THE SHEAR BOX TEST

Introduction

The shear box allows a direct shear test to be made by relating the shear stress at failure to the
applied normal stress.

Shear test is done to determine the effective shear strength parameters of the soil.The test is done
by deforming the given soil sample at a controlled stresses, generally stresses of
50KN/m2,100KN/m2 and 200KN/m2 are applied at different times and for different soil sample.
The specimen is flooded with water to assume for the worst case scenario which normally occur
during flooding.

The horizontal dial reading for which the specimen fails is recording and plotted against the
shear stress causing the failure. A graphical representation of this gives the cohesion of soil and
internal shear angle of friction which is useful for engineering projects.

Objectives

To determine shear strength of soil during the worst case scenario that is flooding.

Apparatus

 Square Shear box of 6mm

 Two porous plate of corrosion resistant material
 Two perforated grid plates
 A load cap cover
 A calibrated means of applying vertical force to load to the cap
 A motorized loading device for applying horizontal shear to the vertically loaded
specimen
 A shear load measuring device
 Dial gauge
 Stop clock
  Silicon grease or petroleum jelly.

Procedure

 Collect the soil specimen which is undisturbed. The sample should be taken using
sampler and rammer.
 Attach the two halves of the shear box with locking pins and place the base at the bottom.
 Above the bottom plate, place the porous stone and above it place the grid plate. Plain
grids are used for un drained conditions while perforated grid plates are used for drained
conditions.
 Now we have baseplate, porous stones and shear box .Weigh the box at this stage and
note down
 Place the soil specimen above the grid plate. Undisturbed sample is directly transferred to
the shear. Record the weight of the shear box with the soil specimen.
 Above the soil specimen place the upper grid plate, porous stone and loading pad one
above the other.
 Mount the whole box on loading frame.
 Proving ring is arranged is arranged in such a way that it should contact the upper half of
the shear box.
 Loading yoke is placed on the steal ball of loading pad of shear box.
 Two dial gauges are fitted one to the container for measuring shear displacement and the
one is to the loading yoke for measuring vertical displacement.
 Remove the locking pins from shear box and placing screw are placed in their respective
positions
 Apply a stress of 50kN/m2. Also apply the shear load at constant rate of strain.
 Record the reacting load after every 20 seconds of proving ring reading and gauge dial
reading.
 If proving reaches maximum and suddenly drops it means the specimen has
failed .Record the maximum stress which is the failure stress.
  Remove the box and measure the water content.
 Repeat the same procedure with different normal stresses of 100,150 and 200Kn/m

Observation

Results

Cohesion = 10kN/m2

Internal shear angle of friction = 120-90

180-150

= 30.98

Discusion

The shearing stress at failure = Cohesion of the soil+ (normal stress at failure *tan of the
angle of shear resistance)

This graph generally approximate to a straight line it inclination to the horizontal axis
being equal to the angle of shearing resistance of the soil and its intercept on
the vertical shear stress axis being the apparent cohesion

τf = c + σf tan ø

Where τf = shearing resistance of soil at failure c = apparent cohesion of soil σf = total normal
stress on failure plane ø = angle of shearing resistance of soil (angle of internal friction)
The direct shear test is suited to the relatively rapid determination of the
parameter of the shear strength of soil to find the value of cohesion and also to find the angle
of friction. At the end of result we had plot the graph which is the graph of shear
stress versus strain. The graph gained us to value of friction angle

OEDOMETER TEST

Introduction

Oedometer test is a classical laboratory test that allows characterising the soil stress strain
behaviour during one dimensional compression or swelling.

The test can be used to determine the consolidation and swelling parameters. This method covers
the determination of the magnitude of and the rate of consolidation of a saturated specimen
subjected to vertical axial pressure and allowed to freely drain from top to bottom surfaces. It is
mainly used to determine primary consolidation phase but also determine secondary compression
characteristics. During water drains out of the specimen, resulting in a decrease in height which
is measured at suitable intervals.

Objectives

 To determine the consolidation characteristics of low permeability soils when subjected

to vertical loads.
 Determine consolidation and swelling parameters for calculation of stress and swelling
parameters
Apparatus
 Consolidation parameters (oedometer)
 Consolidation ring
 Stop watch
 Two porous stones
 Two filter papers
 Loading pad
 Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.002m)
 Knife or spatula or fine metal wires
  Weighing balance
 Vernier callipers
 Water reservoir

Procedure

 Collect the specimen using consolidation metal ring. Clean the ring and measure its
weight ,inner diameter using weighing balance and callipers respectively
 Press the metal ring into the soil sample using hands ad it is taken out with soil
specimen.
 The soil specimen should project about 10 mm on either side of metal ring.
 Trim the excess soil content on the top and bottom of the ring using knife or spatula. Use
the excess to measure the water content.
 Take two porous stones and saturate them by submerging into distilled water for 4 to 8
hours.
 Assemble the consolidometer . Place the parts of the consolidometer from bottom to top
in the order beginning with bottom porous stones , filter paper ,specimen ring , filter
paper and top porous stone.
 Place the loading pad on the top porous stones and lock the consolidometer using metal
screws provided.
 Mount the whole assembly on the loading frame and center it such that the load applied is
axial.
 Arrange the dial gauge in a position in such a way that it should be sufficient space for
swelling of the specimen.
 Apply the initial trial load of which should not allow any swelling in the soil. Initial
general 5Kn/m2 for ordinary soils and 2,5 KN/m2 is applied for very soft soils
 Leave until there is no change in dial gauge reading for for 24 hours and record the final
gauge reading for initial load
  Apply an increment load of 10kn/m2 and start the and record the dial l gauge reading at
various time intervals .In general , the reading at 0.25 ,1,2.5 ,4 ,6.25, 9, 16,25 ,30
minutes 1, 2,4,8,24 hours
 Record the dial reading after 24 hours since consolidation is achieved after that time.
 Apply the second increment of 20 , 50, 100, 200, 400and 800KN/m2 and repeat the
procedure
 Reduce the last load increment by 0.25 and leave it for 24 hours at this point record the
dial gauge reading .reduce the load again and again until the load get to 10kn/m2 and
record every point and the final gauge readings
 Dismantle the specimen , take specimen ring and wipe out the excess water and weigh the
specimen ring and record
 Put the specimen in oven and determine the dry weight of specimen.

Observation and calculation

GRADING

Introduction

Soil grading is a very important aspect of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering because it
indicates the very important aspect of soil such as compressibility, shear strength and hydraulic
conductivity.

Grading is very important in analysis and classification of the soil which enables it to be used for
use in the foundation. Grading gives us particle size distribution curve which is more
significance in choosing the type of soil to be used since it enables us to know the individual
components of the soil used in percentage form

Some of the tests carried out in the grading include;

1. Wet sieving test

2. Hydrometer test

1. Wet sieving

Introduction

Wet sieving is done one the soil mainly for classification of the soil and to attain particle size
distribution curve which is used in the classification of the soil from this analysis we can
determine whether the soil consist predominantly of sand, gravel and silt.

This method involves the preparation of sample by wet sieving to remove silt and other clay
size particles .It covers the quantitative determination of particle size distribution in essentially
cohesionless soil.

Objective

 To attain particle size distribution of the soil sample

 Classification of soil sampled based on particle size distribution curve
 Equipment and apparatus

 Test sieves of size, 75mm, 63mm,50mm,50,37.5 ,28 mm,20mm ,14 mm,10mm,

600micrometer,425micrometer,300micrometer,212 micrometer, 150 micrometer and 75
micrometer.
 Lid and receiver
 Weighing balance
 Riffle boxes
 Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature between 105` and 110`c
 Metal trays
 Scoop
 Sodium hexametaphosphate
 Rubber tubing
 Mechanical sieve shaker
 Distilled water
 Measuring cylinder

Procedure

1. Air dry the sample as per the requirement

2. Split the sample using the sampler splitter or the cone and quarter method and
obtain the representative sample size for particle size analysis
3. Record the sample weight on the sample form( M1)
4. Arrange the sieves so that they are decreasing in opening sizes from top to the
bottom of the stack(largest openings at the top the stack, decreasing sieve
openings through the stack ,with the smallest openings at the bottom of the stack
5. Place the sieve stack in the shaking machine and shake it for 10 minutes or until
additional shaking does not produce appreciable change in the amount of
material on each sieves
6. Remove the sieve stack from the mechanical shaker ,beginning with the top
sieve, transfer the soil sample to a weighed container and the record the weight
of the .weight of sample is the difference between the weight of the sample and
the tin and the weight of the tin itself. Record the weight of the sample retained
on the sieve data form.
7. Save the material from each sieve in plastic labeled bags
8. Repeat the process in steps 5 and 6 and determine the weight of soil particles
retained on each sieve and record
9. Place 250g of the sample passing through a 20mm sieve and 2g of sodium
carbonate to desroy organic matter(M2)
10. Soak the mixture in 1000ml of water for 24 hours
 11. Wash the sample passing through a 425micrometer sieve until the water coming
from it is clear(M3)
12. Oven dry the for 16 to 18 hours at a temperature of 105`c to 110`c
13. Arrange the sieves of size 5mm,
3.35mm,2.1mm ,1.18mm ,600micrometer,300micrometer,212mm,150 mm and
75micrometer
14. Place the stack of the sieves in a mechanical sieve shaker for 5 minutes

RESULTS

A B B-A D E F
Sieves Mass Mass Mass % Cumulative % finer
(mm) sieve sieve retained retained % retained
(g) (g) (g)

5.0 435.6
3.35 407.6 408.5 0.9 5.23 5.23 94.77
2.0 405.7 408.1 2.4 13.95 19.18 80.82
1.18 344.7 346.3 1.6 9.30 28.48 71.52
0.6 403.8 406.0 2.2 12.79 41.27 58.73
0.425 444.7 446.4 1.7 9.88 51.15 48.85
0.3 299.7 302.2 2.5 14.53 65.68 34.32
0.212 346.1 348.8 2.7 15.69 81.37 18.63
0.15 407.1 410.5 2.8 16.28 97.65 2.35
0.075 291.2 291.6 0.4 2.33 99.98 0.02

Calculation

Percentage finer or percentage passing is given by

100- Cumulative percentage retained

Percentage retained is given by

Weight retained divided by the original weight of sample multiplied

DISCUSSION

Coefficient of uniformity
 =

0.5

0.16

= 3.125

Coefficient of curvature =

= 0.78125

It’s important to be aware that any wet sieving method has the potential for sample loss during
the process. Some material may be washed away during agitation or decanting, or may be forced
into crevices of the sieve and become trapped. The percentage loss is very small and the
accuracy and efficiency of wet sieving compared to dry sieving is worth the process if necessary
for your application
HYDROMETER TEST

Introduction

Hydrometer analysis is governed by the principal of sedimentation of soil grains in water. The
settlement of a diffused soil sample in water depends on the shape, size, and weight of the soil
particle sand the viscosity of the water. Throughout the analysis soil particles are assumed to be
spheres and the velocity of soil particles is expressed by Stoke’s law.

