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Introduction
Section 1 Depth Studies
1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45
13 1.1 The establishment of the Weimar Republic and its early
problems
18 1.2 The recovery of Germany, 1924–29
21 1.3 The rise of Hitler and the Nazis to January 1933
25 1.4 Nazi Germany, 1933–39
36 1.5 Germany and the occupied territories during the
Second World War
2 A world divided: superpower relations, 1943–72
42 2.1 Reasons for the Cold War
47 2.2 Early developments in the Cold War, 1945–49
54 2.3 The Cold War in the 1950s
61 2.4 Three crises: Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia
69 2.5 The Thaw and moves towards Détente, 1963–72
3 A divided union: civil rights in the USA, 1945–74
74 3.1 The Red Scare and McCarthyism
79 3.2 Civil rights in the 1950s
86 3.3 The impact of civil rights protests, 1960–74
96 3.4 Other protest movements: students, women, anti-Vietnam
103 3.5 Nixon and Watergate
Section 2A Historical Investigations
4 Russia and the Soviet Union, 1905–24
107 4.1 Tsarist rule in Russia, 1905–14
115 4.2 Opposition to Tsarist rule, 1914–17: the impact of war
and the February Revolution
120 4.3 Provisional Government and the Bolshevik Revolution
127 4.4 The Bolshevik consolidation of power and the Civil War
137 4.5 War Communism and the New Economic Policy (NEP)
5 The USA, 1918–41
143 5.1 The Roaring Twenties
150 5.2 Increased social tensions in the 1920s
157 5.3 The USA in Depression, 1929–33
165 5.4 Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1933–41
171 5.5 The opposition to the New Deal

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 Section 2B Breadth Studies
6 Changes in medicine, c1848–c1948
175 6.1 Progress in the mid-nineteenth century; Nightingale,
Chadwick, Snow and Simpson
180 6.2 Discovery and development, 1860–75; Lister and Pasteur
186 6.3 Accelerating change, 1875–1905; Ehrlich, Koch and
chemistry
191 6.4 Government action and war, 1905–20
198 6.5 Advances in medicine, surgery and public health,
1920–48; the NHS
7 China: conflict, crisis and change, 1900–89
206 7.1 The fall of the Qing dynasty, warlordism and chaos, 1900–34
213 7.2 The triumph of Mao and the CCP, 1934–49
220 7.3 Change under Mao, 1949–63
229 7.4 The Cultural Revolution and its impact, 1965–76
233 7.5 China, 1976–89

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 Section 1 Depth Studies

1 Germany: development of
dictatorship, 1918–45
1.1 The establishment of the Weimar
Republic and its early problems

What you need to know

In this section you will revise the massive political, social and
economic consequences for Germany after its defeat in the First
World War. This will include:
l The abdication of the Kaiser and the German revolution.
l The strengths and weaknesses of the new Republic and its Constitution.
l The challenges facing the new Weimar Republic, including reactions
to the Treaty of Versailles and political threats from the left and right.
l The French invasion and occupation of the Ruhr, and the
hyperinflation crisis of 1923.

The abdication of the Kaiser and the German

revolution of 1918–19
l By November 1918, the First World War had lasted for four years; Key terms
1.8 million German soldiers had died and the army had been forced to
retreat. Republic: a state without a
l Low domestic production led to hunger. Moreover, a naval blockade
monarch.
imposed by the Allies prevented the import of food, fuel and Abdicate: to give up the
medicines. Increasingly, Germans blamed Kaiser Wilhelm II. throne.
l In October 1919, German sailors at Kiel mutinied and refused an Armistice: formal
order to attack British naval forces. Strikes and protests spread across agreement of opposing
Germany and soldiers mutinied. forces to stop fighting.
l The Kaiser had lost control. In some cities, ordinary Germans set up
workers’ councils as an alternative to the Kaiser’s authority.
l It was clear Germany could not fight on, but the Allies refused to make
peace unless the Kaiser abdicated.
l On 9 November, the Kaiser was forced to abdicate and f lee to Holland.
The following day, a new republic was set up under President Ebert.
On 11 November 1918, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies.

Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859–1941)

l Wilhelm was Kaiser from 1888 to 1918.
l He was the grandson of Queen Victoria.
l He was determined to increase German naval power and build an
empire like Britain’s.
l He supported Austria in 1914 and invaded France.
l He died in exile in the Netherlands, in 1941.

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 The strengths and weaknesses of the new Republic
1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

and its constitution

In January 1919, a new democratic constitution was drawn up for Key term
Germany. Democracy was new to Germany and therefore was not
immediately welcomed. The unpopularity of the new government Constitution: a list of
grew as it became closely linked to the numerous difficulties facing rules on how a country is
governed.
Germany following the First World War, therefore undermining the
Republic from the start. Moreover, the Weimar constitution, despite its Coalition: a government
democratic credentials, included weaknesses that would also help create formed of more than one
later instability. political party working
together.
Strengths of the Weaknesses of the
Weimar constitution Weimar constitution
Men and women aged over 20 Article 48 – in an emergency,
could vote. (In Britain the age was the President could take action
21 for men and 30 for women.) without consulting the Reichstag.
This gave the President too much
The President was elected every
power, making it possible he
seven years and had the power to
might act undemocratically (see
appoint the Chancellor (head of
page 25).
the government).
Proportional representation made
Proportional representation in
it difficult for any single party to
elections meant the percentage
get an overall majority. Therefore,
of votes won by a party directly
there were coalition governments
determined the percentage of
and these tended to be weak,
seats they won in the Reichstag
unstable and short lived.
(parliament). This was fairer
and more democratic than other Proportional representation
electoral systems. allowed small extremist parties
to win seats in the Reichstag.
The Reichstag was elected
These parties were often
every four years and served a
anti-democratic.
fixed term. It passed or rejected
changes in the law.
All Germans enjoyed freedom of
speech and freedom of religious
beliefs. Their civil rights were
protected.

Revision tasks
1 Here are some key terms, events and people. Imagine that these are answers and it is your job to
come up with a suitable question for each one. Try to make each question as detailed as possible so
that you are using specific knowledge to phrase it.
a) Kaiser f) Constitution
b) Kiel g) Naval blockade
c) Proportional representation h) Allies
d) Article 48 i) Reichstag
e) President j) Coalition governments
2 When was it clear that the Kaiser would have to abdicate?
3 How did the Weimar constitution make later instability more likely?

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 Exam practice Exam tip

1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

Remember that the examiner
Study Extract A.
wants you to explain the
What impression does the author give about the impact of proportional impression the author gives.
representation on Weimar Germany? You can support your ideas
using short quotations that
You must use Extract A to explain your answer. (6 marks)
focus on key phrases or even
key words.
Extract A
The Weimar constitution was based on proportional
representation: any political party winning more than 60,000
votes was entitled to a member in the Reichstag. One result of
this was the growth of several parties. All the governments of the
Weimar period were coalitions of two or more parties. Coalitions
meant that party politicians had to make compromises with each
other in order to govern. Many Germans despised the frequent
changes of government and the wheeling and dealing that was
involved.
Adapted from Nazi Germany 1933–1945 by Christopher
Culpin and Steve Mastin, 2013, Hodder.

German reactions to the Treaty of Versailles,

June 1919
Following the armistice of November 1918, the Allies (Britain, France
and the United States) began to draw up a peace treaty. The German
people hoped for a fair treaty as the Kaiser had been replaced by a
democratic republic. However, the Germans were not even invited to the
Paris Peace Conference and had no say in the negotiations.

The key terms of the Treaty of Versailles and German reaction

The resulting Treaty of Versailles punished Germany harshly. However,
President Ebert had no choice but to sign the Treaty in June 1919.
Opponents angrily described it as a ‘diktat’ (dictated peace).

