PDD Book

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Introduction to Product Design and Manufacturing 1
2 Introduction to Product Design and Manufacturing 14
Fundamentals of Manufacturing Towards Product
3 41
Development
Fundamentals of Manufacturing Towards Product
4 61
Development
Week 2
5 Engineering Design Process 71
6 Product Design Morphology 88
7 Product Characteristics 110
Week 3
8 Elements of Visual Design (Part 1 of 3) 136
11 Translating Customer needs (Part 1 of 2) 189
12 Translating Customer needs (Part 2 of 2) 214
Week 4
13 Value Engineering: An Introduction 233
14 Value Engineering Methodology (Part 1 of 3) 253
Value Engineering Methodology, (Part 2 of 3) FAST
15 267
diagramming
16 Value Engineering Methodology (Part 3 of 3) 278
17 Value Engineering, a case study 290
Week 5
18 Material Selection (part 1 of 2) 322
19 Material Selection (part 2 of 2) 335
20 Manufacturing Process Selection (part 1 of 2) 353

21 Manufacturing Process Selection (part 2 of 2) 369
22 Product Costing 392
Week 6
23 Design for Manufacturing 423
24 Design for Assembly (and disassembly) 443
25 Design for Maintenance 481
Week 7
26 Design for Environment (Part 1 of 2) 507
27 Design for Environment (Part 2 of 2) 541
28 Quality Control 576
29 Quality Assurance 605
Week 8
30 Patent (Part 1 of 2) 624
31 Patent (Part 2 of 2) 638
32 Creativity techniques (Part 1 of 2) 653

33 Creativity techniques (Part 2 of 2) 675
34 Frugal Innovation 699
Week 9
35 Rapid Prototyping, and introduction 733
36 Rapid Prototyping Modelling 752
37 Rapid Prototyping Processes (Part 1 of 2) 769
38 Rapid Prototyping Processes (Part 2 of 2) 788
Week 10
39 Laboratory Demonstration, 3D Printing (Part 1 of 3) 804
40 Laboratory demonstration: 3D printing (Part 2 of 3) 828

41 Laboratory demonstration: 3D printing (Part 3 of 3) 843
42 Plant Layout Planning (Part 1 of 2) 880
43 Plant Layout Planning (Part 2 of 2) 902
Week 11
44 Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 1of 3) 919
45 Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 2 of 3) 934
46 Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 3 of 3) 961
47 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (Part 1 of 2) 996
48 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (Part 2 of 2) 1028
Week 12
49 Reverse Engineering 1072
50 Managing Competitiveness 1105
Product Design and Manufacturing
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Dr. Amandeep Singh Oberoi
Department of Mechanical & Design Program
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
Lecture - 01
Introduction to Product Design and Manufacturing
Welcome friends. Let us get into this course of introduction to product design and
manufacturing. So, this is lecture number one. So, in this lecture, we will try to cover
some basics, very basics about the product, product design, and manufacturing. (Refer
Slide Time: 00:30)
So, the content of this lecture will be an introduction, then the design is in two ways. One
is by evolution the other one is by innovation. Then we will look into production-
consumption cycle, and the ideas and methods of product realization process, certain
definitions like manufacturing logistics and producibility.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:53)
1
First let us try to understand, what is a product? This is very important. Product in a very
crude sense is trying to understand customer needs and developing something, which is
useful for the customer. And when you try to do this for the customer you also have to
put in some economics into it, that is what is a very crude definition for a product if there
is no customer no point in developing a product.
So, it is now very clear anything we claim it to be a product has to have some customer’s
right. So, in marketing a product is done in several different segments or sectors, the
same product can be redefined or can be given different-different views. So, when you
talk about in marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to a market that might
satisfy a want or a need of a customer. Today, there are so many products which are
available, and in spite of it, there are new products also going into the market; why
because earlier people were happy if they get something to satisfy their needs.
Today people have started asking or demanding for customization. The key word in
today’s product is mass customization. When you talk about mass customization, then
every individual needs a product to satisfy his or her own needs. For example, let us take
the shoe and typical population of India where it is 130 billion people or let us even take
1000 people are there in a college 1000 people are there. And all these 1000 people are
segmented put under several sizes like shoe size of 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
So, all these 1000 people have to fall in the 5 boxes of sizes 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Suppose let
us assume a boy has a foot size of 6.5, which falls 6 size is tight to wear 7 size is loose to
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wear. Now he has to take a trade-off between to choose 6 or 7. So, here the product is not
customized for his requirements. Second thing when we buy shoe we all always look at
the foot size, but when you talk about the foot, foot also has a covering on top of it this
plays a very important role because many people have broad foot short length. So, here
these people also have a problem in identifying the exact shoe for them. Another
example let us take a readymade shirt or jeans pant. So, when we try to buy a pant we
always get into a small problem as the length is ok, but the waist size may be tight or
loose. So, again here there has to be a mass customization has to happen.
So, in marketing term, a product is anything that can offer to a market that might satisfy a
want or a need. Another interesting thing let me explain to you, a product which works
very good at certain geographical locations might not perform the same percentage or the
same efficiency in another place. For example, let us take all European countries or let us
take all developed countries the solar panel are put on the rooftop solar panels, they work
at efficiency somewhere close to 15 percent. The same panels when they are installed in
India or in the in the developing countries, their efficiency falls down by another 5
percent. This is because there is something called as dust factor which is present in the
environment which dictates. So, which worked very well in developed countries and
when it came down to India or in developing countries, the same efficiency is not
reached.
So, here if you want that same efficiency, we have to do customization ok. Next in
business; that means, to say in retail business, the product is always called as
merchandise. In manufacturing, a product is bought as the raw material you add value to
the raw material and convert it into finished goods. When you talk about service sector
the product has a different definition, for example, Ola, Uber they are all also products
wherein which it is more focused towards service segment and they also try to make a
customer satisfaction.
Today Ola and Uber they started with a car and now they have gone to auto rickshaw and
today they have come down to bicycles. So, look at it. So, there is a possibility of
evolution and when this evolution happens, they always try to make the customer happy
plus they also try to put an economics. So, now, I think I have made it very clear a
product is something you make to for a customer, and make him happy and where
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economics also plays a role, if economics and customer satisfaction is not there we do
not develop products.
Next, I will add one term to it, which is product design. What is a product design?
Product design deals with the conversion of a dream into reality in order to fulfill human
needs. See why am I putting this? Because you can think of a product and you can
virtually draw the product, but virtual drawing does not give a satisfaction to the
customer. When you talk about video games yes of course. So, video games are more
towards virtual, but when you want to have a feel for a product and when this product
has to be touched and used. So, then it is like a product designer deals with the
conversion of a dream into reality in order to fulfill human needs. A designer produces
first a prototype and this prototype is studied several times and got customer feedback,
and then what he does is he tries to freeze the design for mass production.
So, a designer’s responsibility is to produce a prototype and then try to freeze the
prototype such that, he can make goods for customer needs. So, what is the responsibility
of a designer? The responsibility of the designer is to make sure that mass customization
happens in the product. So, he produces a sufficient number of prototypes, gets customer
satisfaction and then he freezes the production drawings or manufacturing process such
that this process of producing can be repeatable. If there is an error he has to go back
reiterate and then come back and start doing it.
4
Products are of two categories or the product design is of two categories, one is designed
by evolution and design by innovation.
Design by evolution means the products gets evolved over a period of time and it always
has a delta x improvement, and there is not much of change in a basic structure of the
product ok. This is been there for a long time, my grandfather developed a product my
father improvised the product I further improvised the product, but still, the product is
the same. For example, you can take a house my grandfather constructed the house my
father added some energy efficiency models into the house, then I further tried to
improve some other technological developments which have happened I have added to
the house, but still, that house is a house which has the basic structure. The other
example for design for evolution can be this bicycle.
5
Bicycle which was maybe this bicycle came in 18 century and the full 19 century the
bicycles still maintained the same design, for example, it had two wheels right it had two
wheels and a place to sit and handlebar to do. The only change which happened was it
had a crank at the front wheel; this was shifted to this place. So, that crank whatever was
there got shifted to this portion why? Because people had difficulty in first pedaling it
that is economically not a friendly and second thing is they had to apply a lot of loads.
So, this got over a period of time, this got changed and the crank got shifted here and
then we had a chain and sprocket mechanism, which improved the efficiency of the
bicycle. But interestingly till the late 19 century or in the early 20th century, this triangle
part which was there was common in all the bicycle. If anybody you ask in sleep please
draw a bicycle he quickly puts a triangle and two wheels and a seat to sit.
So, this triangle structure has now changed, today you have structures like Z, today you
have structures like this; so, wherein which it is taking more strength component into the
design. So, these are all recent evolutions, but this is designed for by evolution there is a
delta x improvement, but there is not much of new things have got attached to it over a
period of time.
6
So, in the past designed by evolution was the standard thing thumb rule, which was
followed here that design took a long time for stabilizing and changing. So, along spend
time design was followed the same. Rapid technologies were never thought of getting
added, for example, the cad which was software’s were never used, cad software’s with
no time can give new models new designs can give you new visualization for the same,
which was not thought of him designed by evolution ok.
So, then the major disadvantage because of this evolution is, unsuitability for mass
production. So, look at it here, an evolved design is rather crude and is more oriented
towards design by masses. So, people tried to design their own solution for production of
masses, rather than mass production. Please underline this and it is very interesting
towards designed by mass. So, all of them contributed to evolving the design ok, but and
it was very heavy production for of masses. So, it was very heavy, but it was never for
good for mass production.
Any difficult; the disadvantage of the following design for evolution difficulty in
modification people were not ready to accept or companies were not ready to take
because they felt that existing design is well proven why should we change the design,
which is going to be more costlier for them and it did not look at new technological
evolutions.
7
So, design for evolutions never gave a scope for adopting new technologies which were
concurrently happening.
During that time of the design of a particular product design by innovation design by
innovation is here people started taking a product and people started adding a lot of
scientific, this new scientific discovery into it new technologies into it and they were
allowing the product to evolve to develop rather than evolution. So, here there was a
drastic change for example if you take a camera which was earlier a roll based camera.
So, you used to take a picture and then you the develop the film, then you make the
photograph it used to have a long cycle time. Today the entire concept of photography is
changed because of digitization. The computer memories space has gone smaller and
smaller and smaller, the performance of the computer has gone efficiently more and
more and more why because they the design which happened was by innovation, they
started adding new technologies to their products, such that the product can become
smaller efficient and better ok.
So, a new method of technical knowledge developed rapidly by a scientific discovery.

So, this was integrated into the product. It may ultimately tend to be a complete deviation
from the existing trend. So, that deviation of the photograph is earlier we had a roll based
we used to have a cleaning a washing room, then we used to have a developing room,
there was a developing liquid which was used all these things have changed today.
8
So, every skill which the designer must muster in the analysis, it is muster is a is a right
word in analyzing and synthesizing instrumental in a totally novel design. So, basically
what a designer has to do is, he has to go search for literature he has to go search in
Google, he has to go search in for new books, handbooks and develop the technology.
Do a lot of cut and paste between two technologies, try to customize it his product and
develop a new product.
For example here I have given laser; a laser which was there for a long time it became
more and more efficient and it became smarter over a period of time, which started
initially from distance measuring cutting today it has gone to into every mall, wherein
which the product numbering product counting is done by your laser scanning.
So, the laser beam was a revolutionary invention in the field of medicine as well as
engineering. Initially it was used only by physicist, but today it has found a lot of
application in medicine, today lot of optical surgeries are done very fast very quick and
the customer is very happy the turn over time of hospitals is very is very low; that means,
you say a person patience enters in the morning by noon he is done with his operation
and he goes off. So, the great revolution happened because of laser bringing it into
medical and engineering field.
9
So, this is what the earlier laser design, we used to have a valve based system, today they
have completely changed into the diode based system this is more energy efficient
energy efficient and it occupies small space and it is controllable; that means, to say
selectively tunable.
Today all the hardware with hardware drive which is there is a blue laser which quickly
jumps from one segment to another segment one sector to the other sector and quickly
reads the data it is all because of this laser becoming more and more efficient. (Refer
Slide Time: 17:44)
So, let us get into it into another topic which is nothing, but production-consumption
cycle. It is one of the most important things which features of socio-ecological systems.
So, when we try to develop products we should try to have this social touch also to the
product. For example, I develop a product introduced into the market what social impact
that is going to happen on to the product on to the customer or to the society what social
and it is also what is the change or what is the stable needs which is going to do in the
socio-ecological system.
When you develop any product, today you should also make sure that what amount of
social changes it is going to bring in. So, developing a product which can kill 20,000
peoples job is no way acceptable, because a developing country needs to have products
wherein which they still have to involve the people around in the society. If you try to
10
develop all intelligent based products and if it is going to not consider the semi scaled or
unscaled labor present in the society, then the product over a period of time is going to
create a huge damage. So, there has to be a scope for involving everybody in the society
to use that product or by giving service by you using the product to the customer is the
best product which we can develop. In this production and consumption cycle, you have
four steps one is a production step, distribution, consumption, and recovery.
So, production is producing, distribution how good or how efficiently you are going to
distribute the produced product from one place to rest of the places. So, that is
distribution and as for as when the customer is consuming the product. So, when he tries
to consume what is the residue left, for example, today we use a lot of plastic bags. So,
these plastic bags are going to bring a lot of damage to the mother earth. So, people
recently Ii have been reviewing several projects. So, there was a product which was
developed by one of our friends. So, what he did has he developed a bag which is
biodegradable a bag, which is biodegradable and in this bag what he did is he has
dispersed seeds of Tulsi (Basil plant).
So, when you throw this bag into the into mother nature or when you throw out, this bag
is biodegradable it is made out of paper and this paper has been worked on it he has put
used enough he has proved that it has enough stiffness to hold at least 15 kilos of
material, and then he has made to two handles and everything which is all made out of
paper itself.
And then in the base, he has dispersed a lot of seeds of Tulsi (Basil plant). So, his claim
is when he tries to disperse this bag, and these Tulsi (Basil plant) are dispersed in the
soil, there is a possibility a new seed can germ out. So, this is something which is very
interesting. So, here he has started about the socio-ecological system, and when I tried to
distribute now people are trying to talk about why see you try to distribute in the larger
packet where plastics can be reduced and distribution I recently found out a very efficient
way, which students are doing it.
See when this big basket company, which says that if you try to place an order of up to
1000 rupees, we do free home delivery. So, you can replace this big basket with x
company, y company, z company whatever is your choice. So, x company comes in says
that if you buy if you place an order of more than 2000 rupees we do a free delivery.
11
So, here what students have started doing the company did because they have worked out
on a transportation. Students what they have come out with the beautiful module is they
started having a WhatsApp and then they circulate that am going to order from this x
company for whatever it is. So, you do anybody wants to be ordered in the same x
company. So, then there were 6 or 7 more students added their own items to it. So, the
total cost came to 2000 and then they got it delivered. So, all the students could get their
products delivered to them in their room with zero transportation cost. So, a company
works out with the distribution module the customer works out with the distribution
module. So, these are all these are all keeping socio-ecological systems into their mind
and another thing is recovery today.
So, what is happening when we look at heavy heavy products, for example, a
refrigerator? So, in refrigerator what happens is, the compressor many companies give a
certificate saying that I give you warranty that 14 years my compressor works, but hardly
today people keep a refrigerator for more than 5 years for two reasons; one design is
becoming more and more efficient two the requirement of people are also changing for
example, when I am a family we are 4 members, today my I have two sons one is the age
of 10 and other is of the age of 5.
So, today the requirements are I have to buy and keep a lot of fresh foods this and that,
but 10 years from now or 5 years from now I become old my wife becomes old our food
habits style changes, my 2 sons have now become adolescent their food habits have
changed. So, I need a refrigerator which can now accommodate to the new requirement.
So, earlier the freezer was thought of to be kept on the top compartment of the
refrigerator, today it has got moved now it has moved to the bottom. Earlier they used to
say fridge has a standard size, today we talk about fridge with expandable size both in
terms of length and breadth. We say ear earlier the refrigerator was completely controlled
under one temperature, now they say every compartment can be customized and
controlled depending upon your item which you place inside. So, these things are now
forcing me to change to a new product. So, going back to that refrigerator example, in
refrigerators they say a compressor of 14 years they give guaranty or warranty, but I
change my refrigerator in once in f5 years or 7 years.
12
So, what happens to my compressor where a company gave 14 years of warranty? Now
companies have come out with two modules the first module, they say please come back
to us and you buy a new product from us wherein which we reduce the cost of the
compressor. The second thing is that the company says that I will try to remove only the
compressor and I will try to take that compressor by back, reset all dispose it to anybody
I do not bother.
So, this is nothing but using parts which are already there in a product, which is
recoverable and which can be placed in another product. I stop here and let us continue
further in lecture 2.
Thank you very much.
13
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 01 Continued.
Introduction to Product Design and Manufacturing
Last class we just completed or we were just trying to understand the concept of
production and consumption cycle. I said four important parameters are there. One is
how to produce; second one is distribute; the third one is consumption, and fourth one
was recovery. So, all the four things are very important because today we talk about
socio ecological system for every product to be developed.
So, getting continuing with that topic, so can see this is how the cycle entire cycle goes
by. So, the first one is concept which is getting developed, and then the designer
responsibility is to look at all the different varieties of material which is available. And
then what he does is he tries to choose material from different part of the world; earlier it
was thought of only try to pick from within the country or within the zone, now it has
14
become competitive market, global competition has come into existence. So, we get parts
and products and subassemblies at a very competitive price from across the globe.
So, then after that manufacturing is a next phase which happens in this cycle; so two
types of manufacturing are done. One you try to produce some parts within your in
house; and some bought out items you get and then you do assembly and then you
develop a product. The next model which many companies are following today is they
try to get everything from different vendors, and they do only assembly and sell it as a
product. So, once you manufacture, then you try to transport. So, here the transportation
can be done in multiple ways. For example, look depending upon the size, the volume of
your product that can be two one is the volume of the product is very large or number of
parts which you keep inside the particular packages also it depending upon the size; that
means, to say a lot sizing will be done.
So, it is decided and then they try look for transportation. For example, if you try to
produce a continuous product continuous product in terms of cement. So, now, here they
try to move by train. So, in train you can have the raw material can be the material can be
moved as a complete container of powder or several small bags of cement can be put and
then moved. It can be moved in trucks, it can be moved in train. So, you decide which is
optimum. And then which is again keeping sustainability and cost into your
consideration you try to move the transportation.
Then you try to do retailing. And in retailing, what you do is this whatever product you
have sent it in a package it is discretized further, you sell it as individual piece or you sell
it as a batch of ten or a complete whatever is a commodity you do it retailing. And here
you try to add some packaging material to it, so that you can try to attract customers and
then from there it goes to disposal, and then recycling comes into use.
So, today we talk about reduce, reuse and recycle. So, whatever this is very common
thing which is being thought right from school, when you develop a product we should
always try to keep this in mind. So, first of all we should try to tell the customers though
they buy our product, but try to tell them that you reduce it and use it or try to give them
the required amount of dosage of whatever it is, and then try to tell them that you reduce
it and use it.
15
Next thing is you reuse and use it. So, reuses something like I gave you an example of
compressor. So, I use took of the compressor from one refrigerator take the compressor
fit into the other guy and you start running another compressor, so that is reuse right.
Recycle is completely change the product and then you try to develop a new one from
the scrap. So, for example, all the chips scrap which is manufactured are now used for
recycling, and then trying to get billets developed or rods developed, so that is recycle.
So, I recycle plastic are recycled today ok. This is the complete production consumption
cycle which is very very important for a product designer to understand this. At every
phase, he has to involve, he has to be creative, he has to be innovative in developing a
product before releasing to the society.
So, in this production consumption cycle first thing is information. Today the biggest
resource is data. People everybody wants to have data. Information is something which is
very costly, data. From data you put a filter and what you develop is information.
Information is precious. If I have to understand the cross section of the society of people
I would look forward for information. So, information can be static; information can be
dynamic. In information can be got when you personally meet the people do interview
and acquire data. Information is very, very important. Without information, you cannot
develop a product.
So, it is the back bone of engineering design information is collection and redefining of
information is the biggest thing which a product designer must do. He should collect
16
data. He should process the data put filters, remove noise, rearrange the data such that he
can assimilate and develop knowledge and concept for a about a product.
The latent information is of great importance. When you are looking for contemporary
design or a concurrent design or when you are looking at up when you are trying to
develop a shoe. Today earlier shoe was just thought of for trying to protect your foot.
Today the same shoe is looked at for evaluating the status of a person. People say when
you try to wear latest trend shoes, they say you are techno savage same thing which goes
to a mobile phone. If I have a mobile phone which is of old type which is punch type,
that means, to say you punch the numbers and use. So, people try to have an estimate
about you right. So, today people look at Smartphones, Smartphones are integral part of
life today because so many apps so many things happening in the society is being well
transmitted or communicated using a Smartphone.
So, you should have latent information which is very important. When you try to develop
your product it has to be integrated with the latest technology which is around. The
information about the component environment specification and material are very very
important, you should look for this before developing the product. Do not go by here say,
do not go by some senior said some boss said, do not go by that look for standard data
which is available process those data and then try to convert. So, today lot of companies
come out with manuals wherein which they say these are the components which we
develop, please look at our brochure.
So, when you look at our brochure, we try to give you lot of other specification about the
product. See when I was talking to my son he said I would like to have a spoon which is
which could just go very close to my mouth and it just tries to attract my tongue outside,
so that it can meet dispersed inside, but what does he want I do not understand. So, now,
if am a designer, if I am a product designer what I should do is I should now convert
whatever he said into a specification such that an engineering knowledge can be applied
on top of it. People say I would like to have a very beautiful house, how do you quantify.
There is no engineering specification for it. So, now, if we convert that into some
engineering specification then for a product designer, it becomes easy to work.
I would like to have a phone which is very sleek very smart which attracts everybody’s
eye. So, it is a statement which is all qualitative, you have to convert it into quantitative
statement, so that is nothing but information. And whatever information you collect you
17
have to start storing it. Generating information every time is very very expensive. Doing
experiments every time and then trying to generate data is pretty expensive. So, whatever
information you have collected, please do not thrash it, try to store it, logically store it
such that you can revive it and reuse it at any point of time as it is required. Gathering,
organizing, storing, rewinding of the data is quite large and very important aspect as far
as far as product development is concerned.
So, in India, we have something called as we have a council which is called as TIFAC.
TIFAC is nothing but technological information forecast assessment council ok. So, here
what they have done they have several centers wherein which there is design data
processing. So, which is established you can go pull out the data and you can try to
develop that products very fast.
18
So, let us see some of the currently used methods and product realization process ok. So,
design process is to create, adapt an existing product to meet out the application or
simply improve the existing product. All the things are to be done it is part of process.
One is creating a product completely new taking other one is trying to taking an existing
product and trying to add new applications for example, a Smartphone. Today, a
Smartphone initially phone mobile phone was thought for talking only. Today if you ask
any customer talking has become one of the lowest priority in his big list of choosing a
Smartphone. He looks at a camera, he looks at the battery size, he looks at the screen
clarity, he looks at how many apps can I store, and he looks at so many other things and
finally, talking, talking becomes the last priority.
So, now you see existing product which can completely you took the product and which
can be completely tuned to a new application. Today banking can be done on a mobile
phone which I never thought of. I used to stand in queue for depositing money; today
there are e-counters which has some which is called as green e counters. You go deposit
money, you get a receipt; you deposit cheque you get a receipt. So, this existing thing
modified right.
And the third one is just try slightly improving the existing product wherein which the
efficiency can be can be improved. So, all these things are part of design developing,
adopting new existing one and giving a new application and the third one is slightly
modifying for the existing product. So, the product realization process may be
engineering design what is engineering design it is nothing, but collection of data
19
logically arranging the data and then trying to get a knowledge out of the data is
engineering design.
So, now it is nothing but systematic, creative, iterative process that results in developing
a component or a component or a system is nothing but engineering design. In all these
things, the first important thing is problem definition. Problem definition is one of the
biggest challenge. A product designer has a big challenge to identify the requirements of
a customer. This is the first and foremost thing. And once you identify a problem then
half of your product development is done.
We are we see when you think of a child, and you want to develop a product, there are
humpty number of things which a child cannot even explain. So, how do you identify
what is the problem and then for that problem you have to come out with an engineering
aspect for that aspect you have to look up down for a technology and then come out with
the product. And again you have to try your product on to a child, who are he or she
cannot give any feedback, you would try to develop a product look at the challenge
which is there. Problem definition is the first major challenge as far as product design is
concerned. It is a stage in which the idea of the product is formed, progression from myth
to a coherent statement of problem this is problem definition; in a whatever problem
definition you do then you try to do the engineering design of it and then develop it.
20
Next one is creating process. Today there is a mixed opinion people say you cannot be
creative and some people say there are some tools wherein which they can try if you
follow those tools you will be led to creative thinking, creative process is something
which leads to innovation. So, stage where different concepts and ideas are converted
into reality is part of creative process.
Then analytical process this is a stage wherein which we generate prototypes and
evaluate the prototypes, and check whether it is accepted, what modification has to be
done, and go back to your desk, reiterate the product and keep repeating the step and
keep repeating the step so analytical process is that.
An ultimate check is before finally, the product gets into mass production you do a final
check you do a final confirmation, and then you start producing it. Confirming the design
is satisfied the basic requirements or not this is what is the ultimate check we do. So,
when we talk about any process or any product, we see all this steps products realization
process may be engineering design, problem definition, creative process, analytical
process, ultimate check is done and then we finally, release the product to the customer.
21
(
Refer Slide Time: 16:00)
The design can be of several type. So, here I have put the aesthetic design a camera right
at there are several cameras available, several webcams available how do I have a niche
how do I hit the market. So, people here have given more important to aesthetics as
compared along with it is not that only aesthetics, aesthetics along with other things. For
example, if you go to Taj Mahal, it is more of aesthetics right. If you go to some other
fort in India, or if you go to castles somewhere the aesthetics is given a very important
look. Many a times recently I have visited a building a hotel wherein which the hotel had
a very good aesthetic appearance from outside. But when I started staying in the rooms I
found out some strange thing because their roofs were all tapered in order to give castle
like look what they have done is the roofs all in every room have made it a this taper.
So, when they make this roof as taper the when you try to put an air condition, we try to
have several areas as dead zones which are of no use. For example, if I am going to stay
in a room, my comfort zone is this area, but if you look at it all this zone where AC is not
even required has been full filled just because of keeping aesthetics. So, there has to be a
tradeoff between aesthetic and the functional look.
So, here there are aesthetic design is referred to creating action of fashioning an object
without consigning with how or even if it can be made, so that is aesthetics. But
aesthetics are also important because giving color, giving shape, plays a very important
22
role to appeal a public. Aesthetic design has now become an important part of the
product realization process and companies are looking for professional so integrate
engineering with aesthetics. So, today engineering is integrated with aesthetics such that
you can produce good products to appeal.
The other thing is industrial design. In industrial design more and more functionality is
given importance rather than aesthetics right. They emphasize those aspects of the
product or a system that relate most directly to human characteristics needs or interest
such as visual, tactile, safety and convenience. And they do not give more importance
towards the shape or the color. So, here it is called as industrial design, but earlier it was
thought about exclusively industrial design, exclusively aesthetic design; today the two
compartments are getting merged. So, there is a thin line between aesthetic design and
industrial design. So, any product you develop has to have aesthetic design as well as
industrial design if you have to be successful in the market.
23
(
So, some more terms for before getting into the course I thought I should explain the
other important term is manufacturing. So, manufacturing means it is a series of activities
and operations that convert a raw material into a product such that it can be useable. So,
basically converting a raw material into a finished product, you do value addition. This
value addition is nothing but manufacturing ok. So, converting raw material into finished
product in a most productive manner such that the energy, cost, material is all minimized
and then you do value addition to it such that it can be to the customer requirement. And
it can be one step it can be multiple steps, so that is what is manufacturing.
Next important terminology is logistics today there is a concept or a challenge which is

