Department of: Subject of:

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Introduction to Geography

Year 2nd Semester 3RD
University of Sindh
Roll 2k20/IR/126 Teacher SAADULLAH
No: Name RAHUJO
Jamshoro

Solar system:-
Solar system, assemblage consisting of the Sun—an average star in the Milky Way Galaxy—
and those bodies orbiting around it: 8 (formerly 9) planets with about 210 known planetary satellites (moons);
countless asteroids, some with their own satellites; comets and other icy bodies; and vast reaches of highly
tenuous gas and dust known as the interplanetary medium.
solar system to scale

The eight planets of the solar system and Pluto,

in a montage of images scaled to show the approximate sizes of the bodies relative to one another. Outward
from the Sun, which is represented to scale by the yellow segment at the extreme left, are the four rocky
terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), the four hydrogen-rich giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune), and icy, comparatively tiny Pluto.
NASA/Lunar and Planetary Laboratory
The Sun, Moon, and brightest planets were visible to the naked eyes of ancient astronomers, and their
observations and calculations of the movements of these bodies gave rise to the science of astronomy. Today
the amount of information on the motions, properties, and compositions of the planets and smaller bodies has
grown to immense proportions, and the range of observational instruments has extended far beyond the solar
system to other galaxies and the edge of the known universe. Yet the solar system and its immediate outer
boundary still represent the limit of our physical reach, and they remain the core of our theoretical
understanding of the cosmos as well. Earth-launched space probes and landers have gathered data on planets,
moons, asteroids, and other bodies, and this data has been added to the measurements collected with telescopes
and other instruments from below and above Earth’s atmosphere and to the information extracted from
meteorites and from Moon rocks returned by astronauts. All this information is scrutinized in attempts to

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understand in detail the origin and evolution of the solar system—a goal toward which astronomers continue to
make great strides.

Composition of the solar system:

Situated at the focal point of the nearby planetary group and affecting
the movement of the relative multitude of different bodies through its gravitational power is simply the Sun,
which contains in excess of 99% of the mass of the framework. The planets, arranged by their distance outward
from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Four planets—Jupiter
through Neptune—have ring frameworks, and everything except Mercury and Venus have at least one moons.
Pluto had been formally recorded among the planets since it was found in 1930 circling past Neptune, yet in
1992 a cold item was found still farther from the Sun than Pluto. Numerous other such disclosures followed,
including an article named Eris that seems, by all accounts, to be essentially just about as extensive as Pluto. It
became clear that Pluto was just one of the bigger individuals from this new gathering of items, altogether
known as the Kuiper belt. Appropriately, in August 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the
association charged by mainstream researchers with arranging cosmic articles, casted a ballot to deny Pluto’s
planetary status and spot it under another grouping called bantam planet. For a conversation of that activity and
of the meaning of planet supported by the IAU, see planet.
orbits

The orbits of the planets and other bodies of the solar system.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Orbits:
All the planets and dwarf planets, the rocky asteroids, and the icy bodies in the Kuiper belt move around
the Sun in elliptical orbits in the same direction that the Sun rotates. This motion is termed prograde, or direct,
motion. Looking down on the system from a vantage point above Earth’s North Pole, an observer would find
that all these orbital motions are in a counterclockwise direction. In striking contrast, the comet nuclei in the
Oort cloud are in orbits having random directions, corresponding to their spherical distribution around the plane
of the planets.
The state of an item’s circle is characterized as far as its unconventionality. For a totally roundabout circle, the
flightiness is 0; with expanding stretching of the circle’s shape, the whimsy increments toward a worth of 1, the
capriciousness of a parabola. Of the eight significant planets, Venus and Neptune have the most roundabout
circles around the Sun, with unconventionalities of 0.007 and 0.009, individually. Mercury, the nearest planet,
has the most noteworthy flightiness, with 0.21; the bantam planet Pluto, with 0.25, is considerably more offbeat.
Another characterizing property of an item’s circle around the Sun is its tendency, which is the point that it
makes with the plane of Earth’s circle—the ecliptic plane. Once more, of the planets, Mercury’s has the best
tendency, its circle lying at 7° to the ecliptic; Pluto’s circle, by examination, is substantially more steeply
slanted, at 17.1°. The circles of the little bodies for the most part have both higher whimsies and higher
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tendencies than those of the planets. A few comets from the Oort cloud have tendencies more noteworthy than
90°; their movement around the Sun is in this manner inverse that of the Sun’s turn, or retrograde.

