Block 1

BEGC-101
Indian Classical
Indira Gandhi Literature National Open University
School of Humanities
Block
1
KALIDASA: Abhijnana Shakuntala
Unit 1
IndianAesthetics:An Introduction 5
Unit 2
Kalidas:An Overview 11
Unit 3
Abhijnana Shakuntala: Textual Analysis 22
Unit 4
Abhijnana Shakuntala: Character Analysis & Critical
Perspectives 33
1
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Satyakam, Director Prof. Romika Batra
School of Humanities Indira Gandhi University Meerpur,
IGNOU, New Delhi Rewari
Prof. Balaji Ranganathan Dr. Hema Raghavan (Retd) Formerly at

Gujarat Central University Gargi College University of Delhi
Gandhinagar, Gujarat
Dr. Richa Bajaj
Hindu College
Dr. Anand Prakash (Retd)
Formerly at Hans Raj College University of Delhi
University of Delhi, Delhi
IGNOU FACULTY
Dr. Rajnish Kumar Mishra Prof. Anju S. Gupta
Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies Prof. Neera Singh
JNU, New Delhi
Prof. Malati Mathur
Dr. Payal Nagpal Dr. Pema Eden Samdup Ms. Mridula
Janki Devi College Rashmi Kindo
University of Delhi
COURSE PREPARATION
Units 1, 3, & 4 : Ms KalsangYangzom, Indraprastha College, Universityof Delhi

Unit 2 : Dr Richa Bajaj, Hindu College, DU
CONTENT & LANGUAGE EDITING

Dr Pema Eden Samdup
School of Humanities, IGNOU, New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATION
Dr Pema Eden Samdup
School of Humanities, IGNOU, New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
Sh. C. N. Pandey
Section Officer (Publication)
June, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
This is a Course that will remind us of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and
lying on our grandmother’s lap while listening to tales of old. It brings to us old
memories of love between a King and a commoner, the mystery of the missing
signet ring, a son disowned because of a memory lapse as a result of a curse; of
court intrigues and the disrobing of a woman of gentle birth till a grand battle
between cousins is waged; and of the love between a young Brahman and a
Courtesan who is also pursued by a vile courtier; and last but not the least – one of
the “Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature”, Cilappatikaram, which is again a story
of the love between a married man and a courtesan and her abandonment by him
and his eventual death. So, we have three texts in Sanskrit, and one in Tamil. Two
are epics – The Mahâbhâratam, and Cilappatikâram, which is a Tamil text; while
Abhijñâna Shakuntalâ, and Mrichchakatika are Sanskrit dramas.
So, we hope you are ready to embark on a magical, mystical journey through the
ages.
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Block 1 of this course on Classical Indian Literature will begin with Kalidasa’s
best known Sanskrit play Abhijñâna Shahakuntalâ, which tells the tale of a
young girl raised in a hermitage by a sage and who is actually, the daughter
of an extremely learned sage Vishwamitra and a celestial dancer Menaka. King
Duhsanta is hunting in the forest near the hermitage where Shakuntala lives
with the hermit Kanva, raised as his daughter, after being abandoned by
Vishwamitra and Menaka for various reasons. He comes to the hermitage
unadorned as a commoner and falls in love with Shakunatala. Shakuntala and
the King get married in the hermitage and she is with child. He has to leave
for his Kingdom but he gives Shakuntala his signet ring as a token of his love
for her. However, as fate would have it, Shakuntala is lost in the thought of
the King while, Durvasa Rishi a learned saint with an extreme temper is calling
out to Shakuntala. She obviously does not hear him and irritated by her lack
of response, he curses her saying:
You who do not notice me,
A hoard of merit standing at your doorstep,
Because you are lost in thoughts of one
To the exclusion of all else,
You shall be lost in his thoughts:
Though you goad his memory hard,
He shall fail to remember you,
Even as a man drunk remembers not
Thereafter, the tale he told before.
When the girls at the hermitage plead with him, he modifies his curse and tells
Shakuntala that the King will remember her when he sees the ring. Inevitably,
en route to the Palace, Shakuntala loses the ring. It falls off her finger and
is swallowed by a fish which is caught and later gutted by a fisherman who
finds the ring and wears it, till he is spotted by a palace guard who recognises
the ring and brings the fisherman whom he believes to be a thief, before the
King. Meanwhile when Shakuntala reaches the Palace the King has no
recollection of her but agrees to let her stay in the Palace till the child is born.
When the fisherman is brought before the King, Durvasa Rishi’s curse is lifted
and he remembers Shakuntala. There are other events at play but this is the
main story line of the play. Eventually King Duhsanta, Shakuntala and their
son are reunited and they return to the palace.
So let’s now, go through the units in this block for a better understanding of
the play, the cultural ethos of a long ago time that may have existed in the
world of myths and our collective imagination. Do read the translated text before
you start reading the Units as this will give you a better grasp of the play. You
are expected to read Kalidasa’s Abhijñâna Shakuntalâ, translated by Chandra
Rajan called Kalidasa: The Loom of Time, (New Delhi: Penguin, 1989).
UNIT 1 INDIAN AESTHETICS: AN

INTRODUCTION
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Indian Classical Drama
1.3 Sanskrit Drama
1.4 Classical Sanskrit Playwrights
1.5 Bhasa
1.6 Sudraka
1.7 Bhavbhuti
1.8 Kalidasa
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.10 Questions
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will look at drama, specifically Classical Indian drama and its
origin, role, and significance. Beginning with its oral tradition to the later religious
performances, the unit will examine drama as a performative socialactivity aimed
at particular audiences. We will then discuss Sanskrit dramas, its various
components and end with an overview of major Sanskrit dramatists such as
Bhasa, Bhavbhuti and Sudraka. This unit will conclude with a brief discussion
on Kalidasa as the next unit will deal with him in detail. The objective of
this unit is to offer a concise idea about Indian drama with a specific focus
on Sanskrit plays as I’m sure most of us do not have much knowledge about
Sanskrit drama per se.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Like any literary genre, drama has its own history both in terms of its origin
and evolution. The drama that we see or study in classrooms today did not
begin as such. As a literary composition, drama usually tells us a story, but
not just through words, in the form of dialogues, but also through gestures,
movements, and facial expressions of the characters, dances, costumes,
background landscape, music, stage setting etc. Drama is, therefore, a
performative art that includes many components and participants such as
the playwright, actors, director, audience, costume designer, make-up artists
etc. In the next section we shall take a look at what is called Indian Classical
Drama.
1.2 INDIAN CLASSICAL DRAMA

All major civilisations had their own version of drama such as the Greek, the
Chinese and the Indians. One of the major problems in determining an origin
date for literary traditions such as drama is that we cannot pinpoint the exact
year of its genesis rather, we can trace its influence and evolution to arrive
5
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala at a more or less realistic understanding of the origins of drama. The Indian dramatic tradition
was influenced by the dramatic elements found in the Vedas,
in dialogue hymns and Vedic rituals. Thus, it is in the Vedic era (1500 - 1000
BCE) that we see dramatic elements that will come to define drama in the
years to come and eventually usher in a genre known as Indian Classical Drama
as we know it. Even the epics, such as the Mahabharata support the existence
of performers or nata as early as 400 CE. However, the most extant treatise
on Indian drama is the Natyashastra by Bharatamuni, which emerged in 3rd
CE. Bharata ascribes a divine origin to the dramatic tradition, which highlights
its Vedic religious beginnings. The very existence of such a text suggests that
it was the culmination of a fairly long process of dramatic development taking
place at that time.
The Greek invasion of the Indian subcontinent has led a few critics such as
Weber to assert a Greek influence on Indian drama. There are certainly some
similarities such as the plot being mainly centered on historical, mythical figures
but the Indian tradition has the added element of supernatural figures such as
gods and goddesses that populate the world of drama. The division of the Play
into Acts and Scenes, use of the Chorus, developments of stock characters
demonstrate this Greek influence on all drama. However, major differences also
exist between the two traditions, specifically the absence of tragedy in the Indian
dramatic tradition. Greek drama’s adherence to the Three Unities of time,
place and action is not strictly observed in Indian drama where the action
shifts from earthly spaces to heavenly ones, taking place across many years
as well. Furthermore, dance and song are an important part of Indian drama
and not found in the Greek counterpart. Other scholars highlight the influence
of Buddhist and Jain traditions in the formalising of the Indian dramatic tradition.
Thus, we can conclude that there might have been a strain of the Greek influence
along with influences from other literary traditions and cultures such as the
Buddhist and Jain traditions that worked together with ancient Vedic ones to
create the Classical Indian drama as we know it today. This may be particularly
true of the Tamil Epic Cilappatikaram which is influenced also by the Buddhist
and Jain traditions as we shall see in the fourth block. In the next section,
we shall look at Sanskrit Drama.
1.3 SANSKRIT DRAMA

In this section, we shall examine Sanskrit drama in a more detailed manner.
A vast country like India cannot have a singular dramatic tradition, given as
we discussed before the various influences on the genre as well as the diversity
of the subcontinent and how these communities received and adapted drama.
However, one of the most prominent dramatic traditions to have emerged is
Sanskrit drama. Others include the dance drama of southern India as well the
Sanskrit tradition of southern India such as the Koodiyattam in Kerala.
According to the Natyashastra, a dramatic work’s purpose was to provide
not just entertainment and pleasure but instruction, wealth, justice, and spiritual
liberation. That’s why Sanskrit drama does not have a tragic ending because
in Hindu cosmology, death is not the end but a means to either achieve spiritual
liberation from the cycle of life or be reborn till it is achieved. Moreover, the
Rasa or the aesthetic sentiment is an important aspect of Sanskrit drama, and
6
can be best defined as the audience’s refined are dominant. Sanskrit drama’s idealised plot
emotional response evoked by the play. Rasa is structure consists of five transitions that lead to a
broadly composed of vibhava, anubhava, final culmination of the events depicted. The first is
vyabhicharibhava, and sthayibhava, which are the the “origin” (mukha), which states the seeds or the
different types of emotional responses to a work of beginning of the plot; the second is the “incident”
art. Alternatively rasa can be explained as a blissful (pratimukha), which develops the plotline further by
aesthetic experience achieved via drama, and is seen showing both good and bad events; the third is
as Sanskrit drama’s highest purpose. “germ” (garbha) where good actions/events seem to
lead towards the “aim” (phala); the fourth is “crisis”
Natyashastra also elucidates the different types of (vimarsa) where bad actions/events seem to
plays, the major type (Rupaka) or the minor type outweigh the good and strays away from the “aim”;
(uparupaka). Rupaka consists of ten varieties out of the fifth is “completion” (nirvahana) that brings
which the Nataka, are plays based on myths and together all the different narratives in the play to a
heroic tales, and the Prakarana, are plays based on definitive conclusion.
fictitious stories and where less important characters
One of the unique aspects of Sanskrit drama is its
bilingual nature. The protagonists who belonged to
the upper castes such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas
spoke in Sanskrit whereas characters from other
sections of society such as soldiers, servants, women
and children etc. spoke in the various Prakrit
languages. The stock characters encountered here
such as the Sutradhar (director), the Nayak (hero),
the Nayaki (Heroine), and the Vidusaka (jester) speak
either in Sanskrit or Prakrit depending on their caste,
class, gender, and age. Such a linguistic construction
of the play restricted the variety of people who could
watch and enjoy it. Thus, the audience was mostly
limited to a refined circle of upper castes such as the
royalty, aristocrats, Brahmins and Kshatriyas,
leading to royal patronages. Even the Natyashastra
states that the ideal spectators should be educated
and noble men, all four castes could watch a play as
long as they were seated separately. It is no surprise
then that Sanskrit drama failed to be a people’s
drama such as those in ancient Greece and medieval
England. However, this is not to say no other form of
drama existed or evolved in India outside of the
Sanskritic tradition, folk theater and street plays
(nukkad natak) abound even now and are a testament
to the vitality of contemporary Indian theatre.
Another aspect that differentiates Sanskrit drama
from its European counterpart is the composition of
actors. Unlike the ban on female actors in European
classical drama, the Sanskritic tradition did not have
such prohibitions that required male actors to
perform the role of female leads, and drama could be
performed by men alone, women alone or a mix of
both, depending on the plot. Despite its many unique
characteristics, the major drawback of Sanskrit
drama was its linguistic barrier as well as the strict
adherence to the rules of dramaturgy that did not
leave much space for individual imagination and
experiments with the genre. Its failure to transition
into popular art because of the decline of Sanskrit as
a living language led to the gradual disinterest in
Sanskritic works. However, Sanskrit plays are still
being written and performed in India by playwrights
such as Manmohan Acharya (Arjuna Pratijnaa,
Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-Jayadevam,
Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih,
Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara
IndianAesthetics: An Introduction
7
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntalasakuntalam and Raavanah); Vidyadhar Shastri (Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala
Balam) and Prafulla Kumar Mishra (Chitrangada and
Karuna), that are a living testimony to the endurance of the genre. Sanskrit
literature may have failed to become popular literature but it is still studied in
academia and seen as an important aspect of Indian culture and tradition. Let
us look at the Classical Sanskrit Dramatists of ancient times next.
1.4 CLASSICAL SANSKRIT PLAYWRIGHTS

