See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/231797542

Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger: A review

Article  in  Plant Genetic Resources · August 2011

DOI: 10.1017/S1479262111000670

CITATIONS READS
36 10,535

2 authors:

Jaleel Kizhakkayil Sasikumar Bhas

United Arab Emirates University Indian inst if spicesvres
26 PUBLICATIONS   493 CITATIONS    76 PUBLICATIONS   1,527 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Conservation, characterisation, evaluation and improvement of Zingiber and Curcuma Spp View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jaleel Kizhakkayil on 23 January 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

q NIAB 2011 Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization (2011) 9(3); 464 –477
ISSN 1479-2621 doi:10.1017/S1479262111000670

Diversity, characterization and utilization of

ginger: a review
Jaleel Kizhakkayil1 and B. Sasikumar2*
1
Department of Presidential Affairs, Abu Dhabi, Al-Ain, PO 47087, United Arab Emirates
and 2Indian Institute of Spices Research, PO Marikunnu, Calicut 673 012, Kerala, India

Received 24 January 2011; Accepted 14 April 2011 – First published online 1 June 2011

Abstract
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), originated in the Indo-Malayan region, is now widely
distributed across the tropics of Asia, Africa, America and Australia. It was domesticated in
India and China, which represent the centre of origin of the species. Cultivated ginger
though sterile, exhibits variations in rhizome and vegetative characters. The crop is gaining
importance as a curative agent for a variety of ailments. Yield and quality traits (such as essen-
tial oil, fibre and oleoresin contents) along with volatile and non-volatile constituents are
important determinants of the commodity’s end product. Cultivar diversity for yield and
morphological features is well known in ginger with few primitive types having excellent
quality. However, the common name(s) of ginger cultivars are confusing and have resulted
in geographical bias in its ex situ conservation. Most of the molecular/biochemical marker
studies reported in ginger show low levels of polymorphism in contrast to plentiful phenotypic
variability recorded in the species. The large influence of environmental factors on the content
of key compounds, lack of seed set and confusion of the common names are the leading
constraints to further varietal improvement of ginger. As tailor-made ginger varieties assume
future significance these aspects will have relevance.

Keywords: antiquity; biochemical; medicinal use; molecular; morphological; taxonomy

Introduction Ghana, Guatemala, Hawaii, India, Indonesia, Jamaica,

Mauritius, Malaysia, Nepal, New Zealand, Nigeria, Philip-
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), originated in the Indo- pines, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Trinidad
Malayan region, is now widely distributed across many and Uganda covering a total area of 387,300 ha with a
countries as a spice and medicinal plant (Purseglove production of 1,476,900 MT. India is the world’s largest
et al., 1981; Burkill, 1996; Park and Pizzuto, 2002). producer of ginger at present (Table 1). Export of
Traders took ginger from India to Mediterranean region ginger from India was 7500 MT during 2006 –2007.
during the 1st century CE (Current Era). The Arabs intro- ‘Cochin ginger’, ‘Wayanadan ginger’ (India), ‘Chinese
duced ginger to East Africa in the 13th century CE and the ginger’ (China), ‘Buderim Gold’ (Australia) ‘Jamaican’
Portugese spread it to West Africa and the Pacific islands (Jamaica) are globally traded products. Ginger in various
for commercial cultivation (Ravindran et al., 2006). forms is used as food flavorant, antioxidant and antimi-
The major ginger growing countries include Australia, crobial besides as deodorizing agent in food. Chinese,
Brazil, Bangladesh, Cameroon, China, Costa Rica, Fiji, Indian, Tibetan and Arabic systems of medicine recog-
nized the medicinal value of ginger since ancient times
(Atman and Marcussen, 2001).
This review is intended to provide an overview of the diver-
* Corresponding author. E-mail: bhaskaransasikumar@yahoo.com sity of cultivated ginger, its characterization and utilization.
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 465

Table 1. Area, production and productivity of ginger in the Taxonomy

world (2006)

Production Productivity
The genus Zingiber belongs to the family Zingiberaceae
Country Area (ha) (tons) (tons/ha) under the order Zingiberales and the tribe Zingibereae
(Holtum, 1950). Zingiberaceae includes three other
India 105.50 517.8 4.9
tribes: Hedychieae, Alpinieae and Globbeae (Petersen,
China 24.50 279.0 11.3
Indonesia 18.20 159.0 8.7 1889; Burtt and Smith, 1972). The tribe Zingibereae has
Nepal 12.90 154.1 12.0 seven other genera: Boesenbergia, Camptandra, Roscoea,
Nigeria 191.00 134.0 2.4 Kaempferia, Amomum, Hedychium and Curcuma
Bangladesh 7.70 49.4 6.4 (Kress et al., 2002). Jatoi et al. (2006) using rice microsa-
Thailand 14.00 34.0 2.4
tellite markers assessed the genetic variability among
Philippines 3.90 27.2 6.9
Cameroon 1.30 7.5 5.7 three genera of the family Zingiberaceae: Zingiber, Alpi-
USA 0.04 1.9 47.5 nia and Curcuma and found the origin of the genera
Rest of the World 8.20 71.5 8.7 diverse covering eight Asian countries. Zingiber contains
World 387.30 1476.9 3.8 150 species and four sections distributed throughout tro-
Source: http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx? pical Asia, China, Japan and tropical Australia besides the
PageID¼567. subspecies (varieties): Z. officinale var. rubra and Z. offi-
cinale var. rubrum (Muda et al., 2004). Z. officinale is
included in the section II, Lampuzium (Baker, 1882;
Sabu, 2003; Larsen and Larsen, 2006).
Antiquity

Ayurveda, the Indian ‘science of life’ of approximately

5000 years of antiquity, documented the medicinal Diversity
value of ginger in treatises such as Charaka Samhita,
Shushrutha Samhita and Ashtangahridaya. In Ayurveda, Species level
ginger is known as Mahaoushadhi meaning great medi-
cine. It is Sringavera in Sanskrit, the ancient Indian The genus Zingiber includes many economically import-
language, which has given way to the Greek Zingiberi ant species besides Z. officinale as given in Table 2. The
and to the Latin Zingiber (Rosengarten, 1969; Purseglove Indian species reported include Z. chrysanthum Rosc.,
et al., 1981). Ginger is also mentioned in Koran (76: Z. rubens Roxb., Z. roseum Rosc., Z. nimmonii Dalz.,
15 –17) though it does not figure in Bible. Ginger was Z. wightianum Thw., Z. barbatum Wall., Z. squarrosum
first documented by van Rheede (1692) as inschi Roxb., Z. ligulatum Roxb., Z. cernuum Dalz., Z. pandur-
(inchi) in ‘Hortus Indicus Malabaricus’ – the first printed atum Roxb., Z. pardocheilum Wall., Z. intermedium
account of the plants of Western Coast (Malabar Coast) Baker, Z. officinale Rosc., Z. griffithii Baker, Z. gracile
of India. Jack., Z. zerumbet Smith, Z. cylindricum Moon,