given to the designer is please try to use the local resources what you have at your
location in developing a product. Government of India is now pushing very hard to
construct houses from the locally available materials such that they can reduce the
costing of the house. For example, use raw materials available in and around your
location, so that is a big challenge great challenge. How do you make bricks currently
suppose if you do not have bricks, for example, constructing a house at Rajasthan or Thar
Desert, you do not have water at all how do you construct a house. So, still you need to
construct a house at that location were where you have to take cement brick or sand and
though go mix it with water or can you take hollow blocks and go there just assemble
everything and then construct it, within no time, so that is logistics.
So, logistics it is nothing but resources and these resources dictate the cost these
resources dictate the time for movements, so transportation. So, logistics is another
24
important thing which you should always look for when you think a product design ok. It
is the positioning of resources on the basis of time. It comprises of planning, acquisition,
storage, distribution of goods, energy, information, personnel and services from the
starting point of the point of consumption in order to full fill the customer requirement.
So, this is very, very important. See, if you have to take resources from some other place
will I buy it say for example, if am constructing a house. So, if I am constructing a house,
my house needs only fifty bags ok, but the company says, if you buy hundred bags of
cement I will give you at just for example, rupees 10 a bag; if you buy the other option I
have is you buy 1 bag I give you at rupees 10 just for a fictitious condition.
So, now there are only two options he says either you buy as individual bags or you buy
it as 100 bags, if you buy it as 100, I give you at 10 rupees or let us make it as 100
rupees; and if I buy 1 bag, I give it as 10 rupees. So, if I have to construct my house, I
need fifty bags now what do I do is I try to buy it as individual bags. So, if you see that it
will be 10×50 which is around about, I pay 500 rupees to buy 50 bags, whereas, the same
company has upper slabs saying that 100 bags at 100 rupees. So, now, what I do is I try
to buy 100 bags and then I try to store it right. I consume 50 and then I keep 50. So,
tomorrow if any of my friend wants to construct I give it, because it looks to be much
cheaper right.
So, this is what I am talking about is planning, acquisition, storage, distribution of goods
energy information, but if I store 50 bags, I occupy a space for that space I have to have a
storage space which I have to construct. So, then I have to maintain the humidity, third
thing that room the product should not be lost or the shelf life should not be lost for the
product. So, all those things get into that and then also have to store information, I have
to have person to maintain that 50 bags. So, it is all expensive. So, you have to logistics
is a very important thing which you have to control.
25
(
So, the other thing is the tracking of the resources is main part in the logistics. For
example, in my own home I have six, seven keys one for my office, one for my research
lab. So, tracking of all the keys, where do I keep, how do I keep my everyday spent
twenty minutes of time searching for my keys placing in here and there which is inside
my house or inside an existing location. Tracking of resources is very important. So,
tracking of this logistics is also very important. So, barcodes today are available, lasers
have come up in a big way. RFID have come up in a big way to help so, but using all
those things we do is we try to have a logistics in a better controlled fashions, but
logistics is very important.
So, as I told today people look at building products with a locally available thing for
example, if I wanted to build a product or a pen, I should not say for this pen, everything
I do it India, but nib I will get it only from Japan. So, now, it is completely makes a
costing very high ok. So, you should be very careful about it.
Then the next important thing is producibility, producibility or in other terms it is called
as manufacturability with minimum cost how do I manufacture. So, for this there is in
engineering terms, we call it as design for manufacturing. When we talk about design for
manufacturing, the first important thing is how have I standardized the parts which I have
standardized the parts that is one. And second thing using of standardized parts is the
other thing.
26
For example, if I say go pick a green color paint for my house, so that is pretty easy
because you go to any shop and then pick a green color paint and then come and start
doing it. So, if I say get me a paint, which has a blue tint slightly reddish like apple with
a green touch in it. So, then it becomes very complex because I have to go to a shop
wherein which he has all the three, he tries to manufacture in front of me or I order it to a
company tell I wait for a long time to get it. So, it is not a standard thing right.
So, what people are saying is try to use standardized parts and whatever design you do
try to follow some standards such that you can try to use parts which are already
available in the market. So, there are certain guidelines which are given. So, this man
producibility is which tries to produce a par product or a manufacture and engineering
design with a premium quality with low investment in order to maximize the profit. So,
how do I use first of all reduce the number of parts, try to use part features which are
common.
Next is try to use standardized parts which is as far as possible. For example, M6 screw,
M3 screw, M4, M5, M6 rather than choosing a screw which does not fall in this two then
it becomes very difficult, then selection of components which have preferred size, weight
and shape. For example, cross section, I cross section, rectangle cross section which is
used for doors whatever it is. Then ensure testability and reparability by using pre built
test methods. Then testing on the basis of development to assure improvement in the
quality, and performance during environmental stress screening. And minimize the
number of using a different materials. So, all these things if you try to rationalize your
producibility for a product goes extremely high.
27
(
So, let us take one simple example of product manufacturing process. So, let us take a
something called as thixoforming, thixoforming-products. Let us take that as an example.
So, what is thixoforming, before getting into thixoforming lets try to look at casting and
forging, two different processes which are very commonly used in metal based products.
What is casting? I try to melt the product, I will try to melt the raw material, take it to a
liquid form ok, liquid form or super heed whatever it is, try to pour it into a mould where
it gives shape and size. So, we make a product out. Forging is a process wherein which I
do not melt I try to take a solid apply a huge force and place it inside a die, again which
is like a mould give a shape and size, so I get a required product.
So, here if I see it always depends upon the charge. How much what is quantity and I
have to use for making this product. Again never I will do one product at a time. So, I
will try to use many products in the starting go. So, when you talk about this casting in
casting, we never do one product except for something like a big church bell or very
heavy product where we have always one, but generally what we do is we try to have
multiple products that means, to say number of products. So, here the charge whatever
we use will be in huge charge we always use a crucible, and this crucible will try to take
thousand kilos, and we try to melt we apply lot of energy it gets converted into heed into
liquid, so solid into liquid. Solid into liquid then we pour it when we pour it we have lot
of losses and then we try to get.
So, today what has happened is they have developed something called as thixoforming.
Thixoforming means when you apply a shear load, the solid becomes a liquid. And if you
28
do not apply no load condition, it is a solid. So, what is that they have done is they have
taken rather than trying to take say for example, this is the melting, this is temperature
melting temperature whatever it is. And this is the time or what do you say. So, instead
of melting what I will do is I will try to put it into viscosity change or something
viscosity.
So, now, what happens is viscosity we see initially when it is a solid you will have very
high viscosity or it will not even move. So, as and when the time goes up a very trend
I’m just putting. So, here time or you can try to take even temperature whatever it is you
can take so degree celsius this is just schematic. So, so you have a trend which goes
down. So, now as in when you want to apply very high temperature, what happens is the
viscosity goes down so that you can flow and so when you have long time or
temperature, it is huge amount of energy which is spent.
So, what people have come out is they say and here when you go for the other way
around when I use a huge force, so you need to have a very heavy machine tool such that
you apply so much of tonnage of loads that you produce the output. So, here what they
say is let us not take it to the liquid state let us take it somewhere to the semi solid state.
Wherein which when you apply shear load it is liquid when you do not apply load it is a
solid you take it to that stage, and then try to push it inside a mould and you try to get the
output. So, what is that here is a tradeoff between casting and forging you try to get this
is somewhere energy efficient.
So, people today talk about thixoforming, thixoforming, and using this process today the
wheel rims are made out of it. It is just an offset of or an announcement of die-casting
pressure die-casting. So, this is a process which has got evolved and now this is proved
to be energy efficient a quality product is got. So, why am I telling you is this is a
product which is manufacturing process wherein which they have started using
thixoforming such that the innovation is brought in and because of the technology they
are able to develop new products.
29
(
So, the features which effect the product development is one is always the product
quality. See, whatever you buy today you say that I will try to get the best product and
then you will try to say always ok, there is a cost which I would like to as minimum as
possible. So, for just for a discussion sake, I would like to buy a Rolls Royce car for 1000
rupees if somebody could give why not. My expectation is I have to buy a car which is
equivalent to know if you do not give Rolls Royce you give some other car x or y or z
car, but I will pay only 1000 rupees. So quality is very important. Pro if the cost is very
high, and if the quality is high people do not mind buying it, but today people have
become cost conscious. So, they say I would like to have a high quality product, but I
would like to give as minimum cost as possible.
Quality is very, very important why because quality in turn is linked with reliability. I
buy a car, using this car I go a 200 kilometers per hour the engine cylinder piston moves
at such a high frequency. If the quality is poor I will be never able to go at that. And
second thing is if somebody says oh here is a product which I am not sure about the
quality, you use it if it works all is yours, then it becomes lot of pressure on you stress on
you to use the product. So, whenever you try to develop a product, you keep it mind
quality is the first thing which you have to satisfy.
So, quality in terms of customer satisfaction, customer satisfaction can be like reliability
repeatability long time durability whatever it is, so that is all quality. So, quality is one
30
thing which is very important you have to keep it in mind while developing a product is
something which reflects the market share and the price which customer can pay.
There are few questions we asked is the product reliable, how good is the product
resulting from the developed efforts. Next one comes the cost. So, first is quality next is
cost. So, what is the manufacturing cost for the product. If why are we talking about this
if I can change the manufacturing process, if I can produce use it in bulk, will that cost
become low? But it is not necessary I produce it in bulk and if I cannot sell it what do I
do at some point of time I have to scrap it or discard it salvage it, so that is also costly, so
this there has to be tradeoff.
Next one is what is the developing time. See developing time is how much time does the
company or a group of members spend in evolving the product. Suppose, let us say there
has to be a product which has to come to a market, and the development time for this
product is 15 years. Sorry nobody will even think of that product today. So, developing
time is very, very important.
Next one is developing cost is very important why because this developing time and cost
are inter related these two will get into product cost. Because when you try to develop a
product what happens is all the developmental cost the number of person the number of
time everything gets integrated into the product cost that is why you see I make a product
for 10 rupees, when I why is the company selling at 50 rupees because they have
invested their developing time, developing cost their IP there, so that is why it is very
expensive.
So, developing time is another important thing developing cost is the next important
factor. Then development capability is the last important thing. All these things are inter
related as features to for an effective product development; developing capability talks
about the team which is involved in developing a product.
31
(
So, a successful product development research it is like this. Developed ideas it is like
this. So, when you talk about prototyping, it is like seal seeding and then when you talk
about production it, it goes to this ways to this life. And when it goes to market it is it
goes it goes in to a plant in market it becomes a tree. So, a successful product
development from idea to implementation, just if you try to give analogy with respect to
seed it is like this. You are a seed when you are in research. When you are in market you
see how big you grow and how is your development. And this is how this sale also goes
high when you try to look about successful product in the market.
32
So, next look at designer and the developer of the product. So, first thing you should
understand is today product development is not individual based, it is team based. And
when you are talking about team also it is interdisciplinary team which is involved in
developing a product. Product development is an interdisciplinary activity you will have
hardware, you will have software, hardware in terms of giving physical shape, hardware
in electronics all these things get integrated together to develop a product. So, it is an
interdisciplinary activity where multiple functions are there to develop a product.
When you talk about individual, when you talk about a team which is involved in
developing a product, there are two teams which are there, one is called as the core team,
the other one is called as the extended team. So, for developing any product please keep
it in mind it is not I developed it is we developed. Gone those days when individual
terms in this I have developed a product, it is we have developed a product we leads to
more leads to more success than I. So, in product development there has to be a team
which is involved even for developing a very small product. The team there are two
types of team one is called as core team, the other one is called as the extended team.
The core team is a small group of people who are involved in trying to understand how
this mission statement can be reached. For example, there ISRO launches rockets every
now and then, it rocket today ISRO has gone into a business module. So, earlier it was
one in three years, today it has become one in every month. So, they have learned the
33
skill. So, this they have there is a team which is involved, team of may be thousand
people, ten thousand people involved in developing this. DRDO are now have now
mastered the missile technology, they talk about surface to surface, surface to water, land
to land, land to water whatever it is they keep talking of so many missiles. They have
they have understood the technology they have developed a technology.
When you talk about car it is also the same. When you talk about even prototypes like
this it is also the same. So, in all these things, there is not a single man involved. It is a
team which is involved. The team has a core team this core team is they are only few
number of members who understand what is mission statement. They try to take up in to
small modules like they try to convert a product or disassociate a product into or
disassociate the product into four modules. These team leaders of this core take that four
modules and then go back form a big team extended team which has been for hundred
people, five hundred people, ten people, twenty people and disseminate their problems
statement, such that the idea can be reached.
In the core team they try to report what is the development, they try to reiterate their
developments and then make sure that they reach the final goal. For all these products
which have displayed here it is a team effort it has a core member, it has an extended
member. So, a group of people contribute for this success.
34
So, when you talk about cost and duration of a product, so we always ask how much time
and how much money are required. There are evolved products or design of evolution a
product might come to the market within less than one year, new product which can
come within 5 years. When we talk about big technology a new technology it might take
more than even 5 years medical industry always takes a longer time because they try to
do testing on at several phases, and until and unless they get enough of confidence they
do not release the drug or the product to the into the market. So, the cost involved in
developing a product is directly proportional to the number of people involved, and the
time duration which you have said.
And generally this cost is put under as a fixed cost in the product in the production
development.
So, let us see a graph, wherein which we talk about cost verses project duration. So, this
is something here is a trend which is called as a direct cost ok. And I have one thing
which goes as an indirect cost ok. And you see here this is called as a total cost ok. So,
when we try to do optimum, this is the optimum for the cost ok. This is the optimum. So,
here we have indirect costs ok. Indirect cost which keeps increasing over a period of
time; direct cost which keeps reducing over a period of time, and this is the total project
35
cost they have all what am talking about is the indirect cost of project all are with respect
to project, direct cost with respect to project, and total cost with respect to project.
So, if you see here the optimum falls somewhere in this zone, but whereas these two lines
cris-cross line which can happen before or it can have after. So, this is how a typical cost
goes like. For example, if you want to construct a bridge, if you want to construct a
rocket, so they do all this costing and then they try to find out where is the optimum and
makes your product should come into the market before this optimum or at least with this
optimum. So, that you try to get the best out of the project.
So, the other some other concerns in project development is first you have to always have
a tradeoff. See if you start taking a long time, and by the time you come out with a
product, you will have other competitors who are around you to come and release the
same product. So, so first thing what you have to do is you have to look at tradeoff.
Tradeoff is nothing but for example, here I have taken an example of aeroplane.
So, aeroplane you need to have a lighter and lighter and lighter aeroplane, but when you
make it lighter and lighter and lighter, you should also keep it in mind it has to be stiffer
and stiffer and stiffer right. Because lighter aeroplane then when you start making lighter
and lighter and lighter, the cost also goes higher and higher and higher. So, somewhere
you should try to have an engineering requirement and as well as your costing
36
requirement you have to have a tradeoff between these two take a point and then start
developing products. And when you develop product please keep in mind the tradeoff
should be cost with respect to performance ok. So, there has to be a tradeoff when you
try to develop any product.
Next thing is dynamics you should always look around and see who are the other
competitors what are they doing, and when are they going to release, am I ahead of them,
am I late. Suppose, if today if I come and and release a car which is just four wheel and
has a efficiency of 10 kilometers per liter, nobody will buy that car, maybe the car is very
fabulous, but nobody will buy. Because today I have cars which are completely different
which are tend the cars which gives you 25 kilometers per hour. And second thing today
there is also a lot of push by several countries for this electric cars. So, today what is
happen they are they have made it in several European countries by 2020, 2030, you will
have only electric cars on the road.
So, what is the point in releasing the new car which works on diesel cycle and Otto cycle
or which uses petrol and diesel has a fuel for in the car. So, anyhow in the next couple of
years I am pretty sure your car is going to get outdated. So, what is a point you should be
very careful look around what is a technology, look around what is a government policy
try to understand that and try to release a product which is competing with others, so you
so you have to improve your technology.
And the next thing is time pressure. So, when you try to develop products, time is very
very important. People today talk about releasing products in a month, in a week, in a
day; and I do not know tomorrow they might come and say in a hour every hour we
release a new product it is not too far off to think today. So, people are gone there is lot
of competitor in the market there is a global competition. So, people when they work on
product development, they are supposed to take time pressure and take a decision and
what to work how to work whether to do innovative, whether to do evolving whether to
tweak the existing one or whether to add something to the existing products such that it
can meet out to a customer requirement. Next is economics which plays a very very
important role.
37
And the next one is satisfaction to the societal and individual needs whether you are able
to do it. This is an important point of concern when you are trying to do a product
development. And in product development there are two important things, which we
always have to give lot of importance. I said any product to develop it needs a team,
when you are working as a team you should have diversified people in your team. So,
generally what people say as a thumb rule, when I work on product development I
always try to choose two of my colleagues or friends who are completely contradicting to
me, whatever I say contradict to me. Because what happens when I start listening to all
the contradiction may be there are few points, which I miss they try to add it and my
product becomes more reliable.
So, it cannot be always controversy, but you should try to have people who are critical
about your style, your liking. And they should if all the team members are all saying yes
to you, so then the problem is you will miss out many things which a customer wants
from the product.
And the last thing is when you try to do a product development you should always have a
team spirit team spirit is we have to win not I have to win. And every team member
should be self motivated, choose a team wherein which every member is self motivated.
8 o clock is the office opening, come what may let it be cold, let it be dry, let it be rain 8
o clock if the team member gets into his office when you start something at 8, it will end
perfectly at whatever time you want. So, there has to be a team spirit it has to be a bottom
38
of approach rather than a top down approach, but every individual should feel that they
have to win rather than a team leader coming and saying let us win. So, there has to be a
team spirit. So, this is also a major concern in the product development.
So, I end my lecture here and I would like to give task for students. So, every lecture
whatever I do I would try to finish by giving a task to the students. So, these task is for
yourself learning, you do not have to submit apart from this you will also have
assignment and quizzes which will be conducted during the course, but this is for we
have gone through a one topic, so one full topic. So, now, we will have to see what have
you understood, can you cross correlate or can you link it with the real time used. (Refer
Slide Time: 50:15)
So, in this entire presentation I have talked about something which I did not cover much
which is called as design for manufacturing ok. In this design for manufacturing, I would
like to make it more specific design for assembly. I would like every students to take four
products which they like or which they use daily, and try to disassemble the product into
parts, sub assembly ok, and then try to bring out their fastening techniques ok. So, take
only four products which are detachable or disassemble. So, try to bring all the parts
separately sub assembly separately will make a list write down make a list. And then you
try to also write down what are the fastening techniques they have used to attach the
parts into sub assembly, and see how you link this sub assembly with a product such that
they make a very successful product. You can choose any cycle anything of your choice
39
ok. And try to do this what happens is. By doing this you will try to say how designers
have involved in making the design for assembly in as part of the product so and this
makes the product very successful.
40
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 02
Fundamentals of Manufacturing Towards Product Development
Welcome to lecture 2, in this product design and manufacturing course. Last class when
we ended I gave a small assignment asking you to do choose 4 different products; which
fascinates you and then I hope you would have considered or you would have picked up
4 disassembled assembled. And then you would have written down the list of all
fastening techniques was involved in that particular product.
I am sure by doing this exercise you have understood how different products try to use
different technology in assembling and disassembling. So, we will continue with our
lecture. So, today we will move to lecture 2 wherein, which we talk some more little bit
fundamentals of manufacturing, wherein which we keep back of our mind all our focus
towards product development.
41
So, in this slide we will try to have an introduction then capital circulation, which is very
important because when we try to do a product you should also understand what is the
capital which is involved, how do I get it out or something like that. So, manufacturing
capability, mass production, interchangeability which is a very, very inter important
concept very important. When you talk about product interchangeability is very
important and then product life cycle S curve design for manufacturing we will just have
an introduction in this chapter, but later we will have a complete session discussing about
it. And then last will be problem solving process.
When we talk about manufacturing is nothing but I take raw material, raw material I try
to do a process. And I try to get the output ok. This process can be you try to apply either
physical or chemical energy try to change the raw material either raw material here you
can change the shape, you can change the size or you can just only change the property
to get the required output.
When I talk about shape and size you can use additive process or you can use or
subtractive process. So, when you talk about processes it can be classified into 3, one is
called as constant volume process. It can be subtractive process and it can be additive
process ok. You can follow any of this process and then try to apply either physical or
chemical energy to it and try to convert the raw material into a required output. Ok by
42
this process is called as manufacturing and here when we talk about manufacturing, we
have to keep in mind a concept called productivity so; that means, to say with minimum
input getting maximum output ok.
So, here if you see manufacturing it is a group of operations or activities involved. So, it
is not only converting the physical product it is also involving other organizations or
departments in developing a product wherein, which design plays a very important role
planning operation and then comes manufacturing production to make a product.
You should understand all these things when you are trying to do a product design. The
manufacturing system if you see as such it is a overall structure, which includes not only
manufacturing process and production activities, but also the task of finance, marketing
and accounting. Today I have a wonderful product I have a good set of customers for it,
but if I do not have a finance to try to improvise the product or to produce the product in
mass such that the economics goes down so then I am in trouble.
So, manufacturing is not only producing, but also reaching to the customer, such that you
try to do it in an economical manner. So, it is now clear manufacturing is not only
producing it involves design, planning, operation and then you do manufacturing process
and apart from this you also try to do finance, marketing and accounting. All these
departments put together in converting a raw material into raw material into a useful
output is called as manufacturing. And when I do this I try to do in a highly efficient
manner that is called as productivity ok.
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So, we will see in this section some basic concepts that are important, in the overall
understanding of process of development design and manufacturing, 1 is capital
circulation or production turn.
2 is manufacturing capacity 3, is manufacturing production, 4 is interchangeability, 5 is

product life cycle, 6 is S curve or technology growth curve very interesting, simultaneous
or concurrent engineering design for X last class, I started about design for
manufacturing. So, design for X and engineering problem solving.
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When we talk about capital circulation or production term in context of modern
manufacturing to invest capital from either the profits generated in other projects or
taking loan from the bank in the manufacturing facility.
So, it is to invest capital in a manufacturing facility is capital circulation. So, it is

expected that the manufacturing firm to an invest capital, in the manufacturing facility to
produce goods by using the suitable manufacturing technology and selling the finished
product where the assistance of sales and marketing strategy and generating profits.
So, this is what is called as capital circulation so; that means, to say I invest 100 rupees,
rupees 100. When do I get back my 100 rupees? So, this is investment invest and this is
get back. When do I get back rupees 100? And when I get back I will always try to have
a profit also with it. So, if I am fat with money I just invest whatever profit comes it is all
for me.
But when I do this investment through a loan from a bank then the interest of that also
has to be taken care and then I try to make my profit. So, whatever profit comes out
again I will have to pay the interest component, interest and then I try to get the balance
and my balance. So now, I will try to have a lesser amount as compared to if have a
capital which is getting invested from some other place. This is very important when do I
get back my investment whatever I do? So, why this is link to the economics of the
product?
When I try to develop a product, which is 10000 rupees or 20000 rupees or a huge
investment. So, I will not be able to sell that particular product to mass community. So,
economics plays a very, very important role when you try to do product design, or in
other ways the costing plays a very, very important role.
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Some part of the revenue is used to settle the amount borrowed and some parts are used
to retain for the operating profit.
So, the above cycle works very efficiently when the cost of the production of the good is
minimum and the profit is maximum, which everybody would like to have. I invest 10
rupees if I can sell a product for 50 rupees I will be happy to do it, but unfortunately
when I invest raw material 10 rupees and other things the sales component everything
put together that is operational cost this 10 rupees will become 30 rupees and then I sell it
at 50 rupees it is only 20 rupees profit.
So, this is very important, if I cannot make a product which is economical whatever
product I do; however, good it is it will not be a successful product. On the other hand,
the cycle is; obviously, less efficient when the production costs are high or the products
cannot be easily sold, leading to the inventory building up. So, this inventory building up
is another big thing. See in agriculture what happens when there is a mass production of
vegetables perishable goods. So, then what do they do they put it in cold storage wait for
a time and then they disperse it off.
So, when they try to do this they try to have to invest in the inventory storage. So, raw
material plus inventory storage whatever it is and then whatever is the selling price their
profit goes down because they have invested in the inventory. In the same way when I try
to have a sales of textile clothes. If I cannot sell the clothes before the fashion ends or
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before the season ends then naturally what I do is, I try to somehow clear my textile
whatever I have as a clearance sale and try to get it. Otherwise my inventory builds up
end and I do not get the return on my investment.
So, this has to be taken care when you try to develop a product. When you try to design a
product try to choose in such a manner such that the product can be easily fabricated with
low investment and reach out to lot of people.
So, when you talk this is the nut shell about the capital circulation or the production turn.
So, if you look at it the firm is their so sales, goods and services, market for goods and
services, the firm sells household buy and from there you see that. So, you see front
yellow goes in one direction and the other one green goes in the other way direction.
So, if you look at it market for goods and services, market for factory of production,
right? So, if you look at it let us start from here firm. So, the firm sells goods and
services and what do the company get is the revenue market for goods and services.
Goods and services are sold to the house hold and this is just pending which comes by.
So, here market factory of production. So, here in the factory you will have labor, land
and capital which are invested. And then this; whatever you get out is going to be income
for the household. So, from here you put all the inputs to the firm and wages rent and
profit. So, you have 2 circles which goes around. So, this is revenue, wage rent, income
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and spending this is all financial and manufacturing if you see input, services goods,
goods and service and then labor and land this are the inner circle of it. So, this is the
capital circulation or the production turn which is very, very important.
Next let us look into the next topic of manufacturing capability. So, manufacturing
capability is what is the size I can have I can handle? What is the shape I can handle?
What is the raw material I can handle? So, what I can produce is the manufacturing
capability.
So, manufacturing capability of a manufacturing unit is the limitation of the physical

aspects of the product such that the size and weight it can handle. The technology
available for processing raw material and the quantity that can be process processed in a
specific period of time are also constrains depending upon the manufacturing facility;
that means, to say how many products can I produce in one hour?
So, that is what we are trying to say as the quantity. So, when you talk about
manufacturing capability size and weight plays an important role. Technology what do I
have for example, if I have plastic parts to be made. So, the technology what I have is
injection molding machine and generally when I have when I talk about injection
molding machine, I always have to think of producing lot many parts in one hour so; that
means, to say the production rate will be very high.
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When I talk about make using the same plastic and then trying to make a composite or
just a hull of a ship, I hardly choose the technology which is used not injection molding,
it depends on the raw material they try to do blow molding or something like that and
then try to get it. So, here the number of parts produced is very less may be 1 or 2 in hand
in a day to get it.
So now the manufacturing facility or the capability is to produce, how many parts? What
is the technology? What is the size and weight I can handle such that I can try to decide
the factory?
So, access by the limited technology; say for example, if somebody has a factory which
is completely working on metals. So, then a plastic cannot be worked there so that there
is a technological limitation. So, for instance a manufacturing plant meant for automobile
cannot produce medicine. So, medicinal products need lot of clean air and it is also have
to be maintained and here it is more of powder based. Automobiles are metal component
means or plastic components. So, completely there is a different technology a company
which makes automobile cannot make pharmaceutical. And a company which makes
pharmaceutical cannot make automobile on the similar lines machine have a limitation
to.
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Suppose if I have an injection molding machine I have a dye for every shot I get a single
piece out. Sup and if I want to make lot of outputs then I will make a dye wherein which
in every shot I get 6 or 7 parts output for example, I can try to have an injection dye
wherein, which I make one spoon I can have an injection dye wherein which I can make
10 spoons. So, depending upon the shape, size, pressure, what I have the raw material
quantity I have? I can try to produce more in number. So, on similar lines machines have
a limitation in the numbers so that depends on the shape and size producing something in
large quantity mass production.
So, here in which if you decide that there is going to be a huge customer bank for your
product, then you will try to choose technology wherein, which this technology is more
focused towards mass. If you decide that I am going to produce Rolex watch and each
watch costs 1 lakh.
So, I will not try to go for mass production here in which, I will go for batch or Jobshop
production wherein which, I try to focus at a customer try to consider each customer as a
prime customer and try to develop my technology and the factory whatever I have in line
with the customer. Because I can produce I can give it at a cost which is on higher side.
So, mass production is a concept wherein which trying to produce in large qualities of
the same kind of product. Mass production is linked with high demand for a particular
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product and the manufacturing plant is generally designed for production of a single type
of product. For example, cement, iron and steel, pharmaceutical company, petroleum
company mass requirement is there. So, they will try to tweak to their required customer
and try to produce.
So, mass production is another concept which has to be considered when you try to do a
product design.
The next one is interchangeability, interchangeability is very, very important. When I try
to make a product see a product can be of 2 kinds, one it a single part can be a product,
multiple parts assemble together can be product. When we try to do multiple parts
assembly to make a product then there comes the concept of interchangeability. The
concept of interchangeability is try to use parts which are standard; so that it can be used
for many applications for example, I have a nut I have a bolt ok. I have a nut I have a
bolt, I pick a bolt from one box and I pick a nut from the other box wherein which both
of them are try they both can match and made with each other, right?
So, if I pick anything out of the 100, I pick any one nut and a box where 100 nuts or a
bolts are there I pick one, randomly I pick and if I assemble and if assembly happens. So,
there is like comes the concept of interchangeability. If I do not want to do
interchangeability the concept of selective assembly comes. For example, if you talk
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about plunger and a barrel which is used in a diesel pump. So, there we do selective
assembly; that means, to say the barrel deviations are noted down and correspondingly
the grinding happens on a plunger. So, here this particular plunger and this particular
barrel alone can made the other things cannot made. So, basically what we are trying to
say is you try to specify certain tolerance; such that the parts when they are interchanged
they can still work. And this concept is very important when we talk about design for
manufacturing.
As much as possible when you try to develop a product try to use standard parts, try to
use standard things such that one for those standard parts you will always have vendors
who will be competing and giving you at a price which is economical to, you do not have
to depend upon one source you can have multiple sources. So, the advantage is. So, you
can try to make your product more economical and you can try to make your product
very quick ok.
So, here what you do is we try to make standard shapes and size give specific tolerance
such that you can try to mix and match and make and start using it for fitting. So, in
simpler words the production process of any parts should be standardize to minimize the
variation in the size between the parts the break. So, the concept of interchangeability
was a very big breakthrough in manufacturing, earlier what they used to do is when there
were lot of requirements during world war 1 and 2 for ammunitions, they always try to
do selective assembly their production rate was enormously low. When the concept of
interchangeability was brought in the production of this arms and ammunition went short
a very high. The Aeroplanes space parts which was been made earlier in non-standard
when they could standardize the number of planes produced were enormously high
during World War 1 and 2.
So, this basically interchangeability is you try to reduce the variation in size and shape,
but and tolerance and try to meet out to lot of applications, the variation should be
acceptable in terms of general level of tolerance. So, this is nothing but the con this is the
concept of interchangeability, when you try to do a product design keep in the concept of
interchangeability first what you should do? You should think in return on investment or
production turnover or capital circular. So, then you will try to look at interchangeability
then you will try to look at mass production, and then you will try to look at
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manufacturing capacity. So, all these things are important because this will try to dictate
the costing of your product. (Refer Slide Time: 21:54)
Next is product life cycle, it is a time period between conceiving a particular product and
a point at which it is not profitable for further manufacturing is called as product life
cycle.
I start producing a product today and how long will be the product in the market. For
example, when I was young we used to buy scooters. So, the scooter which in 1980s the
scooter had a were thought of and had life span of 20 years and 30 years. Today what we
think of any automobile the life span is only 5 years, 7 years, 3 years. It has come to that
level. So, what is product life cycle the time it enters into the market and the time when
the product stops making a profit that is called as the product life cycle. And when you
try to look for a product for developing to a customer always keep this concept of
product life cycle in your mind. So, it is nothing but the time period between conceiving
a particular product and a point at which it is not profitable for further manufacturing is
called as product life cycle.
See today you can take the newspaper industry; you can take telegraph for that matter
phonograms for that matter. So, they at one point of time telegram was the shortest and
fastest way of communicating or transferring information from 1 place to the other. In
the recent past telegram is no more existing because technology is like cell phone has
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taken over. So, if you want to understand little more in detail first of all the sale of newly
launched product is skyrocketed after it is introduction into the market.
Once the customers are well versed with the product sales increases exponentially and
then what happens is it tries to deteriorate.
The growth is then followed by a matured period in the sales of further increase finally,
when the competitive product appears on the market the sales of the product declines.
The market reaches a saturation point and the product is no longer fresh, the sales and the
profit further declines and the profit is no more profitable to be manufactured. I have a
cycle which talks about it.
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So, if I try to plot between profit revenue and profit with respect to time, you can see here
I have divided into 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 phases. So, phase 1 is the product development cycle.
So, you if you look at it here, there are 2 things, one is called as revenue curve the other
one is called as profit curve. When you look at it in stage 1 then revenue is absolutely 0
the profit goes in negative; that means, to say I can keep on doing investment. So, when I
keep doing investment I spend lot of money with a speculation that I will win the race.
So, when it comes at the end of the product development when the product has just
started selling into the market. I am recovering out of my loss and I am moving towards
the 0 stage. So, as in when it is introduced into the market you always see there is a slow
growth, if you take that slope of this and if you take the slope of this you see there is a
big difference. At this stage when market when it is getting introduced by word of mouth
by advertisements or by market requirements the product gets introduced into the market
and slowly it starts moving.
When it reaches a growth state you see there is a rampant increase in the revenue; that
means, to say number of products sold in the market is very high and this cannot keep
continuing for a longer time. Every company would like to stretch this period, but today
because of global competition. And so, many new pliers and small pliers coming into the
market the growth period is now getting down to less than even 1 month, the competition
is very high. So, you have to understand this and this then after this when it comes to the
maturity period you see there is a slow slowly increase in slope. Like this slope value
goes down and it reaches a saturation and after the saturation there is a deep decline in
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the revenue. So, when there is a deep decline in the revenue the profit which was all got
about it also slowly started going down.
So, this growth period is one thing a product designer should have it in his vision, before
developing and getting into the market. If you try to do a very small-scale or a very
small-time period growth product, then you will have you will not have more profit zone
and the maturity also will happen very fast and this also will shrink down. So, earlier this
life time was talked about in years today it has come down to months.
So now you see how competitive is a market and how have you to produce or what
product have you to produce to sustain it for a long time ok. So, during the saturation
period, during the saturation period the profit are maintained by tweaking the product a
little bit and relaunching it as an improved version of it is predecessors. So, what am
trying to talk about is, at this period maturity period. So, what I am trying to do I am
trying to shift my curve back. I am trying to introduce a new thing for example, I try to
add on some features I have a car. So, let us assume am having a car am selling the car in
the market.
So, all I realize is when it reaches a revenue state. What I do is I try to add ac to the car I
try to add music systems to the car, I try to add a power drive to the car. Now what has
happened 3 new technology have done. So now, I have tweaked of the product little bit, I
have not changed the shape of the car, I have not changed the engine of the car, I have
not changed the seat of the car the volume is the same road clearing is the same, but my I
have introduced small things in my product such that I tweak it and then what do I do is I
re-launch into the market.
So, this goes back and starts coming out with it ok. Meanwhile, when I talk about
examples for products in computer industry or in electronics industry the time span is
talked about in months. Understanding of this cycle is very, very vital for a designer and
a manufacturer. If I do not know the time scale of my product which will sustain in the
market, no point in developing a product; this is very, very important. Today a product is
developed because it has to make me economics it has to bring me some profit. If a
product cannot bring me some profit no point in developing a product. We can always do
for a social cause, but social cause cannot be the or the prime focus of a product design
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engineering ok. To understand for understanding of this cycle is vital for designers and
manufacturer to maximize the profit and the effort to be made when should they make
the effort what should they tweak and how do they get it.
So, this is very, very important as far as a product is getting launched into the market.
The other one is the S Type of curve of the technology growth cycle. So, the technology
growth cycle a technology growth is an evolutionary process. So, let me draw a
technological graph with respect to time. So, I would like to draw so this is nothing but
technology performance parameter, ok? And this is which is respect to time a same curve
like time with respect to the;
So, the first one I would say embryonic embryo, embryonic, then it is growth, then it is
maturity and the last one is ageing ok. So, it is almost something like this ok. So, here is
the new technology period, here it is the technology improvement period and here it is
maturity. And here it is the ageing. So, if I the technology is so, this curve people say it is
an S curve because it looks something like an S.
So, technology curve is an evolutionary process and it follows a S curve. The S

