SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Introduction to the
Philosophy of the
Human Person
Quarter 1 – Module 2.2, 2.3 – Week 4
Methods of Philosophizing
 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
in internalizing the methods of philosophizing starting with the dialectic method,
the pragmatic method, and the phenomenological method. The scope of this
module equips you with skills in philosophical reasoning and critical analysis of
situations you encounter in your daily life leading to acquiring wisdom. Moreover,
the module also orients you into distinguishing erroneous or wrong reasoning. We
acknowledge that language should be diverse to meet the vocabulary level of
students including yourself. However, since philosophy is a mental subject, we
employ some vocabularies for you to be familiarized with philosophical terms
which could be useful in your interaction with people. The lessons are arranged to
follow the standard sequence of the course.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
Lesson 1- Methods of Philosophizing
Lesson 2– Different Fallacies
MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES
1. Distinguish opinion from truth;
2. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Explore some of the methods of philosophizing that philosophers
employed.
2. Identify and give examples of different fallacies.
3. Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations using the methods of
philosophizing.

What I Know

Select the keyword that best fits the statement in each item. Write the chosen
letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which fallacy literally means hitting the person below the belt instead of
focusing on the issue at hand?
A. mora licensing
B. equivocation
C. argumentum ad baculum
D. ad hominem

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2. According to Husserl, the success of natural science lead to the gradual
scientific rejection of__________.
A. spirit
B. matter
C. nature
D. existence
3. Who institutionalized the pragmatic method of philosophizing?
A. John Dewey
B. Socrates
C. Ludwig Wittgenstein
D. George Hegel
4. What is Husserl’s point of view with regards to consciousness?
A. The study of consciousness is the same as the study of nature
B. The study of human consciousness differs from the way scientists study
nature.
C. It does not matter whether we study consciousness similarly or differently
than the way scientists study nature.
D. Husserl was not interested in the study of consciousness.
5. This fallacy is committed when one reaches a generalization based on
insufficient evidence.
A. ad misericordiam
B. false analogy
C. hasty generalization
D. post hoc
6. Which among these headlines presented information that are fair, objective,
and moderate?
A. It’s time to consider other means of cash aid distribution
B. Other countries around the world have much better means in cash aid
distribution
C. Government vows to faster distribution of coronavirus aid
D. We can also learn lesson from Vietnam how they distribute their cash aid
7. Which among these headlines has no errors in terms of spelling, grammar, and
content?
A. Robredo Chides Government for Unclear Communication on New
Quarantine Rules
B. Robredo Blames the Government as They Don’t Have Clear Rules in
Quarantine
C. Robredo Charge the Government as Culprit of Confusion in Quarantine
D. Robredo blames those in Executive Branch for Communication’s Unclear
3
8. Which among the following statements contain substantiated generalizations?
A. “Drug war a massive failure”—Bredo
B. Bredo lies to world, shames the nation and herself in UN message
C. The real albatross on Bredo’s neck
D. Let Bredo plan on her own drug war
9. Which among the following authors could be the most credible according to
his or her Twitter account’s background?
A. Banat By – Simpleng tao na mahilig bumanat
B. Atom Araullo- Journalist. @ UNHCPPh Goodwill Ambassador
C. AkoNgaSY Lyco- Speak now or be silent forever. Follow me I will not
follow you
D. Senyora- Full time haciendera and professional husgadera
10. Which among the following publishers pose no particular agenda or bias?
A. Bulag Ang ABS-CBN sa Katotohanan by Antonio Brigas
B. ABS-CBN Naipasara Sanhi ng Di Pagrenew ng Prangkisa by GMA News
C. Nararapat Lamang na Huwag ng Magbukas ang ABS-CBN by Balat Sibuyas
D. Bye Bye Kapamilya by the Avengers

Lesson
1 Methods of Philosophizing
Truth is one of the significant lessons in philosophy. It has been a topic of
discussion in its own right for many years. Moreover, its value and influence
to man’s life cannot be denied.

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 What’s In

ACTIVITY: Unscramble Letters (Critical Thinking)

Directions: Unscramble the following letters to identify the concept being
described.
UNSCARMBLED
DESCRIPTION ANSWER:
LETTERS
It is a mental grasp of reality reached
either by perceptual observation or by
LWKEDNGO a process of reason based on
perceptual observation.

