The challenges in policy formulation, policy analysis and implementation in

developing countries.
1. 1. Introduction In every society, there must exist some problems. These problems could be in
the areas of politics, commerce, education, agriculture, communication, housing,
transportation, health etc. In order to solve these problems as they might exist at given points
in time, government is always seen formulating policies in response to them and in relation to
the objectives of growth, national development and wellbeing of the citizens. This is
necessary because if attempts are not made to address these problems as they arise, they
may degenerate into uncontrollable stages with the society‟s social-economic growth and
development endangered.(Okoli & Onah, 2002). Fundamentally, a public policy is a
government action or proposed action directed at achieving certain desired goals or
objectives (Ikelegbe, 2006). In the light of a given societal problem, public policy guides and
determines present and future public decisions as well as private individual or private
business institutional actions, decisions or behavior. In essence, a public policy determines
the activities of government and given private institutions in relation to providing services
designed to solve a given problem. Ugwuanyi et al.,(2013). Policymaking involves a
combination of processes. Although not always clear-cut or easily distinguishable, political
scientists have identified these processes for purposes of analysis. They include the
following: Identifying policy problems: Publicized demands for government action can lead to
identification of policy problems. Formulating policy proposals: Policy proposals can be
formulated through political channels by policy-planning organizations, interest groups,
government bureaucracies, state legislatures, and the president and Congress/parliament.
Legitimizing public policy: Policy is legitimized as a result of the public statements or actions
of government officials, both elected and appointed in all branches and at all levels. This
includes executive orders, budgets, laws and appropriations, rules and regulations, and
decisions and interpretations that have the effect of setting policy directions.
2. 2. Implementing public policy: Policy is implemented through the activities of public
bureaucracies and the expenditure of public funds. Evaluating public policy: Policies are
formally and informally evaluated by government agencies, by outside consultants, by
interest groups, by the mass media, and by the public. Policy processes ideally involve
different stages: agenda setting; formulation; implementation; and evaluation. Although this
stages or phases approach to policymaking has been criticized for being too simplistic,
insufficiently explicating that some phases may occur together, and not saying much about
why policy turns out as it does, it does provide a way to discuss many of the ways policy is
constructed, carried out, evaluated, and made again. All these activities include both
attempts at rational problem solving and political conflict. Definition of a Policy Policy is
defined in the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary as a definite course or method of action
selected from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. A
policy is defined in the New Oxford Dictionary of English as: “a course or principle of action
adopted or proposed by a government, party, business or individual". Other scholars define a
policy as making decisions that reflect values and allocating resources based on those
values. Thus, policy represents a particular political, ethical, or programmatic viewpoint.
Governmental policy reflects theoretical or experiential assumptions about what is required
to resolve a particular issue or problem. It is the process by which governments translate
their political vision into programmes and actions to deliver 'outcomes' – desired change in
the real world. Policy can take a range of different forms, including non-intervention;
regulation, for instance by licensing; or the encouragement of voluntary change, including by
grant aid; as well as direct public service provision.
3. 3. Definition of Public Policy Fundamentally, a public policy is a government action or
proposed action directed at achieving certain desired goals or objectives (Ikelegbe, 2006). In
the light of a given societal problem, public policy guides and determines present and future
 public decisions as well as private individual or private business institutional actions,
decisions or behavior. In essence, a public policy determines the activities of government
and given private institutions in relation to providing services designed to solve a given
problem. Many scholars have defined Public policy as whatever governments choose to do
or not to do. Public policy deciding at any time or place what objectives and substantive
measures should be chosen in order to deal with a particular problem. Public policy is the
strategic use of resources to alleviate national problems or governmental concerns. Public
policy is the public response to the interest in improving the human conditions. In these
definitions there is divergence between what governments decide to do and what they
actually do. Public policy is a guide which government has designed for direction and
practice in certain problem areas Nduka.E et al., (2010). POLICY FORMULATION AND
CHALLENGES Policy-making is the process by which governments translate their political
vision into programmes and actions to deliver „outcomes‟ - desired change in the real world.
Two parts to policy formulation: Effective formulation (analytical phase) means that the policy
proposed is regarded as a valid, efficient, and implementable solution to the issue at hand.
Acceptable formulation (political phase) means that the proposed course of action is likely to
be authorized by the legitimate decision makers, usually through majority‐building in a
bargaining process. That is, it must be politically feasible.
4. 4. The analytical and political aspects of policy formulation Involve:  First, effective policy
alternatives, presumably based on sound analysis, must be conceived and clearly
articulated.  Second, a political choice among these alternatives must be made: The policy
must be authorized through a political process, such as legislation or regulation.  Both
phases: analysis and authorization – make up policy formulation  Analysis + Authorization =
Formulation  On Analysis – Professional policy analysts, use their skills and analytical tools
to study an issue and to devise policy alternatives to address the issue. They consider
aspects such as means, behaviour, cost, implementation strategy, and consequences 
Elected or appointed officials, however, have the final choice among the alternatives
presented. This brings judgment, wisdom, and accountability to policy formulation. They
consider goals, trade‐offs, value priorities, and weighing the overall effects of the policy
which makes them accountable to the people, under our representative form of government.
Steps in Policy Formulation and Implementation: Deciding whether a new policy or reform is
required, promote the new policy or reform an existing one, make the process more
participatory by engaging stakeholders, adopt the new policy, (often merged with the actual
implementation stage). Finally, the policy is implemented, after implementation, policies must
be monitored and evaluated and a strategy and an action plan are also required for the
policy implementation process. Policy Circle The Althaus, Bridgman & Davis model covers
the following: issue identification, policy analysis, policy instrument development,
consultation (which permeates the entire process), coordination, decision, implementation
and evaluation.
5. 5. Features of Policy Making Nine Features of Modern Policy Making include: forward
Looking, outward looking, innovative, flexible and creative, evidence based, inclusive, joined