comprises of 3 stages, but here I have given 4 stages one is no growth phase, rapid
growth phase and levelling of the phase. So, generally what happens embryonic growth
maturity and ageing. So, all these things come into existence.
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So, on this plot of 3 stages, here I have given 4 stages, but generally a maturity will be
the 3 stage and we stop, they resemble the letter S a stretching from the right. When the
third stage is reached and the growth is exhausted; that means, to say maturity a
paradigm shift is observed and the advent of new technology takes place; that means, to
say people always at this stage they try to push it back, that is what I was trying to say.
Earlier it takes a considerable amount of time to master a new technology, but with
experience and progress is experience progress is made.
So, improvement in technology is this rapid growth. So, this is improvement in

technology once the technology is fully exploited and exhaust stage is reached, very little
gain is performed. So, that the new products are developed.
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So, let me drive try to draw the S type curve of technology for the mobile phones for
example, for Nokia phone alone. So, this is performance and this is the time period time,
right? So, this is the curve went something like this ok.
So, this is the Smartphone usage and this is a feature phone usage. Feature phone usage is
nothing but the punch type. So, you remember when we were 10, 15 years back this was
the phone which came into the market wherein, which you punch the letters and so this is
what is feature phone. The feature phone was going on making profit and after some
point of time you see there is a slow performance decline. And by the time the company
this could realize that there is a decline in the technology the Smartphone have picked up
and today this is keep moving on. Today this has also come/ to a saturation. So, what is
happening is now new phones come up.
So now this Smartphones comes here. So, the let us assume this is Smartphone 1. So
now, they come out with a new thing called as Smartphone 2 may be a different
technology, which comes out Smartphone 2 then comes smart phone 3. So, like this you
see the S curve of technology in the mobile phone which keeps going for a long time. So,
the feature phone came first after the feature phone came the Smartphone then.
Now, you can see there can be more advancement in the Smartphone today people are
talking about watch used as a Smartphone. So, you use reach all information in your
watch you talk to your watch and that gets connected with the mobile phone. And the
59
next generation is a; they say you try to talk without making a noise or without making
sound. So, that will be the next version of the Smartphone. With this I would like to
come to lecture 2 to an end.
So, I have a task for the students with this is an assignment. So, here what I would
request you kindly see what are all the developments which has happened developments,
happened in computers and how is how is their S curve for technology. Second thing
what is a bio filter which is a product and where is it is application. And the third thing
what I want is I want you to look at a recently developed product, recently developed
product which is mass produced , which is mass produced and when you look at the
product it has to be innovative product.
So, please keep this is mind these are the small simple assignments, you try to look at
you internet and try to look at books and then try to answer these questions. These
questions when you start answering it you will try to realize how importance is product
designer’s responsibility when he does a new product development.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 02 Continued.
Fundamentals of Manufacturing Towards Product Development
Welcome back friends. So, we will continue with our lecture 2 lecture two started with
fundamentals of manufacturing towards product design.
So, we were trying to cover the contents of this lecture. So, we have covered capital
circulation, manufacturing capability, mass production, interchangeability product life
cycle and S curve. S curve we ended with a example of Nokia phones saying a feature
based phone then a smart phone we saw that s curve. So, in the S curve we also saw
embryonic period, then technology development period or technology reiteration period
then maturity period and then aging period. So, we are left with two more topics to be
discussed one is design for manufacturing, and the last one is going to be problem
solving processes.
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So, here we would first look into simultaneous or concurrent engineering, what is
concurrent? Concurrent means involving many people together or trying to work at the
latest technology or the recent happenings. So, when you talk about any product there are
two primary criteria’s which a product designer has to always keep it in mind. One is the
functionality the other one is the performance. So, a designer must ideally deal with
various market limitations, such as the current technology. There are several places were
even the current technology has lot of limitations.
For example when we try to use GPS we say it is very good, but still we have problems
when there is zero visibility in the airstrip. So, take off and landing is always a problem
still we need technology ah. So, current technology there are lot of limitations for the
processing of materials and when we talk about processing of the material, there are
materials today which are which are brittle and as far also there are highly high strength
brittle, and they have lot of factor toughness. So, you have combinational mechanical
properties and when we start processing those things, we have a lot of limitation in
manufacturing technology. The other way what I gave an example of airstrip takeoff and
landing is the other technology where in which vision based is pr problem.
The third thing currently what we have limitation and technologies is the fog. Trains run
come winter train runs 12hours 16 hours late, 8 hours late its because of the fog the
driver engine driver is having almost zero visibility, he has to he has to move along the
track. So, there is a lot of limitation though we say technology has gone way high, but
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still there is lot of technological limitations even available today, in terms of performance
as well as in terms of manufacturing.
The cost incurred and the time taken to perform a manufacturing activity all these things
put lot of limitation in making a product, which is functional which has lot of functions
and which good does a very good performance. To meet out the above two criteria that
the design and manufacturer functions must be associated and this association is often
referred as concurrent or simultaneous engineering. So; that means, to say you have a
team in this team you have so, many members who try to participate when a product is
getting developed.
So, here we have just taken an example of manufacturing engineer. So, we have we can
also have materials, we can have a have a shipping engineer, we can have a goods inward
engineer. So, all these peoples sit together to have a common objective which is to
produce a product, which meets all the functionality and does a wonderful performance.
So, this is called as concurrent engineering. There can be a technology limitation, there
can be a material limitation, there can be a cost limitation; that means, to say the cost
which can be given to a particular product. So, that. So, all these peoples sit together look
forward in developing a product and this is also very important when a product is getting
designed, the product engineer must keep back of his mind. (Refer Slide Time: 04:45)
So, the design of the product is based on concurrent integration of the following major
activity, one is design conceptualization and design axioms. We will see what is axiom
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later in our course then identification of product functions, then product modeling and
cad. The next one is material selection design for efficient manufacturing and
specification of dimension and tolerance for selecting the proper machines.
So, all these people are part of concurrent engineering or in other words it is called as
simultaneous engineering. So, when we develop a product new product, we should try to
keep in mind that we follow concurrent engineering. So, what is that? This is what is
concurrent engineering I was talking to about this is these are the arrows are nothing, but
the experts what have given in the next slide.
Design for manufacturing which I have already hinted earlier. So, I will just quickly
work through the slide. The ultimate aim of a product designer is to design a product that
is that is coherent with the user expectations and over the life cycle of the product and
has a good re sale value. So, this is a important thing which a product designer should
think at the design stage.
So, DFM is a concept which includes careful and organized study of various issues and
mandates the integration of all relevant data. So, design for manufacturing concept is
much more than just manufacturing. It is an effective collaboration of user and the
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market expectation processes various assemblies, disassembling methods considering of
socio economical factors and maintenance requirements this is very important.
DFM concept is much more than just manufacturing, it is an effect to collaboration of

user and the market and the market expectation processes various assemblies dis-
assemblies because today you see let me take an example of a simple table a table let us
take its a study table. A study table has 4 legs it has four legs and a top whatever it is it
has a top on top. So, let us take this as one piece and this as two piece; that means, 2x2=4
pieces you have. So, people what they have done today is, if you if you completely make
a table in your in your factory and try to transport this table to the customer, it occupies
lot of volumes space it occupies lot of volume.
So, what people have come out is, they have come out with something called as design
for manufacturing they try to sell a table as disassembled parts. So, now, with a given
same space the table is divided into 2 and it is packed separately, now table can be
moved from one place to the other or from the manufacturer to the to the customer
without getting damage and here the customer is asked to assemble and not assembled
table is sold. So, this is part of DFM.
So, what they have done is they have kept their mind and also concurrent engineering
they have kept their mind transportation is going to be costly for this table. So, let us do
it disassembled and let us ask the customer to assemble wherein which there is a user
manual given, which is more pictorial and user manual which is more pictorial, and just
by looking at it the customer is able to understand what it has to be done and he does it
by himself. Many a times this is also said as customer delight or customer is over thrilled
when he assembles and he sees a product that he has assembled and which he is using.
So, for this thing this is now also a part of DFM. So, these are some small concepts
which are used same for example, today computers are also sold in piece meal. So, they
have they have run separate hard disk is separate, and they also give you a user manual
they ask you to assemble and try to make a full product.
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when we talk about design for manufacturing in little more details, the major activity
includes marketing goods good choice of design principles, concept design for reference
then recognizing materials and processes, design process analysis and rectification. The
next one is quality expectation analysis of assembly disassembly method engineering
models and detailed engineering.
So, here what happens the boundary conditions are say for example, here the con the
initial concept idea is approved and functionality is all integrated into it and now what
they do is now they look for how fixing a boundary conditions, look for simulation, or
look for optimization in terms of space cost whatever it is and then you come out with
the detailed engineering design. Till this conceptual idea you do not you do not worry
about how what should be the size what should be the shape and all you just put all
functionality together and then integrated and look at it this is what is a product we are
supposed to make.
And once everything is cleared by the customer, then you start optimizing and reducing
space choice of material and all those things. Economic analysis and production cost
estimation this is very important, as I told you a product is always develop keeping
economics into it prototype development engineering testing and redesign. So, this is an
iterative process, product development is never single step process. It is iterative it goes
back and then you reiterate, come back again and then show it to the customer and then
improvise your product. Design feasibility production and control of production and
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distribution activities these are some of the activities or some of the major activities for
design for manufacturing.
If a company says I am following design for manufacturing; that means, to say they have
done a thorough job in in the product design stage itself to develop a product. And if a
company follows this design for manufacturing, it is pretty sure their product is going to
be sustainable, the product is going to be of high quality and the costing to a large extent
is reduced.
So, the last topic in this lecture is going to be the engineering problem solving processes.
The basic engineering problem solving process outlined by Krick has 5 steps; first you
have to formulate a problem, second you have to analyze the problem, third you have to
look for alternative solutions, fourth you have to look among the alternative solution the
best solution and start working on it finally, you choose the best solution ok. So, these
are the specification of the solution.
Now, let us take an example; I feel it is pretty cold outside ok. So, now, I have to decide
how should I protect myself from the cold; one I and the other thing is am also moving.
So, buying a heater is not a solution. So, I have decided that I will buy a protecting cloth
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which can cover my body wrap around my body. So, then it comes as should I buy a
jacket should I buy a sweater.
So, now I have to decide which one to buy, next one is what is the color and next one is
what is the cost, the next one is should I think for cost and then next one is should I buy
it immediate or should I postpone it for a week. So, these are all statements in front of
me. So, then what do I do I try to keep all those things, I try to now fix what is to be I try
to buy a sweater, what I have done? I have now formulated the problem I will try to buy
a color which is which is light I would try to give a cost of rupees 5000 and I would like
to go immediate today.
So, what I have done? I have decided that I will I have formulated a problem to solve the
solution that I am feeling cold, then what do? I do see look at it I have fixed my prices
5000. So, since I have fixed it as 5000, I do not mind travelling by a taxi to some place
for which I can give you up to 300 rupees to a place where I can shop where I can go and
then get and get since I have decided it today I would like to go to a mall right and ah.
So, now, you see the problem is formulated and now what I do is, I have to analyze and
then I have to look for solutions. So, in the next what do I do with this problem, I try to
analyze the problem whatever I have chosen, and then I would look for alternative
solutions.
When I walk through the mall I pick some 6 or 7 different types of sweaters for me in
front of me 5 and then what do I do is I go to a trial room, I wear all five which can suit
my color, my size, my shape everything and then what I do? I do I pick up the right one
and then come to the billing part then pay. The engineering problem solving technique
also goes by this, but this is the major challenge, how do I understand the situation and
formulate a problem this is very very important.
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A good problem solver in engineer must determine whether or not the problem is worth
solving. Many a times what happens you try to solve a problem, which is only one time
and which is rarest of the rare kind. So, then you cannot develop a product for it you just
have to live it and get out ok. So, so please do not look at those things look at problems
where it is genuine and where it is occurring regularly, and there are lot of customers
who are been affected by the problem. So, it is first you have to choose a problem
exactly. If you choose a small problem then a product designer might develop a product
which does not have a long product life or the number of product sold will be very less
ok.
Next is quant quantitatively qualitative information should be gathered for analyzing the
problem for exhaustive understanding of the problem and its challenge what is
qualitative and quantitative? Qualitative is O soft O hard it has to be it has to be very
high strength, but you do not tell any values. When you talk about quality these are all
qualities read great all these things, but when you talk to quantitative you try to give a
number to it. So, then that is very important. So, quantitative and qualitative information
should be gathered first and then you should look at the problem challenge.
Once the problem has been clearly understood if you do not understand the problem, it is
good that you go back reiterate at this stage itself to understand the problem. And once
you have understood the problem very clearly understood what a customer wants and
everything then one should start looking at alternative solutions. Many a times a
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customer tries to give his requirements in qualitative; the biggest challenge for a designer
is to convert the qualitative information into quantitative and then he should start
working out.
For example I would like to have a cell phone, which does which needs no charging for
10 days. You have not specified what are all the apps you have you have not specified;
what is the time you use your mobile phone. So, once you have to understand all those
things convert those number and come out with the number of this is the total time he is
going to work on a mobile phone, this many apps he is going to use for this what should
be the consumption of power, and for that power what should be the battery and then we
decide what should be the recharge cycle time.
So, like that we have to go ahead converting a qualitative into quantitative data has to be
done. And once after doing it then you have to look at alternative batteries which are
available in the market pick one which tries to be cost effect to and gives high quality
and come out with the solution. Finally, the solution should be properly documented by
listing the steps of solution and a product designer should always keep in mind he should
always move with the diary.
Let it be hard or let it be digital, he has to keep recording informations and keep making
notes. And regularly he has keep iterating the notes such that he keep, he put, he converts
this data into information and this information has to be recorded somewhere. So, that
whenever he needs any clarification, he can go back to the information and start doing it
back and forth he does then he should finally, write down the systematic solution, how
did he come to this particular to end of the product. That means, to say why did he
choose this particular shape size, what is the logic behind it has to be properly
documented which will help hence forth when he does it he need not do right from
scratch he can use this information and then start proceeding further.
So, with this we come to an end of lecture 2. So, till now we have covered what is all
basics of product design and different manufacturing concepts, which are involved
keeping product design as the back end so.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 03
Engineering Design Process
So, welcome to lecture three. In this lecture, we will try to see the product design
morphologies.
The content of this lecture is going to be problem confronting the designer, next the steps
of the engineering design process, the third one is defining the problem and settling
objectives setting objectives, then developing provisional design, evaluation and
decision-making, and the morphology of design the seven phase. So, all this topics will
be covered in this lecture.
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Problem confronting the designer; the product has certain properties. We said it has to be
it has to be functionally good, it has to be quality, it has to be reliable, it has to be
economical. The product has certain properties some of these properties are intrinsic,
some are extrinsic, and physical form of the product. So, these are some of the properties
intrinsic property, extrinsic property, and physical form of the product.
The challenge for a designer is to make products useful for customers for and make
change from function to form. So, function is one, and form is the other ok. These two
are different terminologies. So, the challenge for a designer is to make product useful for
customers and to change from function to form. It is always possible to make products
having equal set of functions ok.
The design methods can help but imagination and creativity are important to transit from
function to form. So, this skill is also very important for a product designer. So, a design
method can help but imagination and creativity are important to transmit from function to
form. So, this is a very important statement. So, imagination and creativity are important
to transit from function to form. Function is; what are all the functions which a product is
supposed to make. A form is; what is the shape which has to be incorporated into the
product. For example, we have majority of the phone flat, Smartphone’s as flat why do
not we have a cylindrical phone wherein which it is something like your pen which can
which can be kept inside pocket which has a which has a cylindrical circumference.
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Design thinking has five steps. One is called as the empathy study. Empathy study means
you just go to the customer, ask the customer what problem he faces, and you become
the customer him himself or herself and try to understand the problem from the customer
point of view. So, it is learn about the audience for whom you are designing. So, first you
go get into the shoes of a customer himself, understand what all problems he faces, and
then you come out and look from the designer prospective how can you solve the
problem. So, empathy study is very important. Empathy and sympathy are two different
terms. A designer should have an empathetic feeling.
So, he should get into the feelings of a customer, look at the problem, and then note
down all the problems what he faces and then start looking for solutions. Once you look
at all the problems, you note down all the data. You note down you note down all the
information whatever note down all the data, then on this data you try to rearrange the
data such that you get a proper information and then what you do is you define the
problem exactly.
For example, I was talking to you in the last lecture, I feel cold, so that is a problem
statement. You cannot say that I need to buy a sweater. So, when you say I need to buy a
sweater, you are almost finalizing a that you do not need a jacket and sweater is one
solution towards solving the problem, but what is the customer facing I feel cold that is
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it. So, moment I say I need a sweater, then naturally your further processing of the
problem goes around finding out alternative sweaters to keep you warm. But moment I
say I am I am cold, I want to protect myself from cold. So, you can look at a jacket, you
can look at a sweater, you can look at a shawl. So, all those other alternatives are there
ok.
So, moment you do the empathy study and then you get the information now you clearly
define the problem what is that a customer wants. So, I feel cold, the customer needs
something to protect himself. The next question comes is whether it has to be light or
heavy. Then the next question comes is should it be should it be only matching fitting to
him or he is also looking for his friend also that means, to say is he is he interested to go
for a matching fit a shirt or is he looking for something like a shawl. So, now, you see I
have defined properly that I need something to protect. So, construct a point of view
based on user needs and insides you start defining the problem statement ok.
The next one is this ideation. In ideation, what we do is we try to develop several
alternative ideas in trying to meet out the solve the problem. So, here what was the
problem, I feel cold, he has to be protected from cold. The alternative solutions are
sweater, jacket, shawl whatever it is. So, these are ideations. So, brain storming and
coming up with creative solutions is nothing but ideation.
The next one is you make prototype. See as far as buying is concerned the problem ends
there he chooses one and then he goes, but if you want to make a product. So, next what
you do is from this ideation you start making prototypes. So, you try to whatever the
customer wanted, and whatever you have understood, whatever alternative ideas you are
generated with that you try to pick one idea, make a prototype and show it to the pub
show it to the customer that is this idea or is this product happy for you. Do you feel
satisfied with this solution for your problem, so that is nothing but making prototype. So,
build a representation of one or more of your ideas, show it to the customer, it can be one
it can be n. So, you show it and then ask the customer to pick ok, this solution is much
better. So, then what you do is you start working on engineering design problem solving.
And then finally, what you do is you start making it to the requirement and then you start
doing testing.
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So, return to your original use so user group and test your ideas for feedback. Suppose,
here you made a prototype. Prototype can be in terms of functionality alone, it need not
be in terms of form. So, after that what you do is moment you have understood all the
things what you require in a prototype, you take that idea and then put form also to it
make it as final and show it back to a customer, get his feedback and start doing it. So,
here this is the testing phase.
So, this process is called as design thinking. You should do an empathy study and then
you should define the problem. You should develop several ideas then after that you will
develop prototype. Prototypes can be in terms of functionality alone; it need not be in
terms of shape, size, form it can be only in terms of functionality then from there you
pick it and then you go. So, here it will be almost like your final product, almost like
your final product you show it to him and then get it.
So, what you develop after testing is also not the final product. You show alternatives
and then you make it make it to a final state. And after this what you do is you start
looking forward for design for manufacturing design for and then productivity,
manufacturing capability all these things will be thought of after this. Before this it is
more towards accepting the idea. And here till here you do not work on economics. After
this you start working on optimization then you start working on economics. (Refer Slide
Time: 09:52)
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So, steps involved in engineering design process which we saw problem definition it is
all about needs and surroundings. Then value system design it deals with aim and range.
System synthesis to generate other options system analysis to evaluate other options. And
then select the best system evaluate alternative according to the predefined range and
then planning for action it is about specifying the choice. So, this are the steps which are
involved in engineering design process which was put out by Hall in 1968. These steps
can be seen in many design processes actually the best method is to select best out of all
alternatives. So, this is very important.
So, whatever I said here design thinking, it is almost the same which is on engineering
design process. So, problem definition is a first step, value system design it is the it deals
with aim and ranges, then system synthesis to develop to generate various options, then
to evaluate those options, then choose the best out of their options then plan your actions
for making the proper choice.
These are the eight steps which are involved in doing it. So, first step one is identifying
the need or the problem, research the need or the problem. So, this two this is just
overlapping design thinking, engineering design process, all these things are just
overlapping which are which here is put in a much micromanagement step. So, research
the research that need or problem, develop possible solutions, select the best possible
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solution, construct a prototype test, and evaluate communicate the solution and if there is
a need you redesign, and then you keep continuing.
So, design is a cyclic process. It keeps all these and no product which comes to the
market is the ultimate one. For example, if that is the case then every way everybody in
this universe should use only a same or a same Smartphone, but depending upon the
choice of the customer and the application, there are several Smartphone’s available. So,
what am trying to say is in design there is nothing called a unique solution. At that point
of time to this customer might be a unique solution. So, you there is alternative solutions
for the same problem, so that is what we are trying to say here. So, in problems whatever
you understand.
So, there is a possibility that you you communicate and then you if there is a need base
you redesign and meet out to a new customer. If you go back and match for your
different stages of technology development with respect to time we had four stages. So,
whenever it comes to that matured stage we will always try to reiterate, push it back, and
then do redesigning and come back to this early stage and start doing it. So, these two are
linked. So, if these are the different steps which are involved in engineering design
processes.
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So, the principle use of the solution to sub function are basically scientific and
engineering principles. So, it is not just like here say and you randomly do. So, it is it is
more focused towards these two. So, the principles used for for solution to sub functions
are basically scientific and engineering principle will be there. So, scientific means you
Newton’s law, Archimedes principle whatever it is. So, all these principles are used and
then you try to go ahead with a solution of doing it.
So, Pahl and Beitz have illustrated this illustration of solution is first what they said
market company task is market company economy they say, and then they get into a
planning and clarifying the task. Then required list of that is design specification they do,
this is called as the planning and clarifying operation. Then what do they do, they try to
develop conceptual design. So, develop the principles solution, concepts you have
developed several solutions. So, you build up a concept. Then after that what you do is
develop the construct the constructions structure. You do preliminary layout and then
you defined the construction structure, define layout and then preparation production and
operations document. So, this is this is what is this is detail, this is detail.
So, here in which we do optimization. And we try to come out with what is the
machinery machine to use, what is the tool to use, what is the layout of the factory, all
those things small, small things come out with the detail design when you start doing it.
Or if you try to take a product then we talk about tolerances, we talk about finish, we talk
about texture. So, all these things detailed design of the particular product comes into.
And then product documentation comes and then you talk about solutions ok. So, so this
is what is it.
So, you would according to Pahl, so you will have a planning and clarifying conceptual
design, and then this is called as embodiment design wherein which you try to give a
shape to the products. So, till here it is concept. So, develop the construction structure,
the preliminary layout and then define the construction structure. So, it is giving shape,
shape to the complete project whatever it is. So, before that what we did was we try to do
a conceptual you look for solutions ok.
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Let us just take another example. I want to make a machine which is used for a egg
omelet. So, here what I do is. So, what is so first step is step one, I have to break an egg.
Step two, I have to add ingredients whatever it is. Step three, I have to mix the
ingredients. Step four is I have to pour in a hot pan hot plate; and five is I have to decide
whether it has to it has to be toasted both sides, and then six I have to remove it from the
hot plate hot plate remove ok. So, these are the steps involved.
So, what was the problem statement first I have to identify how do I want to make a
omelet making machine, so that was a clear problem statement, then what did I do I did
all the steps are involved I did. I have not gone in depth. So, I just put down all the steps.
So, now, for these steps I would try to develop a machine. So, in this machine, what I
will do is I will try to apply principle solution. For example, should I use microwave,
should I use induction heating, should I use a coil heater, so all these things I try to put
the concept.
Once I do this concept, I put all these things and construct how it should it be in a
cuboidal shape, should it be in a cylindrical, should it have several induction stations
should, it be only one station. So, all these things are construction the shape, the size, the
steps involved all these things are construction structure we do. And finally, what we do
is we defined the layout and after this we prepare the product a documentation why did
we do it, and then product documentation is done and the solution is given.
So, these are the steps which are involved for one simple example which came to my
mind. So, first you try to do it scientific and then engineering principles are used. So, no
product can come just out of the moon or out of the blue it cannot come. There has to be
some scientific backing, there has to be some engineering principles, and then only you
can start developing a product which is worthy and which is functional and which has
quality in it.
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So, defining a problem and then setting the objective, the problem is the identification of
the need that is unfulfilled. To formulate a problem need must be clearly defined. What
was my need I need to make an automated omelet making machine, but before that
students I did not address will this be economical or not. I wanted to make an automatic
machine, true, I wrote I wrote down all the steps true I came out with the wonderful
product true, a very reliable product true, but I did not work the economics of it. If I buy
a machine worth of 25,000 rupees, and the output is I have I can make every 30 seconds
1 omelet.
So, the consumption rate of omelet is 30 per day my production cycle time is 30 seconds
I can make 1 omelet, but my consumption that means, to say I will have only 30
customers a day what is the point in developing or buying such machine. So, that is
something which is very important it did not explain to you, and I did not put the
economics to you, if that situation is there, then no point in developing a product.
So, you just be happy on appointing a person and he is multi tasking fellow, he does this
job that job you can optimize and get the job done. So, that is what am trying to say to
formulate a problem need must be clearly defined. And when you define economics also
should be one among them. What is the costing we can do? Is it truly justified that we
should automate it, ok. Initial step is to clearly define the aim and also to elaborate it.
First you have to do all those things. You have to write it down what is the aim will be
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very elaborate and when the need changes over from a vast goal to a specific goal the
objectives can change. So, first is ok.
So, when you go back I need to make an omelet. So, why did I go for this omelet making
machine, I thought that maybe it is it is a dirty process may be it is a dirty process I do
not want a human to do it, I want a machine to do it, so that is what was my goal. So,
first thing, but now I realize after putting all those things I realize, maybe I need to make
a beating station, I need to make an induction station where these two are the dirty
process I want to just make them clean. So, when I had a vast goal that was completely
different. Now, I have specific goal what I have to do is look for only a very efficient
heating technique, and then this heating technique should be also should be also
something like universal, so that other processes can be used by the same heater.
So, when the need changes the vast from the vast goal to a specific goal, the objective
also changes. Whenever the change takes place it must be clearly defined or you are
supposed to redefine your objective is that clear. So, you are supposed to redefine your
objective. First you have to clearly formulate a problem then when you go detail study
more and more, more, now you try to see this entire thing is not required I do only partial
of what is automation that is fine. So, whenever the change takes place the definition
must be redefined clearly. The objective tree method is a good method to define a goal.
Intention should be to clarify all the objectives and sub objectives which is there in the
problem.
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So, this is the objective tree method. What is your main objective? My main objective is
in the omelet example is to make a clean kitchen. Now, in this clean kitchen I have
several things to do. So, one of the objective is make to make a machine for this egg
omelet ok. And then what are the objectives? So, objectives are it should occupy
minimum shape, it should be energy efficient, it should have a control over ingredients,
ingredients, and a flow or addition. So, these are some of the objectives. So, this is the
tree method. So, you are always expected the tree method will give you a good way to
define your goal.
So, now, once the goals are defined; so now, you start tackling each goal and start
looking for solution for each goal. So, when you try to have solutions, these solutions
will be clubbed, and they try to give a sub objective; from the sub objective you go to the
main objective ok. So, this is a method which is used which is called as objective tree
method. It is it is also very important. And if you start following this maybe in your
dayto-day life also if you start following the objective tree method, you will see that you
define the problems very clearly your objectives are set very clearly and you start going
towards your goal.
So, many a times what happens in your day-to-day life you are try you try to give more
importance to small events and you miss out your objective, but always try to keep the
objective as a primary thing for this objective is this action going to help if it is. So,
please do that action. If not, please drop that action and do other things such that you
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meet out the objective. If try doing this in your day-to-day life also you will see that
things are becoming much more efficient. But every time what you are supposed to do is
you have to clearly define the problem ok. This is for life, this is for product designer
anyway please use this you have to be very clearly define. If you do not clearly define
you will never be able to reach out to the solutions.
The objective tree method the problem can be can be scaling, non scaling or in the form
of requirements ok. So, the problem can be scaling, the problem can be non scaling or in
the form of requirements. Example temperature cannot exceed 300 degree Celsius. Let
me tell you interesting problem which I am currently working on. Today, there is a
peculiar problem when the new born baby is new born baby comes into existence, we
always see that when the temperature goes high there are problems.
So, doctor comes and attends to the problem, give medicine and tries to reduce the
temperature. There is another problem the temperature can go below the normal
temperature which is very alarming. So, when it goes below the normal temperature,
today the state of art is you have so many thermometers which measure normal and
above we do not have a temperature thermometers which measures normal and below ok.
So, this is what am trying to say.
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So, when you talk about scaling and non scaling and all, so it is completely different you
have to look for new, new, new solutions right. So, the problem is what is that you have
to look forward, it is normal and below the normal ok. So, then you start looking at
suppose if I say the the objective the objective is to give a solution for temperature then if
my sub objective is to now only I say that it is less than normal temperature, now you see
the objective itself is changing. The problem can be scaling, non scaling and in the form
of requirements the so this is one thing.
The comprehensive list should be maintained and checklist approach should be adopted
for the objectives and the sub objectives. Whenever you try to develop a solution, you
have to look at whether sub objectives meet if the sub objectives meet whether I have
meeting the main object. So, this is the second thing which there has to be a
comprehensive list which is to be maintained. List of 24 factors was given by Pugh in
1980 for the checklist format. Further these factors were summarized by Roozenburg and
Eekels.
So, they said performance, environment, life in service, maintenance, target product cost,
transportation, packaging and quality, these are some of the factors which are to be
considered while trying to define the problem and set the objectives. So, there are 24
factors was given by the Pugh.
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But, the next gentlemen Roozenburg what he did was he packaged all these things into
eight, manufacturing facility, size, aesthetics, material, product life span, standard,
ergonomics. Ergonomics is more towards comfort it is separate topic we will read it in
detail. So, it is more towards comfort of operation I would say call. So, should I keep the
what should be the size, where should be the switch all those things. Then quality and
reliability, shelf life and storage, testing, safety, product policy, social and political
implications, product liability, installation and operation, reuse, recycle and disposal.
These are the factors and which was summarized by Roozenburg and Eekel. And these
are the things which are to be considered while defining the problem and setting
objectives.
So, next thing is establishing function. So, in establishing function is setting requirements
and developing specification is the next one. A function analysis to know the exact
demand of product must be done. After reexamination and editing the objectives and sub
objectives, this will be done setting your requirements. The designer must be aware of
input and output of the products. Designer must be aware of functioning and the
requirements of the products and components of the product. The component can be a
person or a mechanical or electrical device. A function analysis must be done to analyze
achievements of the product. Some appropriate limits bounded on product is called as
setting performance specification.
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For example, I try to make a sub assembly which gets into a full product. So, now, in that
sub assembly the dimension, shape, size, weight is all the setting performance
specification a limits bounded on product ok. So, what it cannot be more than 100 grams,
it cannot be more than this, cannot be more than that cannot occupy more than 20 square
20, 20x10 millimeters whatever it is. So, these are all the setting requirements and
developing specification. First problem identification; then after identification, you have
to fix your objectives; then in your objectives, then you go to sub objectives. When you
try to fix this sub objectives, you will all try to have quantitative a quantitative
specification such that it helps a product designer to make the product easy. (Refer Slide
Time: 31:07)
The performance specification should not be too narrow and it should not also be too
broad. For example, so this is y and this is x. So, this can be time and this can be
performance whatever it is. So, if you say that I would like to develop a product in this
zone, this is a very broad specification. If I say I would like to develop a product only in
this zone, it is too narrow ok. So, so then it is always better to it neither be too broad nor
be too narrow, try to be little generic such that you can try to cater to multiple customers.
One way to generate performance specification is the method required is house of
quality, interaction matrix which product attributes as rows and engineering
characteristic as columns will be used to come out with performance specification. We
will discuss house of quality in the forth comings in the forth coming sections of this
course. So, house of quality will be dealt in one of the lectures. So, do not worry about it.
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So, here basically what we talk about in house of quality is there will rows and columns,
so we will try to see there will be rows there will be columns ok. So, what we do is we
try do a mix and match and we try to give a ranking for it, and then sum up we get into
some values, and then we come up with the performance specification.
A weight or a reliable in a relative importance is assigned to each attribute. The value of