Key terms of Treaty Reactions in Germany

Germany was forced to accept full blame for This was a national humiliation for Germany. The
starting the war (Article 231: the War Guilt clause). public resented it and felt responsibility was shared
by all the nations involved.
Because Germany had to accept full blame for the Many Germans felt reparations were too high.
war, the Allies could make Germany pay reparations They felt that the payments would further weaken
(compensation for war damages), mostly to France the economy which was already damaged by war.
and Belgium. A total amount of £6.6 billion was set in
1921, to be paid in annual instalments.
Germany was not allowed tanks, submarines or This made many Germans feel insecure.
aircraft. The army was limited to 100,000 soldiers Germany had been a strong and proud nation.
and the navy to six battleships and 15,000 men. Now it seemed that the Allies were deliberately
The Rhineland was demilitarised. Conscription trying to weaken them.
was banned.
Germany lost 10 per cent of its land, including all These terms robbed Germany of its key industrial
of its overseas colonies. The land lost contained 13 areas including Alsace-Lorraine (iron) and the
per cent of the population, as well as important raw Saar (coal). Critics argued that this undermined the
materials and industry. economy even further.

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 The ‘stab in the back’ myth and the ‘November Criminals’
1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

Some returning soldiers and senior commanders believed, wrongly, that

Germany could have fought on in the war and that the front-line troops
had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by weak politicians, communists and Jews.
l They regarded the government as traitors for agreeing the armistice
and signing the Treaty of Versailles, labelling them the ‘November
Criminals’.
l This ‘stab in the back’ myth soon became popular with those who
opposed the new democratic republic.

Challenges to the Weimar Republic from the left

and right
Although most Germans supported the new constitution and Republic,
there were still powerful opponents who rejected democratic ideals. Key terms
This came from both the communist left-and nationalist right-wing of Communists: believed that
German politics. as the workers created
the wealth in society, they
Challenge from the left: the Spartacist Rising, January 1919 should have a more equal
share in it. The communists
l The Spartacist League (later the KPDD – the German Communist had little faith that
Party) was a communist group led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl democracy would improve
Liebknecht. They believed that President Ebert would not improve the the lives of German workers
lives of working people. They wanted a full-scale revolution like the and so wanted a full-scale
one in Russia in 1917. revolution.
l In January 1919, an uprising began in Berlin. Spartacists took over
Nationalists: believed in
government telegraph and newspaper offices. They hoped protesters a strong Germany with a
would seize other buildings, but this failed to happen. powerful leader; often
l The uprising was badly planned and did not attract support from anti-democratic.
other left-wing groups. The government ordered the army, helped
Freikorps: a force
by the Freikorps, to restore order. Liebknecht and Luxemburg were of irregular military
killed and the rising was crushed. volunteers. They were anti-
democratic, anti-communist
Challenge from the right: the Kapp Putsch, March 1920 and strongly nationalist in
l The Freikorps were furious about the Treaty of Versailles and their beliefs. Following the
government plans to reduce the size of the army. war, many former soldiers
joined. They were armed
l Freikorps units refused to disband or hand back their weapons after
by the Weimar government
defeating the Spartacists and a similar communist rising in the Ruhr.
and used to crush the
In 1920, they attempted a takeover of Berlin. The plan was to form a communist uprising.
new right-wing government, led by Wolfgang Kapp.
l 12,000 Freikorps marched on Berlin. The army refused to fire on
former soldiers and so the government was forced to f lee Berlin for the
sleepy town of Weimar.
l The government appealed for a general strike. Workers and civil
servants stopped working and refused to cooperate with Kapp. The
country was paralysed. Kapp was unable to govern and the putsch
collapsed in just four days. Kapp f led the city and the government
returned (now forever known as the ‘Weimar’ government).

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 Revision tasks

1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

1 Make your own copy and complete the concept map below.

Money Blame

Treaty of
Versailles
Land Armed forces

2 Use the look, cover, write and check method to help you learn the terms.
3 Write a simple definition of the ‘stab in the back’ myth.
4 Explain which was more of a threat to the Weimar government: the Spartacist Rising or the Kapp Putsch.