Sanskrit drama is defined by the works of dramatists such as Sudraka, Bhasa,
Bhavbhuti, Harsha, and Kalidasa to name a few. They have survived through
thousands of years because of their literary prowess in depicting characters,
settings, plots in their own individualistic way. Almost all the great Sanskrit
playwrights benefitted from royal patronage or were part of royal households
or even of kings. Let us begin by talking about Bhasa first.
1.5 BHASA
Bhasa (3rd- 4th CE) was a Sanskrit playwright, preceding Kalidasa, believed
to have lived in the city of Ujjain. Relatively unknown to Sanskrit scholars
except through references in other dramatic works, Bhasa’s works saw the
light of the day in 1909 when the play Swapnavasavadatta (Vision of
Vasavadatta) was discovered by Pandit Anandalvar of the Archaeological
Survey of Mysore. In 1913 a total of thirteen plays were discovered in an
old library in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) by T Ganapati Shastri.
Bhasa drew his inspiration from epics such as the Mahabharata, the
Ramayana, the Purana and semi-historical legends and figures. Bhasa’s plays
do not follow the Natyashastra very strictly, even breaking dramatic conventions.
This has led some critics to conclude that Bhasa’s plays were written before
Bharatamnuni’s treatise, others see this as an indication of Bhasa’s poetic
experiments and disregard for dramatic conventions.
Swapnavasavadatta is his most famous play that depicts the story of King
Udayana, who must choose between marrying for love his beloved Vasavadatta
or the daughter of a neighboring king, Princess Padmavati, for political gain.
In the play Bhasa combines romance with political intrigue creating a new kind
of drama. Along with traditional dramas, Bhasa also wrote short plays, one
act plays, and monologues.
Among the many dramatic conventions that Bhasa broke was depicting a tragic
ending in his plays. Both Uru-bhanga (Breaking of the Thighs) and Karna
bhara (Karna’s Task), which deal with the stories of Duryodhana and Karna
respectively, end on tragic notes. The heroes of these two plays are traditionally
seen as villains or anti-heroes in the Mahabharata however, Bhasa treats them
with sympathy and shows a side of their character hitherto not dealt with in
the epic. Furthermore, Bhasa does not shy away from showing violent acts
on stage, which was another Natyashastra convention that he disregards. We
shall take a quick look at Sudraka next.
1.6 SUDRAKA
Sudraka, literally translated as the little servant, was a poet-king who lived
in Ujjain in the 2nd CE. He is well known for his Prakarana play,
8
Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart), which is an reflection of his temperament that could not portray
extended version of Bhasa’s incomplete play humour effectively. Bhavabhuti instead
Charudattam (Charudatta). The ten act play tells the compensates for it by highlighting the supernatural
love story of a Brahmin merchant, Charudatta and a and the grotesque thus evoking the rasa Bibhasta
courtesan Vasantasenâ, whose union is thwarted by a (disgust) and Raudra (anger) in his works. His plays
jealous suitor. Even with a few serious elements, the have the unique combination of heroism, romance
play ends happily and is primarily seen as a mix of and horror unrivaled in Sanskrit literature. The next
romance and humour. It also offers an interesting and section will deal with a brief look at Kalidasa as we
realistic picture of urban society and the complex place him in the tradition.
social structure of that time. We will be studying
Sudraka’s Mrichhakatika in Block III of this course. 1.8 KALIDASA
His other plays include Vinavasavadatta, and a
Bhana (short one-act monologue), and One of best-known Sanskrit dramatists in the world,
Padmaprabhritaka. Incidentally, the 1984 Hindi whose works have been adapted and translated into
movie Utsav, directed by Girish Karnad is believed numerous languages and forms, Kalidasa’s poetic
to have been based largely on Mrichhakatika. skills are unparalleled even today. Basing his works
Bhavbhuti will be examined in the subsequent on the Vedas, the Purana and the epics, Kalidasa
section. reimagined and breathed new life into the plots that
he took from these works.
1.7 BHAVBHUTI His works include notable plays, such as
Mâlâvikâgnimitram (Pertaining to Mâlavikâ and
Bhavabhuti, a major dramatist of the later Sanskrit
Agnimitra), and Vikramorvasiyam (Pertaining to
dramatic period, was the court poet of King
Vikrama and Urvashi). He also wrote epic poems
Yashovarman of Kannauj, in north India in 8th CE.
such as Raghuvams’a (Dynasty of
He too wrote plays based on the Ramayana, such as IndianAesthetics: An Introduction
the Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great Hero),
which depicts the early life of Rama and
Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of Rama), which
shows the final years of Rama’s life as written in the
Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana. Both the plays
consist of seven acts written in the Nataka style.
His third drama, Malatimadhava (Malati and
Madhava), is a Prakarana play centered on the love
story of Malati, the daughter of a minister and
Madhavya, her beloved. Malati is set to be married
off to Nandana in accordance with the king’s wishes.
The powerful suitor as well as a mix-up with another
couple interrupts the union of Malati and Madhava,
which is finally resolved with the aid of magic. The
use of the supernatural makes this play a one of a
kind drama that skillfully combines romance with
horror.
Bhavabhuti’s long poetic descriptions are seen as
mere embellishment that does not add anything to
the drama, but tends to obfuscate his clear and
simple diction. He is known for completely doing
away with the vidusaka and thus eliminating the
comic element in his plays. Critics see this as a
9
’
ShakuntalaRaghu) and Kumârasambhava (Birth of ‘Kumara’ or S ubrahmanya) along
Kalidada: Abhijnana
with Khandakavyas (minor poems). However, his most popular and famous
work remains the Abhijñâna Shâkuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
We will not discuss the details of his work and aesthetics here. This will be
dealt with in the next unit.
1.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learnt about the history and development of Indian Classical
drama. Special focus has been given to Sanskrit drama, with comparisons and
differences drawn between the Indian and European dramatic tradition to give
an overall awareness about drama. We have also been apprised of other
important Sanskrit playwrights and that has helped us understand the tradition
beyond Kalidasa and has offered us an appreciation on the diversity and range
of classical Sanskrit literature.
1.10 QUESTIONS
1. What do you think is the origin of Indian Classical Drama?
2. What do you understand by the term Sanskrit Drama?
3. Name some of the prominent Classical Sanskrit playwrights and attempt
a critical analysis of their works.
10
UNIT 2 KALIDASA: AN OVERVIEW

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Kalidasa’s Background
2.2.1 The Problem of Date
2.2.2 The City of Ujjain and its Relevance in Kalidasa
2.3 Kalidasa’ Literary Background
2.4 Kalidasa and his Works
2.5 Epic and Drama
2.5.1 The Original story of Shakuntalaa from the Epic Mahabharata
2.5.2 The Question of Form
2.6 Ancient Indian Aesthetics
2.6.1 Dramatic Art
2.6.2 Bharata’s Natyashastra
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Hints to Check Your Progress
2.9 Glossary
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will acquaint you with Kalidasa, the man, the myth and the creative
genius. It will also lead us into a discussion on the probable time of Kalidasa
and the place where he lived. In addition, Kalidasa’s literary influences would
be mapped to help us place the poet in the vast expanse of ancient literature.
For a precise understanding of Kalidasa’s art, attempt has also been made
in this unit to take a closer look at the original story of Shakuntala available
in the epic Mahabharata. We will also see, at a more general level, how the
play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam of Kalidasa departs from the original source
of the epic. A critical discussion on aspects of epic and drama might make
us aware about the workings of the two forms/ genres in question – the epic
and the drama. Finally, a view of ancient Indian aesthetics will apprise us of
what was being written during the ancient period and the parameters against
which literary texts were judged.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Very little information is available on Kalidasa the person. The result of research
done on him is based on associations and references that are available in works
identified to have been written by him. Kalidasa’s texts help us understand
his world and they give us clues to his time. Generally, in approaching a text
our movement of inquiry is from the outside world of the writer to the inside
world of the text. In the case of Kalidasa, however, the opposite takes place.
Because we have scarce information about his surroundings we are forced to
look at his text first and then make our impression about the world he inhabited.
Hence, an inversion takes place in the case of Kalidasa. In Kalidasa, the
movement is thus, from inside the textual world outwards and it makes
interpreting and finding meaning more exploratory and open-ended, there being
no pre-determined ideas influencing the view of Kalidasa. Secondly, Kalidasa
11
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntalaappears conscious about the existing literary trends and stylistics. This helped him focus on
the themes associated with courtly life as well as with the gods.
His subject was lofty (it is believed he was among the nine gems/ navratnas,
in the court of Chandragupta II) and as a court poet he followed the tradition
of courtly drama with an eye on the whims and fancies of the nobility. Was,
then, Kalidasa an elitist poet? Interestingly, Kalidasa emphasises poignant
human emotions in his works; this might have struck a chord with the ordinary
people. Yet, Kalidasa should be seen under the larger paradigm of classical
writing.
2.2 KALIDASA’S BACKGROUND

It is still important that we try and place Kalidasa, and locate him in some
time frame so, let’s try and do that. Since Kalidasa belonged to the ancient
period and much of information about it has been lost over centuries, it is difficult
to gain the required details. In fact, dates alluding to his time of birth span
centuries. Scholarship on his probable dates varies.
2.2.1 The Problem of Date
It is believed, for instance, that Kalidasa was a court poet of Agnimitra Sunga
(second century BC) who lived during the years of the Sunga Empire 184
BC to 78 BC. According to the belief, Kalidasa made Agnimitra Sunga the
protagonist of his first play Malavikagnimitran. Another view of Kalidasa’s
period places him in first century BC during the reign of Vikramaditya of Ujjain,
around 57 BCT. Thus, Kalidasa was associated with King Vikramaditya who
was the poet’s patron. A third opinion establishes Kalidasa’s date between
the fourth and fifth centuries AD—the age of Chandra Gupta II who assumed
the title of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya after his winning spree in western
India.
The lack of knowledge about Kalidasa works both as an advantage and
disadvantage. The disadvantage is that it leaves us completely in the dark about
the writer’s ethos. We cannot take help from his surroundings to correlate them
with events that take place in his works. It restricts us to the text per se.
However, the advantage is that knowing little about Kalidasa’s time frees us
from the binds of historicity and we are constrained to delve deeper into his
texts.
2.2.2 The City of Ujjain and its Relevance in Kalidasa

It emerges from the settings of Kalidasa’s works that he was greatly inspired
by the natural beauty of the Malwa region in central India. His fondness for
Ujjain particularly comes to the fore in the way he describes the city. Chandra
Rajan has keenly delineated how the topography of Malwa might have shaped
Kalidasa’s imagination. She says:
The poet describes the topography of the Vindhyas and the Malwa
region with a loving exactitude as if the landscape lay on the palm
of his hand. Malwa, in central India (now part of Madhya Pradesh)
is watered by many rivers and streams, rising from the Vindhya ranges
and draining its slopes and valleys. Malwa’s landscapes streaked by
its many rivers and streams with glades and pleasure-gardens on their
banks; dotted with groves and meadows and woodlands stretching
12
along the slopes of the hills; its holy spots and long low hills containing caves overgrown
with bushes, stir the poet’s imagination and evoke in us the beauty that once was.
The Loom of Time, (26)
This tells us that Kalidasa has depicted with immense pride scenes from Ujjain in his works.
It has made Kalidasa’s imagery highly evocative. Ujjain with its picturesque sights was also
a cultural and commercial hub. It was the centre of learning and intellectual movements
where music and the arts were given primacy. While living in Ujjain, Kalidasawas directly in
touch with the harmony of nature and the world of art associated with the court. The latter
also lent high aesthetic appeal to his works.
Additionally, Ujjain was a centre of scientific learning during the period. Amartya Sen
importantly brings to our notice the fact that the city of Ujjain “in the early centuries of the
first millennium CE” was “the location of the ‘principal meridian’ for Indian calendars,
serving for Indian astronomers as something like an Indian Greenwich”. Talking of
astronomy, Sen adds,
Technical development clearly had much to do with the location of imperial power as well as
scientific research at the time. Ujjain (or Ujjayini as it was then called), as an ancient city
moved from its role as the capital of Avanti (later Malwa) in the seventh century BCE to
become the capital of the Saka royalty, and most prominently served as the base of the later
Gupta dynasty, in the period of the flowering of Indian Mathematics and science.
The Argumentative Indian (40-1)
Along with mathematical and scientific studies Ujjain had to its credit a rich literary tradition
of which Kalidasa was a part. This is corroborated by E M Forster in his essay “Nine Gems
of Ujjain.” Certainly, there was no dearth of wealth in Ujjain, in fact the palaces and gardens
described in Kalidasa convey the sense of that splendour which the city carried. We note that
Kalidasa instills both optimism and pride in his characters that seem to be leading organised
lives and amassing resources at the same time. An immense scope for progress and riches is
discernible in Kalidasa’s works that conveys the sense of optimism that the period conveyed.
This lends an epic quality to his works as the great feats of kings and the glory of their
kingdom become important markers of assertion in Kalidasa. The great poet was guided in
this by the patronage he received from his benefactors. The plays of Kalidasa were
performed in court during festivities. This made his preference for lofty subjects justifiable.
Even though Kalidasa was a court poet, he was extremely sensitive to the emotions, feelings
of those who lived in humble dwellings, in distant corners of the land, away from the court
and where the king resided. We note often that Kalidasa presents a critique of duty and
decorum that represses the passions of an individual. What makes Kalidasa stand out
amongst writers is that he expresses nuances of human emotions buried deep in the heart of
simple men and women. Let us examine Kalidasa’s literary background next.
2.3 KALIDASA’S LITERARY BACKGROUND