the strength of the product can, can be got through multiplying weights and the
relationship course. The target value of each parameter is set on the basics of its
importance and competitor products. So, we will see more in details about house of
quality later down the line.
So, the next is developing professional design. So, when you talk about professional
design, so here what do is we look at association methods, creative confrontation
methods, analytical methods are the main methods which are used in developing this
design. So, this is important association method, creative confrontation method,
analytical methods are main methods of design. So, I will stop here.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 04
Product Design Morphology
Welcome friends. Let us move to lecture four. Today we will be more focused on
product design morphologies. I am sure you would have done the last assignments which
I have given at the end of the lecture. And all these assignments are only to make sure
that you start enjoying this course. So, let us move onto lecture four. (Refer Slide Time:
00:37)
So, in lecture four, the content will be developing provisional designs, then evaluation
and decision-making, and then morphology of design. There are seven steps; we will go
through all the seven steps.
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So, establishing a function that is very, very important; so here what we see is setting
requirements and developing specifications. See, I was telling you last time also that I
need a soft cloth. So, what is your soft requirement? So, it is very difficult for anybody to
quantify the softness. For example, if you take a tea taster, there are tea tasters appointed
by tea processing industry, they try to test a tea and then say this is good or bad. So, it is
only they can do it. It is very difficult for you to replace them with some machine.
So, changing customer’s requirement into engineering specification is a big art, many a
time you will not be able to give a direct specification. So, we try to give it indirectly.
For example, we will try to say the touch has to have soft as a skin of skin of an animal
or it has to be as soft as a silk, silk sari. So, then what do we do is we go measure the silk
sari softness, and then that we try to establish in terms of know parameters like tensile
strength this and that, and then we try to indirectly give the specifications, so that is what
is a big challenge in design that is a very big challenge.
So, a weight or a relative importance is assigned to each attribute, so that is what I said
the indirect way of going head or you try to give a weightage. The other thing is
supposed if there are ten specifications you count. So, these are the specifications of a
product. So, then you will try to give in this ten specifications which are all significant
and which are all non-significant, so in non-significant parameters right. So, in this
nonsignificant parameters and significant parameters, again you would like to assign
weightages. And you try to say which specification is more important.
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For example, when you take a child’s diaper the softness is very important. So, is it is it
the softness important or the absorption capability the absorption capability of the water
important both are important. First comes water then comes the softness. If you have a
soft diaper, but not a water absorbing diaper, then it leads to the failure of the product.
So, here a weight or a relative importance is assigned to each attribute. The value of the
strength of the product can be got by multiplying weightages and their relationship score.
So, basically what we are trying to do is we are trying to say you multiply with x, you
multiply maybe x1, x2, x3, and then what do you do is you try to have a final score here.
And then what you do is you try to find out from that score what is the importance. So,
generally when we try to give weightages, weightages can be given 0 to 1; it can be
given 0 to 10, it can be given 0 to 100. More the weightage number more will be the
demarcation which you can show. The target value of each parameter is set on the basis
of the importance and the competitor’s product.
Now, what is happening you have found out the weightages now after finding the
weightages what you do is you have found out that this is a very significant parameter
fine. So, now, what you will do you will go to the market and find out, who else is doing
a similar product. And in that similar similarity, for example, two things are there let us
go back to the diaper example. So, what you do is you go around the market, and look for
water absorbing products, it can be tissue paper, it can anything right. So, you will look
forward, and you will try to take the best fellow.
For example, x company is producing a diaper of or it is trying to produce the cloth tissue
paper which has the best absorption. So, you take that and keep it aside. Then what you
do you go around the market and look at similar products for smoothening. And then you
try to find out a kerchief is very smooth some x kerchief is very smooth. So, now, you
take that fellow and keep it aside. So, now, what you will do is you have now done the
state of the art for these two things which are a pioneer in their own domains. And now
you try to take their specification, and then try to look at the current state of the art in
diaper what is all available and then see where to pitch in, what to pitch in and then you
decide the specification. So, deciding the specification is very important.
If somebody buys a mobile phone today, he says I would like to buy a mobile phone
which need not get charged for seven days practically, yes, it should be possible, but the
deciding factor is going to be the battery life. And there are two things if you say that
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battery life then you should have a powerful battery. The other way round is if I have a
phone which does not have so many features then still I can produce a mobile phone
which can meet out to the customer requirement of not charging for seven days. So, you
see how it is a contradicting thing.
So, now, you should understand what customer wants, what is competitive available and
then decide your specification. If you make a mistake in assigning the specification then
all the other exercise will be going futile. So, setting requirements and developing
specification is a very important task. (Refer Slide Time: 06:43)
So, then what do you do is you try to develop provisional designs. So, many innovative
ideas can be attributed to chance these type of analogies are encouraged to direct
analogy. In direct analogy, what happens is it involves an analogy of problem situation,
you try to take a situation, and or you try to take a problem situation from a very different
field from a field which is different ok. So, when you try to compare, for example, you
try to say the specimen or the food whatever is kept in front of me is very hot. So, what
do you do is you try to put an analogy of a chili and try to increase the red colour which
is given to the chili.
So, now food is something, chili is some other thing. So, now, you are trying to compare
or you can try to take hot, and then you can try to put fire and say this specimen or this
food item is very hot. So, you can just try to put an analogy with respect to even fire. So,
here what is happening is you try to take an analogy from a problem situation from the
very different field, and try to link it with your thing.
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The next one is personal analogy personal analogy is here it is expected to project
himself or herself into a situation and then you try to situation, and you try to report that
ok. You report the experience of that particular situation back into your analogy. Say, for
example, I touched some item which is very soft. So, here what did you do, you touched,
you project yourself, himself or herself into a situation and then report the feelings like
by seeing hearing etcetera, etcetera.
What is symbolic? Symbolic means it is something like a poetic or you try to create a
paradox paradoxical phrase. So, that is a symbolic analogy. So, I was recently using a
urinal in an airport there was a small phrase written. So, it said flush and rush so it is
something like poetic right. So, this is and then you can also use some something like a
phrase like this. And then try to bring it to your design, and then a fantasy. Fantasy is a
concern is asked to here you talk more of imagination from real life.
So, what has you done is you have you have innovative ideas can attribute to chance, and
there are four type of analogies which are generally encouraged. So, what you do is you
try to take a direct analogy or you try to take a personal analogy, you try to take a
symbolic analogy or you try to take a fantasy analogy. So, you can use analogies and
then try to come to your design and try to take a design out of it. There are tips for
semantic methods. First, you try to define a problem and use a direct analogy, and then
analyze your analogy, force a fit to the analogy, then generate ideas then start developing
ideas. So, these are the tips generally we give for developing a product.
So, define the problem. So, the definition of the problem is very very important. Then
you try to put all these analogies what we just now referred. Then you try to analyze the
analogies and pick what is required, and then you try to forcibly fit that with respect to
your product, then you generate ideas for the conceptual ideas for your product and then
you develop the ideas.
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So, the analytical method is also called as a systematic method. A morphological chart is
a summary of sub solutions to sub-functions. So, an analytical method is also called as a
systematic method. Any product if it has to be developed, it has to be systematic thinking
process has to be used in developing the product. So, analytical method means you have
a logical method to try to find out or come up with the specification. For example, you
can try to have summary of sub solutions to sub functions. A product can have functions
and some sub functions. For example, you have a car, car is used for moving from one
place to the other. The sub function is it should not produce noise or it should give you a
comfort, this is a sub function, but what is your main function main function is only
transportation ok. So, the morphological chart is the summary of sub solution to sub
function.
**After completion of the functional analysis, we have to develop a matrix of sub
functions as rows and possible solutions as columns. Then combination of a chosen
solutions to a chosen sub function should yield the design solution to the problem. So,
these are all part of systematic method. After developing a number of alternative best
ones, you alternatives the best one is chosen by the designer. So, for example, for one
particular problem, there cannot be one unique solution, unique solution is not there that
is one thing which you should understand. There is always alternative solutions in design
that is very important designer should understand, alternative solutions are possible. And
you have to put all the alternative solutions and you pick a best solution such that you
can cater to the needs.
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After completion of the functional analysis, we have to develop a matrix of sub-functions
as rows and possible solutions as columns. The combination of a chosen solutions to a
chosen sub-function should yield the design solution to the problem. So, these are all part
of the systematic method. After developing a number of alternative best ones, you
alternatives the best one is chosen by the designer. So, for example, for one particular
problem, there cannot be one unique solution, the unique solution is not there that is one
thing which you should understand. There is always alternative solutions in design that is
a very important designer should understand, alternative solutions is possible. And you
have to put all the alternative solutions and you pick the best solution such that you can
cater to the needs.
So, there are seven steps morphology of the design has seven steps, so that is nothing but
a systematic way of solving the problem or solving or developing a product. See the
morphology of the design is a study of the chronological structure of the design project.
It is defined by phrases and their constituent steps. Of the seven phases, the first three
phases belong to design, and the remaining four phases belong to production distribution
consumption and retirement. As I told you last class retirement is also one important
parameter which has to be thought of at the design stage itself. So, there are seven stages.
So, out of seven three goes here and four goes here. So, the first three phases stages are
belonging to design.
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So, phase one is the feasibility study. A design project starts with the feasibility study;
the purpose is to get a set of helpful answers to the designer’s questions. For example,
the designer comes to you and says can you try to find out a solution for this problem and
I give you 20 rupees; or somebody comes and says I would like to have a material which
is very brittle very tough and which has the very high strength and wear resistance.
So, now immediately if you go back to the databook or if you look at many materials, it
becomes little difficult for you to come out. So, first then what you do is you try to pick
up material a, material b, material c, material d, I tried to make an alloy of whatever it is.
So, am I still able to meet out to the requirements of the customer if that is there then you
can start looking at a project or start looking at a problem solution? If it is not so, then we
try to scrap it at their level. So, that means, to say in engineering also we tell this the
students the same you have a problem or you have a process what you do is first you try
to do a simulation and then try to see whether it is feasible to develop a solution for this
problem. If it is not so, we try to scrap the idea.
So, a design project starts with first a feasibility study. The purpose of this is to get a set
of helpful answers to the design questions. I will take you and tell you an example of this
metro rails. When metro rails were introduced at every place. People started saying that
50 rupees a ticket, so it, not a feasible model and it will not self-sustain. Please do
understand when the government went for the head for these metro trains they were
looking at how do people commute from place to place, how can we reduce the pollution,
how can we try to ha give a better comfort life for the citizens that is where their lookout
was. So, they did not think first stage financial feasibility, they looked at all other things.
And over a period of time, they looked at financial feasibility. Today, Delhi metro is very
successful.
So, for doing implementing this Delhi metro, they did a first feasibility study, and then
they found out, yes, there is going to be a solution answer to this and our answer is
giving a better result, then let us start looking at problem-solving skills. So, what are the
problems as far as Delhi metro is concerned, how many trains to be put, how frequent
this has to be there, what is the investment should happen. And then if you say high
speeds have to be achieved, so what should be the structural stability of all those things
in next. The first step in this study is to show the original need is valid or not ok, so that
is the feasibility study.
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(Refer Slide Time:
17:50)
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So, feasibility study first is requirements, collection and analysis have to be done. Then
what we do is we try to develop a design. If it is a product then we try to develop a
prototype or if it is a solution software solution other things, we try to do implementation
we try to validate and test our results and then we put into operation.
So, a feasibility study is done. So, after the feasibility study, the requirements collection
and analysis of data is done. And then from there comes the design, then we implement it
validate it. Any design you do, it has to be validated and it has to be tested with the
customer. If you take a pharmaceutical product which human health-related the testing
phase takes huge time 3 years, 5 years, 10 years; they do it on a rat, then they do it on
this they do it on that, but you develop an engineering one you do not have to undergo
such a long time of testing. So, it depends from product to product. (Refer Slide Time:
18:58)
So, phase two is the preliminary design. We studied phase one which is a feasibility
study. Then what do we do is a preliminary study. The purpose of the preliminary study
is to is to find the best design alternatives. Then the preliminary designed phase starts
with a set of useful solutions which were developed in the feasibility study. So, we look
at alternative solutions, and we now put down all the alternative solutions ahead of us, in
front of us and then look at what can we do. But now please do understand you cannot
look go back and say the feasibility study I would like to relook. Now, I see in the
preliminary design stage I do not see any solution. So, let me look at feasibility study, no,
that is not accepted.
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When you develop a product and when you are moving forward and when you move
forward in putting the requirements, you have to do the requirements and you cannot
now go back and start reiterating your feasibility. Please keep that in mind. You can
develop a product prototype, keep revising their performance, but you cannot go back
and say about the product whether this product at all is required that you cannot question,
so that is what I say.
Preliminary design phase starts with a set of useful solutions which were developed in
the feasibility study. The purpose of this preliminary study is to establish which of the
preferred alternative is the best design solutions. So, out of the four, you now start
working on which one is the better one. So, again nowhere what do we do is we do
concurrent engineering today and we use the best material, the best manufacturing
process, the best salesperson, the best accountability person, the best costing person all of
them joined together and start picking the best solution. So, it many a time what happens
in solution 1, 2, 3, 4, solution 1, 2, 3 and 4. So, the best solution is here. The best solution
can be 20 percent of the solution one, 50 percent of solution two, 30 percent of solution
three also can happen. So; that means, to say I do a cut here, I do a cut here, I do a cut
here, I do a paste and develop the best solution possible many a times it happens in
reality.
Then what do we do is surveying the solution in tentative acceptance for closer