The principal value of the hydrometer analysis appears to be to obtain the clay fraction
(generally accepted as the percent finer than 0.002 mm)

The relationship between the velocity , the diameter of the sphere, the specific weights of the
sphere and of the fluid, and the fluid viscosity is given the equation

2 (Gs – Gf )

v = ---- * ------------ * (D / 2)2

9 

. v = velocity of fall of the spheres (cm/s)

Gs = specific gravity of the sphere

Gf = specific gravity of fluid (varies with temperature)

 = absolute, or dynamic, viscosity of the fluid (g /(cm * s))

D = diameter of the sphere (cm)

Solving the equation for D and using the specific gravity of water Gw, we obtain

________________

D =  18  v / ( Gs – Gw)

A =  18  / ( Gs – Gw)

AIM

 To determine the particle-size distribution of a soil sample where the particle size is
smaller than0.075 mm in size

Apparatus and equipment

 Measuring cylinder
 Thermometer
 Dispersing agent (sodium bicarbonate and sodium metaphospahate
 Balance sensitive to 0.1 g
 Timer
  Distilled water 
  Drying oven
 Desiccator
 Large evaporation dishes
 Spatula
 Hydrometer

Procedure

Preparion of sample

 Weigh 60g of soil sample passing through sieve 2

 Place in a beaker and add150 ml of the hydrogen peroxide solution.
 Stir the mixture and and keep to soak for 16 hours.
 Prepare Base solution of 1000ml and the same amount of dispersing agent is also prepared in
a separate measuring cylinder.
 Take 100ml of dispersing agent agent and to the prepared sample and mix for 5 minutes
 Transfer to the measuring cylinder and add water to top it up to 1000ml
 
 Shake the cylinder vigorously by turning it upside down and back using the palm of the
handover the open end of the cylinder, for a period of 1 min or more, until a uniform
suspension is formed.
 
 Hydrometer was inserted carefully into the soil-water suspension.
 Hydrometer readings were taken at following time intervals. ½ min, 1min, 2min, 4min,
8min,15min, 30min, 1hr, 1.5 hrs

RESULTS

Discussion

Hydrometer analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution for fraction of soil that is
smaller than 0.63mm of diameter from sieve analysis
For soil particles are dispersed by soaking the soil in a dispersing agent and by rapid stirring in
the dispersing agent changes the size of particles
The hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the soil suspension at the center of its bulb. The
specific gravity depends upon the mass of solids present, which in turn depends upon the particle
size.
POINT LOAD TEST

Introduction

The point load strength test is used as an index test for strength classification of rock materials.
The test results should are essential in analytical purposes and so helps the engineers and masons
in evaluating the strength of rock materials in the construction .rocks with the higher value of
compressive strength are preferred since they are able to bear with stresses induced during
loading without failing.
The point load index is used to classify the rocks and therefore is essential in classification of
rocks such rocks with higher index are used.

Aim/objectives

 To determine the strength characteristics of rock using point load

 To determine the compression failures of rocks

Apparatus and equipment

 Loading device
 Rams
 Rock
 Caliper
 Platens
 Loading frame
 Pump

Procedure

 Measure the dimensions of the rock which include diameter and length
  Find the length to diameter ration to determine which will be used .If the ratio is greater
than one use diametrical test .But if the ratio is between 0.6 and use 1 use axial test
 The axial test is carried out for which is then placed in the loading device upright and
closed the platens so they are aligned to the centre
 Increase the load until failure and record the distance between the platens
 Record the failure load and mode for the rock

Observation and calculations

SOIL LABORATORY

Introduction
In civil engineering literature, a soil or soil deposit may be defined as all naturally occurring,
loose uncemented/weakly cemented/relatively unconsolidated mineral particles, organic or
inorganic in character, lying over the bed rock which is formed by weathering (disintegration) of
rocks. If the products of weathering remain at their original location they constitute residual soil
and the products are transported and deposited at different locations due to gravity, wind, water
and glaciers, they are known as transported soils. During transportation, the size and shape of
particles undergo vast changes and the particles may be sorted out into various soil ranges such
as boulders, pebbles, gravels, sands, silts and clays. The basic thing is to identify and classify the
soil on the basic of some preliminary tests and then to study its immediate and long term
behavior under application of loads based on some classified insitu and lab tests in order to
furnish adequate soil data to the designer to decide the appropriate depth and type of foundation
for the proposed structure.

Some of the test carried out on soil in soil laboratory include

1. Grading

 Wet sieving
 Dry sieving
2. Proctor test
3. Atterberg Limits
 Liquid limits
 Plastic limits
 Plasticity index
 Linear shrinkage
4. California Bearing Ratio
GRADING

Introduction
soil classification of a coarse-grained soil that ranks the soil based on the different particle sizes
contained in the soil.[1] Soil gradation is an important aspect of soil mechanics  because it is an
indicator of other engineering properties such as compressibility, shear strength, and hydraulic
conductivity. In a design, the gradation of the in situ or on site soil often controls the design and
ground water drainage of the site.
Grading enables us to come up with particle size distribution curve from which we are able to
obtain grading charecteristics such as
1. Effective size = D10

2. Uniformity coefficient,   

3. Curvature coefficient, 

WET SIEVING

introduction
Wet sieving is done one the soil mainly for classification of the soil and to attain particle size
distribution curve which is used in the classification of the soil from this analysis we can
determine whether the soil consist predominantly of sand, gravel and silt

Objective
 To determine the particle size distribution of given soil sample
 Classification of soil sampled based on particle size distribution curve
 Equipment and apparatus
 Test sieves of size, 75mm, 63mm,50mm,50,37.5 ,28 mm,20mm ,14 mm,10mm,
600micrometer,425micrometer,300micrometer,212 micrometer, 150 micrometer and 75
micrometer.
 Lid and receiver
 Weighing balance
 Riffle boxes
 Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature between 105` and 110`c
 Metal trays
 Scoop
 Sodium hexametaphosphate
 Rubber tubing
 Mechanical sieve shaker
 Distilled water
 Measuring cylinder

Procedure
2. Air dry the sample as per the requirement
3. Split the sample using the sampler splitter or the cone and quarter method and obtain the
representative sample size for particle size analysis
4. Record the sample weight on the sample form( M1)
5. Arrange the sieves so that they are decreasing in opening sizes from top to the bottom of
the stack(largest openings at the top the stack, decreasing sieve openings through the
stack ,with the smallest openings at the bottom of the stack
6. Place the sieve stack in the shaking machine and shake it for 10 minutes or until
additional shaking does not produce appreciable change in the amount of material on
each sieves
7. Remove the sieve stack from the mechanical shaker ,beginning with the top sieve,
transfer the soil sample to a weighed container and the record the weight of the .weight
of sample is the difference between the weight of the sample and the tin and the weight of
the tin itself. Record the weight of the sample retained on the sieve data form.
8. Save the material from each sieve in plastic labeled bags
9. Repeat the process in steps 5 and 6 and determine the weight of soil particles retained on
each sieve and record
 10. Place 250g of the sample passing through a 20mm sieve and 2g of sodium carbonate to
desroy organic matter(M2)
11. Soak the mixture in 1000ml of water for 24 hours
12. Wash the sample passing through a 425micrometer sieve until the water coming from it is
clear(M3)
13. Oven dry the for 16 to 18 hours at a temperature of 105`c to 110`c
14. Arrange the sieves of size 5mm,
3.35mm,2.1mm ,1.18mm ,600micrometer,300micrometer,212mm,150 mm and
75micrometer
15. Place the stack of the sieves in a mechanical sieve shaker for 5 minutes

Observation and results

DRY SIEVING

Introduction

Sieve analysis is one of the important practices in civil engineering as it is used for finding
particle size distribution of particular aggregate. It is also used for finding the fineness modulus
of aggregate.
This is important in a way that article size distribution helps in finding the different sizes of
aggregates and helps in classification i.e either fine or coarse

Fineness modulus(which is generally measured in percentage) helps in finding maximum amount

of aggregates lying in one particular size of sieve of given total aggregate

As the size of the aggregate has its influence in strength of concrete the desired size should be
known to mix to get desired characteristic strength of concrete.

Aim
 To determine particle size distribution of the given soil sample
 For classification of soil as either fine aggregate ,clay and silt

Apparatus and equipments

1. A series of standard sieves of square mesh, including cover plate and bottom pan.
Two recommended sieve stacks (having successively smaller mesh sizes) (Sieve
Stack Alternative Sieve Stack Sieve No. Opening, mm Sieve No. Opening, mm Lid
Lid 4 4.75 4 4.75 10 2 10 2 20 0.85 30 0.6 40 0.425 50 0.3 60 0.25 100 0.15 140
0.106 200 0.075 200 0.075 Pan Pan
 2. . Sieve shaker.
3. . Balance sensitive to 0.1g.
4. Mortar and pestle (or pulverizer for breaking up aggregations of soil particles).
5. Scoop
6. Trowel
7. Oven
8. Porcelain dish
9. Cleaning brush
10. Stop watch

Procedure

 Clean the sieves of sieve shaker using cleaning brush if any particles are struck in the
openings.
 Record the weight of each sieve and receiving pan.
 Dry the specimen in oven for 3-4 minutes to get the dried specimen (ignore, if the
specimen is already dried).
 Weigh the specimen and record its weight.
 Arrange the sieves in order as the smaller openings sieve to the last and larger openings
sieve to the top. (Simply, arrange them to the ascending order of sieve numbers – No.4
sieve on top and no.200 sieve at bottom)
 Keep the weight recorded specimen on the top sieve and then keep the complete sieve
stack on the sieve shaker (Don’t forget to keep the lid and receiving pan).
 Allow the shaker to work 10-5 minutes – use the clock here..!
 Remove the sieve stack from the shaker and record the weight of each sieve and
receiving pan separately.
Results

The result from this test is on the graph attached to the test

ATTERBERG LIMITS TEST

Introduction

The Atterberg limits are empirical tests which are used to indicate the plasticity of fine grained soil
by the differentiation of highly plastic, moderately plastic and non plastic soils.
The tests enable classification and identification of soils which gives rough guide of the engineering
properties.
 It represents the minimum moisture percentage at which the soil can be puddled. Orientation
of particles and their subsequent sliding over each other takes place at this point, since
sufficient water has been added to provide a film around each particle.
The moisture content of Atterberg limits depends upon the amount and nature of the soil
colloids present.
In the upper plastic limit the film of oriented water molecules becomes so thick that cohesion
is decreased and the entire soil water mass flows freely under an applied force. The tensions
of the water at the lower plastic limit and upper plastic limit 
The test carried out on atterberg test include

 Liquid limit test

 Plastic limit test
 Plasticity Index
 Linear shrinkage

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Introduction
When a cohesive soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it will be in a liquid state and
flow like a viscous liquid. When the viscous liquid dries gradually due to loss of moisture, it will
pass into a plastic state. With further loss of moisture, the soil will pass into a plastic state. With
even further reduction of moisture, the soil will pass into a semi-solid and then into a solid state.

It refers to the moisture content at which the cohesive soil will pass from a liquid state to a
plastic state.