Planets and their moons:

The eight planets can be separated into two particular classifications based on
their densities (mass per unit volume). The four internal, or earthbound, planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars—have rough creations and densities more noteworthy than 3 grams for every cubic cm. (Water has a
thickness of 1 gram for every cubic cm.) conversely, the four external planets, additionally called the Jovian, or
goliath, planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are huge items with densities under 2 grams for each
cubic cm; they are made fundamentally out of hydrogen and helium (Jupiter and Saturn) or of ice, rock,
hydrogen, and helium (Uranus and Neptune). The bantam planet Pluto is interesting—a cold, low-thickness
body more modest than Earth’s Moon, more like comets or to the enormous frigid moons of the external planets
than to any of the actual planets. It’s anything but an individual from the Kuiper belt clarifies these
irregularities.
The generally little internal planets have strong surfaces, need ring frameworks, and have not many or no
moons. The environments of Venus, Earth, and damages are made out of a critical level of oxidized copound
like dioxide. Among the inward planets, just Earth has a solid attractive field, which safeguards it from the
interplanetary medium. The attractive field traps a portion of the electrically charged particles of the
interplanetary medium inside an area around Earth known as the magnetosphere. Substantial centralizations of
these high-energy particles happen in the Van Allen belts in the internal piece of the magnetosphere.
The four goliath external planets are considerably more monstrous than the earthly planets and have colossal
climates made chiefly out of hydrogen and helium. They have no strong surfaces, nonetheless, and their
densities are low to the point that one of them, Saturn, would really skim in water. Every one of the external
planets has an attractive field, a ring framework, and many known moons, with bound to be found. Pluto has no
known rings and just five known moons. A few other Kuiper belt items and a few space rocks additionally have
moons of their own.
Jovian planets The Jovian—or gaseous, Jupiter-like—planets. Lunar and Planetary Instituted

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How old is our solar system?
Meteorites, or pieces of space rock that have fallen to Earth, have helped
scientists figure out the age of the solar system. Some of these small pieces of space rock, or meteoroids, have
broken off moons or planets, and can yield interesting scientific information about the chemistry and history of
their home body; others have been traveling around our solar system since that primordial dust-cloud collapse,
before those planets even existed. The Allende meteorite, which fell to Earth in 1969 and scattered over
Mexico, is the oldest known meteorite, dated to 4.55 billion years old.
How did our solar system form?
Scientists believe a nearby exploding star, called a supernova, may have triggered the collapse of our solar
nebula. According to this theory, the supernova’s explosion sent shock waves through space and those shock
waves pushed parts of the nebula closer together, leading to collapse. The supernova may have even seeded
material into the nebula, and this jettisoned material would have drawn even more matter toward the nebula’s
growing mass.
Related: Scientists create mini-supernova shock waves on Earth
The sun is at the center of our solar system and is its largest object, accounting for 99.8% of the solar system’s
mass. Our sun is a giant, raging ball of fire powered by nuclear reactions, and it provides the energy that
sustains life on Earth. The life-giving star is a yellow dwarf star made up of gas: about 91% hydrogen and 8.9%
helium, according to NASA. Compared with other stars, the size of the sun is relatively small and it’s just one
of hundreds of billions of stars in our home galaxy, the Milky Way.