up, reviewed (should be regularly), evaluation and learns lessons and disseminates them
(what worked & best practice). Policy analysis At this point, it may be said, more generally,
that policy analysis is carried out before policy formulation, since the analysis of the
consequences of the various possible policies has to be made in order to supply the
necessary information to the decision-maker, so that he may select a particular policy and,
after policy formulation, when that policy is being translated into concrete actions, i.e. in
terms of plans, programmes and projects for implementation. In other words, it shows the
role of policy analysis in relation to policy formulation and policy implementation. Policy
analysis means making criticisms. Making criticisms means exposing the implicit values that
guide our research and recognizing that research which precludes implications for alternative
policy choices is not worth doing. According to Nduka .E et al., (2010), Policy analysis is
 defined as simply put is the study of the causes, processes, formulation, implementation and
consequences of public policy. It involves the description and explanation of particular policy
choices and contents; determination of strategies for optimal policy.-making, performance,
implementation and impact of public policies. It uses collected data to systematically explain,
describe and prescribe policies with the aid of certain social science methods, theories and
approaches. However, almost all participants in policy formulation have stakes in the
configuration that policy takes. Policy analysis as a technique puts data to use in, or deciding
about, estimating and measuring the consequences of public policy. Its purpose is twofold. It
provides maximum information with minimal cost about: The likely consequences of
proposed policies and the actual consequences of the policies already adopted.
6. 6. Establishing the context: What is the underlying problem that must be dealt with? What
specific objectives are to be pursued in confronting this problem? Laying out the alternatives:
What are the alternative courses of action? What are the possibilities for gathering further
information? Predicting the consequences: What are the consequences of each alternative
action? What techniques are relevant for predicting these consequences? If outcomes are
uncertain, what is the estimated likelihood of each? Valuing the outcomes: By what criteria
should we measure success in pursuing each objective? Recognizing that inevitably some
alternatives will be superior with respect to certain objectives and inferior with respect to
others, how should different combinations of valued objectives be compared with one
another? Making a choice: Drawing all aspects of the analysis together, what is the preferred
course of action?" Although Strokey & Leckhauser insisted that the five criteria areas must
be considered, they did not expect an analyst always to proceed from one stage of the
analysis to the next, but to revise the framework to suit his own operational style. In
establishing the context, it is essential to focus attention on policy areas where there is
widely- shared consensus and treat delicate issues cautiously. The problem areas in
analysis may be examined in terms of equity/ equality, efficiency and effectiveness in
qualitative or quantitative terms or according to the impact on the economy and so on. Once
the analyst knows what the problem is about, he will conceptualize it in order to eliminate
courses of action that will be costly, redundant and unfeasible, thus finding a way to seek the
preferable choice and propose a course of action. This proposed course of action should
take into account the consequences as well as the unexpected effects. The issue of making
choices that favour the present at the
7. 7. expense of the future is raised and an explanation of how to think about choices and how
they can be compared is presented. CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN POLICY
ANALYSIS The world for which policies have to be developed is becoming increasingly
complex, uncertain and unpredictable. Citizens are better informed, have rising expectations
and are making growing demands for services tailored to their individual needs. Key policy
issues, such as social need, low educational achievement and poor health, are connected
and cannot be tackled effectively by departments or agencies acting individually. In his
analysis of the major constraints to African development, Balogun (1992) has pinned
institutional rigidity as another characteristic of policy management dispensation on the
continent. He lashes at African cultural values that have largely contributed to this rigidity. He
informs us that due to internal conflict, the African culture impedes any cooperative action in
political associations and in modern administrative agencies. So whose rigidity matters in
any given policy? And what mechanisms are in place to enforce cooperation in policy
management in developmental states? To enhance policy management capacity in Africa,
Basheka et al (2012) suggests the need to review of what he termed the critical skills in the
policy process among policy makers and implementers. Such skills entail leadership and
motivation, entrepreneurial skills and innovation, planning and forecasting, programming,
sequencing, precision-management/coordination, resource mobilization and optimization,
information storage, retrieval/scanning, utilization, human resource management, conflict
resolution, and crisis control. At a close range of analysis, these skills are crucial for
addressing a number of institutional and process constraints for effective policy
 management. Most policies in in developing countries like Uganda are managed through a
set of institutions; defined as a set of informal and formal rules that structure interactions
between organizations and between individuals. The literature also suggests that a reality
gap between ideas of the best practice and the actual legal, administrative, political and
economic processes that exist in low- income and middle-income countries means that a
„one size fits all‟ approach is likely to produce
8. 8. perverse outcomes or what is called „fatal remedies‟ (Hood, 1998: 208). Politics has been
identified as a key issue to understand policy management. It has been observed by Goran
Hyden (2006) that in neo-patrimonial systems the president and other politicians at the top
play a significant role in policy implementation. He postulates that because African
governments do not control power, politics emerges as supreme and undermines other
rational bases for policy determination; subsequently, a policy deficit is caused. The
transition from the movement type of politics to competitive politics has further compounded
this problem because the ruling regime will ensure that there is total monopoly over state
resources (Lindberg, 2003: 123) and this leads those in power to become directly involved in
policy management even where the work would have been delegated to street level
bureaucrats. Another political dimension worth mentioning has been the issue of donors. In
their policy implementation model, Meter & Horn (1975) explain that several environmental
factors can influence the implementation process. They include the economic, social, and
political conditions prevailing at the time, as well as the nature of public opinion that exists in
the implementation environment. Yet these factors also have a cultural aspect. For instance,
the influence of donors often leads to failure. The World Bank for example has immense
influence due to its resource capacity and politics of residency, which makes it a willing and
able lender. Hence, it can impose its preferences on reforms (Harrison 2001:668-670;
Polidano 2001) and sometimes the imposed reforms may be inappropriate. Thus, high-level
dependence on external funding, which comes with conditionalities, may require new policies