Kalidasa as a literateur was steeped in philosophy, aesthetics, and grammar. We know this
after a careful reading of his The Loom of Time and other works.
Kalidas:AnOverview13
Kalidada: Abhijnana
ShakuntalaHe was influenced by the epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata from which he often
drew material for his compositions. Borrowing tales and stories
from popular epics was a regular practice among writers of ancient India. Bhasa,
for instance, deployed tales from the Mahabharata and wove dramatic plots
around them. Bhasa’s plays Urubhangam, Karnabharam are examples of this.
Kalidasa in his prologue to his first play Malavikagnimitram acknowledges
Bhasa, the ancient dramatist, as one of the greatest playwrights of Sanskrit
Literature, saying, “How can the work of the modern poet Kalidasa be more
esteemed than the works of Bhasa, Kaviputra, Saumillaka and others of
established fame?” The issue is explained thus by Kalidasa—‘‘Everything
is not praiseworthy, just because it is old; nor should a poetical work be
dismissed just because it is new” (qtd. in Haksar). Kalidasa is conscious
of the value of art and asserts that it is not dependent on antiquity. He uses
the rational principal to derive at what is praiseworthy in literature. He
emphasised the great value of Bhasa’s works. Haksar has observed, “Bhasa
was already well known on the Indian scene over fifteen hundred years
ago, when Kalidasa had just begun to make his mark” (Haksar ix). Both
Bhasa and Kalidasa, along with Bana Bhatta (the first Sanskrit novelist and
court poet of 7th century Kanauj, north India) contributed to the literary canon
of classical Sanskrit literature. Jayadeva of the 13th century had the following
to say of the trio in his work Prasanna Raghava— ‘‘Who will not delight
in the Muse of Poetry … the lovely maid whose laughter is Bhasa, the
guru of poets, whose sport of pleasure is Kalidasa, whose Cupid is Bana”
(qtd. in Haksar, x).
It is evident that Kalidasa had studied Bharata’s Natyashastra as well,
although the other theory that goes around suggests that it was Bharata that
learnt from Kalidasa and wrote a treatise on drama based on representations
in Kalidasa’s plays. Chandra Rajan has said this emphatically. To quote:
It is possible that the author of the Natyashastra sat down to compose
his treatise with Kalidasa’s plays before him. That a writer of
Kalidasa’s genius and accomplishment would write according to the
book is not very likely; it seems more plausible that a critic and
theorist would draw upon the work of a great writer to formulate
his theories. (Rajan, 29)
Nonetheless, Kalidasa successfully evokes the various rasas in his plays that
add value to a scene or character. This aspect would be discussed in some
detail later. In the next section we shall take a quick look at Kalidasa’s other
works.
2.4 KALIDASA AND HIS WORKS

Kalidasa was a dramatist, an epic writer and a poet. The plots of his plays
are based on the known adventures of Kings, even as legends and folk tales
inspired his poetic works. Kalidasa gave depth to his works by making his
characters multi-dimensional and expanding their scope with imaginative flights.
In his writing, characters appear layered, and their actions are governed by
well-conceived notions of beauty. Importantly, Kalidasa is a secular voice in
a largely conservative culture. His secular sense comes from his emphasis on
the rational approach to life that consciously integrated pleasure with lofty ideals.
This made the writer look at events from a specific view of reality as it was
14
being lived out at the time, and not through the lens of fossilised ideas borrowed from the
past. It is Kalidasa’s humanism that makes his works secular. His works are largely relatable.
Even as Kalidasa wrote in the ancient period we identify with the pains and joys of his
characters as well as situations because the writer stirs our basic emotions and feelings. This
connects us to the world of Kalidasa. As a playwright, he gives voice to his characters that
remained insignificant in common life but gain significance in his hands.
Seven of Kalidasa’s works have survived the test of time. Among these we have three long
lyrical poems, three plays, and an incomplete epic. The poems believed to have been written
by Kalidasa include: Ritusamharam (Gathering of the Seasons); Kumarasambhavam (The
Birth of Kumara); and Meghadutam (The Cloud Messenger). Kalidasa is best known for the
long lyrical poem Meghadutam. Among the plays, we have Malavikagnimitram (Malavika
and Agnimitra), his first play; Vikramorvasiyam (Urvasi won by Valour); Abhijnana
Shakuntala (The recognition of Shakuntala), the third in the order. Finally, Kalidasa wrote an
epic he could not complete, titled Raghuvamsam (Raghu’s Dynasty).
Ritusamharam being Kalidasa’s early work appears to be art in the making. In it, the poet
brings to life each season and its impact on the landscape. He captures the beautiful imagery
in a stylised form while attempting to make it appear natural in the poem. Such experiments
with the lyric form refined the literary art of Kalidasa further. His skills as a creative writer
and particularly a poet were perfected by the time he wrote his last poem Meghadutam which
is a duta-kavyam or messenger-poem. Here, Kalidasa charts out the agony of a yaksha who
has been separated from his beloved due to a curse (he being cursed by his lord Kubera for
neglecting his duties). The Yaksha persuades the cloud to take his message to his wife. Hence,
the poem’s title “The Cloud Messenger”. Duty and human will/desire always clash with one
another in Kalidasa. In fact, in his play Vikramorvasiyam, Kalidasa projects a double curse
directed at Urvasi for the neglect of work/duty, because she is caught up in deep passionate
thoughts about the king. The curse element in Kalidasa is important because it is a form of
punishment given to characters that become ‘disoriented’ towards duty and follow their
passions—just as the Yaksa in Meghadootam or Shakuntalaa in Abhijnana Shakuntala or
Urvashi in Vikaramorvasiyam. In the next section we shall look at the difference between the
two genres – the Epic and the drama and also see how the Shakuntala story in the
Mahabharata differs or is the same as the play Shakuntala.
Check Your Progress 1
1. What makes Kalidasa a secular humanist? Give reasons for your answer.
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2.5 EPIC AND DRAMA

Shakuntala’s narrative is described at length in the epic Mahabharata under the section
‘Sakuntalopakhyana’ from the Adi Parva or the “Book of the Beginning”. It is recounted as
one among the many ancestral legends of the Puru lineage by Vaisampayana to Janamejaya
on the occasion of a sacrificial ritual.
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala 2.5.1 The Original Story of Shakuntala from the Epic Mahabharata
This narrative is focused on discovering who the Bharatas were. The answer
is - they were descendants of Bharata, born of Shakuntala and Duhsanta
(a Paurava king). The focus of the narrative is on Duhsanta and the significance
of Shakuntala is limited to her son who would be the prospective heir to
Duhsanta’s throne. In the epic, Duhsanta is projected as the “triumphant king”
who is the “equal of Indra, slayer of foes, warder-off of enemy elephants,
they thought of him as the Thunderbolt-Wielder himself” (Buitenen 57).
The story in the epic goes as follows. King Duhsanta while pursuing a deer
enters “the depths of forest” and chances upon a holy hermitage that appears
to him as “Indira’s paradise”. Here “no tree lacked bloom or fruit” and “no
tree was thorny”. The wilderness was an idyllic picture. Duhsanta reaches
the sanctum of the ascetic Kanva Kasyapa to pay his respects. But there instead
of Kanva he finds his adopted daughter Shakuntala. Duhsanta is immediately
smitten by the beauty of the maiden. He
… saw that she had beautiful hips, a lustrous appearance, and a
charming smile. She was radiant with beauty, with the sheen of
austerities and the calm of self-restraint. (161)
He then asks her about her parentage. Shakuntala narrates the story of her
birth as she heard it from Kanva once upon a time. She is the daughter of
an apsara, Menaka and the austere ascetic Vishwamitra. On birth, Menaka
abandons her and goes back to the realm of the gods, to Indra. Shakuntala
according to her own narrative is then found by the saint Kanva. Having heard
her tale King Duhsanta reaffirms that Shakuntala couldn’t have been an
ordinary maiden. He coaxes her to enter into a Gandharva marriage with him,
a marriage “done in secret” with rituals “between a loving man and a loving
woman”. Shakuntala agrees on one condition—she asks the King to promise
that the son that may be “born from me shall be Young King to succeed
you, great King, declare this to me as the truth! If it is to be thus, Duhsanta,
you may lie with me”. He agrees and the two consummate their marriage.
Thereafter, the king returns to court. Shakuntala in the following year gives
birth to a son at saint Kanva’s hermitage. The child “radiant like a blazing fire”
grows up in the hermitage for six years—he “would fetter lions and tigers” to
the trees around the hermitage. Watching his “superhuman exploits” Kanva
decides to send him to the King’s palace with Shakuntala. At the King’s palace,
Duhsanta refuses to acknowledge Shakuntala, calling her an “evil ascetic”.
Shakuntala “stunned with grief” pleads her case emphasising the importance
of a son for the king – she says “a son is a putra because he saves his
father from the hell named Put” and calls herself the dutiful wife, stating that
“she is a wife who is handy in the house, she is a wife who bears children,
she is a wife whose life is her husband” (167). Duhsanta humiliates
Shakuntala in the following way:
I do not know that this is my son you have born, Shakuntala. Women
are liars—who will trust your word? Menaka, your mother, was a
merciless slut who cast you off like a faded garland on a peak of
the Himalayas! Visvamitra, your merciless father, who born a baron,
reached for brahminhood, was a lecher! (168)
16
Shakuntala hears out Duhsanta, points out his forgetfulness and describes her higher
lineage— “My birth is higher than yours Duhsanta! You walk on earth, great king, but I fly
the skies”. She finally, comes back to the issue of her son and warns Duhsanta – ‘‘The
ancestors call a son the foundation of family, and lineage, the highest of all merits of
Law—therefore one should never abandon a son” (168). Having said all this, Shakuntala
departs and a celestial voice warns Duhsanta of his wrong deed. At this, Duhsanta changes
his stance suggesting – ‘‘I myself knew very well he was my son. But if I had taken him as my
son on her word alone, suspicion would have been rife among the people and he would never
have been cleared of it.” (169) Therefore, Duhsanta suggests, that he has to play the
fraudulent game of rebuking her. With this, Duhsanta accepts his son and Shakuntala and
brings them both to the court declaring the latter the young King.

1. How was the story of Shakuntala narrated in the Mahabharata? Who was the central figure
in that narrative?
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2.5.2 The Question of Form
Is there a difference between the story narrated in the Mahabharata and its representation in
Kalidasa’s play? Kalidasa takes up the story from the Mahabharata, works on it, fleshes it
out and makes it into a play. The basic difference is that the form of the legend is different. In
the Mahabharata, the story is narrated in an epic fashion, and in the play the plot is laid out
for use on the stage. As we read the play, we recognise, that there is a basic difference in
‘telling’ and ‘showing’ in the two forms respectively.
Does something change if the form of the plot is a narrative or a drama? When the story is
narrated in an epic and later acted out as a play, does it undergo modification? What exactly
alters with the change of the form/genre? Let us bear in mind that when the form/ genre of
the plot changes, the story assumes a new pattern. In the case of drama, dialogues become
central and for that reason a character’s inner dynamics comes to the fore. The epic may have
dialogues, too, but it is governed by the requirements of the narrative. As far as the play is
concerned, characters take over and speak that which follows their motivation. Later, in view
of different motivations clashing with one another, the dramatic action moves following the
dictates of the changing scenario. The play, thus, invites the reader /viewer to imaginatively
participate in the action on stage. In the play, there is no direct judgment to tell the audience
what is to be followed and why. This is at variance with what happens in an epic, where the
narrative has the reins on the evolving action, at each stage interpreting the goings on. The
play works as a stimulus for intellectual debate that is played out on the stage as well as in the
minds of the audience. Also, characters in a play are allowed more space to live out the
moment which is not possible in the epic. Further, the play is a continuum, unlike the epic
where episodes have a character of their own. These are interpreted by the audience
depending on their individual merit at the specific moment.
Kalidada: Abhijnana
ShakuntalaWhile changing the form/genre, Kalidasa retells the story differently with this, the emphases
of his work changes. As he lays out the story from the
Mahabharata for representation on stage, he assigns to it new parameters
involving scenes, smallacts of individual characters, and the interplay of situations
in the format of showing and representing. What does one mean by the
playwright’s emphases here? It is those aspects in a text that receive special
focus at the cost of those that are pushed into the background. The playwright
consciously picks up a point for expansion and gives more space to it than
others. Emphases are based on the playwright’s sympathies and preferences.
Think of the title of the work, Abhijnana Shakuntalam i.e. “The Recognition
of Shakuntala”. Kalidasa makes it clear where his sympathies lie and who
the protagonist of the play will be. That a woman will be the hero of the story
reveals the position of the playwright. In the Mahabharata, the section of
“Shakuntala” comes under the head of “The Origins”. Even as the title of
the section is “Shakuntala” in the Mahabharata, it is Shakuntala as the
beautiful maiden and later Bharata’s mother that gets foregrounded. As a
consequence, the king is at the centre, he is the active agent in the episode.
That is not the case with Kalidasa’s Shakuntala.
In Kalidasa’s Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Shakuntala is the central character—
whose feelings and thoughts are elaborated in great detail by the playwright.
The play revolves around her travails and fights. For now, suffice it to say that
the story of Shakuntala undergoes a sea of change in the hands of Kalidasa—
both because the emphases of the text shifts and because the form of
representation changes. Let us now take a look at the dramatic art more
specifically. We should also look at ancient Indian aesthetics as aesthetics dictate
to aspects of drama.
1. Write a comparative note on the epic and the drama keeping in mind their
specific features.
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2.6 ANCIENT INDIAN AESTHETICS