Table 2. Some of the economically important Zingiber species

Species/subspecies Occurrence Use

Z. officinale Roscoe Tropical countries, China, USA Spice, condiment, medicinal
Z. officinale var. rubrum Malaysia Medicinal, spice
Z. officinale var. rubra Malaysia Medicinal, spice
Z. mioga Roscoe Japan Vegetable. Shoot and flower are edible
Z. zerumbet (L.) Smith Tropical Asia Medicinal, ornamental
Z. montanum ( Koenig) Link ex Dietr India, Malaysia, SriLanka, Java Used in traditional medicine
Z. clarkii King Sikkim Himalayas Ornamental
Z. aromaticum Val Tropical Asia Ornamental, medicinal, flavouring
Z. rubens Roxb Indo-Malaya Medicinal, ornamental
Z. griffithii Baker Malaysia Ornamental
Z. ottensii Valet South East Asia Medicinal, ornamental
Z. corallinum Hance South East Asia Chinese medicine, ornamental
Z. americanus Bl. South East Asia Medicinal, vegetable
Z. argenteum (J. Mood and I. Theilade) Sarawak, Malaysia Ornamental
466 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar
Table 3. Continued
Table 3. Cultivar diversity of ginger in India S. No. Cultivar/variety
(revised from Sasikumar et al., 1999)
60 Taiwanb
S. No. Cultivar/variety 61 Thang-Chang (Mizoram)
62 Thing laidum (Mizoram)
1 Ambalavayalan (Kerala)
63 Thingaria (Mizoram)
2 Anamika
64 Thingpui (Manipur, Mizoram)
3 Arippa
65 Thodupuzha (Kerala)
4 Assam (Assam)
66 Tura (Meghalaya)
5 Athiraa (Kerala)
67 Uttarpradesh (Uttarpradesh)
6 Bahrica (Orissa)
68 Valluvanad (Kerala)
7 Bajpai
69 Varadaa (all over India)
8 Bazar local (Arunachal Pradesh)
70 Vellinchi (Kerala)
9 Bhaise (Sikkim)
71 Vengara (Kerala)
10 Bola (Assam)
72 Wynad Kunnmangalam (Kerala)
11 Burdwan (West Bengal)
73 Wynad local (Kerala)
12 Chinab (Kerala)
74 Zahirabad
13 Edappalayam (Kerala)
14 Ellakallan (Kerala) Words in parenthesis denote important states of
15 Ernad-Chernad (Kerala) cultivation.
a
16 Ernad-Manjeri (Kerala) Improved variety, b Exotic.
17 Gorubathani (Sikkim)
18 Himachal (Kerala, Himachal Pradesh)
19 Himgiria (Himachal Pradesh) Z. macrostachyum Dalz., Z. spectabile Griff., Z. casumu-
20 Jamaicab (Kerala) nar Roxb., Z. parishii Hook., Z. clarkii King, Z. capita-
21 Jatia (Assam)
22 Jorathangey (Sikkim) tum Roxb., Z. marginatum Roxb. (Baker, 1882).
23 Jorhat (Assam) Most of the Zingiber species are diploid (2n ¼ 22)
24 Jugijan (North East India) except Z. mioga (2n ¼ 55) and set seed. In cultivated
25 Kakkakalan (Kerala) ginger (Z. officinale) 2n ¼ 24 and 22 þ 2B are also
26 Karakkal (Kerala) reported besides the normal diploid number of 2n ¼ 22
27 Karthikaa (Kerala)
28 Keki (Arunachal Pradesh) (Ravindran et al., 2005). The species is sterile.
29 Khasi local (Meghalaya)
30 Kozhikkalan (Kerala)
31 Kunduli local (Orissa) Cultivar level
32 Kunnamangalam (Kerala)
33 Kuruppampady (Kerala)
34 Mahim (Maharashtra) Ginger is a rhizome propagated crop. Cultivar diversity
35 Mahimaa (all over India) abounds in India and China, which represents the
36 Majhauley (Sikkim) centre of origin of this species, unlike Simmonds (1979)
37 Mananthody (Kerala) observed in many other crops. Geographical spread of
38 Maran/Moran (Assam, Kerala)
39 Mowshom (NorthEast India) ginger clones coupled with mutation and selection are
40 Nadia (West Bengal, Kerala, Meghalaya) considered to be responsible for the cultivar diversity
41 Naga Shing (Manipur) (Ravindran et al., 1994). About 74 cultivars, most of
42 Nangrey (Sikkim) them with vernacular names, possessing varying levels
43 Narasapattam (Andhra Pradesh) of quality attributes and yield occur in India (Table 3;
44 Poona
45 Rajagarh local Sasikumar et al., 1999). Major Chinese cultivars include
46 Rejathaa (Kerala) ‘Gandzhou’, ‘Shandong’, ‘Zaoyang’, ‘Zungi big ginger’,
47 Rio-de-Janeirob (Kerala, Karnataka) ‘Chenggu yellow’, ‘Kintoki’, ‘Sanshu’ and ‘Oshoga’ are
48 Sargi guda (Orissa) three major ginger cultivars from Japan (Ravindran et al.,
49 Saw thing laidum (North East India) 2005). Ridley (1912) has reported three types of ginger
50 Sawthing Pui (North East India)
51 Saying Makhim/pink ginger (Meghalaya) from Malaysia viz. ‘halyia betle’, ‘halyia udang’, ‘halyia
52 Shing Bhoi (Meghalaya) bara’, ‘Native’ and ‘Hawaiin’ are cultivars from the
53 Shing Bhukir (Meghalaya) Philippines. Nepal has about 50 cultivars (Sasikumar
54 Sierra Leoneb et al., 1999). Ginger varieties of Guyana, mainly from
55 Singhihara the hinterlands of that country, are bold or very bold
56 Suprabhaa (all over India)
57 Suravia (Orissa) and lack any varietal names. An obsolete cultivar charac-
58 Suruchia (Orissa) terized by very dwarf stature and extremely slender,
59 Taffingiva fibrous rhizome is also grown in Guyana (Sasikumar,
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 467

2008). ‘Sidda’ and ‘China’ are the cultivars of Sri Lanka 1988; Arya and Rana, 1990; Sasikumar et al., 1992;
(Macloed and Pieris, 1984) and Jamaica has only one Zachariah et al., 1993; Ravindran et al., 1994; Sasikumar
popular cultivar (Lawrence, 1984). et al., 1994, 1999, 2003; Aiyadurai, 1996; John and Fer-
Varietal improvement in ginger has been limited to reira, 1997; Chandra and Govind, 1999; Yadav, 1999;
germplasm selection for high yield and better quality Zachariah et al., 1999; Singh et al., 1999; Singh et al.,
attributes besides some mutation breeding and ploidy 2000; Gowda and Melanta, 2000; Mohandas et al., 2000;
breeding. So far nine improved ginger varieties (‘Varada,’ Naidu et al., 2000; Singh, 2001; Tiwari, 2003; Abraham
‘Mahima’, ‘Rejatha’, ‘Suruchi’, ‘Suravi’, ‘Suprabha’, ‘Himgiri’, and Latha, 2003; Rana and Korla, 2007; Lincy et al.,
‘Athira’ and ‘Karthika’) were released in India (Sasikumar 2008) (Fig. 1). Primitive types (obsolete cultivars) in gen-
et al., 2003, 2007) and one (‘Buderim Gold’) from Australia eral are characterized by small rhizomes; poor yield and
(Smith et al., 2004). better quality although the cultivars/improved varieties
possess attractive bold rhizomes with good yield and
mixed quality traits. Ginger cultivars/varieties suited for
Characterization of ginger various end uses are given as Table S1, available online
only at http://journals.cambridge.org. However, yield
Morphological and anatomical characterization and quality levels in ginger also vary with genotypes,
soil types, locations, seasons, cultural practices and
Variability for yield, quality traits and rhizome features climatic conditions.
has been reported in ginger (Khan, 1959; Thomas, Ginger (Z. officinale) has distinct anatomical features
1966; Krishnamurthy et al., 1972; Muralidharan and such as absence of periderm, short lived functional cam-
Kamalam, 1973; Mohanty and Sharma, 1979; Nybe and bium, occurrence of xylem vessels with scalariform
Nair, 1979; Nybe et al., 1980; Sreekumar et al., 1980; thickening in the rhizome compared with Z. zerumbet,
Kumar et al., 1980; Mohanty et al., 1981; Rattan et al., Z. roseum and Z. macrostachyum (Ravindran et al., 1998).

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j) (k) (l)

Fig. 1. Variability for rhizome features in Indian ginger germplasm (a) ‘Varada’, (b) ‘Mahima’, (c) ‘Rejatha’, (d) ‘Suprabha’,
(e) ‘Sabarimala’, (f) ‘Kozhikkalan’, (g) ‘Kakakalan’, (h) ‘Ellakallan’, (i) ‘Nadia’, (j) ‘Rio-de-Janeiro’, (k) ‘Silent valley’ and
(l) ‘Himachal’ (A colour version of this figure can be found online at journals.cambridge.org/pgr).
468 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar

Molecular characterization characterized eight polymorphic microsatellite markers. A