This is a science devoted to the

EGLYEIOSPTM discovery of the proper method of
O acquiring and validating knowledge.

It is an abstract or generic idea

NCPTEOC generalized from particular instances.

This knowledge is validated which

means that it is highly based on the
RUTHT
facts of reality.

It is a group of statements, one or more

of which (the premises) is claimed to
provide support for, or reason to
NTGRUAEM
believe one of the others (the
conclusion)

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 What’s New

ACTIVITY: Comic Strip (Critical Thinking, Communication, Character)

Directions: Analyze the comic strip and answer the following questions.

Source: https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.1513293938691384&type=3

1. Look at the comic strip. Do you agree with the reasoning of the person inside
the car? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. If you are the biker, how would you react to the remarks of the person inside
the car?
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

What is It

Philosophers generally believe that reason is the road to wisdom. However

they have different interpretations of what reason consists of and some
philosophers even challenge the pre-eminence of reason in the pursuit of
wisdom.

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I. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
Here, we are going to explore some of the methods of philosophizing
that philosophers employ. According to Wilber (2006) Think of wisdom as the
summit of the mountain with different paths to get there. We are going to study
the different paths to wisdom the philosophers offer.
1. The dialectic method
This method of philosophizing was conceived by the Greek philosopher
Socrates, (born 470 BCE) one of the great philosophers of the ancient world.
Unfortunately, he did not leave any written words and everything people
know about him came from the Dialogues written by his famous student,
Plato.
Socrates’ aim was to achieve what he called the good life which is based
on the proper care of one’s soul (psyche in Greek). The soul, according to
Socrates, can be properly taken care of if we make it as good as possible
(Stumpf 2008). Since by its very nature the soul’s activity is to know, the soul
can only be good if we employ it in the activity of having a clear awareness
of the meaning of some words (Stumpf 2008). When we have a clear
awareness of what justice is, we harm our soul if we act contrary to what we
know, like harming others (which is the opposite of being just).
However, how can we achieve a clear understanding of words? We can
achieve this by an act of “disciplined conversation” (Stumpf 2008) which Socrates
compared to an intellectual midwife. Socrates called this method dialectic. The
method appears simple but anyone subjected by Socrates to this method
eventually felt its intense rigor.
The method starts with eliciting the definition of a certain word from a
person who appears to be familiar (or “pretends” to be familiar) with its meaning.
Socrates then points out the imperfections of the understanding of the person
through a series of questions. What Socrates desires is for the person to realize
his ignorance and contradictions, and thereby correcting his own mistakes and
arriving at a complete knowledge of the true meaning of the word.
The method, however, does not sit well with the ruling elites of Athens (the
city where Socrates lived). They accused him of not worshiping the Greek gods
and corrupting the youth. His defense (which was dramatically recorded in
Plato’s dialogue the Apology) was a model of “forceful argument” (Stumpf 2008)
but it fell on deaf ears. In the end, he was forced to drink poison. Socrates was
the first philosopher to die fighting for truth.

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 The Socratic Method was modernized and treated in a different way by
George Wilhelm Hegel, a German philosopher. Hegel was an idealist. He believed
that the ideas of the human minds have access of what the world is like. People
are social beings and could be completely influenced by other people’s ideas. An
individual’s mind is influenced by means of a common language, customs of one’s
society, and the cultural institutions that one belongs to. Hegel refers this to
“Spirit” as the collective consciousness of a society which is responsible for
honing one’s consciousness and ideas.

2. The Pragmatic Method

Hundreds of years after the death of Socrates, a new philosophy emerged as
inspired by the idea of change initiated by the evolutionary thoughts of Hegel and
Darwin in 19th century America. This philosophy became known as pragmatism.
It was started by Charles S. Pierce (1839-1914), popularized by William James
(1842-1910) and institutionalized in American culture by John Dewey (1859-
1952).
According to the pragmatists, philosophy seems to offer a set of beliefs about
human beings and his relationship to the world. Pragmatists offer no such beliefs.
Rather, they seek to make philosophy relevant by solving real life problems. It is
purely a philosophy of method and not of substance.
What pragmatism aims is to test the dogma of science, religion and
philosophy by determining their practical results. The pragmatic test is: if I practice
this belief, will it bring success or failure? Will I solve problems or create
problems? Successful experience is the verification process of truth for the
pragmatists (Stumpf 2008).
3. The Phenomenological Method
The phenomenological method was conceived by Edmund Husserl (born in
1859), one of the greatest intellects of the 19 th century. His ideas and method
influenced the thoughts of some of the 20th century philosophical giants: Martin
Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty among others.
What prompted Husserl to develop phenomenology? To answer this, we
have to look back at Husserl’s time and place: the 19 th century Europe. At that
time, science was on the ascendancy prompted by the great discoveries of Galileo,
Newton, and Darwin among others. Husserl himself was impressed by the
achievements of science. Unfortunately, according to Husserl, science brings a
certain attitude which is counterproductive to the human soul: the naturalistic
attitude (or simply naturalism).