One star in a galaxy:

The sun is between 25,000 and 30,000 light-years from the supermassive black hole that forms
the center of our galaxy. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy, with curved arms of stars emanating from its center.
Our solar system forms one of the smaller arms, called the Orion-Cygnus Arm, or simply the Orion Arm.
If our solar system were the size of your hand, the Milky Way would cover North America, according to NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s Night Sky Network. The boundary of the sun’s gravitational influence extends
about 122 astronomical units (AU), where one AU is the distance between the Earth and the sun, or is about 93
million miles (150 million kilometers).

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The Milky Way Galaxy is organized into spiral arms of giant stars that illuminate interstellar gas and dust. The
sun is in a finger called the Orion Spur.  (Image credit: Hubble Space Telescope)

Our solar system’s planets:

Eight affirmed planets and something like five bantam planets circle our sun. As per NASA, “the request
and course of action of the planets and different bodies in our nearby planetary group is because of the manner
in which the close planetary system framed.” Rocky materials could withstand the youthful sun’s massive
warmth, thus the initial four planets — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars — are little with rough surfaces. Past
them, “materials we are accustomed to seeing as ice, fluid or gas got comfortable the external locales of the
youthful nearby planetary group,” NASA says, specifically the gas monsters Jupiter and Saturn, and the ice
goliaths Uranus and Neptune.

Mercury:-
Mercury is the closest planet to the sun, and it is also the smallest planet in the solar system, only
slightly larger than Earth’s moon. Mercury has no atmosphere to protect it from the sun’s relentless radiation
and daytime surface temperatures can reach highs of 800 degrees Fahrenheit (430 degrees Celsius) before
plummeting as low as minus 290 F (minus 180 C) at night. Mercury was named al Roman messenger of the
gods because of its speedy rotation around the sun. This small planet has no moons.

Venus:-
Named after the Roman goddess of love, Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system. Its atmosphere
is a thick layer of mostly carbon dioxide gas that traps heat, allowing the planet’s surface temperatures to reach
a scorching 880 F (471 C). Venus is slightly smaller than Earth, and, like Earth’s outer core, it also has a core of
molten iron. “Almost all the surface features of Venus are named for noteworthy Earth women — both
mythological and real,” says NASA. “A volcanic crater is named for Sacajawea, the Native American woman
who guided Lewis and Clark’s exploration. A deep canyon is named for Diana, Roman goddess of the hunt.”
Similar to Mercury, there are no moons orbiting Venus.

Earth:-
The third rock from the sun, Earth is the only planet known to harbor life in the universe. Its habitability is
linked to the presence of liquid water. Earth is located in what is known as the “Goldilocks Zone,” orbiting at
the ideal distance from the sun to have liquid water — if it were any closer, the water would evaporate into a
gas and if Earth were farther away, the water would freeze. About 71% of our planet’s surface is covered in
water; and Earth’s atmosphere protects the planet from solar radiation. Earth is the only planet not named after a
god. Earth likely earned its name from the English and German words for “ground.” Our blue planet is the
largest of the four rocky planets in our solar system, and it has one moon. Scientists think Earth’s moon was
formed from a piece of Earth that broke off when a giant object smashed into young Earth.

Mars:-
The fourth planet from the sun is Mars, and it’s a chilly, desert-like spot canvassed in dust. This residue
is made of iron oxides, giving the planet its notable red tint. Mars imparts likenesses to Earth: It is rough, has
mountains, valleys and ravines, and tempest frameworks going from confined cyclone like residue demons to
planet-immersing dust storms.
Significant logical proof recommends that Mars at one point billions of years prior was a lot hotter, wetter
world. Waterways and perhaps seas existed. Despite the fact that Mars’ climate is excessively slender for fluid
water to exist on a superficial level for any time span, remainders of that wetter Mars actually exist today.