total of 34 alleles were detected across 20 ginger acces-
RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA), AFLP sions, with an average of 4.3 alleles per locus. This study
(amplified fragment length polymorphism), ISSR (inter revealed the existence of moderate level of genetic diver-
simple sequence repeats), simple sequence repeats sity among the ginger accessions genotyped.
markers and isozymes have been used to characterize Recently, Kizhakkayil and Sasikumar (2010) character-
ginger germplasm. Sasikumar et al. (2000) evaluated ized 46 accessions using 30 RAPD and 17 ISSR markers.
14 accessions of ginger from different regions of India Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean
for variations in acid phosphatase, polyphenol oxidase, dendrograms based on three similarity coefficients (Jac-
super oxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (PRX). card’s, Sorensen–Dice and Simple Matching) placed the
Among them, acid phosphatase showed maximum accessions in four similar clusters and revealed less gen-
number of bands followed by SOD, while PRX had etic distance among the accessions. Improved varieties/
the least bands. Though variability in the population cultivars were grouped together with primitive types. In
was very low, the accessions from Kerala region the clustering pattern of the accessions, a geographical
(southern India) were distinct from those collected bias was also evident implying that germplasm collected
from the north-east Indian states suggesting a geo- from nearby locations with local identity may not be
graphical bias of the germplasm studied. A total of 28 genetically distinct. The clustering of the accessions was
ginger cultivars from China were compared for PRX largely independent of its agronomic features.
isoenzyme patterns by fuzzy cluster analysis (Chengkun The different molecular markers in general revealed
et al., 1995). The cultivars differed in zonal number, low level of polymorphism (Figs. 2 and 3) and only mod-
activity intensity and isoenzyme pattern, which were erate variability with some exceptions, among the ginger
related to rhizome size, growth intensity and blast accessions studied probably due to the confounded effect
(blight?) (Ralstonia solanacearum) resistance. The culti- of the duplicate accessions in the genebank.
vars from the Fujian Province were more diverse.
Muda et al. (2004) studied the genetic variation among
three Z. officinale cultivars/subspecies i.e. Z. officinale Biochemical characterization
var. officinale, Z. officinale var. rubra (‘halia bara’) and
Z. officinale var. rubrum (‘halia padi’) using RAPD analysis Characterization of ginger for the major biochemical
and cultivar-specific markers were obtained. Similarly, constituents viz. oleoresin, essential oil and crude fibre
Nayak et al. (2005) based on their study of 16 ginger culti- levels has lead to identification of cultivars rich in one
vars from India showed that RAPD primers OPC02, OPD20 or other of these constituents (Table S1, available
and OPN06 had strong resolving powers and were able to online only at http://journals.cambridge.org). Oleoresin
distinguish all cultivars. However, Palai and Rout (2007) content of ginger varied from 3 to 11% depending on
found that of the eight Indian landraces/varieties of the genotype, solvent extraction condition, state of rhi-
ginger (‘Surabhi’, ‘Tura Local’, ‘Jugijan’, ‘Nadia’, ‘S-558’, zome, place of origin and harvest season (Ratnambal
‘Gorubathani’, ‘ZO-17’ and ‘Nangrey’) all but one formed et al., 1987; Vernin and Parkanyl, 2005).
a single cluster in the dendrogram. Molecular characteriz- Crude fibre content of dried ginger ranged from 4.8 to
ation of seven ginger accessions including primitive, 9% (Natarajan et al., 1972) although essential oil content
exotic and elite ones using 14 ISSR and 16 RAPD markers of ginger varied from 0.2 to 3%, depending on the origin
by Prem et al. (2007) also showed that the four primitive and state of rhizome (van Beek et al., 1987; Ekundayo
gingers (‘Kozhikkalan’, ‘Kakkakalan’, ‘Ellakkallan’ and et al., 1988). Characterization of 46 ginger accessions
‘Sabarimala’) formed one cluster while all others were sep- revealed that the primitive type gingers such as ‘Sabari-
arately clustered in the dendogram. In another molecular mala’, ‘Kozhikkalan’ and ‘Kakakalan’ as well as few land-
characterization study using 25 RAPD primers Zhen-wei races have higher levels of oleoresin and essential oil
et al. (2006) reported a narrow genetic base among 20 compared with the improved varieties. (Kizhakkayil and
Chinese cultivars. Sasikumar, 2009). Menon (2007) too has observed that
AFLP markers were used to study the genetic relation- primitive ginger types such as ‘Kozhikkalan’ and ‘Vel-
ship among three Indonesian type gingers (big ginger, linchi’ are rich in essential oil content. Shing Bhukir, a
small ginger and red ginger) (Wahyuni et al., 2003). In primitive type ginger from Meghalaya, India, is sold at a
this analysis, 28 accessions including those from Africa premium price for its medicinal value (Rahman et al.,
and Japan were used. Red ginger was genetically distinct 2009). ‘Kintoki’, a landrace from Japan, has very low
from the big ginger, but close to some accessions of small fibre content (Kizhakkayil, 2008). Indian ginger cultivars
ginger. There was no clear genetic differentiation between are known to vary for the pungent and non-pungent
the small and big types ginger. Lee et al. (2007) isolated and constituents: gingerol and shogaol (Zachariah et al.,
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 469

M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

M 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Fig. 2. RAPD profile of the DNA isolated from different ginger accessions amplified with primer OPA 07. M-marker; lane
1– 46 ‘Varada’, ‘Mahima’, ‘Rejatha’, ‘Suruchi’, ‘Suprabha’, ‘Himachal’, ‘Maran’, ‘Nadia’, ‘Karakkal’, ‘Mananthodi’, ‘Sabari-
mala’, ‘Kozhikkalan’, ‘Ellakkallan’, ‘Kakakalan’, ‘Pakistan’, ‘Oman’, ‘Brazil’, ‘Jamaica’, ‘Rio-de-Janeiro’, ‘Pink ginger’,
‘Bakthapur’, ‘Kintoki’, ‘Nepal’, ‘China’, ‘Jugijan’, ‘Acc. no. 50’, ‘Pulpally’, ‘Acc. no. 95’, ‘Ambalawayalan’, ‘Kozhikode’,
‘Thodupuzha-1’, ‘Konni local’, ‘Angamali’, ‘Thodupuzha-2’, ‘Kottayam’, ‘Palai’, ‘Silent valley’, ‘Wayanad local’, ‘Vizagapat-
nam-1’, ‘Vizagapatnam-2’, ‘Fiji’, ‘Gorubathani’, ‘Bhaise’, ‘Naval parasi’, ‘Neyyar’, ‘Jolpaiguri’, respectively.

1993) though lack of variability for gingerol and shogaol 600 accessions screened for bacterial wilt tolerance
has been observed in Australian ginger (Wohlmuth et al., using soil inoculation method were found susceptible
2005). High levels of ar-curcumene and b-bisabolene (Kumar and Hayward, 2005). However, Shylaja et al.
with reasonable levels of citral isomers and very low (2010) reported that the ginger clone ‘Athira’ is relatively
levels of zingiberene were observed in dried Sri Lankan more tolerant to bacterial wilt and soft rot than its mother
ginger (Macloed and Pieris, 1984). clone ‘Maran’. Clones ‘Maran’ ‘Suprabha’ and ‘Himachal’
In short, the volatile and/or non-volatile compounds of have been reported to show field tolerance to ginger
ginger are affected by the environment and the state of rot (Pythium aphanidermatum) (Indrasenan and Paily,
rhizome (Connel and Jordan, 1971; Macloed and Pieris, 1974; Setty et al., 1995).
1984; Ekundayo et al., 1988; Menut et al., 1994; Vernin Nybe and Nair (1979a) while recording shoot borer
and Parkanyl, 1994; Fakim et al., 2002; Wohlmuth et al. incidence in 25 ginger cultivars reported cultivar ‘Rio de
2006). However, a wide variability in the essential oil Janeiro’ with minimum incidence. Devasahayam et al.
profile of ginger is unseen though there are few odd (2010) could not find any shoot borer resistant lines in
cultivars/primitive types excelling in one or the other 592 ginger accessions screened though 49 accessions
compounds including the pungent constituents. were rated as moderately resistant.

Characterization against pests Uses

Bacterial wilt (R. solanacearum), soft rot (Pythium spp.) Products and end uses
and shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) are three
major pests of ginger. No stable bacterial wilt resistant Ginger imparts flavour and pungency to food and bev-
ginger cultivar is known to exist. Consistent with this, erages (Arctangder, 1960; Pruthy, 1993; Bakhru, 1999).
470 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

M 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Fig. 3. ISSR profile of the DNA isolated from different ginger accessions amplified with primer ISSR3. M-marker; lane 1– 46
‘Varada’, ‘Mahima’, ‘Rejatha’, ‘Suruchi’, ‘Suprabha’, ‘Himachal’, ‘Maran’, ‘Nadia’, ‘Karakkal’, ‘Mananthodi’, ‘Sabarimala’,
‘Kozhikkalan’, ‘Ellakkallan’, ‘Kakakalan’, ‘Pakistan’, ‘Oman’, ‘Brazil’, ‘Jamaica’, ‘Rio-de-Janeiro’, ‘Pink ginger’, ‘Bakthapur’,
‘Kintoki’, ‘Nepal’, ‘China’, Jugijan’, ‘Acc. No. 50’, ‘Pulpally’, ‘Acc. No. 95’, ‘Ambalawayalan’, ‘Kozhikode’, ‘Thodupuzha-1’,
‘Konni local’, ‘Angamali’, ‘Thodupuzha-2’, ‘Kottayam’, ‘Palai’, ‘Silent valley’, Wayanad local’, ‘Vizagapatnam-1’, ‘Vizagapat-
nam-2’, ‘Fiji’, ‘Gorubathani’, ‘Bhaise’, ‘Naval parasi’, ‘Neyyar’, ‘Jolpaiguri’, respectively.

Flavour properties of ginger depend on both volatile and value of ginger (Aimbire et al., 2007; Ansari and Bhan-
non-volatile fractions. Fresh succulent baby pink ginger, dari, 2008; Morakinyo et al., 2008; Heimes et al., 2009;
salted ginger, crushed fresh ginger, dry ginger, ginger Nammi et al., 2009, 2010; Lakshmi and Sudhakar, 2010).
powder, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin, dry soluble Ginger is recommended to expecting women as an ante-
ginger, ginger paste and ginger emulsion are used in natal medicine as well as to alleviate the ‘morning sick-
different preparations. Fresh young ginger, succulent in ness’ during pregnancy (Ozgoli et al., 2009; Broussard
nature with low fibre content is preferred for products et al., 2010) and motion sickness. Trikatu is a favourite
such as ginger candy, preserves, and salted ginger while carminative remedy prepared with equal portions of
mature fresh ginger is used for preparing ginger shreds, Z. officinale, Piper nigrum and Piper longum (Anonymous,
the ethnic ginger chutney, ginger tea and ginger curry 1982). Ginger is the major constituent in formulations
(Inchi puli). Ginger is an indispensable component of including Chatarbhada Kvatha used against fever and res-
curry powder, sauces, ginger bread and ginger flavoured piratory disorders; in antitussive drug Lavangadhichurn
carbonated drinks (Hirara and Takesma, 1998) in addi- and in Hingvastaka churna recommended for indigestion
tion to its use in biscuits, pickles, confectionaries and (Singh, 1983; Thakur et al., 1989).
other dietary preparations. Ginger is also a major ingredient in Unani preparations
such as ‘Hub-gul-pista’, an expectorant, ‘Sufuf-shirin’ an
anti-dysenteric drug and ‘Majun Izuroqui’ a geriatric
Ginger in medicine tonic as well as in the ginger based carminatives
‘Qurs Pudina’ and ‘Murraba Adrak’ (Singh, 1983; Thakur
Ayurveda recommends ginger as a carminative, diaphor- et al., 1989).
etic, antispasmodic, expectorant, peripheral circulatory Chinese medicine too value ginger since 4th century
stimulant, astringent, appetite stimulant, anti-inflammatory BC (Wagner and Hikino, 1965). The Chinese administer
agent, diuretic and digestive aid (Warrier, 1989). Recent ginger for a wide variety of medical problems such as sto-
pharmacological studies attest this age-old medicinal machache, headache, diarrhoea, nausea, cholera, asthma,
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 471