Aim

1. To establish moisture content at which a soil passes from liquid state to the plastic state

Equipment and apparatus

2. Test sieves of sizes 425 micrometer

3. An airtight container
4. A flat glass plate
5. Two palette knives or spatulas
6. A penetrometer
7. A metal cap 55mm in diameter and 4o mm deep with the rim parallel to the to the flat
base
8. An evaporating dish
9. A wash bottle
10. Metal straight edge
11. A stopwatch

Procedure

Sample preparation

i. Take the sample of soil sufficient to give a test specimen weighing about 500g which
passes the 425micrometer sieve
2 Transfer the soil into a glass plate .Add water and mix thoroughly with two knives until
the mass becomes thick homogenous paste.
3 Place the specimen in an airtight container and allow to stand for 16~24 hours to enable
the water penetrate through the soil.
Test procedure

4 Take the 500g of soil sample and place it on a glass plate . Mix the paste for at least 10
minutes using the two knives . Add more distilled water if necessary so that the cone
penetrometer reading is about 15mm.
5 Push the portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a palette knife, gently tapping the cup
firm surface if necessary. Strike off excess soil with the straightedge to give a smooth
level surface
6 Put the cup below the cone penetrometer make sure the gauge reading on the
penetrometer falls to zero. Then drop the end of the brass cone into the cup for about 5
seconds and make sure the penetrometer reading at that is 18mm if not take back into the
glass and add water to 2 drops and mix well.
7 Put the cup with a well-mixed soil in a cup below the end of the brass cone of the
penetrometer and obtain the reading 20mm penetrometer if not return the glass plate and
add water and take back to ensure you get that 20mm penetration
8 After attaining the 20mm mark take the soil sample and put in moisture cans and weigh
the weight of can without the soil sample M1 and weight of the can with the soil sample
M2
9 Put the moisture can into the oven 16 ~24 hours and weigh the weight of the can
with dry soil in it and call it M3
10 Repeat the steps 5, 6,7 and obtain point 22 and 24 both put into the moisture tin into oven
and record the weight of the tin with wet soil sample and weight with dry soil sample.

Observation and calculation

PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

Introduction

Plastic limit is the minimum water content at which soil can be rolled into a thread of 3 mm dia
without crumbling.

Plastic limit test is one of the laboratory tests used internationally to differentiate or classify soils
into groups. It is defined as, boundary of soil between the plastic and solid state, the limit at
which the soil starts to behave as a plastic. From this it’s clear that the water content or moisture
of the soil determines that boundary level. When the water content or moisture content of soil
increases beyond a limit then the soil starts to behave as liquid. As the same when the water
content or moisture content of soil decreases beyond a limit then the soil start to behave as solid.
Here, in the above statements the “a limit” can refer as the plastic limit of that soil. So the plastic
limit of a soil is the statement of water or moisture content as a percentage of its dried weight.

Aim

 To determine the moisture content at which soil becomes too dry to be plastic
Apparatus and equipment

 Glass plate

 Weighing balance

 425 micron IS-sieve

 Aluminium container
 3 mm diameter brass or copper wire

Procedure

 Take about 20 g of soil passing 425 micron IS sieve in a glass plate.

 Add small quantity of water in the soil and mix it thoroughly. Leave the soil for some

time to mature,

 Determine the mass of moisture cans (W1).

 Make small balls of the soils and roll it on the glass plate with fingers,

 Continue rolling till the thread reaches the diameter of 3 mm.

 Knead the soil thread and roll it again into a thread.

  Continue the process until the thread just crumbles at 3 mm diameter.

 Determine the mass of moisture can plus wet soil (W2).

 Collect the crumbled soil thread in the aluminium container and determine its water

content.
  Repeat the test at least twice again. The average of the three tests will be the plastic limit

of the soil.

 Place moisture can into the oven to dry to constant mass (W3).

Results and observation

PLASTICITY INDEX

Introduction
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of
the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay,
those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 tend to have little or no silt or clay.
It is a measure of the cohesive qualities of the binder resulting from the clay content. it gives
some indication of the amount of swelling and shrinkage that will result in the wetting and
drying of that fraction tested. If some soils do not have sufficient mechanical interlock they
require amounts of cohesive materials to give a satisfactory performance. A deficiency of clay
binder may cause raveling of gravel wearing courses during dry weather and excessive
permeability

Note

Plasticity Index is not a test method but a simple calculation where PI = LL – PL

Aim

 To provide a means of classifying the cohesive soils

Results

Discussion

Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0
tend to have little or no silt or clay.
It is a measure of the cohesive qualities of the binder resulting from the clay content. it gives

From our test the plasticity was found to be 9.3 whicis relatively low meaning that the soil had a
few amount of clay material the therefore is suitable for use in construction

LINEAR SHRINKAGE

Introduction
Linear shrinkage is the decrease in length of a soil sample when oven-dried, starting with a
moisture content of the sample at the liquid limit.
The linear shrinkage of a soil for the moisture content equivalent to the liquid limit, is the
decrease in one dimension, expressed as a percentage of the original dimension of the soil mass,
when the moisture content is reduced from the liquid limit to an oven-dry state.

It can be used as a control medium for road construction materials and also as an index of
susceptibility to volume change. The test is reasonably simple to perform and is usually run in
conjunction with the plasticity tests.

Aim

 Quantify the amount of shrinkage likely to occur to clay materials

Apparatus and equipment

 100 mm spatula.
 Shrinkage moulds in the form of semi-cylindrical troughs 250 mm long and 25 mm
diameter, with brazed-on square ends.
 A 300 mm steel rule graduated in mm.
 Enamel, plastic, glass or porcelain mixing bowl of about 150 mm diameter.
 A liquid limit machine conforming to the essential details of AS1289.C4.1:1977 or
BS1377:1967.
 A grooving tool compliant with the above standards.
 Drying oven capable of maintaining from 105 °C to 110 °C.
 Petroleum jelly (Vaseline) or silicone grease.
 Wash bottle containing distilled water.

Procedure

 By riffling or quartering, obtain a sample of at least 500 g of the material passing sieve
(0.425 mm) prepared according with the procedure for the preparation of disturbed soil
samples for testing. Place this sample in the mixing bowl and thoroughly mix with
distilled water using the spatula, until the mass becomes a thick homogeneous paste.
 Add sufficient water to bring it to a consistency equal to or slightly wetter than the liquid
limit. When the sample is tested in the liquid limit machine, the groove should close with
between 15 and 25 blows.
 Grease the inside of a clean shrinkage mould. Place the wet soil in the mould, taking care
to thoroughly remove all air bubbles from each layer by lightly tapping the base of the
mould. Slightly overfill the mould and then level off the excess material with the spatula.
Remove all soil adhering to the rim of the mould.
 Allow the specimen to dry at room temperature for about 24 hours until a distinct change
in colour can be noticed. Transfer into an oven and dry at between 105 °C and 110 °C.
 Allow the specimen to cool and then measure its longitudinal shrinkage Ls to the nearest
millimeter. If the specimen cracks into pieces, firmly hold the separate parts together and
measure the shrinkage Ls. If the specimen curls in the mould carefully remove it and
 measure the length of the top and bottom surfaces. Subtract the mean of these two lengths
from the internal length of the mould to obtain the shrinkage.

Results

Result on graph attached to the test

Discussion

The linear shrinkage from our test was found to be between 4.7 and 5 for the two sample test this
is very close to the standard value set by the British standard which is used in as a control
medium for road construction materials and also as an index of susceptibility to volume change

PROCTOR TEST

Introduction
The Proctor Compaction Test is used to determine optimal moisture content for soils. This test is
especially useful when determining the relationship between water content and the dry unit
weight of soils to establish the maximum density of a soil needed for a fill area.
The laboratory test serves two purposes I,e
 Determining the maximum density achievable for the materials in the field.
 It measures the effect moisture has on soil density. These values are often determined
before earthwork begins to provide reference values for field testing.
 It is often necessary to compact soil to improve its strength, this test was developed to determine
the maximum dry unit weight of compaction of soils, which can be used for specification of field
compaction

Aim
 To determine the relationship between the water content and dry weight of the soil to
establish maximum density
  Determine the optimal moisture content at which soil becomes dense and achieve
maximum dry density

Apparatus and equipment

1. Compaction mold

2. 4 U.S. sieve

3. Standard Proctor hammer 2.5kg

4. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g

5. Balance sensitive up to 0.1g

6. Large flat pan

7. Jack

8. Steel straight edge

9. Moisture cans

10. Drying oven

11. Plastic squeeze bottle with water

Procedure

1. Obtain about 2.5kg times 5 of air dry soil and break the soil lumps.

2. Sieve the soil on a No. 4 U.S. sieve. Collect all the minus 5 sieve materials (about 12.5)
in a large pan.

3. Add 200ml water to the minus 4 sieve materials and mix thoroughly.

4. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate (not extension), W1 .

5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.

6. Pour the moist soil in three equal layers. Compact each layer uniformly with the Standard
Proctor hammer 25 times before each additional layer of loose soil is poured.  At the end
 of the three-layer compaction, the soil should extend slightly above the top of the rim of
the compaction mold.

7. Remove the extension carefully.

8. Trim excess soil with a straight edge.

9. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate + compacted moist soil, W2.

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Extrude the compacted moist soil cylinder using a
jack.

11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).

12. From the moist soil extruded in step 10, collect a moist sample in a moisture can (step 11)
and determine the mass of moist soil + can, W4 (g).

13. Place the moisture can with soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.

14. Break the rest of the soil cylinder by hand and mix with leftover moist soil. Add 250ml
water and mix.

15. Repeat steps 6-12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist soil (W2)
will first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease.  Continue the
test until at least two successive decreased readings are obtained.

16. The next day, determine the mass of the moisture cans + soil samples, W5 (g) (from step
13).

Results

The results of this test is on plotted on graph attached to test

Maximum density achievable 1960kg/m^3

Discussion
Proctor test is used to determine the maximum density to be achieved the basic idea behind is to
achieve a higher density in the laboratory than the result in the field such that if any
miscalculation is made then the desired qualities still fall within the required standards.
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

Introduction

The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade strength
of roads and pavements.
This test is used to determine the mechanical strength of ground, subgrade, sub base .Basically
results obtained from this test is used with the calibrated curves to determine the thickness of
various layers of a carriageway before its construction like thickness of subgrade, sub base, base
coarse.

This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.

Aim

 To determine the resistance of material of material to penetration

 To determine the strength of sub grade soil, sub base and base of coarse material for
flexible pavements
Apparatus and equipment

 Cylindrical mould with inside diameter 150 mm and height 175 mm

 Steel Cutting collar

 Spacer Disc 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height along with handle

 Surcharge weight

 Dial gauges

 IS Sieves(5 mm and 20 mm)

 Penetration Plunger

 Loading Machine

 Miscellaneous Apparatus such as such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking
tank or pan, drying oven, filter paper and containers

 A metal hammer of either 2.5kg or 4.5kg

 Filter papers of diameter 150 mm

 A spatula

Procedure

Sample preparation

 The CBR tests shall be carried out on material passing thre 20 mm test sieve. If the
sample contains particles larger than , the fraction retained on shall be removed and
weighed before preparing the test sample
  Take a portion of material large enough to to provide 6kg of material passing a 20mm
sieve
 The soil shall be mixed thoroughly , sealed and stored for at lest 24 hours before
compacting into the mould.