8
 Naturalism in this context is the idea that everything can be explained in
terms of matter or the physical. Since man is not only physical (i.e. body) but also
spiritual, this naturalistic attitude brings a distorted view of man by banishing the
spiritual from the world which includes the banishment of ideas, values, and
cultures (Husserl, 1965).
To counter the naturalistic tendency, Husserl returned to the idea of the
thinking self which was given preeminence by the 17 th century French
philosopher, Rene Descartes. More specifically, the layman’s term given to the
thinking self is “one’s immediate experience.”
Husserl’s main purpose was to build a philosophy free from any biases or
preconceived ideas. One can only do this if one returns to immediate experience.
Husserl said that he was only looking to “things and facts themselves, as these are
given in actual experience and intuition” (quoted by Stumpf 2008). This
experience is not the objective world of science separate from us, but the world as
it appears to us or (borrowing the term of the 18 th century German philosopher
Immanuel Kant) the phenomenal world - hence, the term phenomenology.
However, our beliefs about human beings and the world prevent us from
seeing clearly this immediate experience which he calls “pure subjectivity”. Thus,
to know the truth, we have to put aside one by one all our limiting beliefs about
the world which represents our biases. Husserl calls this process
phenomenological epoche (epoche is the Greek word for bracketing). Bracketing
is not ignoring. It is an act of stepping back at our biases and prejudices to make
sure that they do not influence the way we think. Only facts provided by immediate
experience must influence us.

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 Lesson

2 DIFFERENT FALLACIES

You have just learned that it is not enough to acquire knowledge but you
should analyze if that knowledge you have acquired is truthful or not.
Philosophizing involves the gift of speech and the gift of intelligence that enable
us to reason out and detect the falsity or truthfulness of a statement. When one
reasons out, he/she expresses his opinion and when others disagree, then argument
begins. In philosophical parlance argument is not an emotional reptilian word war
or a territorial show of force between persons but a philosophical method in
knowing the truth of a certain phenomenon or reality. It is a set of statements
which includes the premises and conclusion (the latter is the one that claims the
truth of the premises) (Cornejo & Ebia, 2017).
However, there are arguments that are erroneous or based from faulty
reasoning called Fallacies (Abella, 2016). Unconsciously, we are culprits of this
in our daily interaction with people including our families and friends. Even TV
commercials intentionally employ some faulty reasoning to convince their target
market to purchase their products. Lawyers outwit each other by employing some
fallacies to defend their clients. I am sure you are familiar with the famous “Flip
Top Battles” group in today’s digital world. Shall we say a modern dialectical
approach which appeal not only to the mind but also to our aesthetic sense? They
entertain audience and it is awesome how they display their wit to outsmart each
other in a poetic manner. It becomes an art and aesthetically superb, but if you go
beyond entertainment and analyze their statements there are a lot of faulty
reasoning going on. Below are some of the Fallacies which we believe you need
to be aware of. Abella, Roberto D. in his book “Introduction to the Philosophy of
the Human Person” laid down some of these fallacies:

FALLACY Short Description Examples

1. Argumentum ad Hominem came from Latin word “How can we believe
the Hominem “homo” which means man. This him when he talks
“Attacking fallacy literally means hitting the about social
Person” person below the belt instead of distancing, he is a
focusing on the issue at hand. lawyer who is a liar.”