heart conditions, respiratory disorders, toothache and The major non-volatile pungent compounds of ginger,
rheumatic complaints (Wagner and Hikino, 1965; Grant the gingerols and shogaols, too possess analgesic, anti-
and Lutz, 2000). Africans and West Indians also use pyretic, cardio tonic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory
ginger for many ailments (Tyler et al., 1981). Ginger properties besides suppressing cytokine formation and
has been used in the Mediterranea for treatment of arthri- promoting angiogenesis. (Mascolo et al., 1989; Yamahara
tis, rheumatological problems and muscular discomfort et al., 1989; Yamahara and Huang, 1990; Huang et al.,
(Langner et al., 1998; Sharma and Clark, 1998). It has 1991; Mustafa et al., 1993; Lee and Surh, 1998; Surh et al.,
also been recommended for the treatment of various 1998; Surh, 1999; Bhattarai et al., 2001; Chung et al., 2001;
other conditions including atherosclerosis, migraine, Ficker et al., 2003; Jolad et al., 2004; Isa et al., 2008; Pan
rheumatoid arthritis, high cholesterol, ulcers, depression et al., 2008; Park et al., 2009; Koh et al., 2009; Imm et al.,
and impotence (Liang, 1992). 2010). Gingerol, particularly 6-gingerol, has been found
In folk/ethnic medicine too ginger is indispensable. to be the most active compound biologically (Yamahara
Fresh ginger juice is administered to pregnant women et al., 1989; Mascolo et al., 1989; Huang et al., 1991; Mustafa
just before childbirth for easy delivery (Rao and Jamir, et al., 1993; Aeschbach et al., 1994; Agarwal et al., 2001;
1982). Ginger is an ethnic remedy for pain, rheumatism, Ficker et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2005; Tripathi et al., 2006;
mad convulsion, collapse, scabies, constipation, indiges- Lam et al., 2007; Sjmonatj, 2009; Jeong et al., 2009; Wu
tion, prolepsis, fistula, cholera, throat pain, tuberculosis, et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2010).
cold, fever and cough (Jain and Tarafder, 1970; Anon- Biologically active compounds of ginger are given in
ymous, 1978). Ginger along with P. longum is used as the Table S2, available online only at http://journals.
an abortifacient in some tribes (Tarafder, 1983). cambridge.org.
In veterinary medicine too ginger is important against Ginger has strong antibacterial and to some extent anti-
many livestock maladies. Iqbal et al. (2006) reported fungal properties too (Kapoor, 1997; Habsah et al., 2000;
the anthelmintic activity of crude powder and crude aqu- Srinivasan et al., 2001). In vitro studies have shown that
eous extract of dried ginger in sheep naturally infected active constituents of ginger inhibit multiplication of
with gastrointestinal nematodes. colon bacteria (Bakhru, 1999). Ginger also inhibits the
growth of Escherichia coli, Proteus spp., Staphylococci,
Streptococci and Salmonella (Gugnani and Ezenwanze,
Pharmacology 1985; James et al., 1999). O’Mahony et al. (2005) reported
curative effects against Helicobacter pylori. Fresh ginger
Both the volatile and non-volatile compounds of ginger juice showed inhibitory action against Aspergillus niger,
are credited with medicinal properties besides imparting Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mycoderma spp. and Lacto-
pungency and aroma to ginger as a spice (Fig. S1, avail- bacillus acidophilus at 4, 10, 12 and 14%, respectively,
able online only at http://journals.cambridge.org). The at ambient temperatures (Nanir and Kadu, 1987; Meena,
main volatile compounds are mono- and sesqui-terpenes, 1992; Kapoor, 1997). Martins et al. (2001) demonstrated
camphene, phellandrene, curcumene, cineole, geranyl antimicrobial activity of essential oil against gram-positive
acetate, terphineol, terpenes, borneol, geraniol, limo- and gram-negative bacteria using agar diffusion method.
nene, linalool, zingiberene, sesqui-phellandrene, bisabo-
lene and farnesene. Many of these compounds are
credited with curative properties. (Feng and Lipton, Conclusion
1987; Zebovitz, 1989; Keeler and Tu, 1991; Yamahara
et al., 1992; Hansel et al., 1992; Reddey and Lokesh, Ginger is one of the most important and ancient spices.
1992; Martin et al., 1993; Denyer et al., 1994; Leung and Though ginger is sterile, plentiful cultivar diversity,
Foster, 1995; Newall et al., 1996; Obeng-Ofori and Reich- recognized mostly by local names exists. However,
muth, 1997; Blascheck et al., 1998; Atsumi et al., 2000; most of the molecular/biochemical characterization
Coppen, 2002; Murakami et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2004; studies attempted so far failed to reveal significant poly-
Juergens et al., 2004; Masuda et al., 2004; Ali et al., morphism commensurating with the observed morpho-
2005; Hsu et al., 2005; Kuo et al., 2005; Shin et al., 2005; logical variability or yield. A geographical bias in the
Rao and Rao, 2005; Riyazi et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2007; ginger germplasm conserved in the ex situ genebanks,
Shukla and Singh, 2007; Lee et al., 2009; El-Baroty et al., probably due to local (vernacular) identity problems
2010; Hsu et al., 2010). b-Phellandrene and zingiberene during germplasm collection and the geographical
are the major compounds in Indian commercial gingers. effect on key constituents are the hallmark of most of
Ginger oil per se is also having antiulcer, antidepressant the germplasm characterization studies. Variability for
and anti-inflammatory properties (Sharma et al., 1997; the essential oil profile as well as the pungent constitu-
Khushtar et al., 2009; Qiang et al., 2009). ents is also not that remarkable though few primitive
472 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar

cultivars with excellent quality traits have been reported Arya PS and Rana KS (1990) Performance of ginger varieties in
from different countries. The primitive types (obsolete Himachal Pradesh. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices
Journal 14: 16 –20.
cultivars), invariably poor yielders on the verge of extinc- Atman RD and Marcussen KC (2001) Effects of a ginger extract
tion, require special attention in long-term conservation on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis and
strategy especially because convergent improvement or Rheumatism 44: 2531 – 2538.
hybridization is rather difficult in a sterile ginger. Pharma- Atsumi T, Fujisawa S, Satoh K, Sakagami H, Iwakura I, Ueha T,
cokinetic studies on the long-term effect of the curative Sugita Y and Yokoe I (2000) Cytotoxicity and radical inten-
sity of eugenol, isoeugenol or related dimers. Anti Cancer
compounds are still in infancy. Taxonomic and pharma-
Research 20: 2519– 2524.
cological studies on the subspecies of Z. officinale will Baker JG (1882) Scitaminae. In: Hooker JD (ed.) The Flora of
also be rewarding. In future, there may be premium for British India. vol. VI. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh, Mahendra-
tailor-made ginger varieties to meet a specific end use. pal Singh, pp. 198 – 264.
Thus, research on the effect of environmental factors Bakhru HK (1999) Herbs that Heal: Natural Remedies for Good
including the changing climate on quality profile and Health. New Delhi: Oriental Paper Backs, A Division of
Vision Books Pvt. Ltd, p. 97.
aroma of ginger, pharmacokinetics of the medicinally Bhattarai S, Tran VH and Duke CC (2001) The stability of
important constituents, problem of sterility and above gingerol and shogoal in aqueous solutions. Journal of
all a comprehensive characterization study on the Pharmaceutical Science 90: 1658– 1664.
global germplasm should assume priority. Blascheck W, Hansel R, Keller K, Reichling J, Rimpler H and
Schneider G (eds) (1998) Hager’s Handbuch der Pharma-
zeutischen Praxis, Auflage Band 2 (A– K), 909 pp., (L –Z),
858 pp. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Broussard CS, Louik C, Honein MA and Mitchell AA (2010)
References Herbal use before and during pregnancy. American Jour-
nal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 202: 443e1– 443e6.
Burkill IH (1996) A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the
Abraham Z and Latha M (2003) Correlation and path analysis in
Malay Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture
ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Journal of Spices and
and Co-operatives, p. 2444.
Aromatic Crops 12: 187 – 189.
Burtt BL and Smith RM (1972) Tentative keys to the subfamilies,
Aeschbach R, Löliger J, Scott BC, Murcia A, Butler J, Halliwell B
tribes and genera of the Zingiberales. Notes from the Royal
and Aruoma OI (1994) Antioxidant actions of thymol,
Botanical Garden Edinburgh 31: 171 –176.
carvacrol, 6-gingerol, zingerone and hydroxytyrosol. Food
Chandra R and Govind S (1999) Genetic variability and perform-
Chemistry and Toxicology 32: 31– 36.
Agarwal M, Walia S, Dhingra S and Khambay BP (2001) Insect ance of ginger genotypes under mid hills of Meghalaya.
growth inhibition, antifeedant and antifungal activity of Indian Journal of Horticulture 56: 274 –278.
compounds isolated/derived from Zingiber officinale Chen JC, Huang LJ, Wu SL, Kuo SC, Ho TY and Hsiang CY
Roscoe (ginger) rhizomes. Pest Management Science 57: (2007) Ginger and its bioactive component inhibit entero-
289 – 300. toxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile Enterotoxin-induced
Aimbire F, Penna SC, Rodrigues M, Rodrigues KC, Lopes-Martins diarrhea in mice. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chem-
RAB and Sertié JAA (2007) Effect of hydroalcoholic istry 55: 8390 –8397.
extract of Zingiber officinalis rhizomes on LPS-induced Chengkun H, Jiashen L, Suzhi G, Min Z and Wensheng C
rat airway hyper reactivity and lung inflammation. Prosta- (1995) The relationship between geographic distribution
glandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 77: and the genetic difference of peroxidase isozyme of
129 – 138. ginger germplasm in Fujian. Acta Horticulturae 402:
Aiyadurai SGA (1996) Review of Research on Spice and Cashew- 125 – 132.
nut in India. Regional Office (Spices and Cashewnut). Chung WY, Jung YJ, Surh YJ, Lee SS and Park KK (2001) Antiox-
Ernakulam: Indian Council of Agricultural Research, p. 228. idative and antitumor promoting effects of [6]-paradol and
Ali SM, Khan AA, Ahmed I, Musaddiq M, Ahmed KS, Polasa H, its homologs. Mutation Research, Genetic Toxicology and
Rao V, Habibullah CM and Sechi LA (2005) Antimicrobial Environmental Mutagenesis 496: 199 – 206.
activities of eugenol and cinnamaldehyde against the Connel DW and Jordan RA (1971) Composition and distinctive
human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Annals of volatile flavour characteristics of the essential oil from
Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobes 4: 20– 27. Australian-grown ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of
Anonymous (1978) Hand Book of Domestic Medicine and Science Food and Agriculture 22: 93 –95.
Common Ayurvedic Remedies. New Delhi: Central Council Coppen JJW (2002) Eucalyptus: The Genus Eucalyptus (Mediac-
for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS). inal and Aromatic Plants – Industrial Profiles). London
Anonymous (1982) Pharmacognosy of indigenous drugs and NewYork: Taylor and Francis, p. 440.
(Vol-E). Raghunathan K and Roma Mitra (eds), vol. I. Denyer CV, Jackson P, Loakes DM, Ellis MR and Yound DAB (1994)
New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Isolation of antirhinoviral sesqui-terpenes from ginger
Siddha, pp. 52– 76. (Zingiber officinale). Journal of Natural Products 57:
Ansari MN and Bhandari U (2008) Cardioprotective activity of 658 – 662.
Zingiber officinale Roscoe in rats. Hamdard Medicus 51: Devasahayam S, Jacob TK, Koya KMA and Sasikumar B (2010)
38 –41. Screening of ginger (Z. officinale R) germplasm for resist-
Arctangder S (1960) Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural nace to shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis). Journal of
Origin. New Jersey: Elizabeth, p. 275. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science 32: 137 – 138.
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 473

Ekundayo O, Laakso I and Hiltunen R (1988) Composition of (Edson) Fitz. Agricultural Research Journal of Kerala 11:
ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) volatile oils from 53 –56.
Nigeria. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 3: 85– 90. Iqbal Z, Latheef M, Akhtar MS, Ghayur MN and Gilani AH (2006)
El-Baroty GS, El-Baky HHA, Farag RS and Saleh MA (2010) In vivo anthelmintic activity of ginger against gastrointesti-
Characterization of antioxidant and antimicrobial com- nal nematodes of sheep. Journal of Ethanopharmacology
pounds of cinnamon and ginger essential oils. African 106: 285 –287.
Journal of Biochemistry Research 4: 167 –174. Isa Y, Miyakawa Y, Yanagisawa M, Goto T, Kang MS, Kawada T,
Fakim AG, Maudarbaccus N, Leach D, Doimo L and Wohlmuth Morimitsu Y, Kubota K and Tsuda T (2008) 6-Shogaol and
H (2002) Essential oil composition Zingiberaceae species 6-gingerol, the pungent of ginger, inhibit TNF-a mediated
from Mauritius. Journal of Essential Oil Research 14: down regulation of adiponectin expression via different
271 – 273. mechanisms in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Biochemical and
Feng J and Lipton JM (1987) Eugenol: antipyretic activity in Biophysical Research Communications 373: 429 –434.
rabbits. Neuropharmacology 26: 1775 –1778. Jain SK and Tarafder CR (1970) Medicinal plant lore of the
Ficker C, Smith ML, Akpagana K, Gbeassor M, Zhang J, Durst T, Santals. A revival of P.O. Bodding’s Work. Economic
Assabgui R and Arnason JT (2003) Bioassay-guided iso- Botany 24: 241 – 278.
lation and identification of antifungal compounds from James ME, Nannapaneni R and Johnson M (1999) Identification
ginger. Phototherapy Research 17: 897 – 902. and characterization of two bacteriocin producing bacteria
Gowda KK and Melanta KR (2000) Varietal performance of isolated from garlic and ginger root. Journal of Food
ginger in Karnataka. In: Muraleedharan N and Rajkumar Protection 62: 899 – 904.
R (eds) Recent Advances in Plantation Crops Research. Jatoi SA, Kikuchi A, Yi SS, Naing KW, Yamanaka S, Watanabe JA
New Delhi: Allied Publishers, pp. 92– 93. and Watanabe KN (2006) Use of rice SSR markers as RAPD
Grant KL and Lutz RB (2000) Alternative therapies: ginger. Amer- markers for genetic diversity analysis in Zingiberaceae.
ican Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 57: 945 – 947. Breeding Science 56: 107 – 111.
Gugnani HC and Ezenwanze EC (1985) Antibacterial activity of Jeong CH, Bode AM, Pugliese A, Cho YY, Kim HG, Shim JH,
extracts of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and African oil bean Jeon YJ, Li HL, Jiang HL and Dong ZG (2009) Gingerol sup-
seed (Pentaclethora macrophylla). Journal of Communic- presses colon cancer growth by targetting leukotriene A4
able Diseases 17: 233 –236. hydrolase. Cancer Research 69: 5584 – 5591.
Habsah M, Amran M, Mackeen MM, Lajis NH, Kikuzaki H, Naka- John RP and Ferreira DI (1997) Yield and quality evaluation
tani N, Rahman AA, Ghafar and Ali AM (2000) Screening of of five ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) selections in
Zingiberaceae extracts for antimicrobial and antioxidant the Northern Province of South Africa. Journal of the
activities. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72: 403 – 410. Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences 7:
Hansel R, Keller K, Rimpler H and Schneider G (eds) (1992) 26 –29.
Hager’s Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, Drogen Jolad SD, Lantz RC, Solyom AM, Chen GJ, Bates RB and Timmer-
(A –D). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 1209. mann BN (2004) Fresh organically grown ginger (Zingiber
Heimes K, Feistel B and Verspohl EJ (2009) Impact of the 5-HT3 officinale): composition and effects on LPS-induced PGE2
receptor channel system for insulin secretion and inter- production. Phytochemistry 65: 1937 –1954.
action of ginger extracts. European Journal of Pharma- Juergens U, Engelen T, Racké K, Stöber M, Gillissen A and Vetter
cology 624: 58 –65. H (2004) Inhibitory activity of 1,8-cineol (eucalyptol) on
Hirara K and Takesma M (1998) Spices – Science and Technol- cytokine production in cultured human lymphocytes and
ogy. New York, NY: Marcel Deckker. monocytes. Pulmonary Pharmacology and Therapeutics
Holtum RE (1950) The Zingiberaceae of the Malay Peninsula. 17: 281 – 287.
Gardens Bulletin (Singapore) 13: 1 – 50. Kapoor A (1997) Antifungal activities of fresh juice and aqueous
Hsu MH, Kuo SC, Chen CJ, Chung JG, Lai YY and Huang LJ extracts of turmeric and ginger (Zingiber officinale).
(2005) 1-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)-3,5-dodecenedeone (16) Journal of Phytological Research 10: 59– 62.
induces GI arrest and apoptosis in human promyclocytic Keeler RF and Tu AT (1991) Handbook of Natural Toxins. vol. 6.
leukemia HL-60 cells. Leukemia Research 29: 1399 –1406. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc., p. 665.
Hsu YL, Chen CY, Hou MF, Tsai EM, Jong YJ, Hung CH and Kuo Khan KI (1959) Ensure two fold ginger yields. Indian Farming
PL (2010) 6-Dehydrogingerdione, an active constituent of 8: 10 –14.
dietary ginger, induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis Khushtar M, Kumar V, Javed K and Uma Bhandari (2009) Protec-
through reactive oxygen species/c-Jun N-terminal kinase tive effect of ginger oil on aspirin and pylorus ligation-
pathways in human breast cancer cells. Molecular Nutrition induced gastric ulcer model in rats. Indian Journal of
and Food Research 54: 1307 – 1317. Pharmaceutical Sciences 71: 554.
Huang QR, Iwamoto M, Aoki S, Tanaka N, Tajima K, Yamahara J, Kim SO, Kundu JK, Shin YK, Park JH, Cho MH, Kim TY and Surh
Takaishi Y, Yoshida M, Tomimatsu T and Tamai Y (1991) YJ (2005) [6]-Gingerol inhibits COX-2 expression by block-
Anti-5-hydroxitryptamine 3 effect of galanolactone, diter- ing the activation of p38 MAP kinase and NF-kappaB
penoid isolated from ginger. Chemical Pharma Bulletin in phorbol ester-stimulated mouse skin. Oncogene 24:
39: 397 – 399. 2558 – 2567.
Imm JY, Zhang GD, Chan LY, Nitteranon V and Parkin KL Kizhakkayil J (2008) Molecular and biochemical characterization
(2010) [6]-Dehydroshogaol, a minor component in of ginger (Z. officinale R) germplasm. PhD Thesis. Guntur:
ginger rhizome, exhibits quinone reductase inducing and Acharya Nagarjuna University, p. 173.
anti-inflammatory activities that rival those of curcumin. Kizhakkayil J and Sasikumar B (2009) Variability for quality traits
Food Research International 43: 2208 –2213. in a global germplasm collection of ginger (Z. officinale
Indrasenan G and Paily PV (1974) Studies on the soft rot of R.). Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy 3:
ginger (Z. officinale) caused by Pythium aphanidermatum 254 – 259.
474 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar

Kizhakkayil J and Sasikumar B (2010) Molecular characterisation Martin S, Padilla E, Ocete MA, Galvez J, Jimenez J and Zarzuelo
of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) germplasm – a medic- A (1993) Anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil of
inal spice. Scientia Horticulture 125: 73 –76. Bupleurum fruticescens. Planta Medica 59: 533 – 536.
Koh EM, Kim HJ, So HK, Choi WH, Choi YH, Ryu SY, Kim YS, Martins AP, Salgueiro L, Goncalves MJ, da Cunha AP, Vila R
Koh WS and Park SY (2009) Modulation of macrophage and Canigueral S (2001) Essential oil composition and
functions by compounds isolated from Zingiber officinale. antimicrobial activity of three Zingiberaceae from S.Tome
Planta Medica 75: 148 – 151. e Principe. Planta Medica 67: 580 – 584.
Kress WJ, Prince LM and Williams KJ (2002) The phylogeny and Mascolo N, Jain R, Jain SC and Capasso F (1989) Ethnopharma-
a new classification of the gingers (Zingiberaceae): evi- cological investigation of ginger (Zingiber officinale).
dence from molecular data. American Journal of Botany Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27: 129 –140.
89: 1682 –1696. Masuda Y, Kikuzaki H, Hisamoto M and Nakalani N (2004) Anti-
Krishnamurthy N, Mathew AG, Nambudiri ES and Lewis YS oxidant properties of gingerol related compounds from
(1972) Essential oils and oleoresin from major spices in ginger. Biofactors 21: 129 –140.
India. Journal of Plantation Crop, (Suppl): 181 – 183. Meena MR (1992) Studies on antimicrobial activity of various
Kumar A and Hayward AC (2005) Bacterial diseases of ginger spices and their oils. MSc Thesis. New Delhi: Indian Agri-
and their control. In: Ravindran PN and Nirmal Babu K cultural Research Institute.
(eds) Ginger – The Genus Zingiber. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Menon AN (2007) Chemical composition of the essential oil
Press, pp. 341 – 346. from leaves and roots of ginger (Zingiber officinale) from
Kumar VS, Balasubramanian PP, Kumar KV and Mammen MK Kerala. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences
(1980) Comparative performance of six varieties of ginger 29: 78– 80.
for second crop in Wynad. Indian Spices 17: 111 – 114. Menut C, Lamaty G, Bessiere JM and Koudou J (1994) Aromatic
Kuo PC, Dhamu AG, Cheng CY, Teng CM, Lee EJ and Wu TS plants of tropical Central Africa. XIII. Rhizomes volatile
(2005) Isolation of a natural antioxidant, dehydrozingerone components of two Zingiberales from the Central African
from Zingiber officinale and synthesis of its analogues for Republic. Journal of Essential Oil Research 6: 161 – 164.
recognition of effective antioxidant and antityrosinase Mohandas TP, Pradeep Kumar T, Mayadevi P, Aipe KC and
agent. Archives of Pharmacology Research 28: 518 – 528. Kumaran K (2000) Stability analysis in ginger (Zingiber offi-
Lakshmi BVS and Sudhakar MA (2010) Protective effect of cinale Rosc.) genotypes. Journal of Spices and Aromatic
Z. officinale on gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity in
Crops 9: 165 – 167.
rats. International Journal of Pharmacology 6: 58– 62.
Mohanty DC and Sharma YN (1979) Genetic variability and cor-
Lam RYY, Woo AYH, Leung PS and Cheng CHK (2007) Antioxidant
relation for yield and other variables in ginger germplasm.
actions of phenolic compounds found in dietary plants on
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 49: 250 – 253.
low-density lipoprotein and erythrocytes in vitro. Journal
Mohanty DC, Das RC and Sharma YN (1981) Variability of agro-
of the American College of Nutrition 26: 233 – 242.
namic of ginger. Orissa Journal of Horticuture 9: 15 –17.
Langner E, Greifenberg S and Gruenwald J (1998) Ginger:
Morakinyo AO, Adeniyi OS and Arikawe AP (2008) Effects of
history and use. Advances in Therapy 15: 25– 44.
Zingiber officinale on reproductive functions in the male
Larsen K and Larsen SS (2006) Zingiber Miller. Ginger of Thai-
rat. African Journal of Biomedical Research 11: 329 – 333.
land. Chiang Mai: Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, p. 184.
Muda MM, Halijah I and Norzulaani K (2004) Differentiation of
Lawrence BM (1984) Major tropical spices – ginger (Zingiber
three varieties of Zingiber officinale Rosc. by RAPD finger-
officinale Rosc.). Perfumer and Flavourist 9: 1– 40.
Lee E and Surh YJ (1998) Induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells printing. Malaysian Journal of Science 23: 135 – 139.
by pungent vanilloids, [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol. Cancer Murakami Y, Shoji M, Hanazawa S, Tanaka S and Fujisawa S (2003)
Letters 134: 163 –168. Preventive effect of bis-eugenol, a eugenol ortho dimer,
Lee SY, Fai WK, Zakaria M, Ibrahim H, Othman RY, Gwang JG, on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated nuclear factor kappa B
Rao VR and Park YJ (2007) Characterization of polymor- activation and inflammatory cytokine expression in macro-
phic microsatellite markers, isolated from ginger (Zingiber phages. Biochemical Pharmacology 66: 1061 –1066.
officinale Rosc.). Molecular Ecology Note. Doi: 10.1111/ Muralidharan A and Kamalam N (1973) Improved ginger means
j.1471-8286.2007.01757.x. foreign exchange. Indian Farming 22: 37 –39.
Lee JY, Kang HS, Park BE, Moon HJ, Sim SS and Kim CJ (2009) Mustafa T, Srivastava KC and Jensen KB (1993) Drug develop-
Inhibitory effects of Geijigajakyak-Tang on trinitrobenzene ment report. 9. Pharmacology of ginger, Zingiber offici-
sulfonic acid-induced colitis. Journal of Ethnopharmacol- nale. Journal of Drug Development 6: 25 –39.
ogy 126: 244 – 251. Naidu MM, Padma M, Yuvaraj KM and Murty PSS (2000) Evalu-
Leung AY and Foster S (1995) Encyclopedia of Common Natural ation of ginger varieties for high altitude and tribal area of
Ingredients. 2nd edn. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Andra Pradesh. Spices and Aromatic Plants: Challenges and
p. 649. opportunities in the new century. Centennial conference
Liang MH (1992) From America: cookbook medicine or food for on spices and aromatic plants, 20– 23 Sept. 2000, Calicut,
thought: practice guidelines development in USA. Annals Kerala, India, pp. 50– 51.
of the Rheumatic Diseases 51: 1257– 1258. Nammi S, Satyanarayana S and Roufogalis BD (2009) Protective
Lincy AK, Jayarajan K and Sasikumar B (2008) Relationship effects of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizome
between vegetative and rhizome characters and final on the development of metabolic syndrome in high-fat
rhizome yield in micro propagated ginger plants (Zingiber diet-fed rats. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxi-
officinale Rosc.) over two generations. Scientia Horti- cology 104: 366 – 373.
culture 118: 70– 73. Nammi S, Kim MS, Gavande NS, Li GQ and Roufogalis BD (2010)
Macloed AJ and Pieris NM (1984) Volatile aroma constituents of Regulation of low-density lipoprotein receptor and 3-hydroxy-
Sri Lankan ginger. Phytochemistry 23: 353 – 360. 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase expression by Zingiber
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 475