Dramatic art in ancient India held an appeal as no other art form did. Recitations
of folk tales and epics gradually came to include enactments. The form of drama
in Sanskrit literature particularly included aspects of dance, music and acting.
It was performative in an inclusive sense as it freely used gestures, mimes and
dance postures. Dance and drama during the period were not viewed as distinct
forms.
2.6.1 Dramatic Art

Drama was a mix of many elements. It was an art form that included lyrical
and narrative modes; verse and prose; speech, song and acting; masks, costume
and ornaments. Together these provided a distinct stylisation to drama in the
ancient period.
At the point of time when Kalidasa wrote his plays, the dramatic form had
emerged on the literary horizon. The process has been observed as follows:
18
Many of the elements of drama were already in place at a very early time, perhaps by the
middle of the first millennium BC, at the time of Panini, the great grammarian who was also
a poet. With various traditions converging around this time: the literary tradition of the Vedas
and epics, the popular and folk play traditions centering perhaps around vegetation rites and
festivals such as sowing and harvesting, the ritual drama and the dance with its story-line, it
was inevitable that drama as we understand it should have been evolving into its final form.
(Rajan 33)
It is suggested that in the ancient period the popular and folk traditions were extensively
deployed in performances during festivals. These popular forms close to the life of everyday
people were used even in court dramas that eventually took shape over the centuries to
follow. Court drama took elements from the four Vedas so that it became a source of high
learning as well. Amartya Sen’s comment on the Vedas offers a useful insight into the nature
of writing at the time. For Sen,
The Vedas may be full of hymns and religious invocations, but they also tell stories, speculate
about the world and—true to the argumentative propensity already in view—ask difficult
questions. A basic doubt concerns the very creation of the world: did someone make it, was it
a spontaneous emergence, and is there a God who knows what really happened? (132)
To be sure, the way we visualise the ancient past of India is different from the way the
ancients looked at themselves. Far from being rigid, the Vedas appear to be open-ended and
preserves the exploratory spirit. Speaking specifically about the Rigveda, Sen has added:
The Rigveda goes on to express radical doubts on these issues: ‘who really knows? Who will
here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? …perhaps it formed
itself, or perhaps it did not—the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he
knows—or perhaps he does not know’. These doubts from the second millennium BCE would
recur again and again in India’s long argumentative history, along with a great many other
questions about epistemology and ethics. (132)
That the Rigveda, the first Veda, expresses “radical doubts” about the basic questions of life
makes it clear that India’s ancient past was more heterogeneous and secular. The aesthetic of
the period reflects that spirit, too. This gets projected in the theory of drama presented as a
treatise by Bharata in the Natyashastra. This obviously demands a brief look at the
Natyashastra next
2.6.2 Bharata’s Natyashastra

Natyashastra (the poetics of drama) is a treatise on the dramatic art that attempts to outline
the aim, purpose and role of drama in ancient India. The treatise includes specific features
and elements considered integral to Sanskrit drama. ‘Natya’ carries the root word ‘nat’ which
means to act or emote. It may be applied to both drama and dance, as ‘natya’ is also the word
for dancing or dramatic representation and ‘natak’ denotes a play. Natyashastra is the oldest
text on the theory of drama that has survived for centuries. Bharata termed it the fifth Veda.
He has claimed:
Kalidada: Abhijnana
ShakuntalaI shall make a fifth Veda on the Natya with the Semi-historical Tales (itihasa) which will
conduce to duty (dharma), wealth (artha) as well
as fame, will contain good counsel and collection [of other material
for human well-being], will give guidance to people of the future
as well in all their actions, will be enriched by the teaching of all
scriptures (sastra) and will give a review of all arts and crafts (silpa).
(qtd, in Nagpal 55)
Note that it is meant to be a Veda i.e. crystallised knowledge of supreme
importance on the aspect of natya that is drama. Drama occupied an important
position in the ancient period. It was an essential source of learning. For this
reason, Bharata claimed that drama based on his treatise “will conduce”…
people “to duty” bring them on the path of dharma and “provide guidance
to people of the future”. The suggestion here is that Bharat pictures the afterlife
of his text much like the Vedas were considered in his own time. He believes
that Natyashastra too would hold similar importance. Nonetheless, the focus
is on offering knowledge through the agency of drama. Thus, drama was meant
to be didactic in nature even as it entertained the audience in the process. To
teach and to delight became the central aim of dramatic art in the hands of
critics and writers of Sanskrit literature. Interestingly, Bharata notes that the
fifth Veda, Natyashastra, would be accessible to all unlike the first four Vedas
that were and maybe still are denied to women and shudras. For Bharata,
Natyashastra could be read by anyone. What is the significance of this? Such
an exercise would make scriptures and literature human-centred and approachable.
The Natyashastra provides ten different types of dramatic representations that
are determined by factors of length of a play, theme, plot and characters. Nataka
and Prakarna belong to the category of full length plays of five to ten acts
that have as their subject plots taken from histories and fictional stories
respectively. On the other hand, there are bhanas that are satirical monologues
and dwell on superficial or less important themes. Between these extremes, the
treatise fits in tragedies and comedies that may have one to four acts and the
subject is of relative importance. These include among others,samavakara and
ihamrga (that have less than five acts but deal with divine themes); vyayog
and anka (one act plays based on a single day’s event).
The Natyashastra was meant to take elements from the first four Vedas and
include these under one head. It ventured to draw from the Rigveda the
“recitative” quality, from the Yajurveda “histrionic representation”, from the
Atharvaveda “rituals and style” and from the Samaveda the “rasas”. Importantly,
the Natyashastra is best known for expounding the theory of rasas which is
particularly relevant for us in understanding the aesthetic sensibility of Kalidasa.
The peculiar sensibility of Kalidasa will be focused in the next section. Let
us first understand the theory of rasa. For Sheldon Pollock rasa is that which
can be “savoured”. To him:
Bharata’s language often clearly suggests that his analytical
focus is on rasa in the character. The comic, for example, ‘is seen
to exist for the most part in women and characters of low status’,
not in the response of the viewer. Moreover, Bharata’s conception
of the casual process—bhavas, or emotions, are the factors that
‘manifest’ the rasa—implies, or at least later is taken to imply, the
pre-existence of rasa in the character and hence the character’s
20 analytical primacy. (49)
Bharata provides us with a list of eight rasas —the Bharata’s Natyashastra has been provided and his
erotic (srngar); the comic (hasya); the furious concepts of drama touched upon since they make the
(raudra); the pathetic (karuna); the heroic (vir); the backbone of ancient Sanskrit drama. Apart from
marvelous (adhbhut); the odious (bibhatsa); and the these, the question of form has been taken up and
terrible (bhayanak). All these have their specific particularly the forms of epic and drama have been
importance in the writer’s scheme of things. Among compared in the context of Kalidasa. We also
these, the rasa of srngar reigns supreme. This is gained a view of the original story that was written
because srngar is the rasa of pleasure and beauty. in the Mahabharata and later adapted by Kalidasa
for his dramatic work.
1. What was the purpose of dramatic art in the
ancient period as discussed by Bharat Muni in his
2.8 HINTS TO CHECK YOUR
Natyashastra? PROGRESS
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................................ Check Your Progress 1
..................................................................................... 1. Read Section 2.4
................................ Check Your Progress 2
..................................................................................... 1. Read Section 2.5.1
................................
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................................ 1. Read Section 2.5.2
1. Read Section 2.6, 2.6.1 & 2.6.2
2.7 LET US SUM UP
2.9 GLOSSARY
This unit has brought into focus aspects of ancient
Indian drama. It has offered a discussion on Topography –the material place with its specific
Kalidasa’s probable time and culture. In this features/ the physical characteristics of a region.
discussion, an attempt has been made to provide a
Yaksa—is an ancient spirit that guarded nature and
view of Kalidasa’s literary background that would
was worshipped as a deity of groves and water
enable us to understand the larger context of ancient
sources.
Indian aesthetics, this in turn led us to an overview Kalidas:AnOverview
of Kalidasa’ creative oeuvre. A general view of
21
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala
UNIT 3 ABHIJNANA SHAKUNTALA: TEXTUAL
ANALYSIS
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Summary & Analysis Acts I-IV
3.2.1 Prologue
3.2.2 Act I: The Chase
3.2.3 Act II: Concealment of the Telling
3.2.4 Act III: Love’s Fruition
3.2.5 Act IV: Shakuntala’s Departure
3.3 Summary and Analysis Acts V- VII
3.3.1 Act V: The Repudiation of Shakuntala
3.3.2 Act VI: Separation from Shakuntala
3.3.3 Act VII: Shakuntala’s Prosperity
3.4 Themes
3.4.1 The Theme of Love
3.4.2 The Theme of Concealment
3.4.3 The Hermitage and the Court
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Hints to Check Your Progress
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we will be analysing the text / play Abhijnana Shakuntala critically.
We will begin with a brief explanation on how to read the play. This will help
us to understand the play and enjoy its fullaesthetic appeal. This will be followed
by a detailed summary of the seven Acts. In addition to this, we will also discuss
the major themes and characters in the play.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Abhijnana Shakuntala is one of the most well-known plays by Kalidasa. As
most of the Sanskrit dramas of his time, Kalidasa wrote in a mixture of both
classical Sanskrit - spoken by the royals, courtly figures, upper caste figures
and Prakrit, consisting of different types of vernaculars - spoken by the common
people including women and children. What does this sentence say about the
times? Does it strike you to find women and children clubbed together? Hold
that thought.
The title of the play Abhijnana Shakuntala can be translated as The
Recognition of Shakuntala. The play, as stated in the earlier unit, is an extension
of an episode from the Mahabharata. Kalidasa’s prowess as an exemplary
dramatist can be seen in way he has lent complexity to the characters - to
Shakuntala and Duhsanta, adding innovative elements such as the curse and
the ring to enhance the rasa of kama /love as well as, making Duhsanta’s
character more appealing to the audience. Furthermore, the ultimate union of
the hero and the heroine does not occur in the royal Palace of the King but
in the heavenly hermitage of Marica and Aditi, years after the birth of their
son. Thus, his retelling of Shakuntala is significantly different from its original
22
source.
Kalidasa creates a heroic drama of a romantic (p. 227)
nature, endearing it to the audience of his day and
and visualise the splendor of Indra’s chariot as it
now readers beyond his time and place. The longing
travels in the sky. To enjoy the play, we must
and aches of first love; the trials of love thwarted; the
imagine as we read and keep in mind the fact that
happiness at being reunited; are emotions and
Sanskrit drama does not just include dialogues but
feelings that everyone can identify with. However,
also includes subtle gestures and postures, singing,
one cannot deny how the drama is a reflection of
dancing, and miming to bring about a holistic
particular socio-political and cultural ethos of his
performance and enjoyment of the narrative. For the
time. The very rejection of Shakuntala because of the
sake of consistency, all spellings, references, and
loss of the token makes us question the position of
page numbers referred to follow the said edition.
women in his time (notwithstanding the loss of
memory). As Misrakesi asks “does a love such as Check Your Progress 1
this really need a token of recognition? How can that 1. What is the difference between the Shakuntala
be?” (254). Duhsanta’s unhappiness at his inability episode in the Mahabharata and in Kalidasa’s play?
to have a son is a telling portrayal of the importance .....................................................................................
of sons in carrying the name of the family forward. ..............................
Even in the depiction of the fisherman who finds the .....................................................................................
lost ring, Kalidasa shows the corrupt and brutal ..............................
nature of the guards/ soldiers/ law enforcers who .....................................................................................
treat him unfairly and assume his guilt without any ..............................
proof. Such details help us to imagine the world of .....................................................................................
Shakuntala and Duhsanta with a clarity and nuance ..............................
not available in the epic. .....................................................................................
..............................
The play is available to us in translation, which
Abhijnana Shakuntala: Textual Analysis
naturally begs the question of how well can the
translated text embody the rasa/essence of the
drama? The translation that we are using is the
Penguin Classics series titled Kalidasa - The Loom
of Time by Chandra Rajan, published in 1989. The
text is a beautiful rendering of the original drama,
keeping in mind its literary and aesthetic quality.
When we read the play, we are able to imagine the
cool wooded groove where Duhsanta first meets
Shakuntala,
Rippling beneath a passing breeze, waters flow
in deep channels to lave the roots of trees;
smoke drifts up from oblations to the Sacred Fire
to dim the soft sheen of tender leafbuds;
free from fearm fawns browse lazily in meadows
beyond, where darbha-shoots are closely cropped.
(p.175)
- feel Shakuntala’s crushing agony when she leaves
the Hermitage for the royal palace,
Rent from my dear father’s lap like a sapling of the