examination. So, what do we do is we try to do an evaluation of the product within our
close community of friends or within the factory or within a confined zone, where I
would like to test my product and see and see what is the performance of it. Then you do
it in a closed examination, you do a close door evaluation whatever it is, and were very
critical in telling you this is bad, this is good, this looks comfortable something like that.
And then what do you do is you next project studies are undertaken to know as to how
solutions will be feasible in future.
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Then phase three, now what do you do if you do a detailed design. You have a problem,
you have evaluated the problem needs a solution, you have developed four solutions. So,
now, you have chosen the best fellow. So, one feasible solution best solution is chosen.
Now, after doing the best solution, now you work on detailed design detailed design. So,
you look at the best solutions and then you start working on the detailed design. When
you try to look at detailed design here we try to put all our engineering knowledge right.
And many a time people skip this exercise and whatever comes they just take one
solution and start doing it, and they are not pretty sure whether that is the best solution
ok, so that is what it is. After preliminary design, other studies examine the extent to
which forces from surrounding or internal forces which affect the stability of the system.
So, now, what do you do, you do a detailed design. So, you have decided that has to be a
shaft, it has to be made out of some material steel. And now what you do is what should
be the dimension of the shaft, what should be the tolerance of the shaft, is that shaft
matting with another gear. So, what it is all those things we will start looking at it. So,
the goal here is to furnish the engineering description of the examined design. Till now
you have not talked about the engineering design, engineering design helps you to move
forward toward the manufacturing process decision or look forward to manufacturing
feasibility ok. If this after the stage only or during the stage only when engineering
descriptions are given, you try to choose the best material and other things.
Till now we did not bother about shape, size form whatever it is we thought this, this, this
a crude solution was thought of. So, here we tried to do a detailed design. The great
feasibility is to show up to them at this point in designing. The preliminary design is
developed as a master layout with this as a basis the detailed design or the specification
of the component is carried out. After the detailed design is done, now people look
forward to local vendors, people look for international vendors, they try to pass on the
design and then they ask them can you give the costing for it. After getting the costing
they just plunge it back and see whether it is feasible or not.
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Next is as I said planning the production process. Because now that you are the fixed
engineering specification, engineering design constraints, now what do you do is you
look for manufacturing processes. By the way, the manufacturing process can also go
back and say oh this is not possible, we cannot make this design. Can you make a oblong
shaft instead of a circular shaft very difficult you cannot make a process? Can you make
a square shaft instead of a circular shaft? And the design says the detailed design says
square shaft has to be made, it is pretty difficult for a long for an if you want to do
extrusion possible. And again in extrusion also square edges is very difficult. So, people
always try to go back and say no it is not possible. So, can you convert this square into a
circular one? And if they say ok, if it is possible, now you go back redo that design
detailed design is relooked and then they come back and say looking into manufacturing
difficulty, we have converted the square into a circular this thing.
When you talk about a circular cross-section, the production cost is very economical.
When you talk about a square, it is slightly expensive it is not that it is not possible. So,
what we have to do is take a circular shaft, and then you have to mill the surface, index
it, mill the surface and then you get a square shaft, it is possible. But it is time consuming
and the sharp edges will lead to or stress concentration when you put it on mating it is
prone to failure ok. So, there can be back and forth going back between detail design and
the production process, but predominantly once the detailed design is fixed and during
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that time itself a manufacturing expert is involved for decisions. So, whatever they take a
decision there is then further taken down.
So, in phase four is planning the production process. As mentioned in the three phases or
in the field of engineering design, but the fourth phase and further are related towards
management. Every part requires a detail process plan. And here also I would like to
bring to your kind notice manufacturing solution whatever you generate, manufacturing
solution for a product. It nothing is unique, you will have several alternative solutions.
You try to take the best decision keeping the time material available time cost as the
constraint, and then you develop or you prefer one particular solution. A solution which
worked very good in one part of the world need not work in the same way in the other
part of the world ok.
So, manufacturing solution there is nothing called unique you will have to choose the
best solution at given the constraints ok, so that is what we say every part requires a
detail process plan, , and the final assembly as to be given. There is a process sheet
which will be developed for each individual product, and then there will be more
information about what is to be what all changes have to happen to the part such that it
becomes a product ok. So, then the operation analysis is also performed. For example,
operation means the movement, the first machine is here the second machine should I
place all the machines one after each other can I place them in a (Refer Time: 28:31)
manner. After this operation what is the next operation what is the total time I give in this
operation? So, all this operation analysis should I do it manually, should I do it with a
CNC all these things happen.
Then planning specification in a detailed new production and plant facility is in phase
four. So, you establish a plant layout is done in step four. This step is particularly
important because design features that lead to difficulty in production are revealed ok.
So, the first three is feasibility, detail feasibility, then you look for an alternative then you
produce a detailed one. The fourth one is towards lay process planning and layout.
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The fifth is planning for distribution. Fifth is how will I transport this part from the
company or the production plant to the retailers, so that is planning. So, the
transportation cost can affect the outer design of the product. Just a simple example, for
example, you I said in last class itself table ok. So, today tables are made into a modular
concept, they are disconnected, and then they are put they are packaged and then they are
moved. Suppose, if they want to push a full fully assembled table, it might occupy a lot
of volumes and the transportation cost becomes very expensive. So, to facilitate handling
special strapping and palletizing may be needed.
So, for example, if I wanted to distribute milk, should I distribute milk in sachet packets
of half a litre, should I do it in 1 litre, should I do it in 5 litres, should I do it in 10 litre
bottles, should I do it in a 25 litre canes, should I do it at 50 litre canes, or should I do it
at 1000 litre barrels. So, all are the distribution of milk, all are milk only. So, now, I have
to decide what should be my packaging, so that is what we said handling special
strapping and palletizing is very important, so that is decided in planning for distribution
phase in phase four. So, the major decisions taken in this phase are designing the
packaging for the product, should it be one piece, should it be five pieces per packet,
should it be 1 litre, should it be 50 litres, so that is what it is then planning the warehouse
location, very important.
Today in eBay you go ahead and book you order a particular item. So, now, this item has
to be picked up from the warehouse. So, should I pick it up from the closest warehouse
or slightly far away from the warehouse? The next constraint is if I pick one, one item
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from this warehouse will it undergo the next ordering cycle ordering cycle, and if the
next ordering cycle starts what is the costing involved. Or if I go 50 kilometres away, if
there is a warehouse where there are four, four items there if I pull out one nothing big is
going to happen then they can do it. And now each warehouse owner also tries to give
you a discount. If you try to use my product in my space, if you take items from my
space, I will give you at a lesser price. Then immediately the e bay looks for all these
benefits, and then what they do is either they try to give the benefit to the customer or
they try to give it to the company, they decide the warehouse locations.
Next is promotional activities; promotional activities are very important. So, if you try to
leave this product, if you try to take education as a business, as a college as a business as
a college as a product institution as a product. So, for this product, if the sale comes the
customer comes only once in a year, so they do not have, you all people join school or
college only in June, July whatever it is the season only once in a year ok. So, that is the
time they join. So, for that time they generally take decisions in the month of March.
Have to take a decision in month of March the college has to give a widespread and
advertisement starting from January to March, and they should not start giving the
advertisement after April, because after April goes in vain because the student has taken
a decision in March, so that is what is planning for promotional activity ok.
Next one is designing the product for conditions arising in distribution. So, this is also
very important in designing the product for conditions arising in distribution. So, for
example, if I try to move ok, for example, laptops, when they are moved from Malaysia
to India, many a time they are moved by ships. So, what happens when it is moved by
ships in the sea, the complete container rattles it goes up and down? So, now, individual
laptops have to be packed.
So, this will be packed, and then it will be done. So, should I do and when you pack it
would be individual laptops packed, and then they put it inside a container, and then it
moves. So, when it is individually packed properly even in the rattling if it falls down
from a height of 10, 20 meters nothing happens to the product. In fact, I have physically
seen a test where people drop the laptops for designing the packaging, they try to drop
the laptop from the fifth floor and the sixth floor of a building to the ground, and then
they see what amount of damage it has created to the laptop.
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So, designing the product for conditions arising in distribution is also very important.
Sometimes it can be humid climate; sometimes it may be a rainy climate. For example, e
bay items are packaged in plastic covers because all in hilly regions you can have rains in
the region like flat plain, the temperatures can go very high. So, all these things are part
of to be considered in the planning and distribution.
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The sixth phase is planning for consumption. This is a very, very important phase. So,
the consumption in is the third process in the production-consumption cycle. It influences
it is influence on the designs design. So, the design it influences more on the design, and
this makes design little more important. So, design for consumption includes the
following factors. Design for operational economical, design for reliability, design for
con convenience in use.
For example, yesterday I took my son to a doctor. The doctor suggested two creams
cream one and he suggested cream two. This cream is 100 grams and this cream is 25
grams. So, he said mix these two creams at a ratio 3 is to 1. And now if I had to maintain
this 3 is to 1 ratio, it is very difficult for me. I just have to pull it out and then try to
randomly or more approximately assume that this is three times and this is one time, and
then I put on a piece of the vessel or on a plate, then tried to mix it. When I mix it I am
not pretty sure whether the mixing had happened properly, and then I have been asked to
apply for my son's skin. See as a father I am more worried because if any ratio changes
and if at all it affects his skin what am I going to do. So, here this is not convenient to use
that is what I am saying. Design for convenience in use it is not there. And many times
many of the companies sell a wonderful product, but they do not attach a good
instruction manual. So, it is not convenient to use ok. So, this is one.
And the next time is suppose I try to take oil in a pan and then I use it for frying. And
after I finish my frying I wanted to unload I wanted to remove the oil from the pan and
put it into a container. So, now, if I try to tilt a pan, it spills all around. So, it is not
convenient to use, so that is what I said for convenient use has to be thought off at the
design stage itself.
Then design for safety. For example, batteries, after it is consumed, we discarded left and
right. And now slowly people have started getting an education that it has to be discarded
in an in a standard procedure, earlier it used to throw it here and there and the next thing
same way for acids which are used for cleaning purpose. Hospital waste, so all these
things were discarded left and right here and there and this is something which is very
important which has to be thought of at the design stage itself, design for safety.
Then design for aesthetic features, design for maintenance and design for an adequate
duration of service. So, you cannot say every 15 days go to a shopkeeper and get my
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product serviced, my product will be wonderful, you cannot do that. So, even today when
people buy bicycles the biggest problem in the bicycle is the pedal it fails or the tyre gets
flattened. So, they have to produce a tyre which does not get flattened or they have to
make a pedal which the screw does not fall off. So, here they do not need to go to a
service engineer or a service station, they can keep continuing the product. So, all these
things design for consumption when you think all these things have to be thought of and
it has to be integrated into the product when you try to design a product or it has to be
integrated at the design stage itself so that you try to get this right.
Then you to get service data that can give a basis for the product improvement for the
next generation design, and for the design for different, but related to the products can be
got can be taken, and then you can try to improvise every time. So, this is this point is
more towards service data for improvising or producing the next generation of it. (Refer
Slide Time: 39:10)
So, phase seven is the planning for retirement. So, after the product has finished its life or
its performance, now what do I do with the product. For example, I told you the batteries
the life of the battery is over. So, now, what do I do how do I discard it that is the
important thing. So, the fourth process in the production-consumption cycle is the
disposal of the retired product.
So, today we are we are started designing products or there is a requirement for the
designer product designer that they should look for products where individual parts
almost all of them fail at a reasonable time. For example, in a tube light, the glass does
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not fail at all, the tube the glass does not fail, the closures do not fail the gas fails. The
gas fails is only because of the gas failure which does not further go for ionization
through the complete tube light. The glass can be recycled, the closures can be recycled
and then now what we want is we wanted to develop a product as and when the gas
degrades, the closure we choose a material that also starts degrading. And the glass
whatever we use we try to make sure only it withstands for certain amount of time or a
certain amount of time period and something like that. So, this is what is now talked
about.
So, we were looking for a product which can all try to decompose or all try to lose their
performance at a simultaneous stage. And when I throw it I throw all the products are
worked to the maximum efficiency or I try to reuse the glass and the closure. So, I go to a
shop and then give this tube light which is not performing, ask him to refill the gas and
start using it. The disposal of the retired product is very important or reusing the product
is also thought about. So, after retirement what is to be done is, is to be also thought of.
So, this is the phase seven.
So, for large and semi-permanent installations the mere removal may pose difficult
engineering problems. So, designing for retirement must consider the following aspect.
Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence, design designing physical life to match
anticipated service life, this is what I was trying to talk with respect to a tube light
example.
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So, with this, we come to an end for lecture four. So, today’s task is to try to choose a
product, let us take a cell phone ok. List down list down all the parts to the best of your
knowledge, list down all the parts 1, 2, 3, 4 whatever it is. And then try to write down
what is their expected lifetime ok, try to write the expected lifetime for maybe 10 of this.
So, this, this, these are parts these are all parts of a cell phone here you are writing the
name and then expected lifetime. Then what do you do is you try to say the ways of
disposal. And after that you also will say; what is the weightage for individual parts in
the performance weightage of individual parts for the performance of the product.
For example, you take a cell phone, what is the weightage this for example, battery what
is the weightage of the battery in the overall performance of a cell phone. Or what is the
performance of the glass which is there on top of this? What is the performance of
something else vibratory part whatever it is there in a cell phone with respect to its
performance? So, I want you to write down the parts you have to write minimum 15
parts, let us make minimum 15, you will write down the parts; if possible you will also
put their figure, then it becomes more. You put their drawings of all the figures of this
then you try to write down what is the expected lifetime then if at all it fails how do I
dispose it not as a total font that individual part then what is the weight of the individual
part with respect to the overall performance of the cell phone. Please try to make this
table and then what you do is you will see the all the phases whatever we have studied
are coming into to existence
We will start with the lecture five next time, but please try to solve this solve these
assignments and you do not have to submit, but solve this. So, then it gives you a
confidence, it gives you what are all the problems and cell phone is today everybody has
one. So, you can look at it and then start writing it ok.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 05
Product Characteristics
Welcome, to lecture number 5 in this lecture, we will be more focusing towards product
characteristics. So, the content of this lecture will be developing successful product
everybody wants to develop a product, which is very successful now, the question comes
is what are the attributes?
So, that is what we will try to cover in this lecture. So, developing a successful product.
Next how do you evaluate? Or what are the attributes for successful products? And then
key factor for successful products and then finally, we will try to see the product
characteristics.
So, before developing a product first what we are supposed to do? We have to do
something called as empathy study, in empathy study what happens? We go to the site or
we go and understand what the customer wants? And then we try to live along with the
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customer or we get into the customer shoe and look at the problem from the customers
point of view and then we start looking forward for what are the possible requirements?.
So, when we have to do that, what we do is before we talk to the customer and then, we
try to evaluate their needs. So, a successful enterprise in business world constantly
percolates in the state of innovation in terms of product manufactured, frequently
introducing new products or modifying and improving existing products as desired by
the customer.
So, 10 years before when the mobile phones came into the market the customer’s
requirement was how do I communicate? That was the only requirement. And later
slowly, slowly what has happened, people started demanding more features the first set
of demands where, can there be a clock in it, can there be an alarm in it, so can there be
an SMS in it, can I have a calculator in it. So, these were all people started demanding
one after the other after the other and then, as I said in the S technology curve there was a
paradigm shift from a normal phone to a smart phone. When we this smart phone again
started demanding camera, then video, then SMS, then so many other things.
So, what a successful company does is or a company, which make successful product
does is they try to go to the customer understand what their demands? And customer’s
demands is never constant it keeps on changing. So, a company should always go to the
customer ask their demands and try to improvise their own product such that, they meet
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the customer demand. So, this is what I said a successful enterprise in the business would
constantly percolate into the state of innovation in terms of product manufacturing,
frequently introducing new products it the new products can be a paradigm shift or
generally it is what they do? Is it is only a delta X improvement they modify and improve
the existing product as decided by the customer. The overall process of conceptualizing a
product and design, producing and selling it is known by the generalized and
comprehensive process called as product development.
When you talk about a product development it is not that, the design alone it is also how
do you produce? How do you sell it? Is generally packaged and put in the definition of
product development. So, the product development information there are some key in
new product development. So, they are nothing but, what people want? Next what
features of the product are considered essential? So, there is a big difference between
essential and desired you should first talk to the customer understand what are the
essential things? And what are the desirable things?
For example, in a dark place a light is essential, a blue light is desired. So, a essential is
one quality desire if it is there it is ok, if it is not there does not mean that, the product is
going to is not going to have a big impact. So, that is what it is what features of the
product are considered essential? So now, it is very clear when you write the
requirements of the customer you will try to classify it as essential features, essential
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features and desired features. So, essential features are must, desire if it is there it is
appreciated. So, then what price they pay for it? For example, I would like to have rolls
Royce car and pay car price worth of Maruti 800, which is never accepted because, you
should understand there are more number of features, right? So, that is what it is what
features they pay for? And they will not pay for many cases they will not pay for desired
feature, but they would like to have it what features are desirable? But, can be reduced
for a lower price.
So, the other thing what you should understand is? Today when you try to develop a new
product you should have it in mind you cannot develop a product for a wide spectrum of
people, you try to classify the people into several small groups and try to take one group
for that group, you try to make a solution or a product and then, try to sell it at that group
alone and why not? Why should I make it more focused? Because, if you make it as a
wide spectrum product then, your product will have more number of desired features, for
which people will not pay money.
So, it is better used desire feature, make it more focused towards the spectrum of
customers and try to develop product. So, that is what we have said? What features are
desirable? But, can be reduced for a lower price I have 1000 rupees for I want to buy a
product worth of 1000 rupees, if I start adding all these desired features it goes to 1500.
So now, I try to look at what all features I can cut down and make the product for these
1000 rupees?
So, then you should also understand what is the current and the potential competitors for
your product? This is very, very important if you do not understand who your
competitors are? Then you will not be able to make successful product. So, you should
understand today X is the competitor for you, tomorrow there can be Y also coming into
the market for example, in automobile ford was the only big company, which was there
for a long time for Dimeler crystal all these thing. Hyundai just came into in between
Maruti came in between. So now, you see they when in 1970s ambassador never thought
that, there would be a company called Maruti, which is there in India, but later down in
1980s and 90s Maruti started dictating the market.
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So, you should understand who is your current? And you should understand who are
your potential competitors going to be? Then likely changes in the market size. Today
there is no product, which is going to be for life long. So, I develop a product for a next
20 years this is the product going to dictate it is not going to be like that, the product
requirements are going to change the market size can enhance or come down the old
phone, which was punch type Nokia phone today there is market size is almost negligible
people have all moved towards smart phones.
So, you should also understand the market can shrink, the market can expand. So, these
are some of the key points, which you should always keep in your mind before
developing new products or when you develop new products this are the information,
which you have to note down. Before a successful product can be developed someone
has to come up with or develop an idea for conceptualizing it.
So, the attributes for a successful product development is 1 is cost, 2 is value, 3 is time
and 4 is technological know-how. When we talk about cost, cost you should understand
what is the cost? The product is going to incur from the developing stage and then, to the
producing stage what is the total cost involved? For example, if you look at big factory
like tyre manufacturing companies they invest 10,000 crores.
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So, this 10,000 crores is the cost, which is involved and they would try to have this as
one of the big parameter and see when will they get back this 10,000. So, who are their
customers? How are they going to sell it? And when do they come with the brake even?
And all those things will come into that cost. So, this cost includes cost of both producing
and developing.
Next is value quality of the product, I buy a product and today what we expect is the
quality? Quality can be reliability, repeatability, endurance whatever it is. So, the quality
of the product is another big attribute for a successful product and by the way nobody is
going to pay money for quality. So, if somebody comes and says, here is a quality
product pay 10 rupees more and here, is another product which is ok, but there is no
quality in it is 5 rupees nobody is going to accept it. So, quality has to be integrated part
of a product, which is getting developed. So, the value is in terms of quality people
always look forward.
Time, time is very, very important. So, you have identified a customer’s voice and now,
you should understand how quickly you address those voices, their demands, their
requirements. So, time is very important time, which what we are talking about is from
the time of understanding customers voice, you go back to your desk start working on
various concepts, freezing those concepts, doing an engineering design producing a
prototype getting back to the customer showing to it, getting it cleared and then coming
back and start freezing the design and producing it in bulk is called as the time here, what
we talk. From accessing the market need to product sales is what we are talking about
here, this today earlier it was talked in terms of decades then, it came down to years now,
we talk about in months and I am it is not very far off we start talking about days this is
not very far off.
So, there are so many companies, which are there so many start-ups, which are there. So,
all those people are trying to identify customer’s voice and then, there might be a time
constraints within 24 days please produce a product and release into the market may be
that, because technology is so matured all they have to do is identify customer’s voice
and then, start doing it the final is technical know-how.
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The actual procedure to follow is the technical know-how. So, this is one of the
attributes. So, suppose by hook or crook you make up prototype and the customer has
accepted your prototype he has said, wonderful let us freeze it here now, if you go back
to him and say, I do not know how to produce it in bulk I can produce 2 piece or 3 piece
or 10 piece. So, then that is also a big attribute. So, technical know-how should is
nothing but, the actual procedure to be followed in. So, that you can produce in bulk and
meet out the customers requirement.
So, attributes for a successful product are costing, value, time and technology know how
and technology know how varies with respect to batch size, varies with respect to cost,
varies with respect to time for example, plastic bag quickly come into the market why?
The number of processing steps is less and it is very economical ok. So, these are some
of the attributes. So, a product that sells well and makes a healthy profit needs to have all
these four attributes what are the key factors for a successful product? One thing is
distinctness.
So, distinctness is provide excellent value for the money spent and enhance quality
received. So, distinctness I pay X rupees I get a product and this product is distinct from
all other in terms of performance. So, this is what is distinctiveness?
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Next is customer focus and mar market orientation. So, it is to develop and an intensive
understanding of the trait of the market, that is very, very important understanding the
trait of the market then, recognizing the competition is very, very important this is the
second key factor, the third key factor is the preparedness how well are you prepared to
take the competition? How well can you develop a product? What is the know-how you
have about this particular design? So, that you can quickly go reach out to the customers.
So, preparedness is work preceding actual product design is critical in determining if a
product will be successful. So, preparedness is to understand more of customer;
understand more of technology and get ready for solving it. So, work preceding actual
product design is critical in determining, if a product will be a success. Next is sharp and
early product definition.
So, here what we are trying to say, is an outline of the concept and the benefit to be
provided has to be very clearly written then, a list of product attributes and features
ranking in the order of essential and desirable is very, very important. So, that is what is
early product definition and sharp is you have to make it very clear, that is what we mean
sharp then, execution of the activities.
So, you have identified essential and desire now, you have to understand how step by
step you have to you are supposed to go towards the solution? For example, you can have
a team, right? That is what product development team, that succeed to a better job across
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activities identifies under home work and market orientation. So, what this point means
is they have to go to the market understand the needs and then, start assigning the
activities and then executing it, the team does not skip the market study and undertake
trial sell.
So, market study is very important the organisation behaviour. So, organization
behaviour means, I have said earlier a product development team should be constituted.
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who are all going to be the member of the product development team research and
development engineering design? What is engineering design? So, he does simulation
and he tries to freeze the design in terms of in terms of dimensions and tolerance or
whatever tolerance, texture et cetera ok.
So, then it is production. So, how do we produce? Then quality see today there is also a
big challenge if I try to produce a part and if I do not know to evaluate or assess those,
that part what I have manufactured for example, if I try to make a feature a micro feature
of 1 micron and I have done it over 10 centimeter cross 10 centimeter plate for
hydrophobic activities or hydrophobicity the biggest challenge is can I measure what I
have produced in one shot? It is very difficult what we do is we try to take several
patches of 10 ten miles microns use a characterization tool, measure the deviation and
later stitch the image and then see what is it.
So, quality is also very important what I produce if I cannot measure the quality for
example, I say I produce a soft very soft surface the texture what is there on top of the
product is as soft as a babies skin. So now, the biggest challenge is how do characterise a
baby’s skin? So, quality is also very important quality is a very difficult word to even
define then sales. So, all of them will be part of a product development team and start
looking into the customers voice.
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So,
The project selection is very, very, very important it the involvement in multiple projects
scatters, valuable resources among many candidates’ project so; however, not all projects
are likely to material. So, what is that is see, when you start developing a product you
cannot say I have listened to one group of customers and here, is an idea and produce
only one product and when you say that producing only one product there is a possibility
or there is an uncertainty, that that will be successful.
So, what are you supposed to do? Is you are supposed to go to the market understand
customer voice of several segments for example, one in terms of college going kids, one
in terms of babies, one in terms of house wives, one in terms of retired people or aged
people. So, what happens is you have now, clustered them and you would look at each
clusters voice completely different requirements will be there and then, you will come
back to your company start discussing with your team and then, you will try to choose a
product where in which, you have an expertise and you see a foreseen success. So, that is
what it is ok.
So, if you start working on all these projects like one I said in college going, one in
babies, one another one in housewives, the other one in senior citizens. So, if you start
working on all the 4 your time resources are limited. So, it is very difficult. So, what you
have to do is you have to choose a project where, you can be very, very successful or
chose a project where, you can make a profit project selection is very, very important.
So, I will I have in IIT Kanpur what happens is we have at the beginning of every
semester we ask the students to choose the course the biggest problem is the students will
always choosing the course. So, certain students will chose the course, which are grade
friendly certain students register a course, which are job oriented certain students register
for a course where, in which their knowledge can be enhanced in one particular domain.
So, choosing a course and excelling is a big challenge.
So, in the same way project selection is also very important to make a product successful
telling the world that, you have a good product. So, this is also very, very important. So,
you legitimately promote promotion of the product is very important then, launching new
products with appropriate forums and adequate allocation of the resources for marketing
is very, very important.
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here let us take a simple example and here, I take an educational institute as an
example. So, say for example, if there is an institute is there institute X so, the institute X
who are the customers? Customers are students. So and when do they come they come all
in July every year ok. So, for them so, what they do is they let us take class 12 students
ok. So, the students in July of every year these class 12 students have their board exams,
in March, April they have their board exam and then, what they do is after this board
exam is over they try to choose, which course to take or which institute to go.
So, the starting date is July, their ending date of end semester exams or board exams are
going to be April. So, naturally a student cannot make a choice in March or April. So,
what he does? He does looking for a future either in the month of January or in the
month of February and decides which institute to do higher studies or to go for college.
So, to study in July when does he make a decision? He makes a decision in January and
February.
So, if at all an institute has to make advertisements enough of advertisements, they are
supposed to invest money about their institute in the area of sales and marketing
whatever, it is during the month of January and February not in March, April, May, June.
Because, if you miss out because a student has already made a choice. So, here you have
to decide what is your product? Where to pitch in? What time to pitch in? What are the
resources to be allocated? Such that; It can convert this into a customer.
So, that is what we say launching of new products here, I have taken an example of a
educational institutions, if you try to look at a automobile what happens is they generally
try to launch or you take a movie generally they try to launch during Diwali and Holi
whatever it is. So, launching the new product with appropriate forum and adequate
allocation of resources in advertisement that is what is marketing here.
So, legitimate promotion of the product is must. Today, if you do not promote your
product people will not be able to come recognize and buy your product. So, there is a
need to blow your own trumpet add the appropriate time to make a successful product.
The other factors are the factors listed have unexpected effect on the success of new
product is order of entry, innovativeness and the nature of benefits. So, these are some of
the other factors, which are involved key factors for a successful product. A business
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So,
simply cannot introduce a product and on the basis of price advantage alone expect a
successful; that means, to say if you produce a product in a cost economical manner cost
economical manner it does not mean that, you are going to succeed today you see there
are so many product, which are cost economical, which are not very successful.
But, vice versa there are certain quality products pretty expensive, but very successful in
the market. So, that is what we are trying to say a business simply cannot introduce a
product on the basis of price advantage alone to success a product.
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the product characteristics which are there so, major product characteristics are going
to be functional or performance aspect. So, you would like to give more importance to
performance of the product so, functional or performance, operational or ease of use. So,
for example, I try to use this pen, which is digital pen, which tries to help me in teaching
I try to highlight every point here.
So, ease of use. So, this product has to be user friendly and very easy to use ok. So,
operational or easy to use there are kitchen utensils where, the operation is extremely
difficult. So, those products do not succeed in the market. So, this is one major parameter
product characteristics operational ease or ease of use.
Next easy for maintenance is another big thing for example, when I buy a product it has
to be considered for maintenance then, comes aesthetics and appearance. It is not that,
aesthetics is not important aesthetics and appearance are very, very important recently I
saw a one of my friend has purchased a Rotomac a Roti-making or Roti-mac. So, the
entire machine looks very similar to that of a “Belan” and it also looks where, ever there
is a hot thing they have put red.
So, appearance is also very, very important. So, the price or to customer and the
valueadded aspects is very, very important. So, function I tried to buy a pen, I tried to
buy a car, I tried to buy a camera first thing is it has to excel in it is performance. In fact,
when I when I was visiting Japan I saw that, they were trying to demonstrate their
camera saying, that it is water proof. They were just immersing the camera inside a tank
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So,
and then, taking it out and taking photos water tank and they were taking photos. So,
performance aspect is very important.
Next is how easy is it is used today, today this is being talked about in a very big manner
very big manner for example, earlier days in automobile the car key the ignition key used
to be placed at locations, which are which were never user friendly. In fact, the earlier
days in automobile the headline button used to be separate, the light on button used to be
separate, the wiper button used to be separate, the speed of the wiper button used to be
separate.
So, all four were there today you see there are two arms levers, which are given just
below your steering and were in which, you can pull up pull down and then, move left or
right everything is getting integrated. So, that is nothing but ease of use. So, ease of
maintenance aspect. So, today you see that, earlier in Indian automobiles the tyre getting
punctured flattened was a big problem today you see that, tyre technology has improved
you have made tubeless tyres and if at all there is a flattening happen they have applied
now, glues these glues get hardened and they do not allow the tyres to get flattened.
So, this is easy from maintenance, aesthetics and appearance is also very important and
finally, the price to customer I give 10,000 rupees I get a product, which is worth of
10,000 rupees. So, that is what we see these are the 5 product characteristics, which are
very important to make a successful product in the market.
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So, functional characteristics whatever, we saw I have just put it in words. So, when the
marketing possibilities have been determined the functional scope has to be carefully
analysed and properly exemplified the functional aspect implies the fundamental reason
for product demand the functional aspect are often multiple; that means, to say a product
can have multiple use a product can have multiple functions, that is what we have saying.
So, functions a single product from multiple functions a mobile phone a alarm can be
there, clock can be there, an app can be there, a phone can be there, a camera can be
there, functional aspects, right? So, functional aspects are often multiple and the usage of
products can be left to the customer’s choice, you want to use your cell phone as a
camera go head no problem. That choice has to be given to the customer. So, these are
some of the functional aspects, which are very important the customer can decide the
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period to exploit it is characteristics as and when I become there is a need I start using a
camera then, I start using a video then I load an app called as Whatsapp and I start using
it. So, it has left to the customer so; that means, to say a product whatever you have
developed should have multiple functions to be catered, that is what is the bottom line.
Then, operational aspects operational aspects I have told you ergonomics is very, very
important easy to handle easy to operate for example, earlier days the cover of a pen we
used to have screwing and unscrewing today it is all press fit easy to handle ok. So,
adaptable to various operating conditions and subjected to varying degrees of skill of
potential operators.
So, you cannot say that, my product is only for educated people. The cell phone never
came and said the cell phone is only for minimum qualified of engineers can be used or
doctors can be used earlier days it was so, but today those myths are killed. So, what they
say is they say, whatever product you develop has to be. So, user friendly that, anybody
can use it that is what they say.
The designer’s problem becomes all the more critical when you talk about this
ergonomics factor. So, rising trend for increasing versatility because, of characteristic
implies using the basic attachment an element for building suitable combination of
specific purpose. So, here what we are trying to say is we are trying to say use of
modular concept. So, use of modular concept is what we are trying to talk about here. So,
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rising trend of increasing versatility because, characteristics implied using basic
attachments as elements for building suitable combination of specific purpose is also
operation ease; that means, to say I have a motor this motor can be attached to a jar
where, in which I can make juice, I can use it for as a egg beater, I can use it for mixing,
I can use it for shredding or vegetable cutter.
So, I had a motor. So, this motor should have a particular attachment such that, whenever
I want to switch between these 4 applications I should be able to do immediately
instantly and very fast and on top of it has to be maintenance free, that is what we are
trying to talk about in this ergonomic consideration.
Next is easy for maintenance, when we talk about maintenance 2 things durability and
dependability are the 2 important factors of quality, that is there. Durability is how long
defines the length of the service life or endurance of a product under given working
conditions ok, say for example, you cannot take a product, which is thought of to work
very well in a plain condition for example, in a in a terrine condition where, there were
temperature are between vary between 5 degrees to 40 degrees.
So, a product which, works in this zone cannot be taken to a place where, the temperature
is from minus 30 degrees to minus 6 degrees and start using it. So, what happens is
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durability is always talked about in this working condition, the length of the service or
the life of the product is this.
So, a measure of the product capability to idle or withstand to withstand loads for
example, I buy a rubber band and I cannot expect the rubber band to lift 25 kilos that’s
what it is withstanding loads is very important the durability is maintenance and repair
and the required repair and prevent to maintenance required for some products is closely
aligned akin to quality and the design policy. So, ease for maintenance durability and
dependability of the product has to be thought of. Aesthetics, aesthetics though it is not
must, but without it you cannot live.
So, it is a trade-off you have to do you cannot give more emphasis to aesthetics and less
importance to function, function is priority aesthetics is desirable. If your product does
not have an aesthetics look you might not sell into the market for example, in olden days
the edges of the edges of a product were all made out had sharp hardness. So, the
aesthetics look is make it rounded.
So, it gave aesthetic look. So, earlier days the chairs were all made out of wooden chairs
were there then it became plastic. So, people wanted to have still a feel of wooden in the
plastic chair. So, they have now, in plastic chair that texture of wooden is being
integrated that is only an aesthetic if without that it is not going to affect the functionality
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of chair, but with that it is going to affect sales of the chair. So, that is what aesthetic is
important is desired, but it is not essential.
You have to know how much weightage you have to give for this aesthetics, there are
many products you see in market today aesthetically beautiful even at one point of time
America in 1970 and 80s they gave lot of importance to aesthetics, but that was the time
Europeans and Japanese took over the entire business they started concentrating more on
functional aspect.
So, aesthetics is desired, but it is not essential. Aesthetics aspect is mainly concerned
with moulding and finishing of rounding of the skeletons this mould or shape ok, this is
what I have already explained to you. So, I will keep moving in aesthetic is the
governing factor in design and completely dominated it this is essentially true for many
consumer products or fashion products aesthetics is must, but you have to keep
functional on top of it.
So, when we try to draw a curve for product characteristics I would like to draw this. So,
this is aesthetics and this is functional ok, this is here I would like to write industrial
design and then here, I would like to do mechanical design ok. So, if I do that, this is
what is the consumer products. So, if you talk about function, mechanical design is very
important if you talk about aesthetics industrial design is very important, today all the
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consumer products are a combination of these two. So, you try to do at this point. So, this
is the product characteristics curve. So, some aesthetic design.
Recommendation you use of special materials either for the part of the housing or
additional decorations you want, use of colour either natural colour of the material or
colour created by the paint created by the paints painting spray or even flames can be
part of aesthetics. The texture supplementing colour either by appropriate treatment of a
given surface or coating, these are some of the recommendations, which I told this I gave
you a simple example of a wooden chair keep that in mind.
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Some more recommendations sharp edges we have discussed and then, these things we
have covered. So, packaging is also part of aesthetics. So, packaging especially of a
small item novelty and enticement of packaging are often conveyed in the minds of a
customer. So, here what I mean to say is the colour also many a times gets treated are I
am always carried away some body wears a pink pant, a green pant I give I remember
those students, who were wearing those pants face much more rather than normal
coloured pant.
So, the aesthetics colour also tries to stay within the same way when you do sell a
product in a mall where, or in a business supermarket. So, what happens is the packaging
plays a very important the packaging and the colour of the packaging plays a very
important role to decide the customer’s choice.
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So, the pricing to customer is the last point the pricing to customer is very important. The
product cost ordains it is selling price and scope it is market attractiveness, this does not
in infer the price is the sole determinant, of which buyer finds about a product cheaper,
but inferior quality products tend to fall by the wayside.
See when you think about it in Indian scenario, you can see lot of milk vendors having
smart phones, in fact my mason who comes and does work in my house has a mobile
phone his salary will not be very high to provide for it, but he has found out there is a
business, which he is going to get because, of these phones in India 10 years back or
almost all the milk vendors used to move around by bicycle, today this has completely
changed they have started using powered vehicles because, they have found out this
investment is going to give them more business. So, it is again and again I repeat it is not
the cost, which plays an important role, but what value it add to the customer in his
business is important.
So, if you can develop a product, which adds more value to the customer and he is going
to make an innings out of it they do not mind selling out that money. So, that is what is
nothing but price to customer, the price does not determine profitability; however, it is.
So, again there are 2 things in market.
So, one you can try to sell more number of products with a lesser price less price then,
this is one strategy the other strategy is less number of products for more price. So, you
have to decide. So, here the profit margin will be less here, the profit margin will be
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more is low profit is high. So, if the price does not determine the profit you can choose
anyone strategy and then start doing it.
When we talk about the pricing the product cost is a function of both fixed price and
variable price, fixed price are generally asserts big asserts capital equipment’s variable
cost is nothing but, the man power involved or the material involved in producing the
price.
When you look at the product characteristics here, is a graph which talks about revenue,
revenue with respect to positive; that means, to say I am going to make a profit I am
undergoing a loss or I am investing more of money in the research phase there is an
investment of money where, is no revenue made when it is designed and development
including prototype you further invest money, but the amount of money which is
invested here is not so, high because today we have moved to digital world.
So, there are, lot of software tools, which come in a big way which can help in
accelerating the design and development till the prototyping stage once the prototype is
made customer has agreed then, starts the launching of the product tooling operation
research comes here. So, here it is more of capital intensive market. So, you try to spend
more money in establishing a factory.
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Then, you start producing. So, when you start producing these are almost the fixed cost
and here, when you start producing more amount of material is involved, more amount of
man power is involved. So, you invest more money and then what happens is from here
on there is a slow increase. So, this is the state where, in which there is a shift going to
happen from the negative side you are going to move towards profit side. So, after period
of time you can see this bell curve crosses the 0 state and then, it starts making profit.
So, when it starts selling in a big way sales it is going to make profit. So, this here does it
mean that, there is no sale here also there is a sale going on, but it is not. So, high the
numbers become very large. Today this one is called if you remember back the time,
which is involved in the project. So, this time understanding customer’s voice, producing
product and making profit cannot be infinity it has to be as small as possible, but you
have to legitimately spend enough time in each state and then, make a sale progress
about it. So, this time and this is the cost. So, this time has to be small this cost has to be
small so, that you can make a profit out of it. So, this graph is very, very important for
you to understand.
So, today task for the students is you will try to take product 1, product 2 both are for the
same customer you will try to understand what is this strategy for this product to give it
to the customer? And what is the strategy for this product to give it to the customer? So,
here what we are talking is in terms of a consumer product a product whatever is the
product should be a consumer product so; that means, to say it can be a soap, it can be a
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tooth paste, it can be a food item whatever it is choose it and then this is given to the
same customer product A and product B.
And when you try to choose this product choose product A means, product 1 and 2
should be similar product for example, you choose a product here as tooth paste, product
2 should be also another tooth paste and try to realize how do these companies try to
attract the customers? And how do the customers make a choice in these 2 products? So,
I repeat the product can be anything, but product 1 and product 2 should be a similar
product.
For example, soap you take soap, you take soap there can be a x soap here, y soap here
how does the x soap convince the customer to buy his product, how does y do? And how
do they succeed or how do they fail? Please try to understand because, if you do this
exercise you can choose anything of your choice a soap can be what you use daily, tooth
paste can what you use daily, food items or you go to the market and you say 2 soaps are
put in front of you how do you chose which soap will suit you?
Is it going to be the cost is it going to be the advertisement, is it going to be the colour, is
it going the fragrance and is it going to be the performance cost to performance I buy this
soap it will with stand for two months cost to performance. So, what are you going to
look at it? So, this is an exercise, which you will do it for yourself and try to understand
and appreciate how do you make a choice of choosing a product?
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Design Program
Lecture – 06
Elements of Visual Design (Part 1 of 3)
welcome to the lecture on Elements of Visual Design.
We will try to cover the following content one is aesthetics of design. If you look into the
entire design process you have understood customer voice, then you will undergo
convert the customer voice into engineering specification, then what you do is from that
you will try to make sure all the functional requirements are met.
And then how do you proceed; proceed further if you make several conception
prototypes, talk to people and the conceptual prototype along the functional requirement
are accepted, then the major emphasis is given to form and form shape, form colour,
texture. These are the four things which play very important role. Though they are not
primary significant parameters, but they are secondary, but still they dictate the sale, they
dictate the pricing of the product also .
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How does a product really impress, the shape and form impresses the sale of a product
and after this form and shape comes the packaging that also plays a very important role.
Aesthetic plays a important role, but aesthetics only does not play an important role.
Next is principles of design we will see then what are all the product message then visual
design and then we will see elements of visual design. So, these are the things which we
will cover today.
Today when we look at a product, if we do not have a feel for the product by touching
the product what we always get impressed is by looking at a television or by looking at a
magazine or by looking at some of the advertisements which come through apps, apps
or mobile phone whatever it is. So, when we will look at it what are the important things
we look at the colour, we look at the shape, we look at the size, and then we also look at
the form. So, by looking at this, by looking at all those things we try to have an
imagination just by representing the design.
 By giving this a proper colour, proper shape, proper size, proper texture we try to
create an impression. When I was recently reading an article, the article says that
after coming home from a tirefull days job, if your house can understand your
mood and accordingly colour the walls automatically such that it can soothe your
thought process and your comfort. Its only the colour, shape, size form and
texture play a very important role , but I repeatedly reiterate my statements this is
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important they are very important, but they are secondary important, secondary
significance.
Because the primary is to meet out the functional requirements, earlier people have a
thought processing the designer means its only focusing towards this, but today it is not
only this you should have the functional requirements also to be met. Only functional
requirement can a product be successful no, the secondary parameters have to be also
considered and then we start looking into it, give importance to it and make the product
more lucrative.
So, when we talk about the Aesthetic Design; aesthetic design is concerned with use of
principles of beauty and psychological expectations of the user. For example, you can
always have a handkerchief with red colour, you can have it with orange colour, but
people would always like to have with white colour or with the light colour.
Because, its going to give them psychological feeling.
Example: When you look at country flags, certain country flags have red colour in it.
So, red colour means they are aggressive. In the same way when I try to put an ad and try
to draw a chilli and make it very red dish; that means, to say it is going to be hot and
spicy. I do not have to write any words I just put a chilli there and give the colour this
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colour tries to create a psychological impression or expectation on the user . Beauty;
beauty comes from the shape, size, form .
Factors affecting the aesthetic design is form and shapes . So, for example, I can draw a
face in many ways as shown in figure.So, these are different forms all are able to express
different person may like different faces. So, look at it recently our government of India
has created Swachh Bharat. Swachh Bharat was an initiative was taken by father of our
nation Mahatma Gandhi.
 we do not put Gandhi there we just draw try to draw his spectacles and then we
say this is Swachh Bharat. So, when we see the symbol we always remember
about Gandhi our father of our nation. So, the form has a feel for it sorry, my
thing was not very good here. So, the form and shape plays a very important role,
it gives you a psychological model making and it is ease for production etc
When you try to do a shape today I was watching a TV ad , there was mixer ad which the
body of the mixer was like a person standing and his head there and they have made it.
So, nicely it looks a servant maid, something like that as shown in figure, but when you
try to manufacture they have to discontent they have to make into three different parts.
So, ease for manufacturing might be little difficult, but for ease of production also
depends upon the shape and form. For example, people draw egg, making a three
dimensional egg is not so easy, the radius keep changing and the at the tip it goes
towards a different shape. So, this is if you start doing it, if you try to draw in two
dimensional it is easy, but when you draw in three dimensional it is difficult or making is
difficult.
People always try to make an egg and then they make a sphere because sphere is easy to
make, the factors affecting aesthetic design form and shape tries to have a psychological
effect, ease for model making and ease for production. Then form transition; the product
theme must be able to be established. For example, if you are trying to talk about a food
product, its good you start expressing a colour of tastiness, a feeling of taste or you try to
put your tongue.
 For example, if you go back and look at Kissan sauce advertisement, , look at
Kissan the sauce advertisement the logo used there. So, its form translation a
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product theme, it is a food product, it gives you taste and all those things are
brought in.
 And then propositions; so, propositions are something which is very important,
people talk about golden ratio ,we will see what is golden ratio next. So, golden
ratio is very important, whatever you do nature follows some proportion.
And if you see magnificent temples which are built they also follow the same proportion
of human being, they would have made it proportionally large, proportionally small and
if you look at them, they are wonderful. You see someone, who is having a beautiful
body structure or if you see a leaf with beautiful body structure. If you see a snail shell
which is beautiful, a shell along the seashore is beautiful, if you see nature would have
followed this fractal design.
 Today we are trying to mimic and copy the factorial design into all the
engineering products nature and nature products and engineering products. There
is a difference, nature product does not follow simple geometry, but engineering
many a times follow simple geometry why because, it is only to keep the ease for
manufacturing. You can have a egg shaped item because, this egg shaped gives
lot of protection for a liquid inside, but manufacturing this egg shape is not a
straightforward case.
In engineering products, we have only two shapes basically; one is a line, next is a circle.
So, you can say a tube, you can say a line and a circle are the basic shapes in 2D, once
you know to make a line and an arc not even a circle an arc then all structures can be
made because, everything is a combination of these two . So, we will see about golden
ratio;
 Golden ratio is very important people also argue beautiful structures, beautiful
nature products, new nature scenic scenes are following golden ratio. Then color;
color plays a very-very important role, color plays a very important role.
Texture is also very important. If I give a glossy appearance, if I give a matte