that may contradict homegrown policy preferences. It remains to be seen if such external
agencies have a sufficiently clear vision of successful reforms. However, we can well ask,
why do countries accept donor influence (e.g., agree to implement a reform which the donor
recommends), yet at the same time suspect that a reform programme will fail? The answer to
this has to do with resources: while these countries need resources, civil servants know they
can individually profiteer from them. For example, donor money and jobs created in
connection with a reform implementation process can be awarded based on ethnicity and
nepotism. Mwenda & Tangri (2005), confirm this hypothesis by arguing that policies are at
times accepted primarily for political survival, and worse still, they have perpetuated neo-
patrimonial networks that have a devastating effect on the way policies are managed in
Uganda and other developing countries.
9. 9. Policy making does not take place in distinct stages The „stages‟ of policy making do not
just often overlap, they are often inseparable. In the real world, policy problems and policy
solutions frequently emerge together, rather than one after another. In other words, plans
may be present at the same time, or before, a need to act has been identified. This can lead
to poorly conceived policies if ministers present a fait accompli solution that is flawed, or
whose relationship to a policy problem is unclear – but will not hear it challenged. The
current policy process does not do enough to address these difficulties. Policy makers
agreed the solution was „directed exploration‟, where ministers are clear about their goals,
and then are prepared to engage in an honest, iterative discussion about how to achieve
them. However, such discussions are impeded by a lack of time, appropriate institutional
arrangements, and problems in ministerial-civil service relationships. We need better ways of
ensuring that the policy problem has been fully considered, and the option tested properly.
Hallsworth. M et al., (2011). Unclear or Ambitious Policy Goals It has been observed that
most policies and plans are inefficient in learning from past experiences. As a result they
often devise ambitious targets which ultimately fall short of their desired outcomes (Ahsan,
2003; The World Bank, 1999). One of the main reasons for such a situation is the absence of
 reliable data for educational planning in Pakistan. It is very often the case that even official
documents carry discrepancies. Ahsan (2003) has shown that great variation exists among
many official and semi-official sources, including such basic educational statistics as the
percentage of literacy. Tsang (1988) strongly suggested that there is a dire need in
developing countries to strengthen the informational base to improve policy frameworks.
Political Commitment The problem related to politics and politicians sits at the root of the
problems of implementation in Pakistan. Literature on implementation highlights the
importance of political commitment by leadership as critical to policy success (Sabatier &
Mazmanian, 1983, pp. 158-59). Sri Lankan
10. 10. reform experience suggests that successful implementation crucially depends on the
consistent support of top political and bureaucratic leadership (Cummings, Gunawardena, &
Williams, 1992, pp. 15-16). Citing the example of civil service reform in Swaziland, McCourt
(2003) noticed that the lack of „political commitment‟ of government was the principal reason
for failure of reform programmes. In the case of Pakistan there have been many instances
where governments have failed to provide the political support needed for implementing and
sustaining policy initiatives. Each new government has discontinued most programmes of its
predecessors soon after assuming power, for example, a literacy project titled Nai Roshni
(new light) was launched in 1987 and was discontinued in 1989 with the change of
government (Ahsan, 2003, p. 264). Other mass literacy programmes have also failed due to
low political commitment both at federal and local levels (Akhtar, 2004, p. 176). Governance
Structure The issues of ineffective governance and corruption, particularly among politicians
and civil servants, have also been described as a major obstacle to proper policy
implementation in Pakistan (World Bank. Country Department I South Asia Region, 1997, p.
12). One of the major reasons for the ineffectiveness of governance is lack of coordination
and trust among political representatives and government officials, and also the lack of
cooperation among different government departments (Aga Khan University Institute for
Educational Development & Department for International Development, 2003, p. 5; The
World Bank, 1999). In the case of SAP, the lack of trust among finance and education
departments has caused a shortage of finances for the project, which has seriously affected
the envisaged outcomes (World Bank. Human Development Sector Unit, 2003, p. 16). This
observation indicates towards the issues that are related to the joint action of multiple actors,
and its inherent problems. The Sri Lankan experience suggests that a reform that involves
fewer government agencies would experience more cooperation, and stand a better chance
of successful implementation (Cummings et al., 1992, p. 16). The lack of cooperation among
different organs of government and their mutual disrespect create several „clearance points‟
that hamper the overall organization and implementation of policy (Pressman & Wildavsky,
1973; Sabatier & Mazmanian, 1983). Eventually due to distrust among different agencies
and due to the tendency of civil services to resist change, the policy is implemented only
symbolically (Firestone & Corbett, 1988, p. 513).
11. 11. Institutional challenges In his analysis of the major constraints to African development,
Balogun (1992) has pinned institutional rigidity as another characteristic of policy
management dispensation on the continent. He lashes at African cultural values that have
largely contributed to this rigidity. He informs us that due to internal conflict, the African
culture impedes any cooperative action in political associations and in modern administrative
agencies. So whose rigidity matters in any given policy? And what mechanisms are in place
to enforce cooperation in policy management in developmental states? To enhance policy
management capacity in Africa, the author suggests the need to review of what he termed
the critical skills in the policy process among policy makers and implementers. Such skills
entail leadership and motivation, entrepreneurial skills and innovation, planning and
forecasting, programming, sequencing, precision management/coordination, resource
mobilization and optimization, information storage, retrieval/scanning, utilization, human
resource management, conflict resolution, and crisis control. At a close range of analysis,
these skills are crucial for addressing a number of institutional and process constraints for
 effective policy management. Most policies in for example in Uganda are managed through a
set of institutions; defined as a set of informal and formal rules that structure interactions
between organizations and between individuals. The literature also suggests that a reality
gap between ideas of the best practice and the actual legal, administrative, political and
economic processes that exist in low-income and middle-income countries means that a
„one size fits all‟ approach is likely to produce perverse outcomes or what is called „fatal
remedies‟ (Hood, 1998: 208). Politics has been identified as a key issue to understand policy
management. It has been observed by Hyden (2006) that in neo- patrimonial systems the
president and other politicians at the top play a significant role in policy implementation. He
postulates that because African governments do not control power, politics emerges as
supreme and undermines other rational bases for policy determination; subsequently, a