Test procedure

 Take 3 specimen of about 7 kg to be compacted so that their compacted densities range

from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.

 Weigh of the empty mould (W1)

 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)

 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.

 Take sample for determination of moisture content.

 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.(W2)

Soaking procedure

 Replace the solid baseplate with a perforated baseplate after it has been used.

 Fit the collar to the other end of the mould , packing the screw threads with the petroleum
jelly to obtain a watertight joint.

 Place the mold in the soaking tank .place filter paper on top of the sample followed by the
perforated swell plate

 Fill the soaking tank with water so that just below top of mould extension collar .start the
timer when water just covered the baseplate

 Record the dial reading after each day

 Take off the dial gauge and its support ,remove the mould assembly from the soaking
tank and allow the sample to drain for 15 minutes

 If the sample is has swollen, trim it level with the end of the mould
  Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.

 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.

Penetration test procedure

 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.

 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load

 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.

For CBR value up to 5% apply 10N

For CBR value from 5% to 30% apply 50N

For CBR value above 30% apply 250N

 Record the reading of the loading ring as the initial zero reading .

 Secure the penetration dial gauge in position .Record its initial zero reading
 Start the test so the plunger penetrates the sample at a uniform rate
 Record the reading of the force gauge at interval of penetration of 0.25mm , to atotal
penetration not exceeding 7.5mm
 Remove the baseplate from the lower end of the mould , fit it securely on the top end and
invert the mould . Trim the exposed surface if necessary
 After completion of the above test determine the moisture content of the sample.

Results
The result from this test is attached on the graph attached to the graph

Discussion
This test is used to determine the mechanical strength of ground, subgrade, sub base .Basically
results obtained from this test is used with the calibrated curves
From our test result the values attained is close to the value of the standard values set by the
British standard therefore the experiment was carried out in an effective manner .

BITUMEN LABORATORY

Introduction
Bitumen is an essential component of any pavement and is used widely throughout the world. It can
be termed as the building block of the pavements without which all the pavement materials would
behave independently and thus will be deemed useless. Almost ninety percent of bitumen is used in
road construction. It is usually available in dark colors ranging from brown to black. The main
purpose of bitumen in flexible pavements is to strongly bind and hold the other pavement
components together and provide a smooth and leveled surface for the moving vehicles. Bitumen is a
naturally occurring material and is found in large quantities in the solid or semi solid forms of
petroleum. It is also manufactured artificially in vast amounts globally.
Highest applications of bitumen are found in the construction filed for the construction of roads,
airports therefore it very important that various test is performed on bituminous material before it is
used in the construction.
Various laboratory tests on bitumen is conducted to check quality and different properties of
bitumen for pavement construction .
Some of these test carried out on bitumen include:

i. Flash and Fire point test

ii. Float test
iii. Loss on heating test
iv. Penetration test
v. Softening point test
vi. Specific gravity test
vii. Viscosity test
viii. Water content test
ix. Solubility test
x. Binder content test
xi. Fractional distillation of cutback bitumen
xii. Percentage Refusal Density
xiii. Marshal test
xiv. Ductility test
Some of the test carried in the bitumen laboratory but not necessarily involve bitumen but are
done on the material to be used with bitumen include;

 Grading
 Flakiness index

GRADING

Introduction

Grading is done on the aggregate to used with bitumen. Most of the grading test done was done
on course aggregate materials which were tested and sieve analysis done

Grading serves the main purpose of obtaining a particle size distribution of the aggregate used in
the construction and provides for a means of classifying the aggregate materials used in the
bitumen laboratory lab
 A sieve analysis, or gradation test determines the distribution of aggregate particles by size
within a given sample. This information can then be used to determine compliance with design
and production requirements. Data can also be used to better understand the relationship between
aggregates or blends and to predict trends during construction.

Aim

 To determine particle size distribution of aggregate

Apparatus and equipment

 Test sieves of size, 75mm, 63mm,50mm,50,37.5 ,28 mm,20mm ,14 mm,10mm, 6.3
 Lid and receiver
 Weighing balance
 Riffle boxes
 Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature between 105` and 110`c
 Metal trays
 Scoop
 Flakiness index sieve
 Rubber tubing
 Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure
 Air the sample material .
 Accurately weigh the total sample to the nearest 0.1 g. Record this weight and designate
as WT
 Place the set of sieves, with the largest opening on top, into a pan and pour the aggregate
onto the top sieve.
 Pour the sample on the top sieves and put in in a mechanical sieve shaker and power on
the shaker
 Separate the material into a series of particle sizes using the sieves required by the
material or project specifications.
 The use a mechanical sieve shaker is the preferred method for separating the materials
into the specified sizes.
 Establish a shaking time for different types of aggregates that will assure proper sieving
of the material without degradation .When the required mechanical shaking time is
complete, hand sieve by lateral and vertical motion of the sieves with a “jarring” action
that keeps the material moving continuously over the surface of the sieves.
 Determine the individual weights to the nearest 0.1 g of aggregate retained on each sieve
and record these weights. Place an empty pan on the scale and tare or “zero out” its
weight. Pour the retained aggregate into the empty pan and record this weight as X1 in
Re-tare the pan for the next size sieve or tare a new pan if required to keep the material
separate.
 Repeat this process until the weight of the material on each sieve and the retaining pan
(typically the material passing the No. 200 sieve) has been recorded.
 Report the percentages to the nearest 0.1% for each size of aggregate retained on each
sieve as set forth by the specification requirements. Make the original sieve analysis a
'total retained' analysis by weighing the material cumulatively, placing the material
retained on one sieve directly on top of the previously weighed material from the larger
size sieve, already on the balance. Note the difference.
FLAKINESS INDEX

Introduction
Flakiness index refers to the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least dimension (i.e.
thickness) is less than three-fifths of its mean dimension.
Flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the flay materials and expressing
their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample tested.
Flaky and elongated particles may have adverse effects on concrete and bituminous mix. For
instance, flaky and elongated particles tend to lower the workability of concrete mix which may
impair the long-term durability. For bituminous mix, flaky particles are liable to break up and
disintegrate during the pavement rolling process.

Aim/objective

  For determination of flakiness index of coarse aggregate, where the  size of the coarse
aggregate are larger than 6.3mm

Apparatus and equipment

 Thickness gauge
 Sieves [63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 & 6.3mm
 Balance [0-10 kg]

Procedure

Sample preparation

Surface dry samples is used for the test. A minimum number of 200 pieces of any specified
fraction is required to do the test

Test procedure

 Sieve the sample through IS sieves

 Take the retained sample on each sieves and sieve again through a special flakiness
sieves
 Weigh the weight of the material retained on the flakiness sieve and record
 Repeat the same procedure for the remaining sieves and record your results
Results and calculation

SIEVES A B
TOTAL 1120 TOTAL 1121
20 Nil NIL
14 56 1064 95% 83 1O38 93%
10 886 178 16% 840 198 18%
6.3 178 0 198 0

FLAKINES
S INDEX
TOTAL=
399

FI 14/20 36 14/20 49
14/10 327 14/10 237
10/6.3 36 10/6.3 19

FI =36% FI =27%
AVARAGE 32%
FI

DISCUSION

The flakiness index of aggregate material should range between 25 to 30% From our
experiment the flakiness index was found to be 32 which is relatively high and un
desirable since it will greatly affect the property of the materials to be used together with
aggregate and even the binder content
MARSHAL TEST

Introduction

This test is extensively used in routine test programmes for the paving jobs. The stability of the
mix is defined as a maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test
temperature of 600C. The flow is measured as the deformation in units of 0.25 mm between no
load and maximum load carried by the specimen during stability test (flow value may also be
measured by deformation units of 0.1 mm).

Apparatus and equipment

 3 specimen mould
 Marshal compaction apparatus
 Specimen mould holder
 Heating oven
 Automatic mixing machine
 Water bath
 Heating gloves
 Slide caliper for measuring specimen thicknes
 Marshal test apparatus with a load and a deflection measuring device

Aim / objective

 To determine the physical properties of bitumen and asphalt specimen such as flow
density and flow stability

Test procedure

Preparation of specimen

At least 3 parallel test specimen should be prepared . Each of the specimen requires about
1200g of bituminous material. The mass required should be adjusted so that test specimen has a
height of 63.5 mm after compaction
 Dried and preheated aggregate is mixed with preheated binder until a homogenous
mixture is achieved .For asphalt concrete specimen the mixing temperature should be at
a viscosity equal 20mm2/s
 The specimen molds are preheated in a hot air oven to a temperature in the range
93~149`c .The bituminous material should have a temperature during compaction at
which the binder content has a viscosity of 280 mm2/s
 The mixture is transferred into the specimen molds and the surface is leveled .The mold
now containing the asphalt mix is immediately placed into the marshall compaction
apparatus
 The specimen is compacted with 75 blows to each side . Immediately after compaction,
remove the compacted specimen from the mold and allow it to cool to room temperature
 Measure the thickness of the specimen to the nearest 0.1mm
 Place the samples in a preheated water bath holding the correct temperature

Test condition
The specimen are heated in the water bath to their testing temperature according to the
type of binder

Asphalt mixes containing bitumen

60`c for 30~40 minutes

Asphalt mixes containing bitumen cutbacks

40`c for 30~40 minutes
The load is applied with Marshall breaking head at a constant rate of 50.8mm/min .The
Marshall breaking head should during testing be in the temperature range of 21~38`c

 After the required temperature equilibrium time, remove the specimen from the water
bath and immediately place it in the testing head of the Marshall test apparatus
 Apply the load to the specimen at which the specified loading rate until the maximum
load is reached and the load decreases. The flow value must be recorded from
micrometer at exact time of maximum load

Results

Sample no Height in Stability Flow in Correction Corrected

mm N mm factor stability

1 61.3 6600 4.3 1.06 6696

2 58.2 5600 4.6 1.15 6440
3 62.0 6800 4.2 1.04 7072
Average 4.4 6836

Average Marshall stability =6836N

 Avarage Marshal flow of mix =4.4mm

Discussion

The results for Marshall stability fall within the required range of 10-14KN while the
Marshal flow also falls within the specified range of 2-5 mm therefore results obtained
are accurate.

MARSHALL MIX DESIGN TEST

Introduction

The Marshall method seeks to select the asphalt binder content at a desired density that satisfies
minimum stability and range of flow values
The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the
Marshall mix design method. The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute. Load is applied to the
specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability. During the loading, an
attached dial gauge measures the specimen’s plastic flow (deformation) due to the loading. The
flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time when the maximum
load is recorded

The main principle is that the binder content is varied 0.5% around an assumed optimum binder
content . The binder content is determined which best complies with Marshall stability,
flow ,void content ,voids filled with binder and density for the mix being investigated

Aim
 To determine the optimum binder content binder content in a mix where the aggregate
grading and bituminous material predetermined.

Apparatus and Equipment

 3 specimen mold
 Marshal compaction apparatus
 Specimen mould holder
 Heating oven
  Automatic mixing machine
 Water bath
 Heating gloves
 Slide caliper for measuring specimen thickness
 Marshal test apparatus with a load and a deflection measuring device

Procedure
 The aggregate size distribution and the type of binder is predetermined according to the
type of bituminous mix that is being designed .The aggregate size distribution and type
of binder must be the same for all asphalt specimens
 Determine the density of the binder and aggregate and then determine the combined
density of final aggregate
 Prepare at least 3 specimen .choose an assumed optimum binder content that is used for
one series. Vary the binder content for the other series in 0.5% interval around the
assumed

Preparation of test specimen

 Create aggregate blend to meet gradation specifications.