The French occupation of the Ruhr, January 1923

The First World War had brought Germany close to bankruptcy and
the Treaty of Versailles made things even worse. In 1922, the Weimar
government announced it could not afford to pay reparations. France did
not believe this and was determined to make Germany pay.
l In January 1923, 60,000 French and Belgian troops marched into the
Ruhr, an important industrial area of Germany. Troops occupied the
area for ten months, taking industrial products and raw materials to
meet the value of the reparations owed.
l The Weimar government ordered workers to begin passive resistance.
This meant going on strike and refusing to cooperate with the French.
Some workers even f looded mines or set fire to factories.
l French occupation of the Ruhr meant Germany lost income from one of
its main industrial areas. Moreover, the striking workers still needed to
be paid. This added to the Weimar government’s economic problems.

Causes and effects of hyperinflation, 1923

Causes
l The German government had printed more banknotes to help pay for
the cost of the war and the reparations payments. However, the more
notes in circulation, the more their value dropped.
l In 1923, the government was forced to print even more money to pay
the striking workers in the Ruhr. This caused hyperinf lation, when
prices rose at an incredible rate as the value of the currency collapsed.

Effects
Short-term effects of hyperinflation Long-term effects of hyperinflation
Many workers’ wages did not keep up with rising prices The Weimar Republic was severely weakened
as these were increasing so quickly. They could no longer by hyperinflation. Millions of Germans had lost
afford daily necessities. In 1918, a loaf of bread in Berlin savings and there was widespread poverty.
cost 0.63 marks. By July 1923, this had risen to 3,465
Many Germans blamed the government for the
marks and by November it was 201,000,000,000 marks!
crisis. Those who lost their savings were never
Those on fixed incomes, such as pensioners, were hit compensated.
hardest. Soon their monthly incomes became worthless.
In future years, few people would forget the
People with savings found that the value of their money damage caused by hyperinflation. Their faith in
was wiped out almost overnight. Millions of middle- democracy was never fully restored.
class Germans were plunged into poverty.

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 While the great majority of Germans suffered during the period of
1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

hyperinf lation, some did benefit:

l People with loans and mortgages could pay back the money owed
more quickly. This especially helped some business owners.
l People who owned possessions such as land or buildings were protected
as these rose in value in line with inf lation.
l Some businesses benefited from high profits as prices tended to
increase more than wages.

Revision tasks
1 How did the occupation of the Ruhr further damage the German economy?
2 Explain why the following would have been winners or losers during the hyperinflation of 1923:
• a farmer
• a factory worker
• a business owner who took out a loan to buy a factory in 1914.

Exam practice
Explain two effects of hyperinflation in 1923 on Germany. (8 marks)

Exam tip
Eight-mark questions on Paper 1 require you to explain two effects of
something. This goes beyond simply describing an effect. To reach the
highest level, you must explain the consequences of each effect on the
situation at the time.

1.2 The recovery of Germany, 1924–29

What you need to know Gustav Stresemann

(1878–1929)
In this section you will revise the period from 1924 to 1929. This is seen l Stresemann was a hugely
as a period of recovery for Germany, largely due to the efforts of Gustav influential German
Stresemann, but serious problems persisted. This section will include: politician who served as
l The strengths and weaknesses of Stresemann’s domestic policy.
Chancellor in 1923 (for a
l The strengths and weaknesses of Stresemann’s foreign policy.
brief period of 102 days)
and Foreign Minister from
1923 to 1929.
l He ended the hyperinflation
The strengths and weaknesses of Stresemann’s crisis and the French
domestic policy occupation of the Ruhr.
Stresemann tried to find solutions to the difficult economic and political l He restored some of

problems facing the Weimar Republic. Germany’s reputation on

the international stage.
l In 1926, he won the Nobel
A new currency Peace Prize for his efforts
Hyperinf lation had made the German mark worthless. Stresemann to improve German
introduced a temporary currency called the Rentenmark. One relations with France.
Rentenmark replaced 1,000 billion marks. The old notes were recalled
and destroyed. In 1924, the temporary currency was replaced by the
permanent Reichsmark.