appearance, if I give a shade variation, if I can follow some Gaussian distribution in the
colour variation, it tries to give me lot of impression and it conveys many things through
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the design. Contrast designs you can have, you can say people would like to wear
contrast shirts.
Example: I would like to wear a contrast shirt, I always try to have a chocolate green
shirt which I used to wear when I go in parties. So, I know all others will have a smergy
colour, but I will try to stand apart, I have a blue colour, a peacock blue colour . So,
contrast second thing is when I prepare ppt slides, I always prefer to have contrast. Then
you should also have similar, contrast also should be there you should also use similarity.
You just keep always using this odd man out concept it does not work many a times.
When you are in a group when the products are in group, you have to follow similarity,
then graduation then separation these are the four things which are very important as for
as texture is concerned. When you talk about graphics the style in which they write also
plays. For example, you can see lot of things in movie industry they spend lot of money
in styling and writing the name in such a manner such that it tries attracting people .
 So, many a times when you the style gives you a basic feel of the movie. Earlier
days we used to write in black and white the movie name and in a very simple
format. Today what has happened, we add colour to it and many a times what
people expect today is by looking at the name of the movie by looking at the
colour which they have used in writing the name and by looking at the font
people try to have an impression about the movie.
 For example, if it is a horror movie or if it is a thriller movie they would try to

have a red color or a black color, and when they write it they do not write the
fonts smoothly there is a big science behind it, its not just writing alone there is a
science behind it. The science is psychology getting integrated into the textual
matter and this is written there. So, that you get to feel and apart from that last we
see the surfaces, lines which are used in real time.
So, these are the basic engineering things point line, to surface to edge to whatever
vertices and then vertices to object. So, this also tries to play a very important role when
we try to do aesthetics. So, let us try to talk about first colour.
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the colour are basically the classification of pigments because today we talked about
digital world, so, its all pigments and resolutions. They are divided as
 Primary colour,
 Secondary,
 Tertiary
 Quaternary.
here what we have is yellow, red, blue, these are the primary colours.
The secondary colours are orange, green and purple.
how are the secondary colours formed?
The secondary colors are mixed from the primary colors and you try to generate a
secondary colour. For example, you can have yellow, can is now mixed in all the three
colours . So, then red is mixed with yellow to get an orange, red is mixed with yellow to
get a purple then blue is also added to it. In the same way you also have blue getting
mixed with yellow to form a green.
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So, you look at it how interesting it is you have three basic colours. Now I mixed yellow
with red I got an orange, I mixed yellow with blue I got a green, and I mixed red with
blue red with blue and yellow I got purple. Now I can have the combinations generated
out of the secondary colours. So, what are they?
They are :-
 Russet = yellowish grey
 Buff = reddish grey
 Citron = bluish grey
how is it? So, you can have one here, you can have combination here and then you can
have mixed here and then green will try to have its colours from here and then from here
green. And then purple will be from here and here. You see now secondary colours are
generated this is nothing, but yellowish grey, reddish grey and bluish grey and then
quaternary what you can have plum olive and then sage.
This is nothing, but orangish grey, then you can have greenish grey, then you can have
purplish grey. So, this is again a combination you can have. So, look at it how interesting
it you try to take primary colours, you try to mix colours and then you try to have
multiple colours of it. So, this is a typical classification of pigment colours. You can try
to generate multiple colours. So, basically you start with only three colours .
From there you start adding colours and now it is interesting, when you look at your
monitor you will try to play with the grayscale level and the pixel resolution, pixel colors
and in each pixel you will try to have three or four levels or two levels or three levels of
different colours. It tries to give you combinations through this you try to generate. So,
this will try to talk about colour. So, now let us see about textures.
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So, we will try to see elements of design, in elements of design we will try to see textures
there are 4 elements; one is line I told you already, form and colour we discussed colour
and texture. Now, we will try to focus only on texture, what is a texture? Texture is
basically given to expresses the appearance or it gives a feel for the surface. By just
looking at the surface many a times we try to have a illusion saying that the surface is
smooth, the surfaces is rough all those things. texture plays a very important role. they
can basically create variety of feelings with customers. There are two types of textures;
one is called as tactile, the other one is called as visual.
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 What is a tactile texturing? You can try to have a feel by rubbing the surface, the
surface with your hand/leg, it gives you a feel that is tactile feel
 Visual texturing , visual texting that tries to have a feel that you can see and
experience . You try to have a feel in the sense feeling just by seeing and here it
is not by touching feel or your impression.
Basically textures, what do they do? They communicate, they generally communicate the
surroundings ; surroundings means it can be exterior or it can also be interior. For
example, inside a room, inside a box, inside AC theatre, inside a virtual work all these
things textures just give a feel.
So, it tries to give you a communication like rough, hard or course texture create a
feeling, more souring or more it can create feeling or casual rough, hard or coarse
textures. when we try to put a smooth, soft, just opposite to it or fine textures ,it tries to
create a formal feeling - neat, clean all those things rough surface. So, this creates a form
feeling.
If you can have a blend of this to a composite or blend of these textures, but it gives you
a mixed feel, it gives you a completely mixed feel .
Now, I will try to cover both texture and colour feeling, we will try to discuss them. So,
for example, if you have an object. So, this object texture and colour tries to give feeling
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for the customer like heavy, light object. This inturn, in combination with the
surrounding colour will try to have more impact on the object. So, the light and the
surrounding colour if you have. So, that tries to make, to give you feel whether the object
is small ,large and all those things can be thought of. So, when you have rough surface
what happeneds is the light when it strikes light.
Strikes and absorbs, when you have a fine surface light strikes and reflex. So, you get a
glossy look. So, or if you look at this if you just make the texture fine, so, then it tries to
take what is the appearance around the room and then start the giving you a very good
surface finish. So, we have discussed about texture, colour feelings. Now we will try to
discuss about the golden ratio; golden ratio is 1 is to 1.618, golden ratio is a simple math
which is followed whenever you try to give a form or a shape to the object or whatever
product you develop.
So, the golden ratio is special number which approximately equal to 1.6180339 and its
goes on. So, we try to take only 1.618 . So, one way to visually understand, this is used a
line segment. So, what we do is we take ‘a’ we take ‘b’ and this is nothing, but a plus b.
So, a plus b is to a as a is to b. So, this is very important which we follow in golden ratio.
So, the mathematical equation can be established, ‘b’ by a equal to a plus b, by cross
multiplying I will say, we get what is that b square plus ab is equal to a square or we
assume b equal to 1, then a square is equal to a plus 1. I take a value of b equal to 1, so
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then it becomes a square equal to a plus 1 . So, solving this, solving for a we get a equal
to 1 plus square root of 5 by 2 which is nothing, but 5 which is 1.6180.
So, this is what is called as Fibonacci’s theory or sequence Fibonacci sequence. So, in
that you take two numbers and when you try to add these two numbers you from the next
number, so 0, 1, 0 plus 1 is 1. So next is 1 plus 1, so this becomes 2, then it is 2 plus 1 it
becomes 3, then 3 plus 2 it becomes 5. Then if you try to take a ratio you will always get
that 1.6 let me say go ahead so 3 this is 8, then 8 plus 3 is 13, then 13 plus 8 is 21, 21
plus this 34 and then 34 plus this is 55, then 89, then it is 144 and it keeps going on and
on .
So, now, let us see the ratio what is the ratio? From here 5. So, it is were 5 by 3 is 1.66,
then if it is 8 by 5 it is 1.6, 13 by 8 is 1.6, then it is 21 by 13 it is 1.61 and so on. So, you
take 34 by 21 that is again 1.61 . So, this ratio is called as Fibonacci sequence and this
falls under the golden ratio.
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So, if you try to form a figure it is like this, you have 1 square, then I divide this into. So,
this is the next thing and next what I do this is first I divided into that ratio, then I try to
take at this as a next step, then I go to the fourth one, I can put mark like this, so this will
be . So, if you see what I have done as I have taken the ratio and I kept on maintaining it,
the next step will be, I will try to finish this here. So, first I divided 2 by 3, So, you can
see that, so every step you are trying to bring in the ratio and try to make things, so the
last one I can put it like this. So, this was first, so this was the whole square from here
you kept on going it and finally, what you say it, now this will be divided.
So, if you try to start drawing a radius, then you can see something like this will be
involved and which you look at it this will be a typical snail shape snail shell shaped. So,
this is the golden ratio which we talked about. So, these are the things which we tried
covering now. So, for example, product we saw about proportions, pi and factorial this is
what we discussed till now. So, I have explained all this things in this slide, so let us
keep moving.
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What are the principles of design? When we talk about the principles of design, first
comes
 Functionality
 Conceptual-in conceptual comes modularity. Today we are able to customize

products because of this modularity. So, depending upon the requirements ,
people keep changing to meet out the customer demand.
For example, if I have a shoe or if I have a building or if I have a kitchen, so I will build
a shell as a kitchen and then what do I do, I have several racks made and these racks can
be placed or it can be removed depending upon the requirement. So, wherever I need I
keep adding and all these racks are cuboidal in shape. So, that I place it as and when
required and the biggest advantages in kitchen and we always have maintenance issue. If
I want to throw one rack out and replace it with other new rack it is done.
And in a bicycle if you see there are several parts, if the peddle fails the modularity
concepts is followed, only the paddle is replaced rest all the cycle will be the old cycle.
So, conceptual we should have logo, modular design and themes, then we should have
balance in the colour, we will see about it later whether symmetry, asymmetry radial we
should have this. Balancing of the object or the figure , then it is the directions,
emphasis, contrast, so this we discussed about the factorial design.
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Then it is Juxtaposition ,unity, variation, patterns, discolored all those things are the next
principle to be followed. Rhythmic; rhythmic talks about contrast, similarity, graduation
and separation, so this all discuss about the colour, ratio and proportions which go back
there and then finally, it is going to be the lines curves, lines and surfaces.
These are the principles which we have to follow when we talk about developing a
design in terms of representation. What are the product messages? The product messages
are form, follow, function.
So, the form plays a important function first you fulfill all the functional requirement and
then you try to do the form for it, the basic functionality etc and concept has to be
maintained. The lightness and the weight, you will see that lightness and the weight that
is nothing, but when we look at the figure we look at balance and base, shape, size, color.
So, the lightness and the weight weightage which is given for the figure in the front end
or in the back end is very important. The stability is also very important; that means, to
say the line balancing with respect to the background color of the used color. Speed and
motion tries to talk about the direction, power and strength and dominance, these are all
messages which is given.
 For example in the figure, I put this and I say that the person who had this one is
happy and here I have expressed his emotions and this is only a line scales, if I
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would a blended with the background color, this would have been much more
and interesting. So, I just play with one more look at it is there. So, first it was
happy; first it was happy, he is now calm and happy. So, now, if I just change
only the figure only the form and then I do.
the contrast used at the background and the form, shape, color gives a very good message
about the product. So, this is very important, this is what we talk about in the product
message. So, the form we are talking about, lightness and weight in terms of color that
does not have written as balance, base, shape and color.
So, visual design is a new method of technical knowledge developed rapidly by

following the scientific discovery, it is not like people have their own, it comes off like
that. Anything and everything if you look back and see there is a science which follows
and the science will back the theory and so that is how the stability or acceptance is more
common.
Visual design is an applied art, it is an art, whereby the principles of visual

communication are used for effective design of a product. It is not that randomly you
draw something and its get accepted, you follow the visual communication principles.
The basic elements which have already discussed is form, content, arrangement, light
and colour.
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Form is the shape, content , what are all present in the particular seen or in a particular
shot is the content and arrangement whether something has to put in the front end or
something else to do the back end, what all has to be arranged in such a way such that it
can look very interesting. Color and the light, all these things, the direction of light
which is thrown on the object, its shadow which is created that gives you an impression
about when you see your photo or that when you see a product, it’s the impression you
get.
The emotions that drives visual communication are the emotions which is seduction,
conviction and inspiration. Certain things what happens is you start remembering.
 why are the comics book more accepted? they are more accepted than your
textual books whatever this kids study. Today government of India has made it a
point that the textbooks have to be more pictorial.
More pictorial tries to explain the concepts more easily and then on top of it they have
also try to make this pictorial more impressive. If you look at the kg, kindergarten school
children books, the color of the book will be very-very impressive, individual photos will
impressive. So, it creates inspiration; it creates inspiration for reading the book.
See if you see if you look at a movie which is 2 hours or 2 and half hours a movie and
then you look at an add, the add is only for 90 seconds or may be 60 seconds. The add
will have impressive colors, will have impressive song, it is only going to create an
impression about the product to the customer and they get inspired and they are out there
to by it, so inspiration is something very important.
Moment you have lot of color pictures in a given book. So, then the students are able to
correlate the picture color, the picture and the content to it very easily compared to fully
textual ones . That is why you see cartoons are very impressive, the advertisements are
very attractive, it is the impression the emotion what they cover plays a very important
role.
The visual techniques such as scales, cropping, juxtapositioning, abstraction,

magnification, orientation and typography, all these things we saw. Typography is
nothing, but making the font for the same thing , some people write R and G in many
ways and styles. so it is typography .
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Typography, which people do and by looking at it putting at the proper background you
can convey messages.
The visual techniques scalings, croppings, abstraction, magnification, orientation all

these things are visual techniques which are used. So, ultimately what we should
understand is, the principles of visual communication is used for effective designing of
your product.
when we talk about design it is more about point. So, let us go very simple a point, if I
want to draw a line, point a line. So, then I wanted to make a surface, so a line is now
closed, this is a surface. Now, I want to create it as a 3D image.
Look at it, so what did I start? I started with a point, this point let me do a line and this
line let me to an edge, when I convert it, I made surface, a surface I made it into vertices,
vertex and from vertex I made a volume .
So, now I can replace this into a line into a curve, a point a curve . So, I can convert this
line into a curve, curve forms an edge or surface. So, the basic elements for drawing is
going to be point, line and arcs or curves. Then will have color, then will have shape,
size, mass and change. So, these are the basic elements of design, how effectively use it
and what you convey matters.
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This is an image ,which is completely made out of points. For example, you try to take a
photograph and then converting this photograph data into a pixel data, then almost you
will have same type of image. This is only points, this is the most basic of elements,
manifested in the materials world with just slightly more gusto than the mathematical
point. Atomic components of the visual work is the points, it is dimensioning also it is
perspective.
A region for the focus from eye to the viewer it is taken, more number of points creates a
shape. suppose I have a and a line. So, now, this is one pixel, two pixel, three pixel, four
pixel, so you will have more pixels you try to get, higher the resolution you have more
clear the figures. So, this is all about the points.
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Next is lines; a line is a mark made by a moving point and having psychological impact,
according to the directions spiral. So, what are the directions? Directions can be this
way; directions can be this way, directions can be vertical ,horizontal, circular .
By moving a point in any of those three, in any of those directions and having a
psychological impact according to its direction, the weight; weight means your thickness
of the line color, whatever we use and the variation in the direction and its weightages.
The function in both visual and verbal ways it tries to convey both, it acts as a symbolic
language, drawing is a symbolic language, lines can be combined to give form and shape
which I constructed and I showed you. For example, from a line to edge; edge to surface;
surface to a volume. So, that gives you a form and shape to it.
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So, when we talk about colours we discussed about primary colours, secondary colours,
tertiary colour. Generally terms for the quality of the color, hue, intensity and the value
of absorb. So, these are the important terminologies which we generally used for colors.
 The general terms for the quality of the color is hue, what is hue? Name of the
color like red, green, blue etc. are hue . Then intensity the chroma, intensity,
strength or saturation of the color, distinguishing the chromatic color from black
and white is chroma . Next is saturation; saturation is the degree of vividness of a
hue from its concentration used with chroma is saturation. The color is saturated,
so you can see and when you saturated color you get a feeling out of it.
 Then the last one is value; the value is the range from light to dark including
white, grey black; colors can be evaluated on it scale 0 to 10. So, value is the
range what you give and the impression what you take. Generally, higher values
are considered to be light and lower values are considered to be dark.
These are important terminologies, I would request you to please read and understand.
Hue, chroma, saturation value. So, by this you can try to create an impression about the
product to the customers.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 07
So, welcome back to the lecture on Elements of Visual Design. I will just try to do the
recap, what we covered in the previous lecture.
So, the basic elements of design are:
 Line
 Shape
 Color
 Texture
 Space
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So, what is line? Line can be horizontal, can be vertical, can be diagonal, it can be
zigzag; it can be curved, it can be straight, it can be dotted, it can be bold, and it can be
fine. So, these are all different lines, which are used to draw basic elements of the design.
So, line can show direction, line can lead the eye, line can lead the outline of an object,
line can divide the surrounding, it can also communicate both feelings and textures.
So, the shapes are basically extension of these lines. Shapes are made by joining lines,
arcs, to form 3-D objects or 3-D shapes. So, the 3-D objects, or 2-D extended to 3-D can
be circle, it can be square, it can be triangle, it can be, or it can be any freeform surface,
whatever you create in 2-D, can be extended to 3-D to identify a shape.
The next one is going to be the color. I we have discussed about hue, we have discussed
about value, and we have discussed about intensity. In hue, we write about the primary
color, and the in the value, we try to say whether it is light, or dark and in the intensity,
we try to talk about brightness or dullness. This is what we talk about in the color.
Next one is texture, which gives you quality of the surface, it talks about surface quality.
It gives a feeling of touch and to see.
So, the final thing is going to be the space, which talks about the area of your shape or
form, which can occupy positive and negative.
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So, positive space means the design is filling space, which often made up the design.
Negative shape is the background.
So, these are the basic element features, which we saw.
And then on top of it, we have the guidelines for design: -
 Rhythm
 Proportion
 Emphasis
 Balance
 Unity
 Rhythm: it allows the eye to move from one part of your design to another part.
So, rhythm is not only for music, it is also there for design. So, rhythm can be created by
using some color, shape, texture, etc. in a design. So, that is how you create a rhythm.
Next, you can change color or size of an object sequentially along one particular
direction, you can keep extending. For example, you see water droplet coming.
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So, it is sequentially expanding. You can have a beautiful size and color and you can also
shift from one hue to an another in the neighborhood. So, this is how you try to create
rhythm.
 Proportions: it refers to the relationship between one part of your design to

another part of the same design.
Next one is emphasis:
 Emphasis: it is the quality of the drawing, where attention is brought.
So, you are trying to force the customer to look at a particular drawing, because it has
something peculiar. So, we are trying to emphasis, may be an abstract, you are trying to
emphasis. So, this can be created by lines, shapes, etc.
So, next one is balancing.
 Balancing: symmetry and asymmetry.
Balancing is nothing, but you are looking for symmetrical, and you are looking for
asymmetrical. So, these things are there as balancing. So, symmetry and asymmetry
balance is created in the drawing, such that it will try to attract the customer to look at it.
 Unity: the line and shapes are repeated and we use the same style and color, all
along the drawing.
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COLOR
 Terminology:
 A tint is given hue with added white.
 A tone is given hue with added black.
 A shade is given hue with added complement.
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COLOR- representation using hue:
Cool color meanings (calming): blue, green, silver, turquoise, etc.
Warm color meanings (exciting) : red, pink, yellow, gold, orange.
See if you see sun, and if you give a color of orange to the sun, so that means to say, it is
evening sun. So, looking at the sun itself you will understand it is warm not hot. So, you
can choose the color and these colors will try to convey to the customer without
speaking.
So, choosing color for the required spot, or the situation is also very important.
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So, when we talk about colors, the important thing is the, Color Wheel. So, in color
wheel, there are primary colors, and the next one will be a tertiary color. Something like
that.
So, these are complementary colors, and you can have contrasting colors and similar
colors. So, a color wheel is created and you have to look at the choices from the primary
wheel. Take the color to the required drawing and then start designing.
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SHAPES:
 Geometric: It represents the shape of the product made from typical geometric
shapes like triangular, square and circular, etc. (Emotionally passive, esthetically
decorative, spatial active)
 Natural: The shapes available in the natural shapes and are used to make the
products. (Emotionally active, esthetically dynamic, spatial depth)
 Abstract: An indicative or abstract shape showing the product characteristics like

logo, cartoons, etc. (indicator, symbol)
The shapes forms are aspect of perception, you can have vertical or horizontal lines or
standard angles we can use, or Gestalt, a German Psychologist, gave a basic principle of
form or shape. So, read Gestalt logics, then you can have positive or negative space
which is theory of perception, positive or negative shape means, one ever each other or
one is negative. So, something like a depth feature, or a positive feature.
So, that is what are the various shape forms, which we try to follow, when we try to do
basics of design.
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SIZE
 Increasing size:
1. Loftiness, beyond human measure
2. Feeling of specialty/dominance
3. Relative, can be obtained by color and contrast
 Creates illusion:
1. Produce a feeling of feeling of depth
2. Feeling of strength/weight
3. Feeling of power
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MASS
 Aspect of Perception:
1. Mass is implied rather than actual.
2. Size implies normally weight. Each piece has got its own weight and then
individually weight in the total component.
3. To accommodate normal size restraints or expectations.
4. To convey a mood or provide emphasis.
5. To create contrast.
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CHANGE
 Change determine the way how the forms/ shape, size or mass are changing
within the product.
 The changes can be actual, as in the case of graphics, etc. or it can be virtual, like
a cartoons, illustration, etc.
 The principles of tempo or rhythm guides the use of change.
 Change can be in term of shape/form, size, color or value, etc.
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So, we have seen enough of Elements of Design and then Principles of Design. Now, I
would request all the students to do a small assignment, and the happy news is that, you
do not have to submit it, we will not evaluate it. I want you to develop a small pencil
box. Pencil box, which is three dimensional and try to bring all concepts of design
elements and use principles of design. You have to do line, shape, color, texture and
form fine. Next, you will try to develop an abstract figure by cutting color sheets of
various shapes and size.
So, you will choose a beautiful lady from a cartoon. You will pick a cartoon, where its
outline is given, then it has to be the beautiful lady from the cartoon, then you will try to
take different color papers, cut it in to shapes, whatever you want, and start sticking on
top of it and try to bring in your feelings to the figure.
So, please try to do these exercises, when you finish these two exercises, you will start
appreciating the importance of color, shape and texture while designing a product.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 7b
Welcome friends, we will try to continue the Elements of Visual Design
We will start by looking at Balancing then at Proportions, Emphasis, Juxtaposition,