policy deficit is caused. The transition from the movement type of politics to competitive
politics has further compounded this problem because the ruling regime will ensure that
there is total monopoly over state resources (Lindberg, 2003: 123) and this leads those in
power to
12. 12. become directly involved in policy management even where the work would have been
delegated to street level bureaucrats. Institutional constraint Policy analysts also face the
problem of institutional acceptance on policy outcomes. Institutional characteristics limit what
can or will be done. Specifically, an agency accustomed to doing things in a particular way
cannot innovate very often. Rather, it looks for an effort to integrate new demands into
existing patterns of doing business. Donors Dependence. In their policy implementation
model, Meter and Horn (1975) explain that several environmental factors can influence the
implementation process. They include the economic, social, and political conditions
prevailing at the time, as well as the nature of public opinion that exists in the implementation
environment. Yet these factors also have a cultural aspect. For instance, the influence of
donors often leads to failure. The World Bank for example has immense influence due to its
resource capacity and politics of residency, which makes it a willing and able lender. Hence,
it can impose its preferences on reforms (Harrison 2001:668-670; Polidano 2001) and
sometimes the imposed reforms may be inappropriate. Thus, high-level dependence on
external funding, which comes with conditionalities, may require new policies that may
contradict homegrown policy preferences. It remains to be seen if such external agencies
have a sufficiently clear vision of successful reforms. However, we can well ask, why do
countries accept donor influence (e.g., agree to implement a reform which the donor
recommends), yet at the same time suspect that a reform programme will fail? The answer to
this has to do with resources: while these countries need resources, civil servants know they
can individually profiteer from them. For example, donor money and jobs created in
connection with a reform implementation process can be awarded based on ethnicity and
nepotism. Mwenda & Tangri (2005), confirm this hypothesis by arguing that policies are at
times accepted primarily for political survival, and worse still, they have perpetuated neo-
patrimonial networks that have a devastating effect on the way policies are managed in
Uganda, Kenya and other developing countries.
13. 13. Constraints of politics The activities of political leaders constrain policy analysis. Policy
ideas are dropped because elected politicians and other appointees oppose them. The
reaction of Senators, House of Representatives, the President and Presidential Advisers are
anticipated as proposals are debated. Many ideas are discarded because specialists cannot
conceive of any plausible circumstances which they could be approved by elected politicians
and their appointees. Policy analysis suffers these political constraints when policy issues
are being analyzed. Budgetary constraint Budgetary constraints also affect policy analysis.
Expectations may always outpace the capabilities of government. Before any proposals is
accepted and approved, decision-makers need to be convinced that it has the resource to do
them. As observed by Kingdom (1984:145-6), “decision-maker need to be convinced that the
budgetary cost of the programme is acceptable; that there is a reasonable chance that
politicians will approve; that the public in its various facets both mass and activists will
 acquiesce”. There must, therefore, be sufficient fund to meet policy expectations, failure
which policy analysis suffers. Values Though, objectivity is relative as many analysts believe
that policy analysis is not value-free since value judgment also influences how they record or
present information. Nonetheless, policy analysts are more objective than programme
administrators as analysts often recommend alternatives, review consequences before
arriving at policy conclusion, whereas the bureaucrats are national maximizers of self-
interests (Down, 1967, Niskanen, 1971). In relative terms, policy analysts are more objective
where there is no conflict of interests. Policy analysis cannot provide solutions to problems
when there is no general consensus on what the problems are. It is incapable of resolving
societal value conflicts. At best, it can offer advice on how to accomplish a certain set of end
values. It cannot determine what those end values should be. Furthermore, social science
research cannot be value-free. Besides, it is difficult for the government to cure all or even
most of the maladies of the society. They are constrained by certain values in the society,
such as: religious beliefs, diversity in culture and languages. These cannot easily be
managed by the government.
14. 14. Anticipation of acquiescence by society Anticipation of acquiescence within a community
is another constraint to policy analysis. Specialists in policy community know that ultimately
their proposals must be acceptable to the public reaction as they design their proposals. The
public possible negative reaction to policy proposals acts as a constraint to policy analysis.
Multiple causes of a problem There are also certain societal problems which may have
multiple causes and a specific policy may not be able to eradicate the problem. There are
policies that solve the problems of one group in society which create problems for other
groups. In a plural society one person‟s solution may be another person‟s problem. This is a
constraint to many policy proposals and such policy analysis proposal to solve such societal
problem becomes an uphill task. Costly solutions Policy analysis also faces the constraint of
solutions to some problem being more costly. For instance, certain levels of public disorder
including riots, civil disturbances and occasional violence cannot be eradicated without the
adoption of very regressive policies which would prove too costly to democratic values,
freedom of speech and press; rights of assembly; freedom to form opposition parties. Thus,
a certain level of disorder may be the price to pay for democracy. All these act as constraints
to policy analysis. Uncertainty As future is always uncertain, it is questionable whether policy
analysis can find solutions to the problems regarding the future of society. Poverty,
unemployment, inequality, and environmental pollution are some of the major problems in
the society. Of course, this is an excuse for failing to strive for a better society. It must be
realized that solutions to these problems may be difficult to find. There are several reasons
for tempering our enthusiasm for policy analysis. Lack of communication It has been
observed that policy analyses are gathering dust because they are either too long or too
hard to understand. A policy analysis is of no use if it cannot be communicated to others.
Too often, the policy analysis deals with subjective topics and must rely upon the
interpretation of results. Professional researchers often interpret the results of their analyses
differently.
15. 15. Obviously, quite different policy recommendations can come out from these alternative
interpretations of the results of research. Policies need to be designed, not just conceived
Current processes greatly underestimate the value of policy design. A greater emphasis on
policy design helps to ensure that the planned actions represent a realistic and viable means
of achieving the policy goals. In business, there is a quality control phase where new
products are prototyped and stress-tested, before being trailed and finally going to market.
While such testing does happen for some public sector policies, it should be much more
extensive and rigorous: the policy process still does not provide enough support to make it