10
2. Argumentum ad Baculum is a Latin word which “TV Patrol is the best
Baculum ( Appeal means scepter or stick. A scepter is a news program on TV.
to Force) symbol of authority. Normally it is If you don’t believe
the Pope who carries it in his hands. me, I won’t let you
This is committed when a person watch the TV.
uses threat or force to advance an
argument.
3. Argumentum ad Misercordiam came from Latin word “Forgive me officer,
Misercordiam Misericordia which means pity or there are lot of
(Appeal to Pity) compassion. A person uses emotion boarders in this
such as pity to convince someone apartment including
myself. Only the owner
was issued a
quarantine pass. We
don’t have food, we
can’t give our ATM to
the owner. That’s why
I went out. So I did not
violate the
Bayanihan Act Heal as
One.”
4. Argumentum ad Populum is the Latin word for “I’m sure you want to
Populum “Appeal to people. Most of TV commercials are have an i phone.
people”/ guilty of this argument which exploit Almost 80% of your
Bandwagon fallacy people’s vanity, desires, etc. schoolmates are using
it.”
5. Argumentum ad Traditio means tradition. Advancing All of us in the family,
Tradition an idea since it has been practice for from our ancestors up
“Appeal to a long time. to now, are devout
Tradition” Catholics, so it is only
right that you will be
baptized as a Catholic.
6. Argumentum and Ignorantiam a Latin word for According to Zecharia
Ignorantiam ignorance. Whatever has been Sitchin, the author of
“Appeal to proven false must be true and vice the book “Cosmic
Ignorance” versa Code,
“Adam was the first
test tube baby. Since
nobody proves
otherwise,

11
 therefore it is true.”

7. Petitio Principii According to Merriam Webster’s “God exists because

(Begging the dictionary (www.merriam- the
Question) Bible says so. The
Bible
webster.com>dictionary>petitiopr is inspired. Therefore
incipii) we know that God
, it is a fallacy in which a conclusion Exists.”
is taken for granted in the premises.
Also called-“circular argument.”
8. Hasty This fallacy is committed when one Our neighbor who is a
Generalization reaches a generalization based on police officer was
insufficient evidence convicted of being a
drug dealer, therefore,
all police officers are
drug dealers.
10. Fallacy of Using the same term in a different “Humans walk by their
Equivocation situation with different meaning. legs. The table has
legs. Therefore the
table walks by its
legs.”

FACTS VERSUS OPINION: FOCUS ON INFORMATION LITERACY

Today's students, many of whom do most of their research online, are able
to access a nearly limitless supply of information -- much of it came from
unknown sources. In fact, the very nature of the medium allows anyone with an
Internet provider and a small amount of skill to disseminate whatever
information he or she chooses. The result is a World Wide Web of overflowing
information, on the other hand, it also contains inadvertent ignorance and blatant
biases.

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A. IDENTIFYING THE FACTORS OF A QUALITY WEBSITE
Michigan State University reference librarian Terry Link suggests examining
the following factors when evaluating the quality of a Web site:
• Authority: Who is the author and what are his or her qualifications? Who is the
publisher and what is the purpose of the site?
• Verifiability: Are sources provided?
• Timeliness: Is the information current? When was it posted and/or last updated?
• Relevance: Does the material contain unsubstantiated generalizations?
• Bias: Is the language emotional or inflammatory? Does the information
represent a single opinion or a range of opinions?
• Orderliness: Is the page arranged in an order that makes sense? Are underlying
assumptions identifiable? Is the information consistent?
• Clarity: Is the information clearly stated? Does the author define important
terms?
• Validity: Do the facts presented support the conclusions?
Likewise, when we critique sources, we must first understand the difference
between fact and opinion.
FACT OPINION
A fact is a statement that An opinion is a statement of belief which
can be proven true or false. may or may not be backed up by facts,
but cannot be proven true or false.
Is objective Is subjective
Is discovered Is created
States reality Interprets reality
Can be verified Cannot be verified

B. THE EVALUATION PROCESS

In considering the kinds of sources or sites, Robert Harris, a professor of
English at Southern California College suggests that students should ask
themselves, "Which sources are likely to be fair, objective, lacking hidden
motives, showing quality control?" Harris recommends selecting sites that
include as many of the following as possible:
• the author's name, title, and/or position.
• the site's organizational affiliation, if any.
• the date the page was created or updated.
• contact information, such as an email or snail-mail address.
Once students have located sources that appear appropriate and credible, Harris
advises students to subject the sites to the CARS checklist for informational
quality.