Rhythm and Unity.
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We will try to learn with examples, the principles of visual design, the principles of
visual design represents the most general classes of tools available for determining the
ideal arrangement of elements of design for any given visual work.
we are talking about the principles of visual design, ideal arrangement of the elements of
design for any given visual work.
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Balance: it is the principle of design that places elements in such a way that these
elements are evenly distributed, the concept of balance is fundamental to well formed
design.
In balance, the design places the elements in such a way that these elements are evenly
distributed. Most of the principles work opposite to each other; hence this principle
basically tries to balance. Balancing is very important and this concept has to be
followed. Balancing of design elements, which are used in figure. There are three kinds
of balancing which we saw one is Symmetrical, Asymmetrical and Radial balance.
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Fig shows symmetrical, asymmetrical and radial designs.
Symmetrical balance: a balance which is created through the mirror image about an
axis or a plane or about two axis or planes etc. is called as Symmetric balancing. They
are further divided into:-
 Horizontal Balance.
 Vertical Balance
 Horizontal & Vertical Balance.
Interestingly when we try to take a photograph , we have to follow the rule of third. We
have to try to take an image and try to divide this image into two horizontal lines and two
vertical lines and and focus should be at horizontal, vertical or diagonal. So, you try to
keep your image where exactly focus has to be made such that you get the best out of the
photograph or image.
If object is balanced properly, the surrounding can be given more weightage, the object
can be more a given more weightage when compared to the surrounding and that’s all by
just balancing. In system symmetric balancing, we have a horizontal balancing, vertical
balancing and horizontal &vertical balancing, the rule of third is followed here.
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The visual center and the grid must be considered so that we keep our object either in the
horizontal lines or in the vertical lines or in the diagonal opposite lines such that we get
the best image or the best figure out of it.
Asymmetrical Balance: Asymmetrical balance, is created through an odd or

mismatched figures of elements that are further divided into:-
 All over balance.
 Asymmetric tension.
In the figure, the number of petals will be in odd or there is a mismatch, but overall it
will try to have a symmetry and it will try to balance.
Radial Balance: is something which is spirally going out and out, this is generally
created for having hallucination or feelings, the balancing is created through the balance
axis point visual center, balance Centre that are further divided into:-
 Same shape.
 Different shapes.
these are called as radial balance, which you can also follow while trying to develop
a design or while trying to develop a image. The first principle of design is balancing.
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As shown in figure are other Balance examples, the video game figures which are made
of the pixels which are getting activated, this object is again done balancing
Ratios and Proportions: it defines the relative size and the ratio of various elements
used in design and hence the relative size of the object in the product, here they talk
about the relative sizes and the ratio of the various elements. For example, relate to see
you have a fish which is extremely large, now look at a man outside, who is too small.
So, proportions or may be the fish is very close to you, the man is too far off and if you
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say such a big fish and if we look at the wire and other things, which are used then it is
just disproportionally , which is drawn or it can be a cartoon image. It defines the relative
size between the man and the fish and the ratio of the various elements used in the design
and hence the relative size of the objects in the product is maintained whereas ratio
defines the overall size with respect to the surrounding.
The relative size of things can be adjusted for the purpose of creating a perspective
illusion, exaggerating, comparative, apparent attributes, such as message or metaphor, or
simply to achieve a balance layout in terms of the distribution of mass and space is done.
We always try to give importance to ratios and proportions.
Ratios and proportions maintaining propositions are very important. Surrounding factor
such as home and public place is there. So, overall proportion may ruin the basic
configuration, very standard human body. Proportion can be taken by taking this as a
reference. With this as reference and use it, we use the Golden Ratio which we have
discussed earlier, while using visual tension in the product makes it more appealing,
fractal design is also using proportions.
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As shown in figure, this is a Golden ratio which we saw, the buildings where in which it
is followed and these are the other old buildings where it is magnificent, they follow
Fibonacci rectangle is or a Golden rectangle. So, you can see the spiraling effect is
formed and it forms a very beautiful image.
The proportion of the examples again for Fibonacci spiral is duplicated, rotated around
the center, and the circular pattern is mirrored. When assembled the results forms a
pattern as seen in sunflower.
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whatever drawing you do, if you follow this golden ratio, then you will have a very
appealing figure.
Going back to proportions, the self-similarity means, the building unit contained in the
pattern, is the same as the overall complete shape. You can see in the figure, these two
patterns are self similar the shape of the units are same, as the shape as a whole. So, these
two things, they are not similar, it is a same color the pixels are there.
Here you will have a round pixel. So, here you have a square pixel. So, these two
patterns are same and here the only shape is different. So, all of these patterns are self
similar. The Fractal a shape that is self similar and has a fractional dimension is called as
fractals. Fractals are taken from the nature. For example, if you see a branch which is
going it is also fractal, fractals can be used to create a infinite variants of shapes, this
simple fractal became a tree within a few iterations. The fractal can be used to visually
reproduce almost anything found in nature is under the fractal.
We always try to capture this fractal. Snowflake is another simple fractal using a two
equilateral triangle to create a star in the first iteration. When each iteration is reduced to
two third, it then fits within the previous shape and creates a new iteration, you see two-
third again and again makes a Snowflake, Koch Snowflakes are created follows the
fractal.
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shapes are very important, this is again a golden ratio which we have discussed earlier.
these are the boxes which are made. If you see that in totality, it is followed but when
you look at the furnaces, it also follows it. A telephone or gym equipment, they also
follows the golden ratio.
The Direction, Emphasis and Contrast: the course or path, a viewers eye will take
through a composition is shaped by actual or implied lines, and actual or implied
geometric shapes. There are certain points, lines, curves, areas and volumes, which need
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utmost attention from the customer and hence must be made different or distinct say for
example, blue-brown colour in picture.So, distinctlt it says that there is the seashore.
A point or in area in a product need to be different or separate from the other which can
be done with the contrast of size, shape, or color. The direction, emphasis, and contrast
in a figure tries to bring in a difference in the feeling.
Emphasis: Emphasis are also called as focus in some schema, is the acting of causing
some region of an image to seem more important, some region is more important than
the other, creating a balance, series of emphasis.
As show in above slide first one is according to shape, then according to color, next is
according to size and color, we try to give more emphasis so, by taking one of the design
elements.
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Contrast: the viewer’s eye, to contrast is to set elements in definite opposition, in order
to highlight different attributes. For example white in color, dark in color. We see a very
clear distinction between white and then along the edges. Same way this has a green
background, this has a white background, clear distinction, contrast difference is there
and white background, grey it is also there.
In a building entry doors are generally dark in colour.
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Proximity/Juxtaposition: the producibility, it reflects the ease with which product can
be made, which is a measure of how easily a product can be manufactured to engineering
design with a premium quality and low investment in order to maximize profit, this is
producibility or proximity.
It contains the flavor of one of the early contribution during the development of a
product development process, which includes the following guidelines
 Reduction in the number, type of parts and the part features.
 Selection of components having preferred size, weight, material and near net
shape.
 Ensuring testability, reparability by using pre-built test methods, modularity, test

points, and accessibility
 Testing on the basis of development to assure improvement in quality,

performance during environmental stress and screening.
So, these are some of the design suggestions which are to be followed when you try to
make a product.
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Repetition: a process of creating an identical instance of the same element and
assembled one after the other, is called as repetition.
Variation: is, you can see there are two elements. this is one element and second
element, these element, second element is repeated at regular intervals of time that is
called as a variation, is a process of creating a non identical instant of elements or
assembly of elements by adjusting one or more of the attributes
Patterning: is regularly assembling of repeated or other varying elements
This is pattern, these are identical elements which are, Discord use large, contrasting
intervals between the elements to maximize tension and heighten recognition, you see
here they have given red color, blue color and yellow color, there is a size change. So,
here your focus in this entire object goes to these four points and the information is
expressed.
here is a variation, here is a repetition, and here is a pattern. This pattern is repeated
here, all these things are repeated here, except the projections, positive impressions
which are regularly arranged in sequence. Variation is, you see them, they are there but
projections are also there, but they do not follow any regular repetition.
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Rhythm/Tempo/Harmony: it is rhythm, it is otherwise called as tempo or harmony.

Rhythm is a variation of the duration of sound or visual effect or other events over time.
When governed by a rule, it is called meter. In a harmonious composition, even the
element that stands in the opposition shares enough common attributes with their
surroundings to seem a part of the whole, that is harmony; harmony in the design is
about finding a kind of visual rhythm scheme expresses through a single attribute or a set
of attributes is harmony.
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Rhythm, harmony is all used as a design element So, this is rhythm, you also have a
rhythm here, a harmony here, a tempo here.
Unity/Belonging: unity defines the basic concept with the help of which the whole
product or the item is seen as a single unit. The basic concept defines basic idea, basic
shape, basic size, color, texture which has been the first food for thought of the product.
So, this is unity. Visual sense of oneness, each element of art is arranged to contribute to
the composition, too much variety create chaos; however, too much order creates
boredom.
Break the boredom, break the chaos and have some variation. The elements and the
principles can be selected to support the intended function of the design object; the
purpose of the object unifies the design. this is very important.
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Inclined lines and the curved lines, the inclined lines or the curved lines are used to
create a unity concept in the form of shape of a product.
you can see lot of lines inclined, going and try to create a unity concept.
unity examples for form and color, for connectedness and then for curved, we have seen,
this is form and this is color. These are examples for unity. what is unity? unity is
defined as the basic concept with the help of which the whole product or item is seen as a
single unit. So, unity means you look at things when things look right together. So, we
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create unity. You can do line, you can do color, you can do texture, you can do anything
right.So, these are all unity, unity is defined as a basic concept with the help of which the
whole product or the item is same as a single unit.
You can have a Variety, variety is defined as a variation in the product layout in one way
or the other. So, that the boredom associated with much unity can be accommodated. So,
you can have numbers, you can arrange them, you can have dimensions, shapes, color
which are varying.
All these varieties try to kill the boredom which is done because of the repetitive
patterns. By varying the component of a visual design, the artist creates an interest and
avoids monotony. The way of accomplishing this is to establish an approach which
involves theme and variation-repeating the shape and image built in the different size,
color, values and shapes.
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Function: function suggests no art for art sake. Function is very very important.
In the real life world problem, things have to work, design should serve the purpose. No
matter how beautiful it is , but it is not functionally effective, the design would be
discarded. Look at the size of the button and look at the shape of your finger. It is half of
it. So, it becomes very difficult for you to use, it is a wonderful design.
You look at the handle, it is large at the top. So, it is not going to serve a purpose because
this lady cannot stretch more than that and when she stretches more, there is a problem of
stability in her body, she may topple or fall down. So, this is not accepted. So, in the
same way when you are trying to make a seat for truck and when he tries to swing he has
to strain himself so much and his leg may be hurt while steering. So, this is not a
functional one; however, it has art in it.
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coming to the end. Here’s an activity
Student’s Activity
I would now like you to take 3-remote, it can be a TV remote, it can be an AC remote, it
can any other remote.
this can be a module-remote, you will have three remotes. You try to take the three
remotes and try to critically analyze that there’s an TV, Ac and maybe a dish remote.
Critically analyze each product and try to comment on their way of using Design
elements. What are the design elements, line, color, texture, shape, size and form? How
have they used it, which one of the three is good, what is the mistake in each one.
If you do this exercise then the basic design elements and the principle of design
elements both can be used for critical analysis and you can try to make a report. With
this we come to an end of the topic Design for Elements and Principles for Design. I
hope you would have enjoyed.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 08
Translating Customer needs (Part 1 of 2)
We will be looking more focused towards Translating Customer needs.
When you develop any product the first thing what we have to do is to understand
whether there is a customer need for it. In today’s world there are two types of product
 Technology push.
 Markets pull.
Example-Technology push is something for example your mobile phone, 25 years back
when I was in college, I never ever thought of something like a mobile phone so there
was no need for it, I used to stand in front of PCO in which we use to register our names
in the ledger and then we used to wait for our turn. And that time there was a scheme,
run by the government that from 9:30 to 11 o’ clock if you call an STD you will have to
pay 50 percent of the normal price and then after 11 it became quarter.
We used to stand in big queues and then we used to register, even that point of time we
did not realize that there is something called a mobile phone can come into existence.
The technology got developed and slowly the mobile phones were pushed into the
market or I will say touch screen; touch screen in mobile phone or smart phone. It was
not what customer wanted, but over a period of time when the technology got very well
matured, it became economical, reliable and then its start getting into the market, people
started accepting it.
But today we buy a phone only with a touch screen. When it was started it was
technology push. Technology got developed so, companyies pushed into the market so,
that the customer will accept the product. And the other thing is there is a need from the
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customer point of view that what they wanted from the industry. So, we have to
understand what they want and then start developing it So, that is market pull, market is
trying to put the problem statement and they are asking companies to develop products in
which the market is ready to give money that is called as market pull ok.
We are going to talk more about market pull or we are trying to understand what
customer wants and then converting into an engineering specification and from that
specification we try to look into how to produce? and what to produce?. And then meet
out the customer satisfaction and customer needs are like talking to a child, the child
sometimes might spell out what he really wants to say and sometimes he might not even
say a word
For example: when my son comes back from the school, by looking at his face I tried to
analyze his mood and even without disturbing him, I post questions in such a way that he
does not realize that he is frustrated and tells out his internal situation. There are some
things which customer might openly say or he might not say. But, understanding the
customer voice is the biggest challenge in the entire product development.
We should give lot of importance to understand the customer need and after
understanding customer need you are supposed to translate the customer need into
engineering specification, such that you can start producing or able to work on it. If you
are able to do this you have almost solved the problem of product development.
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First one in this lecture we will try to cover describing voice of customer. We will try to
see a tool which is used more commonly in the industry, it is quality function
deployment.
 This tool was first developed in Japan and then Toyota (Automobile maker)
started using it, then American companies slowly started understanding the
concept and started implementing it.
 The auto giants Ford, Daimler, Chrysler, all these companies have started using
QFD. And later all the electronics industry started using the QFD and enjoying
the tool and they brought lot of customer satisfaction. So, QFD is one powerful
tool which is used, then house of quality, then product design specifications.
What is voice of customer? The focal conviction of the item improvement process is that
items ought to reflect the customers need and taste.
 A standout amongst the most critical part of the product development cycle at this
point is to comprehend and gain from the customer.
You have to keep asking him questions, you have to first choose the right audience or
the right customer and second thing you have to ask questions such that the answers to
those questions don’t come out consciously, but it has to come out sub consciously.
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And your interviewing process should be so smooth and so conducive that you
understand what customer wants and by and large people pick up 3 customers and try to
solve a problem.
Example: I take design courses at IIT Kanpur. I do the exercise of understanding the
voice which is very difficult; so, I ask my students to form a groups in the class of 20 or
30; I divide them into 4 or 5 groups. Ask them to form small groups and then the
moment they form a small group, they always go and form groups in such a way they
like that person or with friends and go there and land up with him.
Then i tell them to choose the best product in market on which they are mutually agreed
upon. Then what do I do? I disturb the group and I ask the students to get shifted to some
other group, so I jumble the groups once again and again I do the same exercise. Now,
you will see the students choices are different from the groupsthey earlier formed..
But, the students are the same and here the bandwidth of the students is same and the age
group is also the same. People who are in different groups will come out with
contradicting products; sometimes all of them will come up with almost similar product
So, voice of customer is very important.
The reasons that customer will purchase an items are, the products perform well.
Example: If I go and buy a shirt. I always look a shirt which is, when I wear it in front of
a elite community, I should stand out and people should look at me from wherever they
are. Second thing is I would like that shirt to be wrinkle free, third thing I would like the
shirt to absorb sweat; when I get out of the AC room, walked in a corridor I should not
feel sweat.
And next thing is I would like to wear the shirts not for a very long time; that does not
mean that I am not interested to buy a shirt which can withstand for 10 years. It should
sustain itself till 5 years or 2 years whatever time period it should perform its best. The
product should perform well, but if my father would have bought the same shirt, he
would have looked for the shirt that has to have a longevity more and he would have
compromised on standing out in front of a community. So, you see the difference father-
son generation gap
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The colour should be lustrous, such that whenever I am there in a group, whoever is
there should like to see me. And then are solid, tough and sheltered, then it should be
simple to utilize.
Example: We have quickly learn the skill of wearing the button on the shirt. Suppose let
us assume that we do not have one hand and we still have to place the button or wear the
shirt by using these buttons.
Now you will see the utilization of the second hand and the biggest challenge which we
teach to a kid is, try to wear a shirt and make sure that you do not miss out holes But, if
you would have come to your level of simple to utilize as though, you keep a Velcro
below and then just stick it, it could have been easy. So, today shirts are coming in that
way also, So, simple to utilize is something which is very important and as and when you
age, again wearing a shirt becomes the biggest challenge; that is why you see very senior
citizen would love to wear t-shirt or kurta wherein which there is very less buttons
because, their orientation miss out.
While asking a customer you should realize his age and then it is simple to utilize. If I
introduce a new company and say here is a shirt which is 20 rupees, please buy this shirt,
this shirt has all these things. But, if the brand is not known to me I will still think twice
to buy that shirt. So, these are the reasons why customer will go ahead and buy a
product.
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In watching customer’s purchasing conduct,
 it has been discovered that their choices about the items depend on properties that
can be masterminded into eight classification as follows. See many a times we
use clustering algorithm. So, clustering algorithm is in y-axis, something in x-
axis, you plot points. What are these point? These points are data point which you
have collected from different customers.
there are some clusters getting formed. So, there might be some data point outside the
cluster also. So, the challenge is how much you capture and then form your cluster.
When you would do a clustering you might miss out something, watch out for that also.
Here when we say masterminded into eight classification , these eights are clusters. It
does not mean you have covered all the points, you can keep expanding your cluster and
keep doing it, but there might be a dilution in your focus.
You should realize, the eight classifications are thumb rules. There can be certain things
which do not even fall in that, those times you have to use your prudence to get the
customer voice.
Cost: can I bear the cost of it; today a mobile phone cost 1000 rupees or 2000 rupees, a
smart-phone-a very low quality smart-phone which is reliable, costs around about 6000
rupees or 5000 rupees, example 5000 rupees.
Example: My servant maid who works for us is earning monthly, working in my house
and other 3-4 houses, she earns something around about 8000 rupees. She had to run her
family with that 8000, she does not mind to buy a smart-phone today. Why? Because,
her family is at home she wants to get connected, she is working at 2-3 houses, she wants
to tell them the status update. like I will be delayed, I will not come or I am free can I
come. So, for all these asking she feels her time is more precious than the money.
The cost for even a person who is earning 8000 and 10000, they don’t mind buying a
phone of 3000 or 4000 which is 50 percent. So, cost depends on the product and the
useful utility of the product.
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I get a salary of approximately a lakh, again an, Example: and when I go to the market, I
see blue colour pens for writing, I get 10 rupees, a dozen is 100 rupees, but I want is only
1 pen.
If the company says please buy all the 10 pens, I give at 80 rupees, I will still calculate
and see why should I invest 80 rupees, wherein which I can go for a pen which is 60
rupees buy 1 pen because, I am mindful of having a lot size or having an inventory in my
house. Cost is something very important, can I bear the cost is one thing, but what is the
utility of that cost? So, both questions are answered by the cost.
The cost of the item can be utilized to pick up an upper hand, generally people always
look for cost. When I want to buy a house in Delhi or in Lucknow or in Chennai the
minimum cost for a decent house, in a decent area minimum is a round about a crore. So,
naturally I look at my pocket and see whether I can buy that or not.
when you equate the cost with is proportional to the utility. Next is availability; can I
discover it? An item ought to be accessible when and where the potential customer needs
it.
Availability: for example very close to a school, you are planning to open an ice cream
shop or a stationary shop; I am going to succeed in the business. Because, the people will
always look for availability and
 The second thing is when you are developing products you should also think of
availability of resources within your close premises. So, availability is the next
thing which is voice of the customer.
 Third thing is packaging, does it look appealing? Packaging is a thing that the
customers sees and makes it impact the purchaser’s determination, packaging is
very important.
Example: At some point of time people used to say that the computer mouse not be
transparent. Today people say that let the mouse cover be transparent, I would like to see
what is inside, look how the packaging made a big difference. Nowadays you get a
transparent mouse wherein which you see what are all the internal parts and people
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would love to buy those things. So, the only packaging made a big impact to the market,
the next one is performance.
Performance: is can it do when I need to do? For example, many a times we buy
products, these products were perfectly very well, but during the critical time these
products conquer. For example, the umbrella works perfectly very well in summer, but
on a rainy day and when there is wind my umbrella fails. So, utility or the performance
of this umbrella is not so, great.
People will definitely look for in when it is raining, I will go for a raincoat which I do
not have to bother about any mechanism ok. So, execution should specifically fulfill the
customer most vital necessity. Umbrella has to protect me from rain or a many times it is
windy and rainy you take an umbrella you just protect only your head rest of your body
is wet. So, the performance of the product is not so great.
Usability: Apple developed a product call Newton, which was very wonderful product
but the product failed miserably, it did not perform as expected by Apple company.
Apple company is one of the biggest players and they understand customer’s voice very
well. But, for them also they made a small slip. The slip was they have too much of
technology ahead of time, people were not able to use all their utility which was offered
by the product.
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 For example, the product demanded 3G, 4G when not even 1G or 2G was so
stable. Second thing it head a version of correcting spellings and other things.
But, that was a time when people were not able to override and understand what
the technology is trying to tell them.
Usability is very important, Example: I have a gas-stove burner in my house, it has 4

burners and it is has 4 knobs, when I use it, I tried to use the 2 burners which is are at the
back side, it is very difficult, I have to make sure and plan these two fellows do not
radiate so, much of heat such that I can go access this fellow. And when I have 4 knobs it
is very difficult. My mind and hand should coordinate and understand which knobs
stands for what. And many a times we think as though we have switched off, we would
have left the vessels hot there and we would have left the place by switching some other
knob.
Here usability becomes a major challenge, but here if you ask me to have so much of eye
and hand coordination it is difficult; where in the morning time when there is crisis at the
house when kids are going, wife is going, I am going this 2 minute job makes the life
more difficult to do it. So, do I know how to utilize it? These 4 are very good, if I would
have fifth burner I will cook within 10 minutes, but coordination becomes a challenge.
Affirmation: will it last? The which talks about sturdiness, unwavering quality and
support which impact many customers decision. There are products which work very
good in the first year and slowly it gets worn out very fast. So, you look at today’s
success in the electronic industry, a look at success in the service industry
Example: you a buy online ticket, if you have any problem you can quickly call a toll
free number and then you also have a online chat festure. So, what is that their quality at
every point of time when you are in trouble today, tomorrow, day after tomorrow is
perfect, is reliable, is repeatable.
 For example, my father has bought an umbrella which does not have a button,
over a period of time he learned the skill of using that umbrella and he does it
very perfectly.When my son uses the same thing, he is finds it very difficult. So,
he abuses it so much and over a period of very short time it starts
malfunctioning.
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 For example, today student buys school shoes, earlier days we use to talk about
the concept of shoe horn, today the concept of shoehorn is gone. Polishing the
shoe is gone because, people look for dust free shoe, people look for shoe which
is flexible, which as and when you put pressure on it yields and your leg can go
inside. But it is also expected to last more.
Life cycle cost: will it be exclusively expensive? when making it impossible to keep up.
An item whose aggregate cost of up keeping, repairs, vitality, utility, supplies and down
time is immensely not as much as comparable, item may have to be focused edge. So,
what we are trying to say is life cycle cost will be excessively expensive.
Example: I keep old Fiat car, when I was born that was the state of the art, if I still feel a
legacy and start keeping the car, today I do not get spares, it is no way fuel economical.
And the third thing is I do not get our driver to drive this vehicle because, it does not
have a power steering. Its the life cycle cost is very high.
 The last one is social benchmarks- say for example, when I bought a car I was
looking for a car which is white in colour. And at that point of time there were
only few suppliers in the market who used to produce yellow colour car, orange
colour car and not many people use to take them whoever picked those cars were
looked as odd man out. Today society has grown up, society has accepted orange
and yellow and apple green as also colours and today you see products coming in
that.
Social benchmarking is also very important in the community wherever you are, do the
people accept you buying this products. So, what do the others consider on it? So,
whenever you buy a product please do understand people always look at owner’s pride, I
hold this and if people say he is holding this product, by looking at the product people try
to evaluate your social or economical status.
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There are four levels of customer requirements which leads to Kano model.
Expecters, Spoken, Unspoken and Exciters are the four levels.
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Expecters: these are the fundamental qualities one must offer to be focused and to stay
in business.
 For example, I am offering you a pen, if this pen has to sustain in the market I
should make sure that the pen writes smoothly, that is the basic requirement.
 If I am operating a school the basic requirement of a school from kindergarten to

5th standard is how disciplined is the school. What amount of value addition,
value education they provide to the child, what amount of learning process they
teach. It is not that in the 0 to 10 years you teach more, you teach less, but allow
the children to enjoy and learn more.
So, these are the expecters or these are fundamental qualities one must offer to be
focused and to stay in business right.
 For example, I have a car I expect the car to start at any point of time; even in
cold winter days, in heavy rain, it is starting. There are qualities that customer
accept and are a piece of the item or administration that they expect them as
standard qualities. When I buy a car, I make sure that there are no sharp edges
and or I expect that should be no sharp edges in the car so, that it hurts anybody.
Expecters are traits that our way, that are every now and again simple to quantify
and in this manner are utilized as part of the benchmarking, these are expecters.
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Spoken: Certain things are spoken, when my son comes back to home from school. If he
is in a good mood he comes and jumps and say today in school we had a puppet show
and the cartoon game like this so, it is spoken. There are particular entities customers say
they need in an item. When you go to a class you say I expect the class to be disciplined
or I expect pin drop silence in the class. It is spoken by the teacher and he says I am a
strict teacher his action speaks, it is spoken ok. There are things an organization must
give as they speak to the part of the item that characterize it for a customer.
So, this is spoken, you have unspoken as well, these are item attributes that customer
don’t discuss.
 For example, I go to a hotel and I expect the receptionist to be smiley and I get
my job of registering a room within 1 minute. So, I expect this, but I do not spell
it out right.
So, many a times your unspoken becomes very important, that is a time an expert
understands from indirect questions what are the unspoken things a customer expects.
 For example, a shoe does not need polish, unspoken, people say I need a shoe
which looks very elegant, it should be unique, all these things people say. But,
they also assume that the shoe should be wearable very easily, the shoe should
not stink right. So, the product development groups should make utilization of the
market study, customer meeting and conceptualization for understanding it.
Unspoken are overlooked reaction that for the most part can be categorized as one of the
three; did not make sure to let you know, would not like to let you know, did not realize
what it was. And the exciters are sudden attributes of an item that makes it one of a kind
and recognize it from the opposite. An exciter is additional alluded to as a delighter.
 for example, on a birthday I just walked into my house, I see a cake there and I
see all my friends there. So, it is wow! I expected in my house my wife will be
there, I expected they would have make some sweets.
 You go to a hotel and a moment you enter into the room there is somebody who
comes and does a massage for you, it is wow! You did not expect, but they do it
free of cost, they give you lot of eatables in a hotel without charge . You go to a
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breakfast buffet and you see south Indian, north Indian, international, national,
fruits, juice, ice-cream everything in the morning in front of you it is wow!.
Because, the company always says we will give you a break free breakfast, but it does
not say what is there in your menu; some company say, some companies don’t say.
Moment you go there you see a surprise. In the event if they are absent at that point the
customer would not be disappointed, since they will be ignorant of what is absent. For
example, in the same hotel when I entered if all are men and very neatly dressed I would
have not even thought of the wow factor.
What is Kanos model, let us try to draw a Kanos model. So, this is where a customer is
satisfied. This is where is a customer not satisfied or customer is disappointed and this is
where is a feature executed well, this is where is a feature executed badly as shoen in
above figure.
When you go to the market and ask about a product; people would always like to have
this and this is called as wanted.
 I enter into I tried do a railway ticket booking and I try to do railway ticket
booking. So, in initial days I used to go stand in a big queue, it used to take 5
hours for me to book a ticket. Now, the number of queues have improved,
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number of vending points have improved. So, I get it done within 1 hour, today it
has completely become online, I get the entire ticket booked within 5 minutes.
This is what people want today. So, if I can book the ticket in 5 minutes, I am happy and
the features executed very well in the entire process. This is expected, peoples
expectation from your product. So, when the people keep on, these are the expectations
of a people which keeps going and when we move here we see features are getting
executed very well here.
These are something called as exciters,
 When I book the ticket after booking the ticket within 5 minutes suppose it gives
me a discount of 10 percent on a ticket fare then I would be happy.
 If I book something online and say here is a free offer for you since you book
then I would be much happier
What is that? The customer is made happy, more satisfied as and when the time keeps
going during the product evaluation itself the things from exciter move towards
expected. That means, to say
 Suppose if you go to a hotel and in the hotel initially you thought it should be a
clean room, it should be a neat room, it should have some calling facilities within
the hotel. And then the bathroom should be clean and bathroom should have all
the toiletry, that is your expectation.
But, later maybe 3-4 years back they started giving Wi-Fi. So, whoever gives a Wi-Fi it
was a wow! effect. Today it has come to such a level that it has become a basic
expectation, when you go to a hotel you expect that a free Wi-Fi is given to you. So,
what I am trying to say you is the wow effect can also become a minimum expected
effect or minimum expected requirements for a product. So, this is what is Kanos model;
the Kanos model is exhaustively used in identifying what does a customer want.
 These are unspoken demands or requirements of the customer. So, this is a