 Establish mixing and compaction temperatures from the viscosity-temperature chart.
 Compact three specimens at each of five asphalt contents spanning the expected
optimum asphalt content
 Determine the relative density of each specimen and the mix volumetrics ( mb, VTM,
VMA, VFA). 5. Measure the performance properties of the each specimen

Calculation and results

 DUCTILITY TEST

Introduction
The ductility test is a measure of cohesiveness and elasticity of bitumen. Bitumen being binder in
pavement construction, it binds from ductility thin films around aggregates. This serves as
satisfactory binders in improving the physical interlocking of the aggregates. Bitumen should
therefore possess sufficient ductility to prevent formation of cracks on pavements prematurely.
The ductility of bitumen is measured by the distance in Cm (centimeter), to which the bitumen
sample will elongate before breaking when it is pulled by standard specimen at specified speed
and temperature.
Firstly the bitumen sample is heated to 75-100oC and melted completely. This is poured into the
assembled mold which is placed on brass plate. To prevent sticking the mold and plate are coated
with glycerin and dextrin. After filling the mold, placed it in room temperature for 30-40 minutes
and then placed it in water for 30 minutes.
The machine pulls the two clips of the mold horizontally and then bitumen elongates. The
distance up to the point of breaking from the starting point is noted as ductility value of bitumen.
The minimum value should be 75cm

Aim
 To determine the ductile and tensile behavior of bituminous binder under traffic loading
without cracking.

Apparatus
The apparatus required for ductility test of bitumen are
1. Briquette mould:Length = 75mm
Distance between clip. = 30mm
Width of the mould. = 20mm
Crossection at min width = 10mm×10mm
2. Ductility Machine
3. Thermometer
4. Waterbath

Procedure
1. The bituminous material tested is completely melted by heating it to a temperature of 75 to 100
degree Celcius above the approximate softening point until it becomes thoroughly fluid.
2. The mould is assembled on a brass plate and in order the material is prevented under test from
sticking, thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and the interior surfaces of the sides of the
mould with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin or mineral oil.
3. While filling, the material is poured in a thin stream back and forth from end to end of the
mould until it is more than level full.
4. It is leaved to cool at room temperature for 30 to 40 minutes and then it is placed in a water bath
maintained at the specified temperature for 30 minutes, after which cut off the excess bitumen by
means of a hot, straight-edged putty knife or spatula, so that the mould is just level full.
5. The brass plate and mould is placed with briquette specimen in the water bath and it is kept at the
specified temperature for about 85 to 95 minutes. The briquette is removed from the plate; detach
the side pieces and the briquette immediately.
6. The rings are attached at each end of the two clips to the pins or hooks in the testing machine and
the two clips are pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed, as specified, until the briquette
ruptures.
7. The distance is measured in cm through which the clips have been pulled to produce rupture.
8. While the test is being done, the specimen both above and below by at least 25mm is covered
with water in the tank of the testing machine and the temperature is maintained continuously
within ± 0.5oC of the specified temperature.

Results

A B
85cm Over 100cm

Discussion

The ductility value is affected by some factors such as dimensions of briquette and pouring
temperature, improper level of briquette placement, test temperature and rate of pulling.
 Sample B with over 100cm ductility value is more ductile compared to sample A bitumen with
ductility value of 85cm even though they both possess sufficient ductility which makes good
binder materials in pavement construction.

PENETRATION TEST

Introduction
The penetration of a bituminous material is its consistency expressed as the distance in tenths of
a millimeter that a standard needle penetrates vertically into a specimen of the material under
specified conditions of temperature, load and duration of loading.
Penetration value test on bitumen in effect is an indirect determination of high temperature
viscosity(consistency) and low temperature stiffness (hardness) of bituminous material.
Two penetration values, maximum and minimum, are required for the designation of the grades
of straight-run bitumen. For example, 40/50, 60/80 and 80/100. The penetration of an actual
sample of the bitumen in any grade should fall between the lower and upper values given.
Penetration test is used for evaluating consistency of bitumen. It is not regarded as suitable for
use in connection with the testing of road tar because of the high surface tension exhibited by
these materials.

Aim
 To determine consistency of bituminous material

 To determine Suitability of bitumen for use under different climatic conditions and various types
of construction.

Apparatus and equipment

 Penetrometer
  Waterbath
 Bath thermometer ranging from 0°c to 4°c , with division of 0.2°c

Sample preparation
Sample of bitumen is firstly heated carefully in an oven until it sufficiently become fluid to
pour.When using an hotplate the

Procedure

 The bitumen above the softening point (between 75 and 100oC) is softened. It is stirred
thoroughly to remove air bubbles and water.
 It is poured into a container to a depth of at least 15mm in excess of the expected penetration.
 It is cooled at an atmospheric temperature of 15 to 30oC for 2 1 hrs. Then it is placed in a
transfer dish in the water bath at 25.0 + 0.1oC for 2 1
 The container is kept on the stand of the penetration apparatus.
 The needle is adjusted to make contact with the surface of the sample.
 The dial reading is adjusted to zero. Is adjusted.
 With the help of the timer, the needle is released for exactly 5 seconds.
 The dial reading is recorded.
 The above procedure is repeated for thrice and the medium of these experiment will give us
the penetration value of this bitumen test.

Results

TEST PENETRAION

1 72.1/10
=7.2
2 60.3/10
=6.03
3 77/10
=7.7

DISCUSSION
Penetration value test on bitumen is a measure of hardness or consistency of bituminous material
The standard result penetration of is expressed as the a tenth value of the penetration
Our result is close to the standard value of 8- 10 therefore a relatively accurate

SOFTENING POINT TEST

Introduction

Softening point is the temperature at which a substance or material softens beyond some
arbitrary softness. We need only to find the temperature at which the substance attains a
particular degree of softening under specified condition of the test
This is tested to know the suitability of bitumen for road construction in a particular climate.
Bitumen starts flowing at it's softening point so if the softening point of a particular bitumen is
exceeded by the atmospheric temperature at one point or the other in a particular climate, the
bitumen becomes unsuitable for road construction in that climate. The consequence is that the
constituents of the asphalt becomes less bound together or say practically the road begins to
flow.

Aim
 To determine the temperature at which bituminous material begins to show fluidity

Apparatus and equipment

 Ring and ball apparatus
 Thermometer – Low Range : -2 to 80oC, Graduation 0.2oC.High Range : 30 to 200oC,
Graduation 0.5oC
 Forceps
 Boiled stilled water
 Talcum powder
 Heating unit eg gas flame

Procedure
Sample preparation

1. The sample is just sufficient to fill the ring. The excess sample is cut off by a knife.
2. The material is heated between 75 and 100oC. Stir it to remove air bubbles and water, and filter
it through IS Sieve 30, if necessary.
3. The rings are heated and glycerin is applied. The material is filled in it and is cooled it for 30
minutes.
4. The excess material is removed with the help of a warmed, sharp knife.

 Materials of softening point below 80oC:

1. The apparatus is assembled with the rings, thermometer and ball guides in position.
2. The beaker is filled with boiled distilled water at a temperature 5.0 ± 0.5oC per minute.
3. With the help of a stirrer, stir the liquid and heat is applied to the beaker at a temperature of 5.0 ±
0.5oC per minute.
4. The heat is applied until the material softens and the ball is allowed to pass through the ring.
5. The temperature is recorded at which the ball touches the bottom, which is nothing but the
softening point of bitumen or that material.
B) Materials of softening point above 80oc
1. The procedure using ring ball apparatus for above 800-degrees Celcius is the same as described
above. The only difference is that instead of water, glycerin is used and the starting temperature
of the test is 35oC.

Results

Tests Sample A Sample B

(temperature in degree (temperature in degree Celsius
Celsius) )
1 56 112
 DISCUSSION
The softening point of bitumen usually range from 30 to 157`c .. From our result the value of the
softening point was very much low than the expected value and this may be due to the errors that
may have a rise as result on the quality of heating and even the due impurities in the bitumen.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

Introduction
It is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water,
both taken at a recorded/specified temperature
The specific gravity of semi-solid bituminous material, asphalt cements, and soft tar pitches shall
be expressed as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at 25 °C to that of an
equal volume of water at the same temperature.
This test is done to determine the specific gravity of semi-solid bitumen road tars, creosote and
anthracene oil 
Specific gravity is the good indicator of quality of binder. It can be determined by pycnometer
method.

Apparatus
o Specific gravity bottle of 50 ml capacity, ordinary capillary type with 6 mm diameter neck or
wide mouthed capillary type bottle with 25 mm diameter neck.
o Balance having least count of 1g.

o Thermometer.

o Water bath.

Procedure

1. The specific gravity bottle is cleaned, dried and weighed along with the stopper.

2. It is filled with fresh distilled water, stopper placed and the same is kept in water container for at
least half an hour at temperature 270C.
3. The bottle is then removed and cleaned from outside. The specific gravity bottle containing
distilled water is now weighed.

4. The bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature and is poured in the above empty
bottle taking all the precautions that it is clean and dry before filling sample materials. The
material is filled up to the half taking care to prevent entry of air bubbles.

5. To permit an escape of air bubbles, the sample bottle is allowed to stand for half an hour at
suitable temperature cooled to 270C and then weighed.
6. The remaining space in the specific gravity bottle is filled with distilled water at 270C , stopper
placed and is placed in water container at 270C.
7. The bottle containing bituminous material and containing water is removed, cleaned from
outside and is again weighed.

RESULTS
Measurement of weights Weight in (g)

Pycnomete+ lid 70.7

Pycnometer+ lid +water 138.9

Pycnometer+ lid +sample 94.7

Pycnometer+ lid +water+ sample 139.1

Calculation

94-70.7
94.7+70.7-138.9

24
23.8

= 1.008

Discussion

The standard value of the specific gravity of pure bitumen ranges from 0.97 to 1.02. The result
from the above experiment is found to be at 1.00 therefore the test was carried in an accurate
manner and therefore the result is satisfactorily correct

VISCOSITY TEST

Introduction
Viscosity is the property of bitumen which influences the ability of bitumen to spread, penetrate
into the voids and also coat the aggregates. That is it influences the fluid property of bitumen. If
viscosity of bitumen is higher, compactive effort of bitumen reduces and heterogeneous mixture
arises.

If viscosity is lower, then it will lubricate the aggregate particles. Viscosity is determined by
using tar viscometer. The viscosity of bitumen is expressed in seconds is the time required for
the 50 ml bitumen sample to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard conditions of test
and at specified temperature.