happen systematically. Nevertheless, the complexity of modern governance means it is
unlikely that policies can be designed perfectly, so that nothing will go wrong or need to be
revised. Therefore, the people implementing a policy need the capacity and opportunity to
adapt it to local or changing circumstances. Policy making is often determined by events
 Policy making does not take place in a vacuum, where the government is in total control of
its agenda. The result can be sharp discontinuities and apparently illogical decisions, as the
government‟s coherent position can get overwhelmed by events. But not all events are the
result of the external world affecting policy makers; some are „self-generated‟. Many of our
interviewees made it clear that the desire to capture the news agenda, generate headlines,
or be seen to be acting, could lead to over-hasty announcements. The effects of policies are
often indirect, diffuse, and take time to appear Current guidance presents policies as discrete
interventions to tackle specific problems, whose effects can then be reliably measured and
evaluated. But there is plenty of evidence that the effects of these interventions may be
complex, wide-ranging and unintended. Given the complexity of the problems with which
government deals, it may be unlikely that a policy will produce effects that are both
measurable and attributable. Indeed, it may actually be unhelpful to
16. 16. think of policies as discrete interventions that can achieve a particular goal on their own.
Policy may be the cumulative impact of many different initiatives in a particular area, or it
may be about managing a wider system. Unless the policy process is set up to capture those
impacts and be sensitive to other, interlinked policies, the real impact of a policy cannot be
properly understood. The more one delves into the reality of policy making, the more that
policy cycles and their like resemble a comforting narrative that imposes specious order on a
complex reality. Maintaining this narrative often means that, in practice, policy makers often
have to fall back on their native wits. This is why many interviewees voiced concerns about
the ad hoc nature of policy making: there is not so much a lack of recommended processes,
just a lack of realistic ones. POLICY FORMULATION AND CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED
There are two key stages to the policy formulation process: determining the policy options
and then selecting the preferred option (see Young & Quinn, 2002: 13-14). For both stages,
policymakers should ideally ensure that their understanding of the specific situation and the
different options is as detailed and comprehensive as possible; only then can they make
informed decisions about which policy to go ahead and implement. This includes the
instrumental links between an activity and an outcome as well as the expected cost and
impact of an intervention. The quantity and credibility of the evidence is important. At this
stage, the public administration concerned examines the various policy options it considers
to be possible solutions. It should be noted that coalitions of actors strive, through the use of
advocacy strategies, to gain priority for one specific interpretation of both the problem and its
solution. It is at this stage that power relationships crystallize, determining the direction a
policy will take. This stage is the most crucial one after policy formulation is its
implementation. It is, perhaps, for its importance that some scholars refer to the policy
implementation stage as the hub of policy process. Fundamentally, policy implementation is
the process of translating a policy into actions and presumptions into results through various
projects and programmes (Okoli and Onah, 2003; Ikelegbe, 2006). Kraft & Furlong (2007)
and Ajaegbu & Eze (2010) state that policy
17. 17. implementation actually refers to the process and activities involved in the application,
effectuation and administration of a policy. A variety of activities are involved in policy
implementation that may include issuing and enforcing directives, disbursing funds, signing
contracts, collecting data and analyzing problems, hiring and assigning personnel, setting
committees and commissions, assigning duties and responsibilities and also making interim
decisions etc. (Nweke, 2006). POLICY IMPLEMENTATION It is difficult to create a
conceptual distinction between policy formulation and policy implementation (Dinica, 2004).
This is because policy formulation basically takes place throughout the entire policy process.
What is needed is a way of combining the analytical benefits offered by the „stages‟ model
with the recognition of the interaction between the stages. (Hill & Hupe, 2003). Use the term
„policy‐making‟ for the entire process, „policy formation‟ for the initial part of policy‐making,
Policy implementation‟ for the latter part of the policy‐making process. Fundamentally and
according to Hornby (2010), the word effective refers to producing the results that is wanted
or intended or producing a successful result. In the context of this work, effective policy
 implementation, therefore, entails implementing a policy in such a way as to produce, attain
or realize the goals and objectives of the policy. In essence, if a policy is effectively
implemented, the designed and planned development goals and objectives are realized. The
basic end or focus of the bureaucratic activities should then be on how best to effectively
implement policies. According to Sajid Ali (2006), states that policy implementation is
generally held to be the step that follows policy formulation and is viewed as „the process of
carrying out a basic policy decision‟ (Sabatier & Mazmanian, 1983). Bhola (2004) suggests
that policy implementation is a process „to actualize, apply and utilize it [policy] in the world
of practice‟.
18. 18. At this stage, the policy‟s implementation parameters are established, which can directly
affect the eventual outcome of the policy. Several factors combine to determine the actual
effects of a policy and how well it achieves its objectives. Factors noted by Sabatier and
Mazmanian include: the type and complexity of the problem addressed, the magnitude of the
expected change and the groups targeted by the policy, the human and financial resources
devoted to implementation, and the administrative structures and regulations that will be put
in place to support implementation of the policy (Sabatier & Mazmanian, 1995). Note that
high demands are placed on the technical-administrative apparatus at this stage, and on
groups associated with this policy sector. The term policy network is often used to refer to
the actors within the government, as well as the stakeholders associated with a policy sector,
who are in sense experts in the area. This policy network will have a major influence on how
the policy is implemented. Policy implementation includes all the activities that result from the
official adoption of a policy. Policy implementation is what happens after a law is passed. We
should never assume that the passage of a law is the end of the policymaking process.
Sometimes laws are passed and nothing happens. Sometimes laws are passed and
executive agencies, presuming to act under these laws, do a great deal more than Congress
ever intended. Political scientist Robert Lineberry writes: “The implementation process is not
the end of policy-making, but a continuation of policy- making by other means. When policy
is pronounced, the implementation process begins. What happens in it may, over the long
run, have more impact on the ultimate distribution of policy than the intentions of the policy‟s
framers”. Traditionally, public policy implementation was the subject matter of public
administration. The separation of “politics” from “administration” was once thought to be the
cornerstone of a scientific approach to administration. But today it is clear that politics and