officinale in the liver of high-fat diet-fed rats. Basic and Clinical Threats and Solution to Spices and Aromatic Crops
Pharmacology and Toxicology 106: 389–395. Industry, National symposium on spices and aromatic
Nanir SP and Kadu BB (1987) Effect of medicinal plant extracts crops, 25 – 26, November 2007. Bhuvaneswar, Orissa,
on some fungi. Acta Botanica Indica 15: 170 –175. India, p. 337.
Natarajan CP, Kuppuswamy S, Shankaracharya NB, Padmabai R, Pruthy JS (1993) Major spices of India: crop management post
Raghavan B, Krishnamurthy MN, Khan F, Lewis YS and harvest technology. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricul-
Govindarajan VS (1972) Chemical composition of ginger tural Research, pp. 244 – 288.
varieties and dehydration studies of ginger. Journal of Purseglove JW, Brown EG, Green CL and Robbins SRJ (1981)
Food Science and Technology 9: 120 – 124. Spices. vol. 2. New York, NY: Longman Inc.
Nayak S, Naik PK, Acharya L, Mukherjee AK, Panda PC and Qiang LQ, Wang CP, Wang FM, Pan Y, Yi LT, Zhang X and
Das P (2005) Assessment of genetic diversity among 16 Kong LD (2009) Combined administration of the mixture
promising cultivars of ginger using cytological and of honokiol and magnolol and ginger oil evokes anti-
molecular markers. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung 60C: depressant-like synergism in rats. Archives of Pharmacal
485 – 492. Research 32: 1281– 1292.
Newall CA, Anderson LA and Phillipson JD (1996) Herbal Medi- Rahman H, Karuppaiyan R, Kishore K and Denzongpa R (2009)
cine – A Guide for Health-care Professionals. London: The Traditional practices of ginger cultivation in north east
Pharmaceutical Press, p. 296. India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8: 23– 28.
Nybe EV and Nair PCS (1979) Studies on the morphology of the Rana N and Korla BN (2007) Evaluation of ginger germplasm for
ginger types. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal yield and quality under mid hill conditions of Himachal
3: 7 –13. Pradesh. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences 36:
Nybe EV and Nair PCS (1979a) Field tolerance of ginger types to 393 – 394.
important pests and diseases. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Rao RR and Jamir NS (1982) Ethnobotanical studies in Nagaland-
Spices Journal 2: 109 – 111. 1. Medicinal Plants. Economic Botany 36: 176 – 181.
Nybe EV, Nair PCS and Mohanakumaran N (1980) Assessment of Rao BN and Rao BSS (2005) Antagonistic effects of Zingerone, a
quality components in ginger. In: Nair MK, Premkumar T, phenolic alkanone against radiation-induced cytotoxicity,
Ravindran PN and Sarma YR (eds) Proceedings, National genotoxicity, apoptosis and oxidative stress in Chinese
Seminar on Ginger and Turmeric, 8– 9 April 1980, hamster lung fibroblast cells growing in vitro. Mutagenesis
Calicut. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, 25: 577 – 587.
Kasargod, India, pp. 24– 29. Ratnambal MJ, Gopalam A and Nair MK (1987) Quality evalu-
Obeng-Ofori D and Reichmuth C (1997) Bioactivityof eugenol, a ation in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in relation to
major component of essential oil of Ocimum suave (Wild.) maturity. Journal of Plantation Crops 15: 108 –117.
against four species of stored-product Coleoptera. Inter- Rattan RS, Korla BN and Dohroo NP (1988) Performance of
national Journal of Pest Management 43: 89– 94. ginger varieties in Solan area of Himachal pradesh. In:
O’Mahony R, Al-Khtheeri H, Weerasekera D, Fernando N, Vaira Satyanarayana G, Reddy MS, Rao MR, Azam KM and
D, Holton J and Christelle BC (2005) Bactericidal and anti- Naidu R (eds) Proceedings of National seminar on Chillies,
adhesive properties of culinary and medicinal plants Ginger and Turmeric. Cochin: Spices Board, pp. 71– 73.
against Helicobacter pylori. World Journal Gastroenterology Ravindran PN, Sasikumar B, George JK, Ratnambal MJ, Nirmal
11: 7499 –7507. Babu K, Zachariah TJ and Nair RR (1994) Genetic recourses
Ozgoli G, Goli M and Simbar M (2009) Effects of ginger capsules of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and its conservation
on pregnancy, nausea, and vomiting. Journal of Alternative in India. Plant Genetic Resources News Letter 98: 1– 4.
and Complementary Medicine 15: 243 –246. Ravindran PN, Remasree AB and Sherlija KK (1998) Develop-
Palai SK and Rout GR (2007) Identification and genetic variation mental Morphology of Rhizomes of Ginger and Turmeric.
among eight varieties of ginger by using random amplified Final Report. ICAR Ad hoc Scheme. Calicut: Indian Institute
polymorphic DNA markers. Plant Biotechnology 24: of Spices Research.
417 – 420. Ravindran PN, Nirmal Babu K and Shiva KN (2005) Botany and
Pan MH, Hsieh MC, Kuo JM, Lai CS, Wu H, Sang SM and Ho CT crop improvement of ginger. In: Ravindran PN and Nirmal
(2008) 6-Shog gaol induces apoptosis in human colorectal Babu K (eds) Ginger – The Genus Zingiber. Boca Raton,
carcinoma cells via ROS production, caspase activation, FL: CRC Press, pp. 15– 85.
and GADD 153 expression. Molecular Nutrition and Food Ravindran PN, Shiva KN, Nirmal Babu K and Korla BN (2006)
Researh 52: 527 –537. Ginger. In: Ravindran PN, Nirmal Babu K, Shiva KN and
Park EJ and Pizzuto JM (2002) Botanicals in cancer chemopre- Johny AK (eds) Advances in Spices Research. Jodhpur:
vention. Cancer Metastasis Review 21: 231 –255. Agrobios, pp. 365 – 432.
Park SJ, Lee MY, Son BS and Youn HS (2009) K1-targeted Reddey AC and Lokesh BR (1992) Studies on spice principles as
suppression of TRIF-dependent signaling pathway of Toll- antioxidants in the inhibition of lipid peroxidation of rat
like receptors by 6-Shogaol, an active component of ginger. liver microsomes. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry
Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 73: 1474–1478. 111: 117 –124.
Petersen OG (1889) Musaceae, Zingiberaceae, Cannaceae, Mar- Ridley HN (1912) Spices. London: Mcmillan.
antaceae. In: Engler A and Prant K (eds) Die Naturlichen Riyazi A, Hensel A, Bauer K, Geissler N, Schaaf S and Verspohl
Pflanzenfamilien. vol. 2. Leipzig: Verlag von Wilhelm EJ (2007) The effect of the volatile oil from ginger rhizomes
Engelmann, pp. 1 –43. (Zingiber officinale), its fractions and isolated compounds
Prem J, Kizhakkayil J, Thomas E, Dhanya K, Syamkumar S on the 5-HT3 receptor complex and the serotoninergic
and Sasikumar B (2007) Molecular characterization of system of the rat ileum. Planta Medica 73: 355 –362.
primitive, elite and exotic ginger genotypes to protect Rosengarten FJ (1969) The Book of Spices. London: Macmillan
the biowealth of elite ginger accessions. SYMSAC IV. and Co.
476 J. Kizhakkayil and B. Sasikumar