Aim
 To determine the measure of the resistance to flow.
Apparatus
 Tar viscometer
 Cup
 Valve
 Receiver
 Thermometer

Procedure

1. Preparation of the Sample - Heat the sample to a temperature not more than 60°C for
the tars and pitches and not more than 90°C for bitumen above their respective
approximate softening point temperature respectively until it has become sufficiently
fluid to pour. Transfer about 20 ml into a suitable container and maintain it to a
temperature of 135 ± 5.5°C stirring occasionally to prevent local overheating and allow
the entrapped air to escape.
2. Charge the viscometer by pouring the prepared sample to within ± 2 mm of fill line E.
Place the charged viscometer in an oven or bath maintained at 135 ± 5.5°C for a period
of 10 ± 2 min to allow large air
bubbles to escape.
3. Testing - Maintain the bath at the test temperature within ± O.I°C. Place the charged
viscometer vertically in the water bath with the help of a holder so that the uppermost
timing mark is at least 2 em below the surface of the bath liquid.
4. Establish a vacuum of 30 ± 0.05 em of mercury in the vacuum system and connect it to
the viscometer with the valve closed. After the viscometer has remained in the bath for
30 ± 5 min open the valve and allow the asphalt to flow into the viscometer. Measure
to within ± 0.5 s the time required for the leading edge of the meniscus to pass between
successive pairs of timing marks.
5. Upon completion of the test, remove the viscometer from the bath and place it in an
inverted position in an oven maintained at 135 ± 5°C until asphalt is drained off
thoroughly from the viscometer.
6. Clean the viscometer thoroughly by rinsing several times with an appropriate solvent
completely. Dry the tube by passing a slow stream of filtered dry air through the
capillary for 2 minutes.
7. Periodically clean the instrument with chromic acid to remove organic deposits. Rinse
thoroughly with distilled water and acetone and dry with clean air

Results
Redwood viscosity Time in (sec)

Viscometer reading 31

Calibration factor 2
 Viscosity 62

Discussion
The absolute viscosity to three significant figures, by the following equation:
Viscosity Poises = Kt
where:-
K= selected calibration factor, in poise per second; and
t = flow time, in seconds.

The result from the above test is satisfactorily accurate since the viscosity ranges from
about 60 to 80 according to the standard set by the British Standard

LOSS ON HEATING

Introduction

When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened or becomes brittle and could
easily be damaged. The loss in weight is hence measured in percentage. For bitumen used in
pavement mixes the loss should not be more than 1% but for bitumen having penetration values
of 150-200 mm up to 2% loss in weight is allowed.

Principle of the test

About 50g of the sample is weighed and heated to temperature of 163°c for 5 hours in specific
oven designed for the test. The sample specimen is then weighed after the heating period and the
loss in weight expressed as percentage of the weight of the original specimen.

Aim
 To determine the loss heating on bituminous material
Apparatus
 Oven for heating upto temperature of 200°c
 Aluminium rotating self
 Thermometer
 Weighing balance
 Metal or glass containers
 Pan

Procedure
 The pan is weighed and the weight of the pan recorded as Pwt.
 About 50g of bitumen sample is poured gently in the pan and the weight of the
pan + weight of the bitumen sample recorded.
 The sample is placed in oven and heated at temperature of 163°c for 5
hours.
 After the heating period has elapsed the specimen is taken out and cooled to
room temperature and the weight taken to 0.01gm accuracy.
 Then for the two values of weight before and after heating the loss in
weight of bitumen is computed and expressed as a percentage. A loss of 1% is
acceptable hence the loss should not exceed 1% for bitumen used in pavement
mixes.

Results

No Measurement Weight in (g)

of weight
a weight of tin 18
b Weight of sample 50
 c Weight of tin+ sample 68
d Weight of tin+ sample after 67.5
test

Loss on heating = (c-d) ×100

b

=0.5 ×100
50

=1%

Discussion

From the result above the loss on heating from the test is found be just at 1% meaning
most of the material is not lost on heating and therefore the material is desired when
heating since it is less affected by heat.

FLOAT TEST
Introduction
Float test is used to determine the consistency of bitumen in certain ranges where penetration test
or viscosity test are not reliable for the test.

Principle of the test.

The float test apparatus consists of an aluminum float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be
tested. The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature of 5°c and screwed in to float. And
the total test assembly is floated in water bath at 50°c and the time required for water to pass its
way through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and expressed as the float value.

Aim
 To determine consistency of bitumen

Apparatus and equipment

 aluminum float
 brass collars
 thermometer
 cooler
 collars

Procedure

 The Brass collars are filled with melted bitumen sample and cooled to
temperature of 5°c.
 The Brass collars containing the cooled specimen are attached into the aluminum
floats.
 The assembly is then placed in water bath at temperature of 50°c and the
stopwatch started immediately.
 The stopwatch is stopped immediately the water starts to break the material and
enters the float.
 The time is recorded in seconds.

Results
No of test Time taken in seconds
1 31
2 26

Discussion

The time taken for water to run a find its way through the specimen plug is rather short this show
the bitumen specimen is somehow consistent however, this test alone does give satisfactory
result and as such should be supplemented with some other test such as viscosity test and
penetration test if accurate results are desired
FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST

Introduction
Flash point of bitumen is defined as the point of lowest temperature at which bitumen catches
vapors of test flame and fires in the form of flash.

Fire point of bitumen is defined as the point of lowest temperature at which the bitumen ignites
and burns at least for 5 second under specific conditions of test.

Flash and fire point test helps to control fire accidents in bitumen coated areas. By this test we
can decide the bitumen grade with respect to temperature for particular areas of high
temperatures.

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen, materials leave out volatiles. And
these volatiles catches fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this
temperature for each bitumen grade.

Aim
 To determine the flash and fire point of bitumen

Apparatus and equipment

 Cleveland open cup apparatus
 Square shield of 460mm wide by 610mm tall
 Thermometer
 Gas supply for test flame
 Barometer

Procedure
Preparation of apparatus
 Place the apparatus level in a draft free room. Shield from the strong light to determine
the flash point accuracy
 Clean the cup. If the test cup was heated to dry after cleaning cool it to a minimum 56`c
below the expected flash point
 Place thermometer in a vertical position above the bottom of the cup at appoint half
between the center and the side of the cup on a diameter perpendicular to the arc of
sweep of the test flame

Sample preparation

 Fill the sample with cup to the filling line. The thermometer of the material should be as
low as possible and maximum 56`c below the expected falsh point tempeture

Procedure
 Light the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.2 to 4.8mm
 Apply heat and adjust the temperature rise of sample to 14°c. When the temperature of
the sample is approximately 56°c below the expected flash point , decrease the heat to a
temperature rise of 5°c - 6°c
 Starting at minimum 28°c below the flash point , apply one sweep of the test flame for
every 2°c rise on thermometer
 The flash point is recorded as the reading on the thermometer when the first flash appears
on the sample surface.
 To determine the fire point, continue heating at the specified rate of 5°c -6 °c and apply
the test for each 2°c rise in temperature. The fire point is recorded as the thermometer
reading when the sample ignites and continue to burn for at least 5 seconds

Results

No of test Flash point Fire point

Temperature in °c Temperature in °c
1 42 50

2 87 93

3 62 69
Discussion
The fire and flash point from the test above are very low compared to the standard values set
aside by the British Standard which is usually about 175°c meaning the material is quite
flammable and therefore should not be used in areas where fire outbreak is prone and hence not
suitable for such areas.

PERCENTAGE REFUSAL DENSITY

Introduction

The Percentage Refusal Density (PRD) is defined as the ratio of the bulk density of the sample to the final density,
refusal density, expressed as a percentage
The bulk density of the sample shall be measured by weighing it in air and water, the sample being coated in
paraffin wax to prevent the ingress of water. After removal of the wax coating, the sample shall be then heated
and compacted with a vibrating hammer to refusal. The final density of the sample shall be then measured by
weighing it in air and water, no wax coating being required.

Aim
 To determine the minimum air void content after secondary compaction by traffic

Apparatus and Materials 
The apparatus shall consist of:- 
 A drying oven capable of being maintained at 40`c
   A balance capable of weighing up to 10kg with an accuracy of +1g. 
 A bath containing paraffin wax. 
  A water bath maintained at a temperature of 20(+5)`c for immersing the sample in water while
suspended from the balance
 A split core mould and base plate, as described in TRRL Contractor Report 1 "Precisionexperi
ment: Percentage Refusal Density Test" and Fig 1 of BS598 : Part 104 plus spare baseplate. 
 A heating oven of adequate capacity and power to raise the temperature of the cores andmoulds
from ambient to the temperature specified in Table 9/4 for compaction of the sample torefusal. 
  An electric vibrating hammer with a small and a large tamping foot, as specified in sub-
Clause10 of this Clause. 
 A 50~
 75mm wide paint stripping knife and a pallet knife, 300mm steel rule and external callipers. 
 Stop Watch
 Thermometer
 
Procedure
Initial investigation
 The normal Marshal mix design procedure using 75 blows on each face should be
completed to check that Marshall requirement for the mix are met to provide input to
refusal density procedure
 Determine the binder content corresponding on the material usedin the making of
bitumen aggregate
 Place the bituminous material on the mold and subject it to Marshall compaction machine
 Compact the mold in three layers giving a total of 75 blowa each
 Allow the mold to stand for 24 hours
 Weigh the mold in air and water and take down the weights
 Take the readings of the specific gravity as well

Results
A B C D E A B C D E
Thickness(m 50 50 45 55 55 160 155 165 165 150
m)
Weight in air 21.2 19.7 19.8 20.3 18.9 58.8 58.1 59.6 62.9 57.5
in(Kg) 3 9 4 0 1 5 6 3 9 1
Weight in 12.1 10.9 11.0 11.1 10.6 33.0 32.5 33.3 33.6 32.5
water(Kg) 2 0 1 9 6 9 9 6 6 6
SSD 21.2 19.8 19.8 20.3 18.8 59.2 58.8 60.6 64.5 58.9
5 5 5 5 9 6 6 0 4 2
Volume 913 895 884 916 831 2656 2627 2724 2888 2636
Density 2.32 2.21 2.24 2.21 2.27 2.21 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18
5 1 4 6 6 7 9 9 2

Refusal density
A B C D E A B C D E
Thickness(mm) 50 50 45 55 55 160 155 165 165 150
Weight in air 2027 1915 1877 1945 1804 4054 4665 4645 4900 4296
in(Kg)
Weight in 1125 1052 1042 1077 1018 2253 2510 2581 2745 2391
water(Kg)
SSD 2034 1928 1884 1951 1807 4140 4664 4753 5027 44o5
Volume 909 876 842 874 789 1887 2154 2172 2282 2014
Density 2.230 2.217 2.229 2.225 2.26 2.148 2.119 2.147 2.139 2.133

Discussion
  The bulk density and refusal density are computed as in in the result above this test is
very useful since it helps to determine the minimum air void content after secondary
compaction by traffic which is useful in determining the spsce and binder content so as
to come up with stronger structures.