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Sheets of water ice the size of California lie underneath Mars’ surface, and at the two posts are ice covers made
in piece of frozen water. In July 2018, researchers uncovered that they had discovered proof of a fluid lake
underneath the outside of the southern pole’s ice cap. It’s the primary illustration of an industrious waterway on
the Red Planet.
Researchers additionally figure antiquated Mars would have had the conditions to help life like microorganisms
and different organisms. Expectation that indications of this previous existence — and the chance of even
current lifeforms — may exist on the Red Planet has driven various space investigation missions and Mars is
presently quite possibly the most investigated planets in the nearby planetary group.
Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye

 Named for the Roman god of war

 Diameter: 4,217 miles (6,787 km)
 Orbit: 687 Earth days
 Day: Just more than one Earth day (24 hours, 37 minutes)

Mars, the Red Planet, as seen from the Hubble Space Telescope. (Image credit: Space Telescope Science
Institute)

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Jupiter:-
The fifth planet from the sun, Jupiter is a giant gas world that is the most massive planet in our solar
system — more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, according to NASA. Its swirling clouds
are colorful due to different types of trace gases. 
And a major feature in its swirling clouds is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm more than 10,000 miles wide. It
has raged at more than 400 mph for the last 150 years, at least. Jupiter has a strong magnetic field, and with 75
moons, it looks a bit like a miniature solar system.

 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
 Named for the ruler of the Roman gods
 Diameter: 86,881 miles (139,822 km)
 Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
 Day: 9.8 Earth hours
Saturn:-
The sixth planet from the sun, Saturn is known most for its rings. When polymath Galileo Galilei first
studied Saturn in the early 1600s, he thought it was an object with three parts: a planet and two large moons on
either side. Not knowing he was seeing a planet with rings, the stumped astronomer entered a small drawing —
a symbol with one large circle and two smaller ones — in his notebook, as a noun in a sentence describing his
discovery. More than 40 years later, Christiaan Huygens proposed that they were rings. 
The rings are made of ice and rock and scientists are not yet sure how they formed. The gaseous planet is
mostly hydrogen and helium and has numerous moon.
 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks and visible to the naked eye
 Named for Roman god of agriculture
 Diameter: 74,900 miles (120,500 km)
 Orbit: 29.5 Earth years
 Day: About 10.5 Earth hours
Uranus:-
The seventh planet from the sun, Uranus is an oddball. It has clouds made of hydrogen sulfide, the same
chemical that makes rotten eggs smell so foul. It rotates from east to west like Venus. But unlike Venus or any
other planet, its equator is nearly at right angles to its orbit — it basically orbits on its side. Astronomers believe
an object twice the size of Earth collided with Uranus roughly 4 billion years ago, causing Uranus to tilt. That
tilt causes extreme seasons that last 20-plus years, and the sun beats down on one pole or the other for 84 Earth-
years at a time.
The collision is also thought to have knocked rock and ice into Uranus’ orbit. These later became some of the
planet’s 27 moons. Methane in the atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green tint. It also has 13 sets of faint rings.
 Discovery: 1781 by William Herschel (was originally thought to be a star)
 Named for the personification of heaven in ancient myth
 Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,120 km)
 Orbits: 84 Earth years
 Day: 18 Earth hours

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Neptune:-
The eighth planet from the sun, Neptune is about the size of Uranus and is known for supersonic
strong winds. Neptune is far out and cold. The planet is more than 30 times as far from the sun as Earth.
Neptune was the first planet predicted to exist by using math, before it was visually detected. Irregularities in
the orbit of Uranus led French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to suggest some other planet might be exerting a
gravitational tug. German astronomer Johann Galle used calculations to help find Neptune in a telescope.
Neptune is about 17 times as massive as Earth and has a rocky core.
 Discovery: 1846
 Named for the Roman god of water
 Diameter: 30,775 miles (49,530 km)
 Orbit: 165 Earth years
 Day: 19 Earth hours
Pluto:-
Once the ninth planet from the sun, Pluto is unlike other planets in many respects. It is smaller than
Earth’s moon; its orbit is highly elliptical, falling inside Neptune’s orbit at some points and far beyond it at
others; and Pluto’s orbit doesn’t fall on the same plane as all the other planets — instead, it orbits 17.1 degrees
above or below.
Scientists thought it might be nothing more than a hunk of rock on the outskirts of the solar system. But when
NASA’s New Horizons mission performed history’s first flyby of the Pluto system on July 14, 2015, i
transformed scientists’ view of Pluto.
Pluto is a very active ice world that’s covered in glaciers, mountains of ice water, icy dunes and possibly even
cry volcanoes that erupt icy lava made of water, methane or ammonia.
 Discovery: 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
 Named for the Roman god of the underworld, Hades
 Diameter: 1,430 miles (2,301 km)
 Orbit: 248 Earth years
 Day: 6.4 Earth day