13
 The four components of the CARS checklist are:
• Credibility: What about this source makes it believable?
• Accuracy: Is the information provided up-to-date, factual, detailed, exact, and
comprehensive?
• Reasonableness: Is the information fair, objective, moderate, and consistent?
• Support: Can the information be corroborated?

C. BHOW DO I KNOW?
Harris suggests that, when evaluating those four components, students
examine the sites based on the following:
• Type -- determine whether the URL includes .gov (government), .edu or .ac
(educational/academic), .com (commercial), .org (nonprofit organization),
or. ~ (personal page).
• Publisher -- determine whether the organization, agency, school, business,
or individual maintaining the site is likely to have a particular agenda or
bias.
• Author -- determine the author's education, training, and background to find
out whether he or she is a trained expert, an experienced enthusiast, or an
uninformed observer.
• Structure -- determine whether the format is clear, logical, and easily
navigable.
• Language -- determine whether the text contains emotional, inflammatory,
profane, or confusing language. Count the number of spelling, grammatical,
and typographical errors. Too many mistakes can indicate carelessness and
suggest informational errors as well.
• Dates -- determine when the information was published and/or updated. If
possible, check the publication dates of supporting data.
• Graphics -- determine whether images and animations take up a
disproportionate amount of space in relation to their informational value.
Decide whether the graphics convey information, add interest, provide
interactivity, or simply distract.
• Links -- determine whether the site's bibliography and/or links contain both
supportive and contradictory information.

14
 What’s More

ACTIVITY 1: FACT VS. OPINION (Critical Thinking)

Directions: Analyze the following statements. Write F if it is FACT and O if it is OPINION.
Write your answer before the number.
1. According to the latest survey, families are purchasing more household items
on credit.
2. You can hear all the news you need to know from the BBC Radio 1 news team.
3. The professor argues that the effect of carbon emissions on the surrounding
environment will only get worse.
4. The research team has discovered a new method for conducting this chemical
analysis.
5. The latest poll shows a marked increase in employee dissatisfaction.
6. I think public opinion will change over time.
7. This book is an enjoyable story of life in a small village.
8. The use of computers at the college has increased and the stationery budget has
doubled in the last few years.

ACTIVITY 2: I-BILIB (Critical Thinking, Communication,)

Directions: Analyze the following pictures. Write BILIB if the picture
followed CARS (Credibility, Accuracy, Reasonableness, and Supported) and
write NOT if it did not follow CARS according to Robert Harris. Afterwards,
explain your answer.

15
ACTIVITY 3: LET’S APPLY (Critical Thinking, Character)
Directions: Fill in the table below with the main proponents of methods of
philosophizing. For each method, answer the questions: “How can you find
truth using this method?” and “On what real-life situation can you apply this
method?”
Methods of Main How can you On what real-
Philosophizing Proponent(s) find truth life situation
using this can you apply
method? this method?
1. Dialectic
2. Pragmatic
3. Phenomenological

What I Have Learned

ACTIVITY: IMPORTANT POINTS TO PONDER (Critical Thinking,

Character, Communication)
Direction: Complete the statements below:

I learned that Truth

is_______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

I feel that Truth is important

because___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

I commit to uphold the truth by

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

16
 What I Can Do
ACTIVITY 1: COMIC CON
(Critical Thinking, Character, Communication, Creativity) Directions: Draw a
comic strip that portrays ONE type of fallacy. Explain your work.

Explanation:_______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Assessment

Select the keyword that best fits the statement in each item. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What type of fallacy is present in the statement, “Before we begin the debate,
everyone here should know that my opponent is a convicted felon”?
A. mora licensing
B. equivocation
C. argumentum ad baculum
D. ad hominem
2. According to Husserl, the success of natural science lead to the gradual
scientific rejection of__________.
A. spirit
B. matter
C. nature
D. existence

