that the quality of cheese, particularly
[16]. By applying the usual technological countermea- with a low fat content, is improved [25] (Fig. 4, see 25 %).
sures, such as intensified curd working, the water con- In addition, the nutritional value of the cheese is en-
tent may be reduced with beneficial influences on qual- hanced due to the integration of whey proteins, which
ity-relevant parameters. are usually left over in the whey.
Valuable whey proteins are retained preferentially in However, adjustments in cheese processing must be
a denatured and more aggregated (particulated) state in made when recycling whey proteins in the form of par-
a gel network. Particulation is a technology by means of ticles in order to lower the water content, on the one
which the whey proteins are denatured and aggregated hand, and to remove milk constituents, which are addi-
by heating with simultaneous shearing into particles in tionally recycled with the whey protein particles such as
a whey concentrate – the efficiency depends on the com- lactose, from the cheese, on the other hand [27, 28].
position and process conditions, e. g. Simpless® [17, 18], Therefore, the extent of the recycling of whey protein
Dairy-Lo™ [19] or is produced by other means [20–23]. particles is restricted depending on e. g. the moisture
Thus particulation technology takes up the proceedings specification of individual cheese types and the texture.
during Ricotta processing because heat is also applied to In this manner, high quality cheeses may be produced
coagulate the valuable whey proteins. Shearing only re- with fortified whey proteins.
stricts the heat-induced growth into large whey grains.
Whey protein particles are inserted inertly into the
pores of the casein network like fat globules (Fig. 2B) Conclusion
while added undenatured whey proteins as well as na-
tive whey proteins of milk become lost in the whey Mediterranean milk products are quite comparable to
(Fig. 2A). The pore size of the network is indicated as ap- German ones regarding their composition and manu-
prox. 10µm [24, 25], which means that this is the critical facturing technology. In addition there are some special
diameter for added particles.Whey protein particles be- products, the technology of which is already known,
tween 1 and 10µm are integrated inertly into the struc- which are produced and marketed in Germany. The new
ture; larger particles, however, disturb the homogeneity approach to supply whey proteins originating in milk to
of the network and result in a reduced firmness [26]. cheese by applying suitable technology makes German

Fig. 4 Ranking of soft cheese samples with varying

fat contents fortified with whey protein particles in
comparison to standard cheese [25]
 J. Hinrichs I/17
Incorporation of whey proteins in cheese

milk products again more valuable for human nutri- The advantages of incorporating whey protein into
tion. cheese are a higher nutritional value and, especially in
In traditional cheese-making, casein forms the curd the case of low fat cheese, sensory improvement. Both re-
structure while the whey proteins are lost in the whey. In sult in a higher rate of transformation of the valuable
order to use the nutritionally valuable whey proteins, components of milk into cheese compared to traditional
several attempts have been made to recover or to re-in- cheese-making. But in order to benefit from the incor-
tegrate them into the cheese matrix. Whey proteins are poration of the whey protein, cheese-making conditions
retained by ultrafiltration in order to reduce the aqueous require adaptations to suit the composition of the
phase before cheese-manufacturing. Alternatively, whey cheese milk and the requirements of the product in or-
proteins may be restrained and recovered from drained der to produce a high quality cheese. It seems likely that
whey by ultrafiltration so that after special treatment the nutritional value of milk products will be further im-
(i. e. particulation) they are added to the curd or recy- proved by connecting traditional knowledge to new
cled into the cheese milk. Meanwhile, several advanced technologies.
processes, depending on the type of cheese, are being es-
tablished in dairies.

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