Globalization
Globalization is the process by which ideas, goods and services spread throughout the world.
In business, the term is often used in an economic context to describe an integrated economy marked by free
trade, the free flow of capital and corporate use of foreign labor markets to maximize returns and benefit the
common good.

How globalization works

Globalization is driven by the convergence of political, cultural and economic
systems that ultimately promote – and often necessitate – increased interaction, integration and dependency
amongst nations.

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The more that disparate regions of the world become intertwined politically, culturally and economically, the
more globalized the world becomes.
These international interactions and dependencies are enabled and accelerated by advances in technology,
especially in transportation and telecommunications. In general, money, technology, materials and even people
flow more swiftly across national boundaries today than they ever have in the past. The flow of knowledge,
ideas and cultures is expediated through Internet communications.

Types of globalization:-
There are three types of globalization:
Economic globalization:
This type focuses on the unification and integration of international financial markets, as
well as multinational corporations that have a significant influence on international markets.

Political globalization:
This type deals mainly with policies designed to facilitate international trade and
commerce. It also deals with the institutions that implement these policies, which can include national
governments as well as international institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade
Organization.

Cultural globalization:
This type focuses on the social factors that cause cultures to converge – such as
increased ease of communication and transportation, brought about by technology.

Effects of globalization
The effects of each type of globalization can be felt both locally and globally, and can be observed in
interactions at every level of society, from an individual at the micro level to a society at the macro level.
 The individual level includes the way international influence affects ordinary people within a nation or
region
 The community level includes effects to local or regional organizations, businesses and economies.
 The institutional level includes effects to multinational corporations, national governments and higher
education institutions that have international students. At this level, decisions are made that affect the
lower levels.
While the effects of globalization can be clearly observed, analyzing the net impact of globalization is a
complex proposition, as specific results of globalization are often seen as positive by proponents and negative
by critics. Many times, a relationship that benefits one entity may end up damaging another, and whether
globalization benefits the world at large remains a point of contention.

Nation state
A nation state is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than
“country”, since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group. … In a more general sense, a
nation state is simply a large, politically sovereign country or administrative territory
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Origins
The origins and early history of nation-states are disputed. Two major theoretical questions have been
debated. First, “Which came first, the nation or the nation-state?” Second, “Is nation-state a modern or an
ancient idea?” Some scholars have advanced the hypothesis that the nation-state was an inadvertent byproduct
of 15th century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and
geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. For others, the
nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation-state was created to meet
that demand. Some “modernization theories” of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify
and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation-state as a modern European phenomenon,
facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy, and mass media (including print).
However, others look for the roots of nation-states in ancient times.
Most commonly, the idea of a nation-state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states,
often called the “Westphalian system” in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power
that characterized that system depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled,
independent entities, whether empires or nation-states, that recognized each other’s sovereignty and territory.
The Westphalian system did not create the nation-state, but the nation-state meets the criteria for its component

states.

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European boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815. This map of Europe, outlining borders in 1815,
demonstrates that still at the beginning of the 19th century, Europe was divided mostly into empires, kingdoms,
and confederations. Hardly any of the entities on the map would meet the criteria of the nation-state.