DISTILLATION OF CUT BACK BITUMEN

Introduction

Distillation of bitumen is done to determine the components of in bitumen sample such as water
and the binder content
This test measures the amount of the more volatile constituents in cut-back asphaltic products .
The properties of the residue after distillation is neither necessarily the characteristic of the
bitumen used in the original mixtures nor the of the residue which may be left at any particular
time of application
The presence of silence in the cut –back may affect the distillation residue by retarding the loss
of volatile material after the residue has been poured

Aim
 To determine the components of in bitumen sample

Apparatus
 Distillation flask
 Condenser
 Shield and flsk support
 Heat source
 Receiver
 Residue container

Procedure
 Correct the temperature to be observed in the distillation if the elevation of the
laboratory at which the distillation is made deviates 150m or more from sea level
 Apply the heat so that the first drop of distillate falls on the end of the flask side arm in 5
to 15 minutes
 Record the volumes of the distillate to the nearest 0.5ml in the receiver at the corrected
temperature
  When temperature reaches the corrected temperature of 360`c cut off the heat and
remove the flask and thermometer .with the flask in a pouring position, remove the
thermometer and immediately pour the content into the residue container
 Allow the condenser and any distillate trapped in the neck to drain into the receiver and
record the total volume of distillate collected as the total distillate
 When the residue has cooled until the fuming stops , stir thoroughly and pour into the
receptables for testing for properties such as penetration, viscosity or even the softening
point

Result
Temperature Volume % volume
0
1 8 2
2 1 7 1 4 2 2 2

2 5 1 3 9 6 1 9

3 0 6 5 8 9 2 1

3 4 9 6 3

Calculation

Percentage residue
= 190.20-63 *100
190.2

= 67%

Discussion
From the above test the residue is found to have formed 67% of the test sample meaning it
formed a greater part of the sample and from this we can say that the sample was impure and had
higher percentage of impurities therefore it was necessary to carry out distillation

CONCTRETE LABORATORY

Introduction

Concrete’s versatility, durability, sustainability, and economy have made it the world’s most
widely used construction material.
The term concrete refers to a mixture of aggregates, usually sand, and either gravel or crushed
stone, held together by a binder of cementitious paste. The paste is typically made up of portland
cement and water and may also contain supplementary cementing materials (SCMs), such as fly
ash or slag cement, and chemical admixtures
The performance of concrete is related to workmanship, mix proportions, material
characteristics, and adequacy of curing. The production of quality concrete involves a variety of
materials and a number of different processes including: the production and testing of raw
materials; determining the desired properties of concrete; proportioning of concrete constituents
to meet the design requirements; batching, mixing, and handling to achieve consistency; proper
placement, finishing, and adequate consolidation to ensure uniformity; proper maintenance of
moisture and temperature conditions to promote strength gain and durability; and finally, testing
for quality control and evaluation.
Materials are tested for diverse purposes: to determine the properties of the raw material, to
check quality at intermediate stages in production processes, to check finished products, and to
aid research Mechanical, physical, and chemical methods are used to study the properties of
materials.

Some of the test carried out on concrete lab include:

 Grading
 Cube Compressive Strength Test
 Tensile Strength Test
 Silt and Clay Test
 Sand Equivalent Test
 Aggregate Crushing Value Test
 Los Angeles Abrasion Test
  Specific Gravity
 Sodium Sulphur Soundness Test
 Mix Design
 Aggregate Impact Value Test
 Building Block Test

GRADING

Introduction
Grading is done on the aggregate to used with bitumen. Most of the grading test done was done
on course aggregate materials which were tested and sieve analysis done

Grading serves the main purpose of obtaining a particle size distribution of the aggregate used in
the construction and provides for a means of classifying the aggregate materials used in the
bitumen laboratory lab
 A sieve analysis, or gradation test determines the distribution of aggregate particles by size
within a given sample. This information can then be used to determine compliance with design
and production requirements. Data can also be used to better understand the relationship between
aggregates or blends and to predict trends during construction.

AIM

 To obtain the aggregate of required sizes to be used in the test experiments

Apparatus and equipment

 Test sieves of size, 75mm, 63mm,50mm,50,37.5 ,28 mm,20mm ,14 mm,10mm, 6.3
 Lid and receiver
 Weighing balance
 Riffle boxes
 Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature between 105` and 110`c
  Metal trays
 Scoop
 Flakiness index sieve
 Rubber tubing
 Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure

 Air the sample material .

 Accurately weigh the total sample to the nearest 0.1 g. Record this weight and designate
as WT
 Place the set of sieves, with the largest opening on top, into a pan and pour the aggregate
onto the top sieve.
 Pour the sample on the top sieves and put in in a mechanical sieve shaker and power on
the shaker
 Separate the material into a series of particle sizes using the sieves required by the
material or project specifications.
 The use a mechanical sieve shaker is the preferred method for separating the materials
into the specified sizes.
 Establish a shaking time for different types of aggregates that will assure proper sieving
of the material without degradation .When the required mechanical shaking time is
complete, hand sieve by lateral and vertical motion of the sieves with a “jarring” action
that keeps the material moving continuously over the surface of the sieves.
 Determine the individual weights to the nearest 0.1 g of aggregate retained on each sieve
and record these weights. Place an empty pan on the scale and tare or “zero out” its
weight. Pour the retained aggregate into the empty pan and record this weight as X1 in
Re-tare the pan for the next size sieve or tare a new pan if required to keep the material
separate.
 Repeat this process until the weight of the material on each sieve and the retaining pan
(typically the material passing the No. 200 sieve) has been recorded.
 Report the percentages to the nearest 0.1% for each size of aggregate retained on each
sieve as set forth by the specification requirements. Make the original sieve analysis a
'total retained' analysis by weighing the material cumulatively, placing the material
retained on one sieve directly on top of the previously weighed material from the larger
size sieve, already on the balance. Note the difference.

RESULTS
 Weight Percentage Percentage
retained retained passing
Passing Retained
28 20 0 37.08 62.92
20 14 1470 55.88 7.04
14 10 2215 6.94 0.10
10 6.3 275 0.05 0.05
6.3 5 2 0.05
5 Pan 2
TOTAL 3964
FLAKINESS INDEX

Introduction
Flakiness index refers to the percentage by weight of particles in it, whose least dimension (i.e.
thickness) is less than three-fifths of its mean dimension.
Flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the flay materials and expressing
their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample tested.
Flaky and elongated particles may have adverse effects on concrete and bituminous mix. For
instance, flaky and elongated particles tend to lower the workability of concrete mix which may
impair the long-term durability. For bituminous mix, flaky particles are liable to break up and
disintegrate during the pavement rolling process.

Aim/objective

  For determination of flakiness index of coarse aggregate, where the  size of the coarse
aggregate are larger than 6.3mm

Apparatus and equipment

 Thickness gauge
 Sieves [63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 & 6.3mm
 Balance [0-10 kg]

Procedure

Sample preparation

Surface dry samples is used for the test. A minimum number of 200 pieces of any specified
fraction is required to do the test
 Test procedure

 Sieve the sample through IS sieves

 Take the retained sample on each sieves and sieve again through a special flakiness
sieves
 Weigh the weight of the material retained on the flakiness sieve and record
 Repeat the same procedure for the remaining sieves and record your results

Results and calculation

Sieves Mass FLAKINESS INDEX

retained
20 0 Total =929 100 TOTAL=209
14 63 866 93.2 18
10 732 134 14.4 175
6.3 134 0 0 16

FI = 209
929
= 22.5%

Discussion

The flakiness index of the aggregate is found to 22.5% this is slightly lower than the standard
value for which normally range between 25 to 30% an as such the aggregate is slightly not
suitable due the lower flakiness index
CUBE COMPRESSIVE STRNGTH

Introduction

 Cube compression test provide an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single
test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete compressive
strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and higher
in commercial and industrial structures.
Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement
strength, quality of concrete material, quality control during production of concrete etc

Aim
 To determine the compressive strength of concrete to ensure blocks used are of required
standard

Apparatus
 Compression Testing machine
 Auxiliary platens .when auxiliary platens are used the platens should shall rest on and be
aligned with the cube
 A balance with a minimum of 10kg capacity

Test procedure
 Weigh each specimen, as received or saturated
 Determine the density of each specimen
  Immerse in water, for a minimum of 5 minutes , those cubes which have not been cured
in water or where the surface have been allowed to dry .
 Remove the cubes from the curing or density water tank and test while they are still wet
 Carefully center the cube on the lower platen and ensure that the load will be applierd to
two opposite cast faces of the cube
 Without shock, apply and increase the load continuously at a rate within the range
12MPa/min to 24MPa/min until no greater load can be sustained.
 Record the maximum load applied to the cube

Results

Cube no Failure load Failure strength

KN MPa
383 956.6 42.5
382 908.0 40.3
381 950.6 42.2
764 295.6 13.11
765 316.7 14.0
966 285.2 12.16
967 284.6 12.6
968 432.5 19.2
142 499.0 19.9
143 507.1 22.5
434 614.0 27.3
160 532.9 23.6
161 539.7 23.9
436 608.4 27.0
162 454.7 20.2
278 575.7 25.3
279 883.2 21.7
430 373.2 39.2
329 352.2 15.6

Calculation

Compressive strength= load at failure * 100

 Area (150^2)

Discussion
The cubes are subjected to a compression force in the laboratory to determine whether the
they can withstand the streses induced during loading
From the above result the cpmpressive strength at failure is relatively high

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

Introduction

The aggregates used in roads and pavement construction must be strong enough to withstand
crushing under roller and traffic. If the aggregate crushing value is 30 or higher’ the result may
be anomalous and in such cases the ten percent fines value should be determined instead.

Aim/objective

The objective of this test is to:

1. Determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregate

2. Assess suitability of coarse aggregates for use in different types of road

Apparatus
 A steel cylinder 15 cm diameter with plunger and base plate.

 A straight metal tamping rod 16mm diameter and 45 to 60cm long rounded at one end.

 A balance of capacity 3 kg readable and accurate to one gram.

 IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm

 A compression testing machine.

 Cylindrical metal measure of sufficient rigidity to retain its from under rough usage and of
11.5cm diameter and 18cm height.

 Dial gauge
Procedure

 Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W).
 Put the sample in 3 layers, each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using the tamping rod.
Care being taken in the case of weak materials not to break the particles and weigh
it (W1).
 Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that it rests horizontally
on the surface. Care being taken to ensure that the plunger does not jam in the cylinder.

 Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the compression testing
machine.

 Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T is applied in 10 minutes.

 Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.

 Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss of fines.

 Weigh the fraction passing through the IS sieve (W2).

Results
Initial weight of the coarse aggregate 2995
Final weight of the coarse aggregate 2281
Difference 314

Discussion

The value is higher when more percentage of aggregate is crushed and broken into
smaller pieces which indicates the aggregate are of a lower quality.
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE
Introduction
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement of vehicles
on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down into smaller
pieces.

The aggregates should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to
impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test.