administration cannot be separated. Opponents of policies do not end their opposition after a
law is passed. They continue their opposition in the implementation phase of the policy
process by opposing attempts to organize, fund, staff, regulate, direct, and coordinate the
program. If opponents are
19. 19. unsuccessful in delaying or halting programs in implementation, they may seek to delay
or halt them in endless court battles (school desegregation and abortion policy are certainly
cases in point). In short, conflict is a continuing activity in policy implementation.
CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED DURING POLICY IMPLEMENTATION The pattern and
nature of policy implementation is the major explanation for the failure or success of any
given policy. In this vein, Nwankwo & Apeh (2008) observe that the implementation of a
policy is the most vital phase in the policy process as it is at this stage that the success or
failure of a policy is determined. Ikelegbe (2006) and Nweke (2006), in this respect too, note
that many policy failures result from ineffective implementation. The public bureaucracy plays
through the effective implementation of government policies, projects and programmes
aimed at achieving development goals and objectives. Most often in many developing
countries, however, policies are well and brilliantly formulated but ineffectively implemented
by the bureaucracy as cited in Nigeria (Obodoechi, 2009; Ikelegbe, 2006). This leads to the
failure of public policies to achieve their target goals and objectives and to ultimately alleviate
the problems for which they were designed. Indeed, there are usually wide gaps between
formulated policy goals and the achievement of those goals as a result of ineffective
implementation in almost all facets of public administration (Ozor, 2004; Mankinde, 2005).
 The ineffective and corrupt political leadership contribute to poor policy implementation in
developing countries. The leadership corruption, and ineptitude, for instance, affects the
content and quality of policy at formulation stage. For instance, policies are, more often than
not, made for purposes of the selfish and egoistic interest of the political leaders and
sometimes only to attract public acclaim and attention with less regard to their
appropriateness in addressing given problems or the possibility of their effective practical
implementation by the public bureaucracy. It is perhaps for this, that Okoli & Onah (2002)
state that implementation of policies in Nigeria and other developing countries take the form
of “learning process” or “trial and error”. In this context, policies or programmes are
haphazardly implemented and even sometimes abandoned or
20. 20. dismantled midway because the basis for formulating the policy was not, in the first
instance, predicated on existing data, realities or need. Another factor that constitutes
obstacles for the bureaucracy in effectively implementing policies is the over ambitions
nature of some public policies. Some policies actually tend to be over ambitions, sweeping
and overly fundamental in nature (Mankinde, 2005). In most cases, the formulation of such
over ambitions policies is not even borne out of genuine or sincere effort to bring about rapid
and radical development but just to boast the ego of the political leaders. An example of
such policies is policies having as their basic objectives the provision of free education or
free health services to all the citizens or the total eradication of poverty amongst the citizens.
For such policies, there are usually inadequate resources (men and materials) for the public
bureaucracy to effectively implement them. Another critical factor inhibiting effective
implementation of policies is that some agencies or institutions saddled with the
responsibility of implementing given policies do not possess the requisite manpower and
financial resources to effectively implement them. On the issue of inadequate resources, for
instance, Governments in developing countries, sometimes, do not budget adequately to
enable the public bureaucracy properly implement formulated policies (Ikelegbe, 2006; Dick,
2003). Indeed, to effectively implement policies, the implementing agency needs resources
in adequate and timely manner and such not being the case in Nigeria explains, in part, the
failure of certain public policies to achieve desirable ends, (Nweke, 2006; Ikelegbe, 1996).
Sometimes, though, government gives out sufficient fund but the corrupt activities within the
public bureaucratic organizations do not allow for its judicious use to effectively execute
policy programs. In any case, insufficient financial resources have resulted to situations
where laws could not be enforced, services were not provided and reasonable regulation not
developed and applied. On the issue of inadequate human resources, the public
bureaucracy do not, indeed, have adequate staff in terms of overall numbers and more
importantly in terms of specific areas of professional, technical or managerial competence
and expertise (Aluko & Adesopo; 2002). This is counterproductive as the capabilities of
government bureaucracy in terms of expertise and skill
21. 21. determine, to a large extent, policy implementation success or failure (Ikelegbe, 1996).
Where abilities exist, policies could be confidently formulated with reasonable assurance of
their effective implementation. Indeed, as Nnamdi (2001) notes, development policies has, in
contemporary times, assumed complex and sophisticated dimension that require highly
skilled and experienced bureaucrats for their effective implementation. Again, the challenge
of keeping away personal interest, prejudice and the influence of primordial values in the
conduct of official business by bureaucrats is equally very critical in developing countries.
Usually, if the bureaucrats are not favourably disposed towards a policy, they may not
approach its implementation with the enthusiasm and zeal that it effectively implementation
may require. Makinde (2005), in this respect, contends that the zeal with which bureaucrats
implement policy depends on how they see the policy as effecting their personal, ethnic and
organizational interest and aspirations. Positive effects will induce enthusiastic
implementation while the contrary may mean that implementation may be resisted, thwarted
and even sabotaged (Ikelegbe, 2006). The ultimate result of this is ineffective
implementation of policies that makes the realization of their goals and objectives difficult.
 Another constraining factor to effective policy implementation in developing countries is
undue pervasive political influence on the public bureaucracy (Amucheazi 1980; Aneze) (in
Timi and Tola, 1986). Usually, the political leaders formulate policies and as well control and
direct the implementation activities of the policy. This situation is not proper as such control
and directive are mostly motivated by selfish personal or political interests. Indeed, the
bureaucracy cannot effectively implement policies and meaningfully contribute to national
development if it is fettered, controlled and directed by political authorities. This is more so as
in extreme cases of such political control, the bureaucrats are not even allowed to take
decisions or actions on basic routine administrative matters without consultation and the
consent of relevant political authorities. In this process, much time and energy is wasted and
prompt actions required for effective implementation of policies hampered. Given this,
therefore, one can posit that the extent to which politics influence the bureaucratic activities
will continue to determine and shape the extent to which policies can be properly and
effectively implemented by the public bureaucracy in many developing countries. Very
worrisome is the fact that the political influence
22. 22. or hold on the public bureaucracy is becoming tighter as promotion to the headship
positions in some public bureaucratic organization is based on political patronage or loyalty