Characteristics
Nation-states have their own characteristics that today may be taken-for-granted factors shaping
a modern state, but that all developed in contrast to pre-national states. Their territory is considered semi-sacred
and nontransferable. Nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social, and
cultural life. Nation-states typically have a more centralized and uniform public administration than their
imperial predecessors because they are smaller and less diverse. After the 19 th-century triumph of the nation-
state in Europe, regional identity was usually subordinate to national identity. In many cases, the regional
administration was also subordinate to central (national) government. This process has been partially reversed
from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy in formerly centralized
states (e.g., France).
The most obvious impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is creation of a
uniform national culture through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population
constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language, and many forms of shared culture.
When the implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. The creation of national systems of
compulsory primary education is usually linked with the popularization of nationalist narratives. Even today,
primary and secondary schools around the world often teach a mythologized version of national history.

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Bacon’s standard map of Europe, 1923. While some European nation-states emerged throughout the 19th
century, the end of World War I meant the end of empires on the continent. They all broke down into a number
of smaller states. However, not until the tragedy of World War II and the post-war shifts of borders and
population resettlement did many European states become more ethnically and culturally homogeneous and
thus closer to the ideal nation-state.  

The impact of the globalization on nation-state

Globalization is changing the world step by step, it also has profound influence on nation-state, it changing and
threatening the nation-state through three aspects like political, economical and socio-cultural. It is both chances
and challenges to nation-state. In nation-state, their main thing is to protect the sovereignty and territory
integrity. It cannot be easily destroyed.
Political impact
Globalization also creates a sense of interdependence among nations, which could create an
imbalance of power among nations of different economic strengths. … Through various economic imbalances,
these interactions may lead to diminished roles for some states and exalted roles for others.

Economic impact
Globalization also creates a sense of interdependence among nations, which could create an
imbalance of power among nations of different economic strengths. The role of the nation-state in a global
world is largely a regulatory one as the chief factor in global interdependence.

Cultural impact
One commonly recognized effect of globalization is that it favors Westernization, meaning that
other nation-states are at a disadvantage when dealing with the Americas and Europe. … Through various
economic imbalances, these interactions may lead to diminished roles for some states and exalted roles for
others.

Positive effect on nation-state in globalization world

Nation-state still has profound functions in today’s global world, territory still the symbol of distinguishing
nations, globalization creates many new political groups, but the nation-state still the most important political
group in today’s world. Globalization does not destroy the territory and sovereignty totally, only influence it.
Although many international institutions existing in nation-state, the nation identity still play the dominant role
in nation-state and they are decide the national rules and policies (news.xinhuanet.com). Economic
globalization brings many chances to nation-state although it threatens in some ways. In national market,
multinational companies give nation-state more benefits due to the international trade, it also enhance their
national company’s competitive advantages. It can bring more chance to trade with other international
organizations. Then, more and more multinational companies, it can reduce their unemployment rate though it
has many foreign labors. It can create more job vacancies to the nation-state labor market. Cultural unified is the
main part as for nation-state, however, cultural globalization cannot guarantee the nation-state cultural unity. In
one hand, cultural globalization threaten the national culture development, on the other hand, national cultural
also integrate into the global culture. National still keep own cultural characters even better developed. Cultural
communication is important to nation-state because they also need to improve their cultural weakness, nation-
state can learn and absorb multinational culture to enhance their culture. Also other countries people can absorb
and learn the nation-state’s cultural through cultural communication. It is a good way to promote their nations
culture advantages, make more and more people know their nations. Overall, the evolution of globalization not
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only threatens the nation-state in some ways, there are more benefits which they can gain through globalization.
Chances are more than challenges, nation-state has their policy to protect their country, it cannot easily be
destroyed. Nation-state just needs to adapt to this economic globalization world in order to better develop their
nations because globalization is the whole world phenomena it cannot reverse it.

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