sandlewood tree uprooted from the side of the
Malaya mountain, how can I survive in an alien soil?
23
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala
3.2 SUMMARY & ANALYSIS ACTS I -IV
In this section we shall try and summarise the play, for convenience sake we
have split the play into two segments – Acts I – IV and Acts V – VII. Let
us begin with the Prologue and summarise each act as we go along. Needless
to say we hope everyone has read the play by now.
3.2.1 Prologue
The play opens with a benediction or a prayer to Lord Shiva.
That first creator of the Creator
That Bearer of oblations offered with Holy Rites:
That one who utters the Holy Chants:
Those two that order Time:
That which extends, World – Pervading,
In which sound flows impinging on the ear:
That which is proclaimed the Universal Womb of Seeds:
That which fills all forms that breathe
with the Breath of Life.
May the supreme Lord of the Universe
who stands revealed in these eights Forms*
perceptible preserve you.
*The eight forms are in order: Water, Fire, The Priest, Sun and Moon, Space,
Earth, Air (p. 169)
This invocation follows the Epic tradition and seeks blessing and inspiration from
the divine, thereby sanctifying the play. The Sutradhar/Narrator/ Director, then,
addresses the Actress/wife, introducing in the progress of the dialogue the play
being performed for the audience. The Narrator/ Director deftly moves to
presenting the Hero/Nayank of the play- King Duhsanta- as the latter arrives
on stage in full hunting regalia chasing a fleet of antelope.
3.2.2 Act I: The Chase

Act 1 takes place in the forest on the foothills of the Himalayas and moves
to the hermitage of the great sage Kanva, by the river Malini. The King
Duhsanta appears, followed by his Charioteer, in hot pursuit of a deer,
specifically a Blackbuck, which is a sacred animal. Duhsanta is stopped in
his hunt by an ascetic who reminds him of his duty
This deer is of the Hermitage, O King! He should not be
killed…no…no…do not strike him down.
How fragile the life of this deer!
How cruel your sharp- pointed arrows, swift-winged!
Never should they fall on his tender frame
like tongues of flame on a heap of flowers.
Quickly withdraw your well-aimed arrow, bound
to protect the distressed, not strike the pure. (p. 173)
Furthermore, Duhsanta has entered the sacred Hermitage, where such slaughter
is sacrilegious. At the ascetics urging, Duhsanta decides to go to the Hermitage
of Kanva, to pay his respect as well enjoy the hospitality offered there. As
they near the Hermitage, Duhsanta takes of his royal ornaments and weapons,
24
as it seems unfit for such a spiritual space. On
This Act continues in the forest and opens with a
entering he sees three women watering plants and
Prelude which functions to inform the audience of
one of them is Shakuntala whose extraordinary
events that have occurred off stage. Here the
beauty immediately captivates Duhsanta. He hides
audience is told of Duhsanta’s success at thwarting
behind some trees to further observe the trio and
the demons and how Shakuntala is suffering from a
finally reveals himself to them. The women welcome
‘heat stroke’ making her feel hot and feverish.
a disguised Duhsanta into their midst, where he
Shakuntala is actually shown to be suffering from
learns that Shakuntala is the adopted daughter of the
lovesickness, unable to keep Duhsanta out of her
sage Kanva. She is in fact the daughter of the
thoughts, she longs for his company. Her two
Apsara/celestial nymph, Menaka and the seer
companions, Priyamvada and Anasuya try to soothe
Visvamitra. Duhsanta’s questions lead him to
her. Duhsanta presently arrives at the bower where
figuring out her Kshatriya origin, which makes
the three women are resting and on hearing
Shakuntala a suitable bride for him. Before
Shakuntala confess her love for him, reveals himself
Duhsanta can learn of Shakuntala’s feelings for him,
to them. Shakuntala’s companions leave the two
they hear the news of how the arrival of Duhsanta’s
lovers alone and in the process Duhsanta tries to woo
hunting party has frightened an elephant and that the
Shakuntala. However, their love play is interrupted
elephant is now wreaking havoc in the forest. As the
by the arrival of Gautami, the Matron of the
party splits, Shakuntala realises that she has fallen in
Hermitage, and the lovers separate. A despondent
love with Duhsanta, and the two depart with longing
Duhsanta is called to fight the demons tormenting
for the other in their hearts.
the ascetics.
3.2.3 Act II: Concealment of the Telling
3.2.5 Act IV: Shakuntala’s Departure
Act II takes place in the forest and introduces The scene is stillthe forest and much has happened in
Madhavya, the Court Jester, and a close friend of the meantime. The Prelude in this Act reveals that
Duhsanta, who complains about the physical pains Shakuntala and Duhsanta have married according to
he is undergoing because of following Duhsanta on the Gandharva rites. Duhsanta has since then left for
his hunting expeditions. Duhsanta is presented as Hastinapur. While
suffering from lovesickness, and describes Abhijnana Shakuntala: Textual Analysis
Shakuntala to Madhavya in sensual terms. He then
asks Madhavya to help him gain entry into the
hermitage on some pretext or the other.
Characteristic of a jester, Madhavya is quick to
respond in a witty manner and tells Duhsanta that as
the King, he can rightfully enter the hermitage to
demand the royal tax owed to him by the ascetics.
Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of
two ascetics who request Duhsanta to protect their
sacred rites from demons bent on disturbing them.
Duhsanta readily agrees as it complements his desire
to visit the Hermitage without arousing any
suspicion. However, his joy is cut short by the arrival
of Karabhaka with a message from the Queen
Mother asking for his immediate return to
Hastinapur. Torn between his duty towards the
ascetics and his mother, Duhsanta finally decides to
go to the hermitage and sends Madhavya in his stead
to Hastinapur. Duhsanta, however, is careful to
mask his interest in Shakuntala and tells Madhavya
that his interest in her was a just “a whim” (197).
3.2.4 Act III: Love’s Fruition
25
Kalidada: Abhijnana
ShakuntalaShakuntala’s companions discuss Duhsanta’s dedication to her, the great sage Durvasa Rishi
arrives at the Hermitage. Shakuntala, distracted by the thoughts
of Duhsanta, does not attend to the great sage.
Durvasa Rishi, known for his temper, immediately curses her saying:
… you shall be lost in his thoughts:
though you goad his memory hard
he shall fail to remember you, (215)
As Durvasa Rishi storms off, Anasuya attempts to plead with the sage and
manages to extract a reprieve wherein, at the presentation of a token of
recognition, the curse will be lifted. The companions are reassured at this because
Duhsanta had given a ring to Shakuntala as a token of his love and so believe
that the curse will be broken without much harm. The Prelude ends with both
the companions deciding to spare Shakuntala from the knowledge of the curse.
Worried for Shakuntala, Anasuya begins to question Duhsanta’s actions and
wonders how to inform Kanva of his daughter’s marriage and pregnancy. The
resolution arrives in the form of a spiritual voice that announces the union of
Shakuntala and Duhsanta to the great sage. Kanva is overjoyed at this and
decides to send Shakuntala to Duhsanta’s court with a few ascetic escorts.
Shakuntala’s departure from the Hermitage is poignantly described. Everyone
is filled with sorrow seeing her leave even the plants and animals forsake their
natural routines and grieve her absence from the holy Grove. As Shakuntala
bids farewell to her home and embraces her family and friends for the last time,
Kanva instructs her on her duty to the King and other’s at the palace. The
finality of Shakuntala’s separation from the world of the Hermitage is established
through Kanva’s words where he says that she can only return after fulfilling
her duties as wife and mother, in the final years of her of her life with her
husband.
1. What is the function of the Prologue at the beginning of the play?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3.3 SUMMARY & ANALYSIS OF ACTS V–VII

The next few sections will deal with the remaining portions of the Sanskrit drama
Abhijnana Shakuntala by Kalidasa. As mentioned earlier, for convenience sake
we have divided the play into two segments – Acts I to IV and Acts V –
VII. Let’s move on with our summary and analysis without wasting time.
3.3.1 Act V: The Repudiation of Shakuntala
The Prelude takes place in Duhsanta’s Royal Palace and begins with the
Chamberlain praising the King’s hard work in maintaining peace and prosperity
in the kingdom and his exemplary behavior in all things concerned with the welfare
of the state and his subjects. Shakuntala and her entourage appear at the Royal
Palace and wait for an audience with Duhsanta. One of the ascetics,
Sarngarava, relays Kanva’s message and asks him to accept Shakuntala as
his wife. Duhsanta, under the influence of the curse does not remember
Shakuntala and refuses to acknowledge her as his wife. Shakuntala tries to
prove her claim by presenting the token of recognition but realises instead that
26
she has lost it. Duhsanta casts doubts on Duhsanta then remembers Shakuntala, their
Shakuntala’s virtuosity and honesty and tells the marriage, and his promise to bring her to his palace.
accompanying ascetics to take her back with them. He is ashamed of his behavior and cannot figure out
The ascetics, however, refuse to take her back, why his memory lapsed at that particular moment.
saying that if she is lying then she will be a stain on He is distraught about how he repudiated Shakuntala
Kanva’s honour and therefore, cannot be allowed to and the cruel ways in which he doubted her. His
go back and, if she is indeed speaking the truth then sorrow at having lost his beloved is so severe that he
she must be with her husband, even if it means living orders the cancellation of the celebration of the
in servitude to him. Shakuntala is thus, left stranded Spring Festival. Duhsanta tries to recreate his first
and alone with no one by her side and she cries for encounter with Shakuntala by painting it and
Mother Earth/ Dharti Mata to open up and swallow conversing with the painting. Madhavya laments
her whole. Note, three important issues here: a) how the king has become so despondent that he has
women’s position in society; b) the notion of honour; lost all vitality. Meanwhile, Misrakesi, a friend of
c) the similarity between this particular episode and a Shakuntala’s mother Menaka, quietly observes
similar scene from another famous epic. Women Duhsanta’s behavior. Finding his remorse genuine,
were positioned in the safe keeping of their father or she goes back to the Apsara Pool to report her
the husband as it is clear from the various references findings to Shakuntala. Even as Duhsanta is wracked
in the text. Secondly, if a woman were not married with remorse, he deals with matters of the state and
conventionally as is the case with Shakuntala and the is approached with the problem of solving the
husband refused to acknowledge her then she would inheritance rights of a rich merchant who dies
be a stain on the honour of the father. Thirdly, Sita in without a legal heir. The merchant’s wealth is set to
the Ramayana is faced with a similar situation when be appropriated by the royal treasury but Duhsanta
a washer man/ dhobi casts aspersions on her chastity asks for the wealth to be given to one of the
on her return from Lanka. merchant’s pregnant wife, thereby ensuring that the
child to be born is not left penniless.
Finally the King’s High Priest comes up with a Abhijnana Shakuntala: Textual Analysis
solution to let her remain in the King’s palace till she
gives birth and should the child she bear be the son
prophesised (King Bharata) to Duhsanta, then
Shakuntala may be accepted as his lawful wife and
take her rightful place by his side. No sooner do the
ascetics, High Priest, and Shakuntala leave that the
High Priest rushes back to Duhsanta and tells him
how as Shakuntala wept, a bright light in the form of
a woman from the Apsara Pool came and took
Shakuntala with her. Duhsanta dismisses the whole
affair and yet he feels a strange sensation of missing
something and a “poignant ache” (243) in his heart
that seems to validate Shakuntala’s claim.
3.3.2 Act VI : Separation from Shakuntala
The Prelude informs us about a fisherman who has
been found with the lost royal ring (originally given
to Shakuntala). The guards/ soldiers/ law enforcers
accuse him of stealing the ring, but he claims to have
found it in the stomach of a fish he caught. The
fisherman’s innocence is proven once Duhsanta sees
the ring, and rewards the man for finding it.
27
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala Duhsanta feels bad for his ancestors as he himself is without any issue, which will leave them
without anyone to perform sacred rites and rituals. This adds
to his misery and he faints. On waking Duhsanta learns that some invisible
entity is threatening Madhavya. As he rushes to save his friend, it is revealed
that the entity is Matali, Lord Indra’s charioteer, who on seeing a dejected
Duhsanta, devices this plan to rouse him into action. Matali requests Duhsanta
to fight on the behalf of the gods against demons bent on destroying them.
Duhsanta readily agrees and they leave on Indra’s chariot.
3.3.3 Act VII - Shakuntala’s Prosperity
This Act occurs in the realm of the celestial beings and then moves to the
Hermitage of Marica/Prajapati and Aditi (Indra’s father and mother). After
defeating the demons, Duhsanta and Matali are on their way back to earth
when Duhsanta sees the holy Hermitage of sage Marica and expresses his
desire to seek his blessings. At the Hermitage, Matali requests an audience
with Marica and in the ensuing wait Duhsanta comes across a young boy
playing with a lion’s cub and playfully tormenting his caretakers. He notices
the mark prophesised that was meant to be on his son, on the young boy and
begins to yearn for a child. In the course of the conversation with the caretakers,
Duhsanta realises that the boy might indeed be his son and after picking up
the boy’s magical amulet that only his parents or Marica could touch, it cements
Duhsanta’s belief of being the father. Shakuntala appears at the news of a
stranger’s arrival and at first is unable to recognise Duhsanta. In a touch of
irony, it is Duhsanta now who asks to be recognised as the boy’s father.
Duhsanta explains his loss of memory and how he regained it at the sight of
the ring and a happy Shakuntala accepts his explanation. The reunited family
goes to Marica to seek his blessings where Marica reveals the truth about
Durvasa Rishi’s curse. Duhsanta is relieved at this revelation and is absolved
of his cruel behavior. Kanva is also informed of the events and the family leaves
for earth from the celestial realm. The play ends here. In the next sections we
will take a look at the critical themes that the play deals with.
3.4 THEMES
A theme is the central topic of a text. However, since no work of literature
can concentrate on just one theme without referencing others, a text will usually
have more than one, with some being more essential for the text than others.
Abhijnana Shakuntala deals with many themes, such as love, memory,
concealment, duty Vs desire, courtly world Vs the hermitage etc. Let us begin
with the theme of Love.
3.4.1 The Theme of Love