17
3. When Husserl described human experience as the immediate data of
consciousness, he meant _________________.
A. Pure subjectivity
B. Pure objectivity
C. materialism
D. dualism
4. What is Husserl’s point of view with regards to consciousness?
A. The study of consciousness is the same as the study of nature
B. The study of human consciousness differs from the way scientists study
nature.
C. It does not matter whether we study consciousness similarly or differently
than the way scientists study nature.
D. Husserl was not interested in the study of consciousness.
5. What type of fallacy is present in the statement, “My father smoked four packs
of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until age sixty-nine.
Therefore, smoking really can’t be that bad for you”?
A. ad misericordiam
B. false analogy
C. hasty generalization
D. post hoc
6. Which among these headlines presented information that are fair, objective,
and moderate?
A. It’s time to consider other means of cash aid distribution
B. Other countries around the world have much better means in cash aid
distribution
C. Government vows to faster distribution of coronavirus aid
D. We can also learn lesson from Vietnam how they distribute their cash aid
7. Which among these headlines has no errors in terms of spelling, grammar, and
content?
A. Bredo Chides Gov’t for Unclear Communication on New Quarantine Rules
B. Bredo Blames the Government as They Don’t Have Clear Rules in
Quarantine
C. Bredo Charge the Govrnment as Culprit of Confusion in Quarantine
D. Bredo blames those in Executive Branch for Communication’s
Unclear
8. Which among the statements contain substantiated generalizations?
A. “Drug war a massive failure”—Bredo
B. Bredo lies to world, shames the nation and herself in UN message
C. The real albatross on Bredo neck
D. Let Bredo plan on her own drug war

18
9. Which among the following authors could be the most credible according to
his or her Twitter account’s background?
A. Banat By – Simpleng tao na mahilig bumanat
B. Atom Araullo- Journalist. @ UNHCPPh Goodwill Ambassador
C. AkoNgaSY Lyco- Speak now or be silent forever. Follow me I will not
follow you
D. Senyora- Full time haciendera and professional husgadera
10. Which among the following publishers pose no particular agenda or bias?
A. Bulag Ang ABS-CBN sa Katotohanan by Antonio Brigas
B. ABS-CBN Naipasara Sanhi ng Di Pagrenew ng Prangkisa by GMA News
C. Nararapat Lamang na Huwag ng Magbukas ang ABS-CBN by Balat Sibuyas
D. Bye Bye Kapamilya by the Avengers

Additional Activities

ACTIVITY: EVERYDAY FALLACIES (Critical Thinking, Communication,

Character)
Directions:
A. Observe conversations of your parents and identify three (3) common
fallacies.
B. Watch commercials on TV and news and take note of the fallacies
committed. Identify 5 fallacies and write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. In your relationship with your family, what common fallacy or fallacies you
commit as an alibi for any wrongdoing? Narrate at least two occasions.
2. Do you think Fallacy can help us in finding the truth? Why or why not?
3. What methods of philosophizing do you think are most useful in finding the
truth? Explain?

19
 Answer Key

References
Books
Abella, Roberto D. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon
City: C&E Publishing
Binswanger, Harry. (2014). How We Know. New York: TOF Publications.
Copi, Irving M. and Cohen, Carl (2002). Introduction to Logic (11th edition). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall
Cornejo, N. & Ebia, E. Philosophy of Human Person. Mindshapers Co., Manila.2017
Hurley, Patrick J. (2011). A Concise Introduction to Logic (11th edition). Boston: Cengage
Learning
Klein, Paul S. (2013). Philosophy 101. California: Adams Media
Mabacquiao, N. (2017). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City:
Phoenix Publishing.
Peikoff, Leonard (1990). Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand. New York: Dutton
Rand, Ayn (1990). Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (2nd edition). New York:
Meridian
Stumpf, Samuel Enoch & Fieser, James (2008). Socrates to Sartre and Beyond (8th
edition). New Yok: McGraw Hill
Wilber, Ken (2006). Integral Spirituality. Boston: Integral Books

Websites
Lazarus C. (2017). Facts, Truths, Beliefs, Opinions, and "Alternative Facts".
Psychology Today. Retrieved from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/think-
well/201703/facts-truthsbeliefs-opinions-and-alternative-facts
Merriam-Webster. July 17, 2020, (n.d.). Petitio principii. In Merriam-Webster.com
dictionary. Retrieved from: https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/petitio%20princip
St. Joseph’s College (2019). Evaluating Sources: Fact Checking, Fake News, and
Bias: Fact vs Opinion. Retrieved from: https://brooklyn.sjcny.libguides.
com/c.php?g=648836&p=4692986
Starr L.(2009). Fact, Fiction, or Opinion? Evaluating Online Information. Education

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