The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may
differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load

Aim

 Determine the impact value of the road aggregates,

 Assess their suitability in road construction on the basis of impact value

Apparatus and equipment

 i. A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a
painted lower surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is
supported on level and plane concrete floor of minimum 45 cm
thickness. The machine should also have provisions for fixing its base.
ii. A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and
minimum thickness 6.3 mm.
iii. .A metal hammer or cup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being
cylindrical in shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm
chamfer at the lower edge and case hardened. The hammer should
slide freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup.
Free fall of hammer should be within 380±5 mm.
iv. A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth
50 mm for measuring aggregates.
v. Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one
end.
vi. A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to
0.1 g

Procedure

Sample preparation

The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates may be dried by
heating at 100-110° C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.

i. Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The aggregates passing
through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the test material.
ii. Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.
iii. Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the tamping
rod.
 iv. Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
v. Strike off the surplus aggregates.
vi. Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).
vii. Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the level plate, block
or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
viii. Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the test sample
in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
ix.  Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of aggregate sample
in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample. Give 15 such blows at an
interval of not less than one second between successive falls
x.  Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm IS sieves
until no further significant amount passes in one minute. Weigh the fraction passing the
sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the fraction retained in the sieve

Results

SAMPLE Initial mass Mass retained % mass passing

A 326 275 51
B 320 276 49
C 341 296 45

Calculation

Sample A=51*100

326

=15.6%
 Sample B =44*100

320

=13.8%

SAMPLE C=45*100

341

=14.2%

AVARAGE =14.2%

Los Angeles Abrasion Test

Introduction
Los Angeles abrasion test on aggregates is the measure of aggregate toughness and
abrasion resistance such as crushing, degradation and disintegration.
The aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are subjected to wearing
due to movement of traffic
When vehicles move on the road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic tyres
and road surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel rimmed wheels of animal
driven vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface.
Therefore, the road aggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to
abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los Angeles test machine
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of
standard steel balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific
number of revolutions also causes impact on aggregates.

Aim
 To determine the Los Angeles abrasion value.

 To find the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction

Apparatus and equipment

 Los Angeles Machine

 Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and each weighing
between 390 to 445 g; six to twelve balls are required.

 Sieve: 1.70, 2.36, 4.75, 6.3, 10, 12.5, 20, 25, 40, 50, 63, 80 mm IS Sieves.

 Balance of capacity 5 kg or 10 kg

 Drying oven

 Miscellaneous like tray

 Steel spherical balls

Procedure

Sample preparation

The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105° – 110°C. The sample should
conform to any of the gradings shown in table 1.

1. Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the grading to be used in
construction, to the maximum extent possible.

2. Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for gradings E, F & G.

3. Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on grading of aggregates.

4. Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and fix the cover.

5. Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute. The number of revolutions is
500 for gradings A, B, C & D and 1000 for gradings E, F & G. The machine should be balanced
and driven such that there is uniform peripheral speed.

6. The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions and material is discharged to a
tray.

7. The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.

8. The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one gram.
Results

Tensile Strength Test

Introduction

Tensile test is one of the most common tests for steel. The test involves straining a test piece by
tensile force, generally to fracture, for the purpose of determining tensile strength, yield strength,
event. ductility and reduction of area

The basic idea of a tensile test is to place a sample of a material between two fixtures called
"grips" which clamp the material. The material has known dimensions, like length and cross-
sectional area. We then begin to apply weight to the material gripped at one end while the other
end is fixed. We keep increasing the weight (often called the load or force) while at the same
time measuring the change in length of the sample

Aim

 To determine the behavior of steel under tension and find out the ultimate strength ,Young’s
modulus and percentage elongation

Apparatus

 Universe tensile testing machine

 Steel bars
 Meter rule
 Metal cutter

Procedure

 Take the samples such as T12,T16,T20 or T25 and measure diameter of test piece,determine
cross sectional area S and original gauge length . A factor of 5 is used to determine the
original gauge length, meaning length become five times the diameter of the sample
 Place the sample to be held securely by top and bottom grips attached to the tensile or
universal testing machine
 Start the machine to apply load by prescribed rate of stressing
 After the fracture, note down the maximum force and measure the final gauge length
 Determine tensile strength , yield strength, percentage elongation after fracture, minimum
cross sectional area and percentage reduction of area

Procedure using the universal winsoft testing program

 The specimen were chosen T12, T16,T20,and T25
 Before loading the specimen onto the tensile machine, the computer system connected to the
machine was set up.
 The specimens were loaded onto the tensile machine, and the tensile was perfomed
 The data was recorded electronically as shown below
 The results are then recorded on paper for submission

Results

Sample 29B 27 28 29 30 32 31
no
Nominal T12 T8 T10 T12 T16 T20 T25
size mm

Length 1000 1000 1010 1030 1000 920 1000

mm
Weight O.863 0.374 o.601 0.891 1.510 2.252 3.686
(Kg)
Diameter 11.83 7.78 9.98 11.85 15.65 20.15 25.15
(mm)
Cross sectional area 109.9 47.6 76.6 110.2 192.4 318.8 496.6
(mm^2)
0.86 0.37 0.60 0.87 1.51 2.50 3.69
Weight/metre
(Kg/m)
495.5 522.7 475.5 324.9 541.3 443.8 412.5
0.2% proof
(KN)
Maximum load(KN) 68.9 28.3 39.7 41.4 125.9 170.3 244.6
Ultimate tensile 590.3 594.2 519.1 375.2 654.5 534.2 521.0
strength(N/,mm^2)
Initial gauge 60 40 50 60 80 80 125
length(mm)

75 50 62 71 97 95 150
Final gauge
length(mm)
Percentage 25% 25% 24% 18% 21% 19% 20%
elongation

Sand Equivalent Test

Introduction

The sand equivalent test provides a measure of the relative proportions of detrimental fine dust
or clay-like material in soil or fine aggregates.

The sand equivalent test is not a direct measure of a HMA physical property. Rather, it is a
measure of plastic fines and dust in the aggregate. These items may contribute to a
reduced asphalt binder aggregate bond. Therefore, if a sand equivalent test is satisfactory, it is
unlikely that plastic fines and dust in the aggregate will be a HMA performance problem.
However, if a sand equivalent test is unsatisfactory

Aim

 To quantify the the relative properties of sand and clay in a fine aggregate sample

Apparatus

 An acrylic plastic cylinder

 Rubber stopper
 Irrigator tube
 Weighted foot assembly of and siphon assembly
 Measuring tin
 4.75mm sieve
 Funnel
 Bottles
 Flat pan for mixing
 Stop watch
 Mechanical or manually sand equivalent shaker

Procedure

 Siphon 4 inch working calcium chloride into a standing plastic cylinder

 Pour one of the test specimen in the plastic cylinder using a funnel
 Tap the bottom of the cylinder tightly on the heels of the hand or using the cork to release
air bubbles
 Stand for 10 minutes ready to shake the cylinder and contents for about 90 cycles in
approximately 30 secs
 Irrigate your sample and working solution using the irrigator tip ,flushing the fine
materials into the suspension above the coaster sand particles until the cylinder is filled
to 15 inch graduation
 Let the suspension stand undisturbed for 20 minutes or sedimentation period. Read and
record the the level of clay suspension refered as a clay reading
 After the clay reading has been taken , place the weighted foot assembly over the cylinder
gently rest on
The sand and record the level of weighted foot rest referred to as sand reading#
 Results

Silt and clay content

Introduction

Silt content is a fine material which is less than 150 micron. It is unstable in the presence of water.
It is unstable in the presence of water. If we use silty sand for bonding, it will reduce the strength
and cause rework
Excessive quantity of silt, not only reduces the bonding of cement and fine aggregates but also
affects the strength and durability of work.

Aim
 To determine the percentage of silt and clay in a fine aggregate
Apparatus required
 250 ml measuring cylinder

 Water

 Sand & Tray

Test Procedure
 First, we have to fill the measuring cylinder with 1% solution of salt and water up to 50 ml.

 Add sand to it until the level reaches 100 ml. Then fill the solution up to 150 ml level.

 Cover the cylinder and shake it well (as shown in video)

 After 3 hours, the silt content settled down over the sand layer

 Now note down the silt layer alone volume as V1 ml (settled over the sand)

 Then note down the sand volume (below the silt) as V2 ml

 Repeat the procedure two more times to get the average

Result
Specific gravity test
Introduction
The specific gravity is normally defined as the ratio between the weight of a given
volume of material and weight of an equal volume of water. The portland cement have a
specific gravity of value around 3.15. When it comes to portland pozzolan cements and
portland blast furnace cements the value will come near to 2.90
The cement particles have pores or particles that can contain water
within it. A nominal mix is prepared with a cement of specific gravity
3.15. Any change in this value of specific gravity will affect the mix
 design. Hence, it is necessary to test the specific gravity of the cement
procured before mixing process.

Aim
 To determine the the relative density

Equipment and Apparatus

1. Le Chaterlier”s flask

2. Weighing balance

3. Kerosene (free from water).

4. Weighing Balance

Procedure for Specific Gravity Test on Cement

1. The flask is allowed to dry completely and made free from liquid and moisture. The weight of
the empty flask is taken as W1.

2. The bottle is filled with cement to its half ( Around 50gm of cement) and closed with a stopper.
The arrangement is weighed with stopper and taken as W2.

3. To this kerosene is added to the top of the bottle. The mixture is mixed thoroughly and air
bubbles are removed. The flask with kerosene, cement with stopper is weighed and taken as W3.

4. Next, the flask is emptied and filled with kerosene to the top. The arrangement is weighed and
taken as W4.

Result
Sodium Sulphur Soundness Test
Introduction
The soundness test determines an aggregate’s resistance to
disintegration by weathering and, in particular, freeze-thaw cycles
 Aim
 This test is intended to study the resistance of coarse and fine aggregates to weathering
action and to judge the durability of the coarse aggregate.

Apparatus

Balance 500 g 0.1 g

Balance 5000 g 1g

Oven 105 to 1100C

80 mm, 63 mm, 40 mm,

31.5 mm, 25 mm, 20 mm,
16 mm, 12.5 mm, 10 mm,
Sieves 8.0 mm, 4.75 mm, 4.0 mm,
2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600
micron, 300 micron, 150
micron

Wire mesh basket

container

Procedure
1. Take individual samples in a wire mesh basket and immerse it in the solution of sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for not less than 16 hours nor more than 18 hours, in such a
manner that the solution covers them to a depth of at least 15 mm.
2. After completion of the immersion period, remove the samples from solution and allow it to
drain for 15 minutes and place it in drying oven.
3. Dry the sample until it attains a constant mass and then remove it from oven and cool it to
room temperature.
4. After cooling again immerse it in the solution as described in step-1.
5. The process of alternate immersion and drying is repeated until the specified number of
cycles as agreed between the purchaser and the vendor is obtained.
6. After completion of the final cycle and after the sample has been cooled, wash it to free from
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate solution. This may be determined when there is no
reaction of the wash water with barium chloride.
7. Then dry each fraction of the sample to constant temp of 105 to 1100C and weigh it.
8. Sieve the fine aggregates over the same sieve on which it was retained before test.
9. Sieve the coarse aggregate over the sieve shown below for the appropriate size of particles.
 Slump test
Introduction
The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency of fresh concrete. It is used, indirectly, as
a means of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the mix
the slump may take one of three forms. In the true slump concrete simply subsides, keeping more
or less to shape. In the shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways.
In the a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. Only a true slump is of any use in the
test. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test
repeated. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high
workability mix, for which the flow test
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete
mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete
slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during
construction
Generally concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates water-cement
ratio, but there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing methods, dosage,
admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value.

Aim
To determine the workability of concrete

Procedure
1. Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

2. Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.

3. Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.

4. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform manner over
the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping should penetrate into the
underlying layer.

5. Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.

6. Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.

7. Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.
8. Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of height point of
the specimen being tested.

Results