Abhijnana Shakuntala as stated in the introduction is a heroic drama of a
romantic nature. The rasa invoked here is srngara or love and according to
the Sanskritic dramatic order, love poetry consists of sambhoga, love in union
and vipralambha, love in separation. In the play, Kalidasa first creates a
temporary union of the protagonists, King Duhsanta, the hero or nayaka and
Shakuntala, the heroine or nayaki, as the play narrativises the burgeoning and
consummation of their love (ACT I, II, III). It is then followed by separation
caused by the loss of memory and the token ring due to the curse (ACT IV,
28
V, & VI). The play ends with the re-union of not only Shakuntala that results in the curse which leads to
Shakuntala and Duhsanta but also of their son her repudiation. This curse can only be broken on the
Bharata (ACT VI). presentation of a token of recognition, which is the
royal signet ring.
We notice how these different stages of love occur in
different places in the play. The initial courting and Though the curse complicates our understanding of
marriage takes place in the forest of the Hermitage, love, we nonetheless see how Shakuntala is
where the King had come to hunt. It’s a world that is unwavering in her love for Duhsanta, which ascribes
an intrinsic part of Shakuntala’s character; even the her as the ideal heroine. The ring too complicates our
plants and animals are her kin. Duhsanta has thus understanding of love by making us question the
entered her world. The interruption of this love veracity of love itself, if such love needs inanimate
happens when Duhsanta leave this world to go back objects to validate it.
to the Royal Palace, where his duties as a king await. Kalidasa’s depiction of love is thus nuanced and
When Shakuntala goes to claim her right to be by his complicated and does not shy away from making his
side at his Court, the device of the curse delays that audience ask uncomfortable questions regarding it.
union and both the ascetic companions and Duhsanta
desert her. Their final union happens around six 3.4.2 The Theme of Concealment
years later in the celestial realm on a heavenly
mountain in the Hermitage of Marica and Aditi. In The theme of concealment becomes evident in Act 1
portraying the development of their love in such a itself when Duhsanta takes off his royal garments
way Kalidasa highlights the differences between the and weapons on entering the Hermitage of Kanva.
world of the Hermitage and the world of the Royal Even though he undertakes this action as a sign of
Court. Paradoxically, it is in the world of the respect for the sacred space, it allows him to take off
Hermitage, a place for austerities and meditation that the mask of a king and conceal his real identity. He
Shakuntala and Duhsanta find love and it is the introduces himself to Shakuntala as a court official
Royal Court, a place ideal for the intrigues of love out inspecting the penance grooves. This deception
that their separation occurs. makes space for a much more relaxed interaction
Shakuntala born and bred in the innocent and pure
world of nature puts her faith in words rather than
objects thus, consenting to a Gandharva marriage.
This form of marriage does not require the consent of
the parents/elders and is primarily foregrounded on
the desires of the lovers. However, this love cannot
disrupt the established caste hierarchy and therefore,
we see how Duhsanta pursues Shakuntala once he
ascertains her Kshatriya varna. Duhsanta represents
the world outside the secluded and protected
Hermitage, which is filled with deceit and cunning.
In this world, Shakuntala’s word is not sufficient but
needs tangible proof to be validated, in the form of
the ring, in front of everyone in the Royal Court. The
contrasting nature of their worlds necessitates that
their union occurs in a different world altogether,
moreover specifically after Duhsanta becomes a
more considerate and compassionate man.
Kalidasa seems to bring in an element of sadness in
the prologue and some might even say unnecessary
delaying of their union. Kalidasa shows us the
intoxicating nature of passion and love and how it
might lead to a neglect of one’s duty/dharma. For
29
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntalabetween Duhsanta and Shakuntala and her companions, without the strict rules of engagement
mandated for royals. Literally throwing off the mantle of his
kingship, Duhsanta presents himself as a man first and Shakuntala is attracted
to this noble court official at first. When Duhsanta comes again to woo her,
he can no longer hide his true identity as he is performing his kingly duty of
protecting the Hermitage from demons.
The second act of concealment occurs in Act II when Duhsanta is urgently
called by his mother to the Royal Palace. He is torn between his duty towards
his mother and his kingdom, and his desire to see Shakuntala again. The dilemma
is solved when the ascetics’ request his help. As he sends Madhavya in his
stead to the capital city, he tells Madhavya that he is staying back to do his
duty towards these ascetics and not out of his desire for Shakuntala. He further
tells his friend to consider all he said about Shakuntala as a joke. Duhsanta
therefore, conceals his true feelings for Shakuntala as well as his reason for
staying back at the Hermitage. This concealment creates a sense of foreboding
in the play as it allows their marriage to be a secret from everyone outside
the Hermitage and therefore, there are no witnesses who can support Shakuntala
when she comes to the Royal Court.
The next concealment takes place in Act III when a lovesick Shakuntala writes
a love letter to Duhsanta. The problem, however, is its delivery since Duhsanta
is busy protecting the ascetics in their ritual. It is Priyamvada who devices
a plan to disguise the letter with other offerings for the ritual, thus allowing her
to give it to Duhsanta. Duhsanta’s timely appearance saves them from
actualising the plan. This event again points to the incongruity of love’s
actualisation in the hermitage, where such actions don’t sit well with a holy space
established on abstinence and austerity.
In the same act we see one of the most important scenes of concealment.
Shakuntala is so disheartened and distracted by the thoughts of Duhsanta that
she unknowingly angers the sage Durvasa Rishi, who then curses her. She also
fails to register the curse and is oblivious of it. It is her companions who hear
the curse and on receiving the reprieve from the sage decide not to inform
Shakuntala about the curse. Thus, it is their concealment of the truth of the
curse that leads her to arrive at Duhsanta’s court unaware of the reason why
he no longer remembers her. Had she been warned, perhaps Kanva would
have gone with his daughter to the court to help her or Shakuntala herself
would have been more careful with the ring and not lost it in the river. With
the ring as a token that would break the curse, Duhsanta and Shakuntala’s
union would have occurred much earlier and without so much pain on both
sides.
The final concealment occurs in Act VI, where Misrakesi hides herself to observe
the repenting king. She observes how deeply Duhsanta regrets not juts his
rejection of Shakuntala but also the loss of the son who could have continued
the Puru clan. Even as Misrakesi feels sad for both the suffering lovers, she
does not intervene because the gods have a plan for Duhsanta and have devised
their reunion in accordance to Indra’s wishes. Here we see how the events
of the story are not completely in the hands of the two protagonists. The reunion
only occurs according to the plans of the gods. Even the curse and the subsequent
loss of memory cannot be controlled by either of the two, as both are unaware
of it. This makes the audience aware of the ambiguous and complex nature
30 of Fate.
3.4.3 The Hermitage and the Court
Throughout the play, we see how the King is forced
The Hermitage and the Court are two diametrically to choose between the two worlds and must sacrifice
opposed spaces in the play. The Hermitage is a or neglect one for the other. Similarly Shakuntala too
secluded space devoted to sacred pursuits by the must sever her contact with the hermitage if she is to
ascetics. They choose to live away from society and be accepted into the courtly world. Her return can
its problems. The people there live a simple life and only be realised once she reaches the third stage of
are closer to their natural surroundings, living in her life, i.e, vanaprastha, where both she and the
harmony with nature as they are dependent on it for king will give up and retire from the worldly word.
their survival. Furthermore, they are under the Therefore, we see how characters in the play cannot
protection of the king and call upon him for inhabit both the world simultaneously and how one
assistance during their rituals. The scared grooves of must carefully navigate the two worlds because they
the Hermitage are safe spaces, where even the king function on different principles and in different
must not hunt animals. Shakuntala, Priyamvada, levels.
Anasuya, Kanva, Gautami etc all belong to this
world.
1. Discuss the theme of love and marriage.
The Court is the worldly world, a society with strict .....................................................................................
rules and regulations, functioning under social codes ...............................
that dictate the code of court etiquette to people. .....................................................................................
Corruption and abuse of power is a part of this world ...............................
as seen in the fisherman episode. The Palace itself is
.....................................................................................
filled with intrigues and suspicions among
...............................
Duhsanta’s wives. Duhsanta himself is beset with
kingly duties. Duhsanta, Madhavya, Vasumati, .....................................................................................
Hamsavati, and the High Priest belong to this world. ...............................
The king falls in love at the Hermitage and he not
only extends his stay there but also neglects his duty.
The Gandharva marriage between Shakuntala and
Duhsanta, a marriage contracted on word alone with
no witnesses or material proof can be sustained in the
hermitage because it’s a world that exists outside of
the strict moral codes of society. Taken out of this
context, such marriages are suspect and we see that
in the epic where Duhsanta refuses to acknowledge
Shakuntala out of fear of what his subjects might
think of him. In the play the loss of memory dilutes
the effect of the rejection but Duhsanta does demand
proof of their marriage and the paternity of the child
in accordance to the codes of the courtly world.
Wealth is another factor that marks the difference

between the two worlds. The women in the
hermitage wear clothes made of bark and adorn
themselves with flowers but when Shakuntala leaves
for the Court, Kanva procures precious jewels from
the trees to beautify his daughter in accordance with
the outside world.
31
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala
3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit we have focused on the text and introduced the play within the
context of Sanskrit drama. This has been followed by a detailed and
comprehensive summary and examination of all the seven acts. The next section
gives us a critical understanding of the major themes, which will allow us to
understand the play and the purpose to which Kalidasa has used them. The
Unit has attempted to give a concise and succinct understanding of the play
to help us grapple with Sanskrit drama in translation for the first time.
3.6 HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Read Section 3.1
Read Section 3.2.1
Read Section 3.4.1
32
UNIT 4 ABHIJNANA SHAKUNTALAM:
CHARACTER ANALYSIS AND
CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Character Analysis
4.2.1 Sutradhar
4.2.2 Shakuntala
4.2.3 Duhsanta
4.2.4 Madhavya
4.3 Critical Perspectives
4.3.1 Gender
4.3.2 Caste
4.3.3 Kingship
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Questions
4.6 Suggested Readings and References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit is aimed at giving a deeper understanding of the play by analysing
the characters and providing critical perspectives on the play. The first section
examines important characters and their function in the play. The second section
provides key criticisms on the play that include and are not limited to gender,
caste, and kingship. Finally we will end with a few questions, which will help
us to encapsulate what we have studied so far.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we’ll look at what Sanskrit drama denotes and how characters
have certain functions and roles to play. Sanskrit drama delineates the characters
and their roles in combination with the use of various rasas. Let’s take a deeper
look at character analysis in the sections that follow.
4.2 CHARACTER ANALYSIS