and not on the basis of relevant or cognate experience and seniority. Bureaucrats promoted
under such circumstance will be more morally bound to subject their official decisions and
actions, substantially, to the wishes, preferences, control and endorsement of their political
masters. Finally, abrogation of a policy effects their implementation by the public
bureaucracy in Developing countries. It is observable that each new political in many
developing countries in Africa is usually and primarily concerned with making its own
impression on public programmes and projects. For this, certain policies or programmes
which are already being effectively implemented are shelved by the succeeding
administration (Nnamdi, 2001). Presidents, Ministers, Governors, Local Government
Chairmen and heads of institutions (both bureaucratic and political heads) exhibit the
tendency to link their administration with distinct social and economic policies or
programmes. Consequently, the policies of preceding administrations are rarely pursued by
succeeding ones and such personalistic styles of administration help to explain why so little
attention is paid to the issue of maintenance of projects or programmes created or initiated
by preceding regimes. Indeed, succeeding regimes conceive the maintenance of existing
programmes as not politically expedient as it does not bring direct personal glory or credit.
CONCLUSION Public policy analysis faces various problems, such as: politics, budget,
institution, values and expectation of members of the society. In spite of the constraints, it
seems safe to say that social scientists can at least attempt to measure the impact of present
and past public policies and make this knowledge available to policy-makers. Reason,
knowledge and scientific analysis are always better than the absence of any knowledge.
Lineberry (1977:135) notes that “policy analysis rests on the assumption that information is
better than no information, and that right questions are better than no questions asked, even
when the answers may not be definitive”. Policy analysis may not provide solutions to
society‟s ills, but it is still an appropriate tool in approaching policy questions. Policy analysis
enables us to describe and explain the causes and consequences of public policy. Policy
analysis is applied to inform the policy-maker about the
23. 23. likely future consequences of choosing various alternatives. Policy analysis guides
decision- makers in making optimum choices and outcomes among discrete alternatives.
24. 24. REFERENCES Abah, N.C. (2010) Development Administration: A Multi-Disciplinary
Approach Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publishers Ltd. Abdulsalemi, A. (1990). “Public Policy:
Concepts, Approaches and Processes”. In Obasi, I.N. and Yakub, N.O. (1998)(ed). Local
Government Policy Making and Execution in Nigeria Ibadan: University Press Plc.
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspectives
New York: Longman Inc. Adebayo, A. (2000) (2nd Edition) Principles and Practice of Public
Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Book Ltd. Ajaegbu, F.O. and Eze, E. (2010)
 Public Policy Making and Analysis Enug: Spring Time Press. Aluko, M.A and Adesopo, A. A.
(2002). “An Appraisal of the Two Faces of Bureaucracy in Relation to the Nigerian Society”
Journal of Social Sciences,, 8(1) 12 – 21. Amucheazi, E.C. (ed) (1980). Readings in Social
Sciences: Issues in National Development Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Aneze, L
(1986). “Bureaucracy and Modernization” in Social Change in Nigeria. Simi, A And Tola, P.
(eds) (1986) Social change in Nigeria England: Longman Group Ltd. Anikeze, N. (2011)
Fundamental issues in Nigeria Politics, Government and Development Administration.
Enugu: Academic Publishers Company. Dick I, (2003) Contemporary Public Administration:
The Nigerian Perspective. Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publishers.
25. 25. Downs, A. (1967). Inside Bureaucracy. Boston: Little Brown and Company. Egeran, T.
(2011) “The Development State in Africa: Interrogating the Nigerian Status” Nigerian Journal
of Administrative Science. Vol. 9 Nos 1 and 2 Pp. 314 – 334. Egonmwan, J. (1984). Public
Policy Analysis: Concepts and Applications: Benin City: S.M.O. Aka and Brothers Press.
Eneanya, A.N. (2010). Policy Research, Analysis and Effective Policy- Making in Nigeria.
Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd. Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public
Administration. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd. Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory,
Politics, and Methods / edited by Frank Fischer, Gerald J. Miller, and Mara S. Sidney. Heady,
F. (1992). Encyclopedia of Government and Politics London: Routlege. Hornby, A.S (2010)
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. London: University Press.
Ikelegbe, A. (2006) Public Policy Analysis: Concepts, Issues and Cases. Lagos: Imprint
Services. Kingdon, J.W. (1984). Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. USA:
HarperCollins Publishers. Kraft, M and Furlong, S. (ed) (2007) Public Policy: Politics and
Analysis. Washington: C.Q Press. Lasswell, H. and Deiner, D. eds. (1951). The Policy
Sciences. Standford: University Press.
26. 26. Lineberry, R.L. (1977). American Public Policy: What Government Does and What
Differences it Makes. New York: Harper & Row. Makinde, T. (2005) “Problems of Policy
Implementation in Developing Nations” Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1) Pp 63 – 69.
Niskanen, W.A. Jr. (1971). Bureaucracy and Representative Government. New York:
Aldinel/Atherton. Nnamdi, H. (2001) Comparative Public Administration. Benin City: Trust
Publications. Nwankwo, B. and Apeh, (2008) Development Administration: Principles and
Practice. Enugu: Zik Chuks Publishers. Nweke, E. (2006) Public Policy Analysis: A Strategic
Approach. Enugu: John Jacobs Publishers. Nutley, S. (2003) „Bridging the Policy/Research
Divide: Reflections and Lessons from the UK‟, Keynote Paper at National Institute of
Governance Conference „Facing the Future: Engaging stakeholders and citizens in
developing public policy‟, Canberra, Australia 23–4 April. Obodoechi, O. (2009) Community
Development. Enugu: Computer Edge Publishers. Okafor, (2005). “Public Bureaucracy and
Development in Nigeria: A Critical Overview of Impediments to Public Service Delivery”.
CODESRIA Bulletin. Nos. 3 and 4. Okeke, M. (2001). Theory and Practice of Public Policy
Analysis. Enugu: Bismark Publishers. Okoli, F.C. and Onah, F.O (2002) Public
Administration in Nigeria: Nature, Principles and Applications. Enugu: John Jacobs Classic
Publishers.
27. 27. Olaniyi, J. (1998). Foundations of Public Policy Analysis. Ibadan: University Publishers
Ltd. Olarewaju, O, et al (2004) “Evaluation of Programmes and Policies for Supporting Small
Scale Enterprises in Nigeria” Ibadan: Publication of the Development Policy Centre Ibadan.
Onah, R.C. (2005) Public Administration. Nsukka: Great AP Publishers. Ozor, E. (2004)
Public Enterprises in Nigeria: A study in Public Policy Making in Changing Political Economy.
Ibadan: University Press Plc. Policy sciences--Handbooks, manuals, etc. Public
administration--Handbooks, Manuals, Fischer, Frank, (1942)- II. Miller, Gerald. III. Sidney,
Mara S., 1964- IV. Title. V. Series. H97.H3583 2007 352.3‟4--dc22 Policy hub website:
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www.policyhub.gov.uk/evaluating_policy Sophie Sutcliffe and Julius Court (2006), A Toolkit
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 Ukpere, W, (2011) “Public Policy: Myths and Realities in the Nigerian Nationhood since
Independence” African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 5(23
Kinds and Classification of Research
There are many kinds of research which are classified according to their distinctive features. Some of
the classifications are as follows:

1.According to purpose - There are three broadly different kinds of research, namely, predictive,
directive and illuminative.

 Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the future operation of the
variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better.
“Predictive research proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice or pattern
and seeks to establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of students and a
prediction of educational outcome.”
 Directive research determines what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy
an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.
 Illuminative research is concerned with the components of the variable being investigated,
as for example, “interaction of the components of educational systems and aims to show the
connections among, for example, student characteristics, organizational patterns and policies, and
educational consequences.”

2.According to goal -  According to goal, research may be classified as basic or pure research and
applied research.

 Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or principles. It is conducted
for the intellectual pleasure of learning. Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology
and sociology.
 Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is testing the efficacy
of theories and principles. For instance, a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To
determine if this is true, one conducts an experiment in which there are two classes. In one class,
he uses praise but in the other class there is no praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the
end of the experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils
in the class with praise are significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the
principle is true.

3.According to the levels of investigation - French categorizes research according to the levels of
investigation into exploratory research, descriptive research and experimental research.

 In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
 In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.
 In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the variables on each
other.
4.According to the type of analysis -According to the type of analysis, research is classified into
analytic and holistic research.

 In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of
the research situation.
 The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system first
and then on its internal relationships.

5.According to scope - Under this category is action research. This type of research is done on a
very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem solving.

In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research used by teachers,
supervisors, and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more
dependable and appropriate means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with the specific
and general objectives and attempts to improve educational practices without references to whether
findings would be applicable beyond the group studied.

6.According to choice of answers to problems - Research that is concerned with finding answers to
problems into evaluation and development research.

 In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified and the
researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
 In development research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or
process than has been available.

7.According to statistical content - Under this type may be mentioned quantitative research and non-
quantitative research.

 Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to

determine the results if the study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square, analysis of
variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research usually includes comparison
studies, cause-and-effect relationships, etc.
 Non-quantitative research. This is the research in which the use of quantity or statistics is
practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological studies where description is usually used.
Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.

8.According to time element - According to time element, best classifies research as historical,
descriptive and experimental.

 Historical research describes what was.

 Descriptive research describes what is.
  Experimental research describes what will be.

Historical, descriptive and experimental are the major research methods. All other methods,
kinds and types of research whatever they are called fall under these three major methods.

Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or field of activity. Hence, we
have sociological research, social research, psychological research, anthropological research,
physical research. Chemical research industrial research, economics research, health research,
nursing research, curriculum research, educational research and countless others.
Labels: Characteristics of Good Research, classification of research, Kinds and Classification of Research, kinds of
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