Sabu M (2003) Revision of the genus Zingiber in South India. Singh PP, Singh VB, Singh HP and Rajan S (2000) Genetic diver-
Folia Malaysiana 4: 25– 52. sity in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) with reference to
Sasikumar B, Nirmal Babu K, Abraham J and Ravindran PN essential oil content. Journal of Spices and Aromatic
(1992) Variability, correlation and path analysis in ginger Crops 9: 161 – 164.
germplasm. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant breeding Sjmonatj CN (2009) 6-Gingerol content and atibioactive proper-
52: 428 – 431. ties of ginger extracts from supercritical CO2 extraction.
Sasikumar B, Ravindran PN and George JK (1994) Breeding Documentar study. Ingineria Mediului 14: 609 –615.
ginger and turmeric. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Smith MK, Hamill SD, Gogel BJ and Severn-Ellis AA (2004)
Journal 18: 10 –12. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) autotetraploids with improved
Sasikumar B, Saji KV, Ravindran PN and Peter KV (1999) Genetic processing quality produced by an in vitro colchicine treat-
resources of ginger (Zingiber officinalle Rosc.) and its ment. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 44:
conservation in India. In: Sasikumar B, Krishnamurthy B, 1065 – 1072.
Rema J, Ravindren PN and Peter KV (eds) Proceedings of Sreekumar V, Indrasenan G and Mamman MK (1980) Studies
the National Seminar on Biodiversity, Conservation and on the quantitative and qualitative attributes of ginger
Utilisation of Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. cultivars. In: Nair MK, Premkumar T, Ravindran PN and
IISR, Calicut, pp. 96– 100. Sarma YR (eds) Proceedings, National Seminar on Ginger
Sasikumar B, John T Zachariah and Shamina A (2000) Charac- and Turmeric, 8– 9. April 1980, Calicut. Central Plantation
terisation of ginger germplasm based on isozyme poly- Crops Research Institute, Kasargod, India, pp. 47– 49.
morphism. In: Muraleedharan N and Raj Kumar R (eds) Srinivasan D, Nathan S, Suresh T and Lakshmana Perumalsamy
Recent Advances in Plants. Crops. Res. (PLACROSYM P (2001) Antimicrobial activity of certain Indian medicinal
XIII). NewDelhi: Allied Publishers, pp. 251 – 255. plants used in folkloric medicine. Journal of Ethnopharma-
Sasikumar B, Saji KV, Antony A, George JK, John Zachariah T
cology 74: 217 –220.
and Eapen SJ (2003) IISR Mahima and IISR Rejatha – two Surh Y (1999) Molecular mechanisms of chemo preventive
new high yielding quality ginger (Zingiber officinale
effects of selected dietary and medicinal phenolic sub-
Rosc.). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops 12: 34– 37.
stances. Mutation Research 428: 305 –327.
Sasikumar B, Krishnamurthy KS, Kandiannan K and Srinivasan V
Surh YJ, Lee ME and Lee JM (1998) Chemoprotective properties
(2007) Turmeric. In: Dinesh R, Shiva KN, Prasath D, Babu
of some pungent ingredients present in red pepper and
KN and Parthasarathy VA (eds) Threats and Solutions to
ginger. Mutation Research 402: 259 – 267.
Spices and Aromatic Crops Industry. National Symposium
Tarafder CR (1983) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants-II.
on Spices and Aromatic Crops, Bhubaneswar, Orissa,
Plants used in abortion. Journal of Economic and Taxo-
India, pp. 229 –259.
nomic Botany 4: 507 – 516.
Sasikumar B (2008) Ginger in Guyana. Spice India 21: 7.
Thakur RS, Puri HS and Akhtar Husain (1989) Major Medicinal
Setty TAS, Guruprasad TR, Mohan E and Reddy MNN (1995)
Plants of India. Lucknow: CIMAP, pp. 540 –542.
Susceptibility of ginger cultivars to rhizome rot at west
Thomas KM (1966) Rio-de-Janeiro will double your ginger yield.
coast of conditions of Karnataka. Environmental Ecology
Indian Farming 15: 15– 18.
13: 443 – 444.
Sharma JN, Ishak FI, Yusof APM and Srivastava KC (1997) Effects Tiwari SK (2003) Evaluation of ginger genotypes for yield and
of eugenol and ginger oil on adjuvant arthritis and the quality attributes under rain fed and irrigated conditions.
kallikreins in rats. Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology Annals of Agricultural Research 24: 512 – 515.
12: 9 –14. Tripathi S, Tripathi S, Maier K, Bruch D and Kittur D (2006)
Sharma H and Clark C (1998) Contemporary Ayurveda. London: Ginger and its active ingredient 6-gingerol down regulate
Churchill Living Stone, pp. 100 – 101. pro-inflammatory cytokine release by macrophages.
Shin SG, Kim JY, Chung HY and Jeong JC (2005) Zingerone as Journal of Surgical Research 130: 318 –324.
an antioxidant against peroxynitrite. Journal of Agricul- Tyler VE, Brady LR and Robbers JE (1981) Pharmacognosy. 8th
tural and Food Chemistry 53: 7617 – 7622. edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, p. 156.
Shukla Y and Sing M (2007) Cancer preventive properties of van Beek TA, Posthumus MA, Lelyveld GP, Hoang VP and Yen
ginger: a brief review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45: BT (1987) Investigation of the essential oil of Vietnamese
683 – 690. ginger. Phytochemistry 26: 3005 – 3010.
Shylaja MR, Paul R, Nybe EV, Abraham K, Nazeem PA, Nazeem van Rheede (1692) Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. vol II. Amster-
PA, Valsala PA and Krishnan S (2010) Two new ginger var- dam: Joannis van Someren, et Joannis van Dyck.
ieties from Kerala Agricultural University. Indian Journal of Vernin G and Parkanyl C (1994) Ginger oil (Zingiber officinale
Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants 12: 3– 4. Roscoe). In: Charalambous G (ed.) Spices, Herbs and
Simmonds NW (1979) Principles of Crop Improvement. Edible Fungi. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 579 –594.
New York, NY: Longman Group Ltd. Vernin G and Parkanyl C (2005) Chemistry of ginger. In: Ravin-
Singh RS (1983) Vanausadhi Nidarshika (Ayurvedic Pharmaco- dran PN and Nirmal Babu K (eds) Ginger – The Genus
pia). II edn. Lucknow: U.P. Hindi Sansthan Rajarshi Puru- Zingiber. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 87– 180.
hottam Das Tandan Hindi Bhavan, Mahatma Gandhi Wagner H and Hikino H (1965) Economic and Medicinal Plants
Marg, p. 389. Research. vol. 1. New York, NY: Academic Press, p. 62.
Singh AK (2001) Correlation and path analysis for certain metric Wahyuni S, Xu DH, Bermawie N, Tsunematsu H and Ban T
traits in ginger. Annals of Agricultural Research 22: 285 – 286. (2003) Genetic relationships among ginger accessions
Singh PP, Singh VB, Singh A and Singh HB (1999) Evaluation of based on AFLP marker. Journal Bioteknologi Pertanian 8:
different ginger cultivars for growth, yield and quality char- 60 –68.
acter under Nagaland condition. Journal of Medicinal and Warrier PK (1989) Spices in ayurveda. In: George CK, Sivadasan
Aromatic Plant Sciences 21: 716 –718. CR, Devakaran D and Sreekumari KP (eds) Strategies
Diversity, characterization and utilization of ginger 477

for Export Development of Spices. Cochin/Geneva: Spices isolated from ginger, the dried rhizoma of Zingiber offici-
Board/International Trade Centre, p. 28. nale Roscoe, cultivated in Taiwan. The absolute stereo-
Wohlmuth H, Leach DN, Smith MK and Myers SP (2005) Gin- structure of a new diarylheptanoid. Yakugaku Zasshi 112:
gerol content of diploid and tetraploid clones of ginger 645 – 655.
(Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Journal of Agricultural and Yang G, Zhong LF, Jiang LP, Geng CY, Cao J, Sun XC and Ma YF
Food Chemistry 53: 5772 – 5778. (2010) Genotoxic effect of 6-gingerol on human hepatoma
Wohlmuth H, Smith MK, Brooks LO, Myers SP and Leach DN G2 cells. Chemico-Biological Interactions 185: 12 –17.
(2006) Essential oil composition of diploid and tetraploid Zachariah TJ, Sasikumar B and Ravindran PN (1993) Variability
clones of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) grown in in gingerol and shogaol content of ginger accession.
Australia. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53: Indian Perfumer 37: 87– 90.
5772 – 5778. Zachariah TJ, Sasikumar B and Nirmal Babu K (1999) Variation
Wu H, Hsieh MC, Lo CY, Liu CB, Sang SM, Ho CT and Pan MH for quality components in ginger and turmeric and their
(2010) 6-Shogaol is more effective than 6-gingerol and cur-
interaction with environments. In: Sasikumar B, Krishna-
cumin in inhibiting 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-
murthy B, Rema J, Ravindren PN and Peter KV (eds)
induced tumor promotion in mice. Molecular Nutrition
Proceedings of National Seminar on Biodiversity, Conser-
and Food Research 54: 1296 – 1306.
vation and Utilisation of spices, Medicinal and Aromatic
Yadav RK (1999) Genetic variability in ginger (Zingiber offici-
nale Rosc.). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops 8: Plants. Calicut: IISR, pp. 116 –120.
81 –83. Zebovitz TC (1989) Part VII. Flavor and fragrance substances. In:
Yamahara J and Huang Q (1990) Gastrointestinal motility enhan- Keith LH and Walters DB (eds) Compendium of Safety Data
cing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chemical Sheets for Research and Industrial Chemicals. New York,
and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38: 430 –431. NY: VCH Publishers, pp. 3560 –4253.
Yamahara J, Rong HQ, Iwamoto M, Kobayashi G, Matsuda H Zhen-wei, Shou-Jin Fan, De-min GAO, Zhen-wei LIU and
and Fujimura H (1989) Active components of ginger exhi- Shou-jin FAN (2006) RAPD analysis of genetic diversity
biting antiserotonergic action. Phototherapy Research 3: among Zingiber officinale cultivars. Journal of Agricultural
70 –71. Biotechnology 2: 134 – 138.
Yamahara J, Hatakeyama S, Taniguichi K, Kawamura M and Zhou J, Tang F, Mao G and Bian R (2004) Effect of alpha-pinene
Yoshikawa M (1992) Stomachic principles in ginger. II. on nuclear translocation of NF-B in THP-1 cells. Acta
Pungent and anti-ulcer effects of low polar constituents Pharmacologica Sinica 25: 480 – 484.

View publication stats