Sanskrit drama has many stock characters and the audience who were familiar
with its structure could easily figure out the function of these characters.
Abhijnana Shakuntala contains the staples of Sanskritic drama with the
nayanka/hero and his entourage, nayaki/heroine and her companions, Vidusaka
(jester) and court officials etc. The play is a beautiful mixture of the rasa of
love (srngara) and heroism (vira) and we can see how they play out in the
actions and dialogues of the characters.
4.2.1 Sutradhar
As the name suggests, the Sutradhar is someone who holds the thread of the
story. He is the one who introduces the play to the audience and in essence
can be considered the narrator or if we stretch the analogy a bit even the director
33
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntalaof the play and Chandra Rajan has translated the Sutradhar as Director. His role is usually
restricted to introductions- of characters and acts. He guides the
audience towards the proper enjoyment of the play as well as guides the play
to its proper and logical ending. His role begins as soon as the Benediction
ends.
Director: Lady! If the preparations in the dressing room are
completed, would you be pleased to attend us?...
Director: Lady, we have here before us, an august audience that
is highly educated and most discerning. This evening we wait
upon it with a new play composed by Kalidasa, entitled The
Recognition of Sakuntala. Will you see to it that all the actors do
their very best? (p. 169)
At one point the Sutradhar/ Narrator/ Director is so carried away by the
actress’s song that he forgets what they had intended to do as stated above:
Director: Beautifully sung, dear lady; aha – just look around you;
the audience is still, as if drawn in a picture – spellbound, caught
in the web of beauty woven by your singing. Now then, what play
shall we put on to honour and entertain them further?
Actress: Why, Sir, what you mentioned right at the beginning – the
new play entitled The Recognition of Œakuntalâ.
Director: You do well to remind me, dear lady. Indeed, my memory
failed me for an instant; because,
I was carried far, far away, lured
By your impassioned song, compelling,
(looks towards the wings)
even as the King, Duhsanta here,
was, by the fleet fleeing antelope. (pp. 170-71)
4.2.2 Shakuntala
Shakuntala, the heroine or nayaki of the play, was born of the apsara Menaka
and the sage Visvamitra and abandoned at birth. Kanva finds her in the forest,
protected by birds and adopts her as his daughter. Being part human and part
apsara, she inherits her mother’s otherworldly beauty and grace, which is what,
attracts Duhsanta in the first place. Shakuntala is portrayed as an exceptionally
beautiful young woman who is loved by everyone in the hermitage, including
the animals, trees, and plant life.
Dear Anasuya,it is not merely a matter of Father’s injunction; I love
them like a sister. (p. 176)
She is first shown to us watering the plants and treating them like her kin.
Similarly, when she leaves the hermitage, the animals and trees show their sorrow
as well.
Anasuya: Shakuntala dearest, have you noticed that there is not one sentient
being in the Hermitage that is not sorrowful now at the thought of losing
you. See:
The cakravaka answers not the call of his love
hidden behind lotus - leaves:
with lotus – fibre dangling from his beak,
he gazes only at you. (p. 225-26)
34
Kalidasa describes Shakuntala in traditional
feminine terms of beauty as being slender waisted, Shakuntala, in accordance to the character of nayaki,
smooth skin, dark hair etc. but he adds erotic terms is therefore steadfast in her love for Duhsanta. Her
too to her description through images drawn from the loyalty to her husband is what ennobles Shakuntala
natural world. as an exemplary woman, the ideal pativrata stri.
Thus the play offers us a Shakuntala who will be
Duhsanta: …With rounded breasts concealed by celebrated as a virtuous woman, being both a good
cloth of bark fastened at the shoulder in a fine knot, wife and mother.
her youthful form enfolded like a flower
in its pale leafy sheath unfolds not its glory. (p. 177) 4.2.3 Duhsanta
Especially through Duhsanta’s words we are given a The Nayank or the Hero is the main protagonist of
sensual physical picture of the heroine. She is the play. Heroes in Sanskrit drama belonged to the
equated to lovely flowers, blooming with magical upper castes such as Brahmins or Kshatriyas. Since
youth, with doe like eyes that radiate beauty, with these figures embodied the vira rasa, they had to be
sensuous lips, rounded breasts etc. handsome without any disfigurements, be intelligent,
daring, and filled with courage and fortitude, making
Though inlaid in duck weed the lotus glows; such men worthy of the heroic mantle. Duhsanta, the
a dusky spot enhances the moon’s radiance; King of the Puru clan in the city of Hastinapur, is an
this lissome girl is lovelier far dressed in bark! ideal hero, loved and venerated by everyone in the
… Her lower lip has the rich sheen of young shoots, kingdom, even by the ascetics in the secluded
her arms the very grace of tender twinning stems; Hermitage. As a king, Duhsanta is the upholder of
her limbs enchanting as a lovely flower Law, and it is his scared duty to maintain order in his
glow with the radiance of magical youth. (p. 177) kingdom and protect his subjects. The hermits who
In Kalidasa’s play, Shakuntala is therefore a young come to request Duhsanta to protect the ritual in Act
girl, yet to experience the vicissitudes of the worldly II compare him to a Royal Sage, who has the
world. qualities of a king as well as a holy sage.
Abhijnana Shakuntala: CharacterAnalysis and Critical
The Shakuntala of the epic is slightly different from Perspectives
the one in the play. In the epic, Shakuntala arrives
with her son at the court. When rejected, she fights
for herself and her son, quoting the Law to counter
Duhsanta’s lies and insults. She argues her case in
front of Duhsanta and prepares to leave after
asserting that her son will reign sovereign. However,
a heavenly voice affirms Shakuntala’s words and the
King accepts her. The play therefore departs firstly in
showing Shakuntala as arriving before the birth of
the son. At the face of Duhsanta’s insults,
Shakuntala does indeed, like her epic counterpart,
assert her truthfulness but there is no heavenly voice
to validate her words and both Duhsanta and her
ascetic companions reject her. The rejection is crucial
in elevating Shakuntala’s status as a pious woman
because even after being humiliated in front of
everyone, she remains faithful to her husband and
suffers with quite dignity rather than fighting further
for her rights.
35
Kalidada: Abhijnana
ShakuntalaHow admirable! His person radiates such majesty; yet one feels at ease. But that is not
surprising in a king who is almost a sage.
(p. 194)
What wonder then that this heroic King
with arms strong as massive iron beams
that bar the city’s great gates should hold
single sway over the all supporting Earth
bounded by the dark – blue oceans? (p. 195)
Thus, Duhsanta is presented to us as an extremely likeable character that can
do no wrong. Therefore, we are not surprised when Shakuntala begins to have
feeling for the disguised king after their very first meeting. However, when we
further analyse his actions we realise that he is a product of a patriarchal
Brahminical order and follows the rules prescribed therein at the cost of hurting
others such as the animals he hunts or his other wives whom he ignores.
The play opens with the King chasing a beautiful blackbuck, wreaking havoc
in the scared forest so much so that a scared elephant runs amok in the forest
causing more destruction. Duhsanta only stops when the ascetics request him
to. In the pursuit of the deer, Duhsanta forgets his duty to protect the weak
and creates fear instead. The metaphor of the hunt can be applied to his pursuit
of Shakuntala as well when he hides behind a tree to observe her much like
how a hunter would observe its prey. His initial appreciation of Shakuntala
is purely physical. He is enchanted by her beauty and demure mannerisms, which
are so different from the women in the court. Even Madhavya comments and
ridicules Duhsanta’s sudden desire for the “taste of the sour tamarind” in contrast
to the sweet delicacies available at the court. Nonetheless, Duhsanta first
confirms Shakuntala’s caste before beginning wooing her. As such we can see
how the king is acutely aware of caste positions and doesn’t dare to upset
them even when it comes to love.
Duhsanta’s Ghandharva marriage is another example of the king
neglecting his duty and forgetting his heroic conduct.
Duhsanta: Many are the daughters of sages,
married by the Gandharva rite, we hear;
and once married, felicitated
with joyful acceptance by their fathers. (p. 209)
Even though this type of marriage is allowed it is nevertheless a marriage whose
legitimacy can be challenged and it is later on in the play. Furthermore, Duhsanta
is in such a hurry to marry and consummate the marriage with Shakuntala
that he does not wait for Kanva to return and also neglects to inform Kanva
or even Gautami about it. This as we see is crucial in leaving Shakuntala
without any material witnesses to prove her marriage to him.
Duhsanta: Are you saying that this lady is already married to me?
… O, hermits, rich in holiness, try as I might, I cannot recall to my
mind accepting the hand of this lady in marriage at any time. Seeing
that she is plainly pregnant, how can I receive her when I have doubts
about being the husband? (p. 237)
Duhsanta’s repudiation of Shakuntala provides us with yet another glimpse