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 Positives and negatives

1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

+ The new currency was quickly accepted by Germans and other countries
that traded with Germany. Inflation was brought under control.
− Those who had lost their savings were never compensated by the
government. They felt cheated and disillusioned with the Weimar
Republic.

The Dawes Plan, 1924

Stresemann organised loans from the USA as part of the Dawes Plan.
These loans gave a massive boost that helped kick-start the German
economy.

Positives and negatives

+ US loans made to the Weimar Republic were invested in German
industry. By 1928, German industrial production had reached pre-war
levels. Wages and pensions rose. The cost of living went down and
confidence in the economy was restored.
+ The German government also improved housing, hospitals, schools
and roads.
+ Reparations were linked to Germany’s economic performance and
Germany was given longer to pay.
+ Stresemann ended passive resistance and could now promise to keep
up reparation payments to France. The French agreed to remove their
troops from the Ruhr.
− Food prices were low and so farmers remained poor. Many supported
extremist groups such as the Nazis, who promised to help them.
− Some Germans criticised the Dawes Plan and felt the government
was accepting blame for the war by continuing reparations payments.
Right-wing nationalists regarded this, and Stresemann’s decision to call
off passive resistance, as a betrayal. This was one of the causes of the
Munich Putsch (see pages 21–23).
− The loans made the German economic recovery dependant on the
USA. If there were economic problems in the USA, this would have
severe knock-on effects for Germany (see page 23).

The Young Plan, 1929

The Young Plan reduced the amount of reparations Germany had to pay
and supported further economic recovery.

Positives and negatives

+ The amount Germany had to pay in reparations was reduced from a
total of £6.6 billion to under £2 billion.
+ The Young Plan led to the final removal of British, French and Belgian
troops from the Ruhr.
+ Lower reparations payments saved the government money which it
used to cut taxes and invest to create more jobs.
− Nationalist groups were once again angry that the German
government had agreed to continue paying reparations, even at a
reduced rate. However, only 14 per cent of Germans voted against the
Young Plan in a referendum.

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 − Under the Young Plan, Germany would still be paying reparations
1 Germany: development of dictatorship, 1918–45

in 1988. Some argued that this would endanger Germany’s progress

as a nation.

The strengths and weaknesses of Stresemann’s

foreign policy
Stresemann realised that Germany was in no military position to
challenge the Treaty of Versailles. Instead he relied on diplomacy to
improve Germany’s position and relationships with other countries.

Foreign policy Outcome

Locarno Pact, 1925 Britain, France, Italy and Belgium agreed to respect the existing borders
between Germany, Belgium and France.
+ This began a period of improved relations and cooperation between
Britain, France and Germany – the ‘Locarno honeymoon’.
League of Nations, 1926 The League of Nations was an international organisation set up in 1920 to
ensure peace.
+ Initially, Germany was forbidden from joining, but this changed in 1926
when Germany was given a permanent seat on the Security Council. This
marked Germany’s return to ‘great power’ status and the improved trust
it had on the international scene.
Kellogg–Briand Pact, 1928 Germany signed the Pact with 64 other nations who all agreed to solve
international disputes ‘by peaceful means’. Armies would be kept, but only
for self-defence rather than for aggression.
+ The Pact further improved international trust in Germany, especially with
the USA and the leading European nations, while confirming Germany’s
status as a great power.
Many Germans felt let down by Stresemann’s foreign policies. They still
regarded the Treaty of Versailles as a ‘diktat’ and felt that diplomacy only
confirmed the worst aspects of the Treaty.

Revision tasks
1 Fill in your own copy of the table below using the information on pages 18 to 20 to help you. Tick to
show how successfully Stresemann dealt with the big problems facing Germany and then give reasons
to support your judgement.

Problem Failure Mixed Success Reasons

Reparations

Hyperinflation

Weakened
economy
Lack of trust from
foreign countries

2 Next, write a paragraph that makes an overall judgement on how far Stresemann solved Germany’s
problems between 1924 and 1929. Support your judgement.

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