into the man. Since the curse has made him forget Shakuntala, he refuses to
36
acknowledge her and the unborn child, calling her a Shakuntala is the name. From that moment, Sirs, the
cuckoo for trying to pass of another man’s child as very idea of returning to the Capital finds no place in
his. He further insults her by insinuating that all his thoughts. (p. 187)
women are sly and cunning.
Despite being the King’s friend, Madhavya does not
Ascetic matron, listen: shy away from poking fun at the lovesick king, even
intuitive cunning is seen even in females interrogating Duhsanta’s desire for Shakuntala or
of lower creatures: what then of those satirically reminding him of his duties. Thus,
endowed with reason and understanding: Madhavya provides comic relief in the play that
the cuckoo, as we know, has her young reared would otherwise become too serious. His words
by other birds before they take to the air. (p. 239) show his witty humour, which does not disparage
anyone. Perhaps this is why Duhsanta, despite being
We can excuse Duhsanta’s memory loss but we the king, is indulgent of his friend and does not mind
cannot excuse his harsh and sexist rejection. Madhavya’s humourous barbs, at himself or others.
Abhijnana Shakuntala: CharacterAnalysis and Critical
Perish the sinful thought, Perspectives
Why are you out to sully your family’s honour,
and to make me fall; you are like a river
that crumbles its banks to muddy its crystal stream,
and uproots the tree growing by its edge. (p.238)
Even as Duhsanta regrets his actions later when his
memory is restored, such remorse seems lacking in
sincerity if this is how Duhsanta behaves with
women in general. Kalisada has portrayed a king
whose actions is not above criticisms and thus
provides us with a nuanced depiction of a hero that
allows for a reconsideration of the hero figure.
4.2.4 Madhavya
The jester is a stock figure in Sanskrit drama and is
portrayed here by Madhavya. He is Duhsanta’s
constant companion and friend and is the only other
character from the world of Hastinapur who knows
about Shakuntala. Madhavya is depicted as a frail,
hunchback with a staff, weak because of the physical
strains of following the king in his hunts. He is thus a
perfect foil to the handsome king. Madhavya’s role
as the jester is not limited to providing witty humour
that highlights the flaws of the people around him.
He is also Duhsanta’s friend and confidant. He
provides a helpful ear to the king, who unburdens
himself on Madhavya, giving advice as well as
providing solutions. Their friendship is so close that
Duhsanta sends Madhavya in his stead for the
completion of his mother’s ritual. It is to Madhvya
that Duhsanta reveals his true self and feelings.
O, this cruel play of Fate: I am reduced to a state of
such misery; and why – because I am the friend and
constant companion of the King – he is obsessed with
the chase.
… Then, what happened – as my ill - luck would have
it, he chanced upon a beautiful hermit-girl –
37
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala
4.3 CRITICALANALYSIS
The next section will deal with the critical analysis of the play from the point
of view of gender, caste and the notion of kingship.
4.3.1 Gender
The play has been scrutinised under various critical lenses, one of them being
gender. The play provides a very fertile space to examine the concept of gender
in the Vedic society and what it means today, in our contemporary world, to
read such works. We will look at the role of gender as well as study its
implications on the actions undertaken by the characters in the play.
Let us begin with the titular character, Shakuntala. Shakuntala, as we discussed
earlier, is of semi-divine parentage as her mother is an apsara/ celestial being.
Her ethereal and enchanting beauty is a testament to her apsara heritage.
Apsaras are known for their beauty but are also known for their disorderly
femininity, in the sense that these women are not controlled by the strictures
of the patriarchal mortal world. They are, mostly, free to act on their own accord
and are seen as more sexually free than mortal women. These celestial beings
were adept at music and dance and the gods used them to disrupt the meditations
of powerful ascetics, which was the case with the apsara Menaka who is
Shakuntala’s mother as she was sent by the God Indra to distract the sage
Viswamitra from his penance. It is not surprising that the apsara’ image is
that of uncontrolled women, who abandon their children, and take on multiple
lovers etc.
Shakuntala’s apsara legacy is something that the audience would be acutely
aware of and Kalidasa uses their dangerous femininity to show Shakuntala
as a pativrata woman unlike her mother. It creates a neat contrast between
women who disrupt society (apsaras) and women who uphold the mores of
society (Shakuntala). In the play, when Shakuntala goes to Duhsanta’s court,
he accuses her of trying to pass off another man’s child as his when she tells
him of her pregnancy. This statement is in line with the actions expected out
of apsaras, who do not behave responsibly towards children born from their
encounters with men. Looking at Shakuntala’s own history at being abandoned
at birth and her apsara lineage, Duhsanta’s accusation, though not acceptable
or warranted, cannot be seen as completely ungrounded.
However, Kalidasa does offer a redemptive understanding of apsaras right
after Duhsanta rejects Shakuntala. Abandoned by everyone, a distraught
Shakuntala asks the earth to swallow her, which is reminiscent of Sita’s request
in the Ramayana when her chastity is questioned, and as she leaves the court
her mother transports her to her heavenly hermitage.
High Priest: No sooner had Kanva’s disciples left on their journey
back than:
The young girl cursing her stars,
Wept aloud, flinging her hands up.
King: And then?
High Priest: A flash of light in a woman’s shape
From Apsara Pool, snatched her up
And vanished straightaway. (p.242)
This event shows us the protective and caring side of Menaka, who though
an Apsara feels a sense of responsibility for her daughter Shakuntala’s plight.
38
Her mother even instructs her friend, Misrakesi, to husband, even though it is clearly visible that the
keep an eye on Shakuntala as well as on the events husband does not want her.
unfolding in the mortal realm with Duhsanta. These
actions are a departure from the general Sarngarava: If you are what the King says you are,
understanding of these supernatural women and what will your father have to do with you –
show a much more agreeable angle to them. a stain on his family? But, as you know
your own conduct to be pure, even servitude
However, this is not enough to overturn the stigma in your husband’s house will be welcome to you.
of promiscuity and assertive individuality associated Stay here; we are leaving. (p. 241)
with apsaras and so Kalidasa recreates Shakuntala
in the play as an obedient, virtuous woman who is These wifely duties are referenced to in the final act
steadfast in her love (unlike apsaras) even after where Marica is said to be busy preaching to Aditi
being abandoned. Thus, Kalidasa creates an image and the wives of other sages on the conduct of a
of the dutiful wife, who even in the face of injustice virtuous wife. So we can see a running
does not abandon her responsibilities. preoccupation with women’s behaviour and how to
create ideal women in the play. These dictates
Through Shakuntala we see Kalidasa’s attempt at essentially tell women
rewriting apsara femininity in creating a compliant, Abhijnana Shakuntala: CharacterAnalysis and Critical
dutiful, pativrata wife who would serve an as Perspectives
exemplary of ideal womanhood. Shakuntala is
purged of her deviant femininity and can therefore
be celebrated in the play as the heroine.
The play also offers us a look into the expected
female behaviour in the Vedic period through the
repeated instructions on how to be an ideal wife
which we see in Kanva’s advice in Act IV.
Kanva: My beloved child:
Be held in high esteem by your lord
as Sarmistta was by Yayati;
as she bore Puru, may you too bear
a son to whom the whole world will bow
.… My child, you are now leaving for your
husband’s home; when you enter it:
Serve your elders with diligence; be a friend to your
co-wives; even if wronged by your husband do not
cross him through anger; … thus do girls attain the
status of mistress of the home; those who act
contrary are the bane of their families. What does
our Gautami think of this?
The matron Gautami too confirms the point of view
of Kanva implying that that was how young girls
were trained to behave in their marital homes.
Gautami: The best advice for a young bride. (to
Shakuntala) Dear daughter, keep these precepts
always in mine. (p. 227)
Gautami and the other female ascetics reiterate this
advice as well. Even as her hermit companions
abandon Shakuntala, these ascetics do so by telling
her to do her duty as a wife and stay with the
39
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntalato obey their husbands and to bear them sons to carry forward the lineage, outlining their
duties as mothers and wives. Nowhere do these dictates
incorporate women’s feelings or their personal desires. In fact, Kanva in Act
IV considers women as other’s wealth, to be taken care of till they are given
away and is relieved that he has finally given Shakuntala away to Duhsanta.
The blatant objectification of women and their secondary position is visible here.
This helps us to understand the position that women occupied and the powers
that, at least upper caste women, were allowed to exercise.
Compared to the disorderly femininity of the apsara is the patriarchal sanctioned
femininity embodied in the figure of Aditi, Marica’s wife and Indra’s mother.
It is important to note that it is in the ordered patriarchal world of the sacred
Hermitage that Shakuntala regains her marital happiness. Unlike the epic where
a celestial voice asserts Shakuntala’s claims and helps her or reclaim her rightful
place as Duhsanta’s wife, in the play their union occurs after a break of six
years. This union is sanctified in the sacred Hermitage as compared to the
Gandharva marriage, which was rejected.
The heavenly couple, Marica and Aditi, serve as a model for Duhsanta and
Shakuntala and it is apt that their familial union occurs here. We must not
forget that it is not simply the union of two lovers but of a family, which includes
their son, Bharata. Thus, the play’s end undercuts the romantic aspirations of
the text and takes its conclusion in the fulfillment of family life by reasserting
upper caste feminine ideal. Shakuntala has thereby fulfilled her duty as a wife
and mother by providing a son to continue the Puru line, which was a deep
concern for the childless Duhsanta.
In this analysis we have seen how the play takes from its surrounding and
influences it as well. The play’s remodeling of Shakuntala as the ideal wife
is a good example of how ‘proper’ feminine behavior is articulated and
propagated.
4.3.2 Caste
Caste played a huge role in the Vedic Hindu society and it still does in today’s
Indian society. The four-fold structure of caste regulates everything from marriage,
occupation, education, food, and religious rituals etc. In the play, right from
Act I, we see how caste determines the actions of the characters. Before
Duhsanta begins to actively pursue Shakuntala, he wants to ascertain her caste/
varna. A Kshatriya king cannot marry a woman of unknown caste and as
stated in the Manusmriti, a man can marry a woman who is of the same caste
or one caste lower, known as anuloma. Once Shakuntala’s friends confirm
her Kshatriya caste, Duhsanta is relieved and proceeds to woo her. Duhsanta’s
love for Shakuntala, whether genuine or a passing whim, cannot fall outside
of the varna order and hence knowing where she stands in the varna system
is important for him. This preoccupation with caste shows its central place in
the society and more so for the king as the continuation of his lineage depends
on the birth of sons who will carry on the father’s caste.
In accordance to the caste system, sons are important as they ensure the
continuation of the family’s name/caste line. As such, another preoccupation in
the play is the birth of a son to continue the Puru line. Duhsanta’s mother
is shown as keeping a fast to ensure the succession of her family and in the
episode regarding the distribution of a recently deceased merchant’s wealth in
Act VI, Duhsanta faints at the realisation that unlike the merchant, he might
40
not beget a son to ensure the continuation of the also provide an heir to continue the Puru line.
Puru clan. The blessings given by Kanva and
Gautami to Shakuntala also pertain to giving birth to The King’s desire for a son is of paramount
sons for the same purpose. importance for the benefit of the kingdom as well.
Thus, when he rejects Shakuntala and the unborn
Another incident that shows caste prejudice is the son, he is doing so not just as a man but also as a
fisherman episode where he is treated with disdain king. Being the king, he cannot accept any child as
and called a thief for having found the cursed ring. his without confirming the parentage. Nonetheless,
The guards abuse and beat him and threaten to hang we see how desperate Duhsanta is for a son when he
him without any proof because of their own caste agrees to the High Priest’s idea that if the child bears
superiority over the fisherman’s. They assume that the auspicious marks prophesised for his son, he will
he must have stolen the ring because of his lower accept both Shakuntala and the child as his. Thus,
caste position. Even after Duhsanta rewards the the need for a son to bequeath the kingdom to and
fisherman for having found the ring, the guards do insure its safety and prosperity far outweigh the truth
not apologise for their cruel behaviour but are of Shakuntala’s claims and the justice denied to her.
instead irritated at the reward being given to him. It
is only when the fisherman offers to share the reward As a king, there are times when Duhsanta forgets his
by buying alcohol for them that, they become duty, specifically before the consummation of his
friendly. This incident displays the hypocrisy of the desire for Shakuntala and after the revelation of the
caste system where differences can easily be curse. In both these instances, he languishes firstly,
surpassed when it comes to money. Greed seems to in his unfulfilled desire and later in his remorse for
know no caste. treating Shakuntala so cruelly. He becomes dejected
and has to be roused from this lethargy as such
As we have seen till now, caste is not overtly prolonged neglect of his duty
noticeable in the play but if we peel back the layers Abhijnana Shakuntala: CharacterAnalysis & Critical
and examine the text, we find caste assumptions and Perspectives
prejudices that underlie the actions of the characters.
4.3.3 Kingship
The play is not just a romance between a man and a
woman but of a king and a semi-divine woman.
Duhsanta is also described as the sage king, having
the virtue, wisdom as well as the power to rule over
his kingdom. Therefore, it is Duhsanta’s duty to
protect those in need, which is what gives him the
opportunity to woo Shakuntala in the Hermitage. He
is also responsible for maintaining order in his
kingdom and Indra even calls upon him to help them
defeat the demons/asuras and help restore cosmic
order. His confirmation of Shakuntala’s caste, as
discussed above is also in keeping with his duty to
maintain the social order.
When he departs the forest, he gives Shakuntala his
signet ring with his name on it. The ring is a symbol
of his kingship and a surety of his promise to send
for her and make her his queen. The loss of the ring
combined with the curse puts into doubt the veracity
of Shakuntala’s claims and thus Shakuntala’s
rejection is seen as justified by the people in the
court. In the epic, Duhsanta rejects both Shakuntala
and his son, but here it is a lonely Shakuntala with
her unborn son. However, it is Duhsanta’s duty to
41
Kalidada: Abhijnana
Shakuntala is not only bad for the kingdom but also can incite criticism and rebellion. The resolution in
the play is therefore not just for Duhsanta, Shakuntala, and
Bharata to achieve the required happy familial union but also for the smooth
functioning of the kingdom and for its secure future.
4.4 LET US SUM UP

By this time we have finished reading the text The Loom of Time, we have
gone through each unit and are now in a position to see how Kalidasa has
used his characters to narrate the story of Shakuntala and how he deviates
from the Sanskritic norms as well as the epic by playing with the audiences
expectations of the characters. The critical analysis will equip us to
understand the various lenses through which the play can be read and will help
us expand our understanding of the play. However, we should keep in mind
the fact that though we as 21st Century readers analyse the play from our point
in time and our location, and through various 20th and 21st Century critical tools,
what we see as blatant disregard for a woman’s honour and dignity was the
norm and even today in many parts of the country it still is how women are
regarded. For instance, we may recall hearing women in our own families or
women who work for us say things like a daughter cannot stay forever in her
parental home or that a daughter’s Dholi (wedding entourage) leaves her
parental home and her arthi (Funeral procession) will leave from her marital
home. Or even that their burdens will become lighter once the daughter(s) are
married off. Then again, we keep reading about honour killings and of deaths
related to inter caste marriages so the question really is have we really moved
away from the time of Shakuntala and Kalidasa? Just leaving you with food
for thought!
4.5 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the points of contrast between the two Shakuntala episodes in the
Mahabharata and the Loom of Time/ Abhijnana Shakuntala.
2. Discuss the evocation of the vira (heroism) and the srngara (love) rasa
in the play.
3. Abhijana Shakuntalam is a dramatisation of the conflicts of the private and
the public and of desire and duty. Discuss.
4. Discuss the rejection and recognition scene in the play.
5. What is the relevance of the curse and the ring in the play?
6. Duhsanta leaves his kingly authority behind when he enters the Hermitage.
Do you agree?
7. Comment on the treatment of women in play with reference to any three
female characters.
8. Write a note on the role of Madhavya as Vidusaka.
4.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chandra, Rajan, translator. Kalidasa. The Loom Of Time. New Delhi: Penguin
Random House, 1989.
Kalidasa, The Recognition of Shakuntala. Edited and translated by Somadeva
Vasudeva, New York University Press, 2006.
42
Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama in Its A N D Haksar, Introduction, Bhasa: The Shattered
Origin, Development, Theory and Practice. London: Thigh and other Plays, Gurgaon: Penguin, 1993.
Oxford University Press, 1924. Raghavan, V. Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian, New
“Sanskrit Drama: Theory and Performance.” Delhi: Penguin, 2005. J A B Buitenen, trans. and ed.,
Comparative Drama, vol. 1, no. 1, 1967, pp. 36–48. “The Book of the Beginning—Book 1”, The
Shekhar, Indu. Sanskrit Drama: Its Origin and Mahabharata, Chicago: University of Chicago,
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BEGC-101

Prof. Balaji Ranganathan Dr. Hema Raghavan (Retd) Formerly at

Units 1, 3, & 4 : Ms KalsangYangzom, Indraprastha College, Universityof Delhi

CONTENT & LANGUAGE EDITING

UNIT 1 INDIAN AESTHETICS: AN

1.2 INDIAN CLASSICAL DRAMA

1.3 SANSKRIT DRAMA

1.4 CLASSICAL SANSKRIT PLAYWRIGHTS

1.9 LET US SUM UP

UNIT 2 KALIDASA: AN OVERVIEW

2.2 KALIDASA’S BACKGROUND

2.2.2 The City of Ujjain and its Relevance in Kalidasa

2.3 KALIDASA’S LITERARY BACKGROUND

2.4 KALIDASA AND HIS WORKS

2.5 EPIC AND DRAMA

Check Your Progress 2

2.6 ANCIENT INDIAN AESTHETICS

2.6.1 Dramatic Art

2.6.2 Bharata’s Natyashastra

Rent from my dear father’s lap like a sapling of the

3.2.2 Act I: The Chase

3.3 SUMMARY & ANALYSIS OF ACTS V–VII

3.4.1 The Theme of Love

Wealth is another factor that marks the difference

3.6 HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4.2 CHARACTER ANALYSIS

Duhsanta’s repudiation of Shakuntala provides us with yet another glimpse

4.4 LET US SUM UP

4.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

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