Kano’s model, Kano’s model was developed by Japanese professor, it is very
efficient. If you use this tool very efficiently then you will see that the customers
voice is grabbed and you just convert the customers voice into your requirement.
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The other way of doing it is recording the voice of the customer, you go around ask them
to speak about a product, then they speak about the product, please record it. Why is that
recording very important? Because, when you start replaying, the sectioning the voice of
the customer many times, many of the unspoken things which are hidden behind could
be clearly understood. There are few strategies that can be utilized to acquire customer,
the inclinations about the product which strategy is utilized is realized upon, the sum and
sort of data required, its accessibility and its time and cost designated to gather the
information.
These are the strategies which a company chooses and then it broadly falls into two
categories; one is existing information, the other one is new information, what you get by
doing this recording. Existing in information can be got by understanding the voice of
the customers. Suppose you decide that you wanted to know about the product, but you
do not have more of customers. So, you look at the existing information; if you want to
talk to people and then generate something that is called as new information.
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Existing information can be obtained by company sales records, in including repairs,

replacement of the parts of some other company of or of your own company, complaints
both written and verbal. Then warranty data, publication from the government and trade
journals and the consumers. The company’s designer, engineering and manager and
benchmarked products; these are places where you get the customers voice from which
are from the existing information.
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For the new information you can do a survey, you can do interview; face to face,
telephonic, you can call focus group of people. Like doing this everyday in the TV you
always have expert sitting on a dais and they keep arguing about a particular point or
particular agenda what they take. They section it completely and then they look and this
focus group gives their views. Please do understand this focus group can also give you a
biased opinion. For example, if you put four of the faculty members of one particular
stream and ask them is this stream useful? then all the four will say yes it is useful.
And they keep giving humpty number of reasons justifying that this stream is valid. But,
when you ask what is the utility of it then you have to have a mixed group wherein
which they talk about it. So, focus group has advantage, disadvantage is like it is a knife
edge or like a fire; please handle it properly. Observation using clinics and displays, you
go around, you send 20 people around, your company goes 10 days to different places,
talks to people, identify. You are using sales meetings, service calls etc. Then that is
why you see all the service calls are getting recorded because, that will try to understand
the voice of the customers.
Then today what is happening the service calls are getting recorded and then the
company’s tried to sell this recorded information to others, because they make money
out of it. The other company wants to make a products looks for these records. These are
the ways you generate new information, these are the ways you generate existing
information then this all these things are used in developing a product.
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So, analyzing the voice of the customer in the wake of having recorded the voice of the
customer, the product development group takes their reaction, at times called verbatims
and thinks of them on singular cards. So, what they do is, if they write the adjectives
right, they start analyzing around the adjective words. For example, if they say I need a
pen which is very good. So, now, that good terms becomes little difficult.
They look at the objective, they put a mapping word then try to understand, section it,
then they try to get it. These reactions are scrubbed which is the procedure of altering the
verbatims. Dispensing those verbatims from different interviews, that mean a similar one
for example, I need a good product, I need a better product, I need a product which can
perform well.
All these things are qualitative. So, you have to somehow try to convert this qualitative
into quantitative. If 6 of them told all qualitative then have a discarded, one try to take 1
or 2 and then start working on it. Composing more cards for those verbatims that
expresses more than one thought, it will have clustering of data. These cards are then
arranged in to bunches that appear to be changed the depiction of an all the more
extensive communication quality then use this in. It is conceivable that the couple of
verbatims may in reality express more relevant things.
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Analyzing the voice of the customer, these verbatims have to be ranked, suppose you say
8, if we had 8 classifications. So now, this 8 classifications has to be classified which is
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and start using it. Then passive way count the number of times the
equivalent attribute is mentioned, those that are mentioned the most often are assumed
to be very important.
 Suppose you are interviewing 100 people and out of 100 people 60 of them said
Red colour, then you take that, the red colour will be people’s choice in this
particular time. Active way is that those attributes can be ranked to the most
important in the manner just described and ask another group of interviewer to
rank their importance, each ranking is assigned a number either 1 to 10 or from 1
to 5, higher the value most important it is. Ask another group, you have
evaluated, then throw the cards to somebody else, call your neighbor ask him to
rank it. So, then you see your ranking and his ranking and find the similarity or
difference.
Now, what has happened it has become active, second person, third person gives the
view. Passive is whatever they have given from there you try to take a view. A tool
which is used to convert the voice of a customer into an engineering specification is
called Quality Function Deployment.
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A tool which is used to convert voice to engineering specification, very important I say
the tissue cloth has to be soft. My degree of softness and my wife’s softness are different,
my softness and your softness are different, softness is a qualitative one. You have to
convert it into quantity, if many of the customer voice is let the food be cooked as
quickly as possible. What is your quickly? Is it 1 minute, 10 minutes, 25 minutes?
Looking at the age we decide, when do you cook just before going to the office. So,
before going to the office how much time you liberally have for cooking, may be half an
hour.
Then you try to list down what are all the cooking has to happen, cutting ,preparatory etc.
So, cooking can have maximum 15 minutes. So, in that 15 minutes if you have
microwave which can cook in 2 minutes. You have understood the voice of the
customer, you have just converted this into some other indirect way and then found out a
engineering specification. Then you said time within 2 minutes should do; then what
are all the techniques available for the 2 minutes. So, microwave stands outstanding,
pickup that fellow and there ends the matter; understood quality getting converted into
engineering specification.
The tool used is quality function deployment, it is a formalized strategy for coordinating
the communicating needs of the customer to the attributes and the functions of the items
is quality function deployment. It is an intense technique that makes the difference to
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characterize the item as far as a customer prerequisites are. So, you have understood all
the customer needs. And you try to make a engineering spec and when you try to do this
engineering specs, then you also have to understand what is that you have to develop; so,
that you develop ahead of market.
Suppose you identified customer need and you identified engineering specs and you are
trying to make a similar product which is already there in the market then your product
sales will not be so great. But, if you can bring the wow point here, make your product
more stringent and make it more performing then you would have to first understand
what is that you do such that you have that wow factor integrated into your products.
And then once you know this then making a product or process is going to be easy.
Quality function deployment records the relative significance of the customer
requirements.
Converting the perceived needs of the customer to yield a competitive advantage; QFD
utilizes designing attributes to portray each of the items necessity.
 For example, there are 8 for 5 requirements you have said may be x, y, z, a and b
these are the 5 requirement, you as a customer has set. Now, you are supposed to
do your ranking of this and say this is the Ist priority I need, this will be the IInd
priority I need. This will be the IIIrd priority, this will be the IVth priority and
this will be the Vth priority I need. So, what was there you ask the customer to
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put all your requirements then you have ranked the requirements such that you
are trying to say.
In this ranking you know where I have to act. Quality function utility describes the
attributes to portray each of the items useful necessity. The building quality are
connected to the customer’s prerequisites. The item’s engineering characteristics are
additional benchmark to distinguish those quantities, those qualities that must be
coordinated or surpassed.
It is stressed that the engineering characteristics are the characteristics of the functional
requirement because here customer requirements or needs has to be converted to
functional requirements of the product. Engineering characteristics are the characteristics
of the functional requirement and not the customer requirement.
There is a house of quality which is established, house of quality is a tool which is used
in quality function deployment. It is a multidimensional technique that demonstrates the
relationship of customers necessities to the designing qualities of the item. It epitomizes
the different part of the customer necessities from the items and their sentiments to the
contenders items. So; that means, to say it checks with the state of the art, SOTA: State
Of The Art which is available.
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 There is a pen which can write up to 5 kilometers with the cost, 5 rupees colour
attractive and then repeatable, reliable. So, these are all there already in a pen;
suppose you want to make a pen, a new pen and you want to come into the
market. So, then it has to be 7 kilometers, this has to be 4 rupees, the colour has
to be something different, repeatability and reliability have to be high when the
performance of the product is there.
how do you know that you wanted to enter into the pen market? you have got the pens
requirement from customer. There is already a product which is available in the market,
you understand what is the product and how does a product perform. And then now
based on that product you try to a fix stringent requirement such that you can try to bring
out a new product. It epitomizes the different parts of the customer necessities for the
item and their sentiments, to a sentiments of the contenders item. It translates and
periodic and providing judgment of the relationship of every engineering characteristics
to every customer requirement.
This is how a house of quality looks like, you write down all the customer requirements.
that is called as wants of the customer, then you rate the importance among the customer
requirements and then what you do is you try to write down, what these customer wants?
how are they made? for example, I want a pen less than 5 rupees. So, naturally what you
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have to do is, you have to look at the material property. I want a pen to be more reliable
or repeatable then look at the viscosity of the pen and the quality of the ink etc.
So, what are the customer wants? and how are they going to be done? And here what did
you do? You try to put all the customer requirements and rank them 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Now
what did you do? You tried to establish a relationship between what and the how, how
did you do it? You can try so, you will have something like a matrix like this and then
assuming that there are 5. So, now what is happening? For this requirement what are the
importance in this, what is required from the customer. And how are you going to if this
relationship is high you try to give 9 marks; there might be a state that there is no
relationship.
You give them 0 marks, if it is ok you give them 5 marks, if it is 3 marks. So, what have
you done? You have converted what is and how is relationship in terms of numbers.
Why? Because, then these numbers make your work easier. For example, A, B, C, D,
customers are products, who are all the other companies who are making similar
products and what, how are they rank or rated by people?, based upon the customer
wants.
Again you give them number. So, what happens is that? With this you are now able to
set, what is the target value you have to set; such that you are able to bring out a new
product with wow effect and reach out the products.
you can have a system specification. Then you can have sub system specification, then
you can have part specification, then you can have process specification so; that means,
to say from level, QFD 1.
then you can have QFD 2, you can have QFD 3 and QFD 4; that means, to say you try to
take the target and start working on the next QFD; again you put that as customer want’s
and do it.
In this lecture we went through
what is customer voice? how do you understand it? what is Kano’s model? and then we
have seen some basics of quality function deployment.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 8b
Translating Customer needs (Part 2 of 2)
Friends welcome back. We were last time talking about Translating Customer’s voice
and we were trying to understand the tooled called as quality function deployment.
So, let me recap little bit about quality function deployment.
 Quality function deployment is a tool, which is used in converting the perceived

needs of the customer to yield a competitive advantage. That means to say, you
are trying to understand whatever customer wants, many of them will be
qualitative, that converting it into a quantitative way.
 And when you convert it into quantitative way, you will also have to see what is
already available in the market. So, that your product can go one step ahead of it,
so, that you can reach out to the customers and do a wonderful justification to
whatever it is. So, to yield a competitive advantage, if that what it is.
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 Quality function deployment, utilizes designing attributes to portray each of the
items useful necessities.
For example, when we talk about a pen, when we talk about a car, when we talk about a
chair, you always say I would like to have these 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 requirements. And
again these requirements, it will have to be ranked, and certain requirements, where you
feel it is important, may be the customer feels that is not important.
For example, even today, we do not have a customized chair, which can suit individual’s
requirement. We all do a compromise in our sitting posture to the existing chair,
whatever available with us. Even now it is a challenge, even now a table is a challenge,
even now a pen is a challenge, even now a shoe is a challenge.
So, there are several challenges, but we are happy with whatever product is available and
then we try to make the best use of it and we are happy with that. So, that is what we are
trying to say, portrait each of the item’s useful necessity.
 The building quality are connected to the customer’s prerequisites.
So, this is what we are trying to say, whatever we are trying to build in our product, we
will try to make sure that it fulfills all the prerequisites. Before this, we discussed about
the Canvas model, in that canvas model, you have an expectation feature and you have a
wow feature. So, that is what it is customer’s requirement.
 The items engineering characteristics are additional benchmark, to distinguish

those qualities, that must be coordinated or surpassed.
 It is trust that the engineering characteristics are a characteristics of the functional

requirement and not the customer requirement. So, we also try to see majority of
the functional requirement, customer requirements are converted into a functional
requirement.
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For this, what we do is QFD, we use the house of quality, what is house of quality.
 House of quality is a multidimensional technique that demonstrates the

relationship of the customer’s necessity to the designing qualities of the item.
 It epitomizes the different parts of the customers’ necessity for the item and their
sentiments for the contenders’ items.
 So, that means to say, the state of the art with their competitor, it translates and
provides judgment to the relationship of every engineering characteristic to that
of the customer requirement.
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So, we will see, what is that house of quality? This is how the house of quality looks like.
So, first we write down all the wants, what does a customer wants? And then what we do
is, we start seeing that how are these customer requirements achieved, and for this how,
you will have technical measures.
So, before even getting into this, we also try to give something called as customer
importance. Customer importance are among this 10 15 parameters, which are 1 2 3 4 5,
we rank them and then we try to move them up and down. And then we try to list them,
how are these achieved, what customer wants and how are they achieved; this is where is
the customer.
So, you have written all customer requirements, how they achieve and existing products,
which are available in the market, how are they compared with the existing product, or
with the requirements. Or I would say that, these are the competitive products which
meet the customer requirements and how are they achieved, so, you have a relationship
between them.
Based on this, you will try to choose one or two parameters best in each row, and finally,
you try to set the target values; moment you set the target values, how are you going to
achieve and on the top roof, whatever you have, is a correlation matrix. This matrix is
going to talk about the relationship between the technical parameters itself.
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So, this is what is called as QFD. QFD is otherwise called as the house of quality, this is
a powerful tool which Japanese started, then Americans picked over. Then later
electronic industries picked over, and they really enjoy the benefit out of this quality
function deployment, house of quality tool.
The regions of the house of quality are :
 Objective:
 Expresses the goal of the item.
 The list of the characteristics:
 Get a rundown of qualities of the item as characteristics by the customer, it

should be soft, it should be hot, it should be sweet, it should be spicy,
whatever it is.
 Whenever possible, the customer requirement ought to be gathered at their

largest.
So, please do not call from 2 people; for example, nowadays it is a most interesting
fashion you can see, while booking hotels, you look at the star rating. So, last time I
booked a hotel, which had a star rating of 5 out of 5.
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So, then I was pretty happy, I booked the same hotel and I went to that hotel and
somehow I was not very happy with the hotel accommodation. So, then I came back and
then I was looking at, where did I make a mistake, I picked the hotel where it had a star
rating very high. Then I saw that the star rating was given by only 1 person. So, when the
lot size is very small, the qualities or the result are not reliable.
So, we are always required to collect the largest, take a large data points and then pick up
the requirements. These customer requirements are additionally used to assess the
applicant’s idea produced to fulfill each functional requirement. So, Customer
Requirement and Functional Requirements are different. CR will lead to FR.
Importance of rating, the customer you have given 10, as I already discussed you have
given 10 items. So, now we try to give them with a weighted number; why are we doing
this, because see if you try to say qualitatively, I have to convert into quantitative. And
moment I wanted to convert them into quantitative, it is easy I play with numbers. And
all these things will always lead to weightages, when I do it as a multiplication factor
with some other numbers A, B and C.
So, now I will know what is the difference and by looking at the numbers, I will be able
to pick up, how significant is this parameter with respect to your output. They are doled
out to the items attribute demonstrating their relative significance, as shown by the
customer.
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 The quantities required to achieve the product characteristics are the building
quantities communicated and are quantified, as far as possible.
 Although, it is not standard to do as such, it is proposed that the designing

attributes be assembled by their functional attributes. Correlation matrix was on
the top; the correlation matrix demonstrates the level of communication amongst
the item built in qualities.
 It gives some thought of the level of grouping, that will exist when the
endeavours to fulfill the designing quantities.
 So, you can move them up and down and then try to take it and moment you
move them up and down, what you can do is, you can try to have a sub module
ready, so, that you can start producing it.
So, target values, this is what I told you and then finally, relationship matrix.
 Relationship matrix is an efficient means of recognizing the levels of impact and

the impact between each designing trademark and the customer necessities.
 This non-linear values help in identification of those quantities having the highest
absolute importance.
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Customer competitive assessment, we have already discussed and the technical

competitive assessment also we have discussed.
 Absolute importance: it is the aggregate of the product of the numerical value of

each element in a column of the relationship matrix with its corresponding
customer importance rating.
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 This is a preliminary step in obtaining the final results, so, that is absolutely
important.
 Relative importance: it is the assurance of the level of the added up to the

numerical score, for each engineering characteristics. High value elements here
are characterized, that are to be worked on and the lower one are given a second
importance and start doing it. So, you keep iterating step by step, so, you will try
to get the requirements.
And I would like to tell you that, quality function deployment is drawn at various levels.
So, it will be drawn for a system, then it will be drawn for a subsystem, then it will be
drawn for a sub subsystem. And then it will go towards a part and then you will try to do
QFD.
 So, every QFD will lead to a next level QFD, that will lead to a next level QFD.
You can keep iterating this QFD and when you start working on it, you will try to
get the best out of it. So, these are the customer requirements with waiting factor
I was talking to you about.
 Then the next one is, the product rating, what it is. And then, these are all the
engineering characteristics. This is a correlation matrix which tries to tell me how
is this fellow related with this fellow. So, for example, A is related with B, C, D
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and E; how is A related with E and how is A related with D, you can start giving
it. And the same way, how is D related with A, also you can see.
So, this is a correlation matrix, and then these are the engineering characteristics; how do
we achieve what customer wants. And these are the relative values; for example, how for
this customer requirement, how do we meet out this engineering characteristics, and then
what is their ranking with respect to this.
So, you can have 9, you can have 3, you can have 2, whatever it is. Then you have
relationship matrix, which we talked about and based on all these calculations, we have a
calculated value at the bottom. So, we try to look at this and try to solve, and give
priorities and then solve the requirements, by that we increase the product specification.
When we look at the product design specification,
 It amid the way towards finishing the house of quality, the product development
group ought to likewise be creating the data, that will shape the product design
specification, PDS.
 PDS contains every one of the certainties identified with item’s result.
 It is the list of all functions specification, what the item needs to do and is the
centre control system and fundamental reference hotspots for the whole item
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improvement movement. The product specification should state the following
things, what is the product title, what purpose or function the product is to
perform.
For example, I asked a student a question, what are you doing? The student said, I am a
research scholar. Then I asked him, how are you doing? He says that, I am happy, then I
asked him, what do you mean by happiness? He says, I recently published one paper
here, one paper here, I am sending one paper there.
So, then I asked him, is writing papers the only thing as part of research? He said no,
then I asked him, tell me what are you doing? He says that, I do this, I do this. But I
could not understand what he does; so, then I told him, see now it is time that you should
write down what you want to achieve in your PhD and where are you now, and how are
you going to achieve to the rest of the targets.
So, then he started thinking, he started listing it down; believe me, within the next 1 year,
he was able to complete his thesis and graduate. So, specification is very important, you
should know what are the targets and how are we going to achieve and how is it right.
So, the purpose and the function of the product is to perform, what do you expect from a
pen? People say, I expect this pen to write, fine, anyhow this pen writes, I want to write
the pen smoothly.
So, now comes the question, what is smoothness? So, then I say that, when I use this
pen, the ink should not flow out, my hand should not get wet, the ink should not make
my hand feel dirty or so, all that things, so, that is what is a pen should be like, write
clean, neat, without spilling ink.
So, now you see, you have put many of those things in the purpose and function of the
product. Against what type of products will it be competiting and who makes them. For
example, you might say these pens are available in abroad, when I was young, people
used to hold that paper made pen, then they used to write.
And in India, we did not have that, I am talking about 20-25 years back, we were never
even aware of a concept of use and throw. So, when I have to make a product, I should
always look at, what is national, what international, who makes it, and how do they make
it? Next, what market will it serve?
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 The anticipated demand and target price, this also you should know, product
identities and the relationship of the company’s current product line with respect
to it. For example, it is interesting for you, take TATA as a group, TATA is very
famous for iron and steel; TATA motors. Look at their spectrum, they also make
salt, TATA salt. If a big company comes and when they had to enter into market,
it was very difficult for the TATA company to convince customers to say that,
see we also make products in the domestic domain.
 People did not accept it in the first round, it took lot of time for customers to
accept. And then, they started accepting and today they have their own market.
So, the relationship of the company’s current product line also plays an important
role while releasing the product. So, these are all important product definitions
which should be stated.
So, the purpose of the product should be very clear and then the target cost to the
customer should also be clear. When I say, I want to make a pen and you should have a
pricing for it.
When you have a pricing for it, then you start reverse working at; for example, when
TATA motors started making a Nano car, they first fix that overall price of 2500 dollars
and they said or 1 lakh rupees. And then they starting saying, this is the maximum Indian
middle class family can give and now I will try to make a car for them.
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So, then what they did was, listed down on all the subsystems and then they put the
weightages of all the subsystems. And then corresponding to their weightages they
started dividing their 1 lakh. And then they also found out, what is the weightage of that
particular product in the overall performance of the car.
Then correspondingly, they made a costing and then next what are all the very salient
one, which they cannot undergo any risk. For example, radiator, engine, they cannot take
a risk, they can spend more money, so, then they did one another costing. Then they tried
to have the matrix ready with them and then finally, they decided, if there is a component
A in the car, this will be the maximum price they can give.
So, I said purpose and need, purpose and need are different, need benefit for the user
then, time for product to first reach customer, that is also very important. If I decide to
buy a car and then, I pay booking for the car and I wait for long time and then I realize
that the car is supposed to be delivered after 18 months.
So, people will say, no, I do not need it and today in this e-world and digital world,
where the supply chain is very strong, people do not even feel like waiting for even 24
hours. People today get fast food within 30 minutes, I ordered, after 30 minutes, I get a
delivery, so, that is what it is. So, in general purpose, you will also try to do a
benchmarking.
When you are looking for a product, you should always do benchmarking, look at your
customer, see what they do and never try to mimic them, go ahead of them. So,
benchmarking is what, you know what your customer wants, or your competitor makes,
draw a line and break that line and go further. Service life, market evaluation and
trademarks, as well as performance is concerned; look at their functions, look at their
features, you try to get the performance, then comes constraints.
So, cost is a constraint, this is an interesting thing which people are now talking about,
disposal and recycling. After these laptops are over, they have lot of rare earth materials,
how do we discard, that is also required in the product specification, today; how are we
going to recycle and discard. Then manufacturing facilities, process capabilities, in
house, in country, out of country, these are some of the constraints which you have to
look forward.
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For example, people try to make lot of wooden furnitures; the wood is a constraint in our
country. So, it has to be imported, or thermal power plant, coal is a constraint, the good
quality coal is a constraint in India, so, it has to be imported. So, these are all certain
things we should see, how do we go about in the product specification itself.
And keep continuing the constraints, testing facility today, I was trying to work on a
machine and I was trying to buy xyz states, where company said I have 0.2 micron
resolution of the states. So, my first question came to me, I will buy this, because this is
what is the resolution I want for my machine, but then I asked a question for myself.
Suppose if the person who delivers it, comes and says, here is a machine of 0.2 micron
resolution, please validate it, I do not have a capability to validate it.
So now, if he says 1 micron, it is , because I do not have the capability. So, testing is
other thing which is very important, when we make a textile cloth, there are
characteristics tests which are to be performed, it has to withstand 10000 times cyclic
load. So, those test facilities should be there and based on the test facilities only, we
should try to do a product design specification. Same with aesthetics, energy
consumption, all these things are small components of product design.
So, you can pick up and then try to go through the list and start filling up the details for
each item and then you can try to have your own product specification or customer
requirements.
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So, this is the first level house of quality, from the house of quality, it led to a design and
then starts the next house of quality, then it led to services and this services let to
process. So, moment you start working on several levels of house of quality, I am sure
you will try meet out target, because at every stage, you try to meet out a score and a
target one, so, your product is good and every stage, you will try to beat a customer and
go further.
So, that is what it is called as four phase of quality function deployment or house of
quality. So, this can be a system, this can be a subsystem, this can be a part, this can be a
process, whatever it is. So, you see we can start working from a whole system and we go
to the last point and see what is that required.
So, correlation all comes in the top, so, correlation comes here and then relationship
comes here, you get relationship. And this is all their competitive analysis and these are
the companies and these are the target values whatever we have put here. And these are
the difficulties in achieving the target, this is the maximum relationship value you get.
Then you have a weightages and then you have a relative weightage, with that you try to
draw a house of quality.
So, here is an example, where trying to talk about chocolate chips cookies has to be
made. The customer requirement versus functional requirement; customer requirements
are the demand from customers. It has to have a good texture, it has to be generous
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portions, and it should taste good, it has to be low price, it has to have an appetizing
appearance.
So, here you will have the quality characteristics, so, these are the quality functions,
these are the quality or the functional requirements, colour, then you have the tensile
yield strength, tensile ultimate strength. Then you will have weight, size, thickness,
average sale, average hedonic scale rating, cost for cookie, density of the chocolate
chips. So, all these things are the functional requirements and these are the customer
requirements.
So, you have written 1 2 3 4 5 and then maximum relationship value in each row, you
have given. And then you have given weightages of each one. So from this, we try to
take the relative weightages, so, the relative weightages, you will get 6.7, 13.3 and 33.3.
So, you multiply and then you sum it up and then you divide and find out what is this
ratio, so, you get it, then it is 26.7 and then you have 20. So, these are relative
weightages what you get, so you take this total and then divide it by the sum and then
you get it here, so, now, let us see the relationship. So, the good texture, it has a strong
relationship with respect to the output.
So, I try to give 9 marks. So, I will try to have a high tensile strength, I give 9 marks, so
then, this weight. So, generous portion and weight, they are very weak, this thing, the
relationship. So, generous as a size it is very high, then you will also have thickness, it is
very high. Then tastes good, this is 9 points and then lower price cost for cookie, it
should be as low as possible. And an appearance, I should a colour is one and then the
density also plays a very important role.
So, now let me look at the relationship between these two fellows. So, the yield strength,
the tensile yield strength and the ultimate, they have a strong relationship. So, I will give
them double plus and then I have the weight with respect to size, they have a double
plus. Then I have weight with respect to thickness.
So, I have a negative influence size, with respect to thickness. So, they have a negative
correlation, size, diameter with respect to thickness, then I also have a negative for this
density versus size. So, then I can also have very strong negative correlation; very strong
negative correlation is cost and density.
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So, the similar way, I have a positive correlation between this and then I have a positive
correlation between this. So, you can keep adding it, so I have just put a relationship. So,
now, you have now your competitor analysis are doing, 5 is the best and 0 is the worst.
So, you are trying to compete with the competitors and see how is your rating , how is
their performance which meeting out the customer requirements, so, you are trying to get
this done.
So, now, what has happened, you are trying to look at the difficulty level, how difficult it
is in getting these things. So, you can now start giving numbers, so, 5 7 5 2 3 5 8 6 and 3,
so, these are the difficulty levels. Now, I can try to meet out the customer requirements, I
have just given the rating.
So, you can again start giving this relationship values. So then, it is weightages per
importance, now I am trying to multiply this and try to get the weightages right, column
weightage and importance.
So, you can keep doing 60 and then you can keep doing all these values, I get a value of
60. Now, I try to see their influence on the total score, so I try to get the relative
importance. So, 16.8, then maybe I get 5.6, so it goes on, so I get a 5.6. So, this is over
the relative weightages, and then from here, I try to pick the values and start working on
it. So, this is how you try to fill out the house of quality in quality function deployment.
So, like this, if you start filling up all the relationship, you can start getting a complete
value, you get all the numbers and from these numbers, you can start giving the relative
weightages. From this relative weightages, you know the significant parameters and you
start attacking the significant parameters to meet out the customer demand. And here is it
talks about, how is the company’s performance with respect to your product.
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So, with this, we would like to come to an end for this quality function deployment. So,
to recap, first we saw how could we describe the voice of customers, then we saw what is
quality function deployment, then we saw, what is house of quality, then we saw
elements of house of quality, then we saw how do we get the specific product
specification and then the last one we saw, what are the four faces in QFD.
So, as a small example, which the student is suppose to try and need not submit with us,
try to find out what are the features expected from a teacher. So, you are supposed to
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develop a Kano model and then you are also supposed to develop a QFD for it. What are
the features, so, features expected from a pencil? Again you are supposed to do a Kano
model and then a QFD model.
So, you are supposed to do this model and try to figure out and you are also supposed to
do a quality function deployment. So, you are supposed to talk to 20 people and try to
take the voice of the customer and convert it into a Kano model and then QFD models.
So, voice of customer and quality function deployment and see how difficult it is, how
iteratively it changes. So, with that two examples, we come to an end to this lecture.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 09
Value Engineering: An Introduction
Good morning welcome back to the course Product Design and Manufacturing. I am Dr
Amandeep Singh and this is our first introduction in this course. So, I will take the topic
value engineering here like we have already discussed, how to convert the voice of
customer to the specification of the manufacturer? This is that was the quality function
deployment and that was the one of the techniques in value engineering. We learn how to
put it creativity how to find the basic functions of the product and work on that. (Refer
Slide Time: 00:50)
So, the contents will go like this we will see, what is value we will see the kinds of value
and then will discuss what is value engineering? We will see some history on value
engineering, then we will compare the general cost reduction with value engineering.
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Now, value the definition is given by Mudge in 1971, he says it is the lowest cost to
reliably provide the required functions or service at the desired time and place with
essential quality you can see there are 4 characteristics.
Number 1 lowest cost, number 2 to reliably provide, number 3 the required function,
number 4 at the desired time, number 5 with essential quality. So, these are the
keywords. So, it looks like a lot of things have being put into one sentence, but will see
how do we conduct value engineering study and how this is possible? So, value if I talk
about the cost value the value can be given by this relation value is equal to product
utility per unit product cost I have put the word utility here it might be benefit.
So, for instance let me take an example of pen. You purchase a pen you are willing to
pay rupees 20 for a pen, that write smoothly that you are able to put in your pocket that
has the grip and general things what a normal pen has, but when you go to market you
find a pen the cost of the pen is rupees 10 and it satisfies all your needs, but you have
expected. So, in that case you were willing to pay rupees 20, but you got that thing in
rupees 10. So, this number is 2. So, in this case you are kind of delighted you saved your
money you saved 50 percent of money in this case.
So, this number if this is greater than 1; that means, satisfied customer if this is less than
1; that means, unsatisfied customer. So, this was one example there are various kinds of
value various types of value; I am just talking about the cost value or use value here in
this case in this relation. So, the objective qualities of value consist of use value and cost
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value the value gives ultimate satisfaction to the customer and is expressed with this
relation value engineering is primarily concerned with the economic value we will see
what is that.
So, let us see the kinds of values here this is the Aristotle in way back used this term
value. And he divided that into 7 classes which says we have economic value moral
value, social value, political value, aesthetic value, religious value and judicial value.
Economic value is the one that we are more concerned. In our course in this we have use
value and cost value economic value is the one for which I just took the example of a
pen.
Next is moral value we generally say the word my parents imbibed moral value in me;
we read good books like books by Rume. You by great philosophers we try to learn the
moral values we try to be a good citizen, we try to be a good part of the society. So, those
values are known as moral value.
And social values are also very close when we are concerned with the people around us.
For example, in IIT Kanpur we have green
(Refer Time: 05:40). Green is a kind of sustainability initiative in which we do not waste
food the food wastage; whatever is there in each hall that is collected in a bin and that is;
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weighed when the weight of for let me say if it is practised for 3 weeks. For the total 3
weeks the hall or the hostel which has the least wastage the least weight of the food is
there, that is; given some price or they are named they have worked on this sustainable
work.
So, that is a societal social benefit work, then political values are also there aesthetic
values, religious values, judicial values, political values are sometimes people are more
inclined towards their political interests and the values they use they have they put the
time and money into the specific political party I can say for which they are working for.
And aesthetic value some products also have the aesthetic value these are called sell
functions; I will say you brought the pen from the market that writes blue in colour let
me say if you like a green coloured body pen. So, you purchase the pen you say I want a
pen that writes blue, but the pen colour body should be green that is the aesthetics you
are looking for you like the green colour you purchase that.
Now, next is religious values and judicious values these you can think of. (Refer
Slide Time: 07:30)
Now, economic value consists of subjective and objective qualities. And it comprises of
four specific kinds as follows: use value, esteem value, cost value, and exchange value.
Use value is the properties or features and qualities that accomplish a use, work or
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service. Now these relate to the attributes of a product, which enable it to perform its
basic function; I could write here the basic function or like Dr Ram Kumar discussed the
kind of characteristics of the product. The functional characteristics is the use value that,
we have I can put here functional characteristics that is; something that is essential
sometimes the desired things desired means the operational characteristics those are also
here in use value.
Next is esteem value this is these are the properties, features and qualities that make
ownership of the product as desirable. So, this is the kind of the additional premium price
which a product attracts, because of its intrinsic attractiveness to the purchaser or
customers. Next is cost value these are the properties which are the sum of labour,
material, overhead and other cost required to produce. The product other cost means we
also have profit involved; in this if we are talking about the value or the cost to the
customer that is the selling price it also has this profit in it. So, it is the total cost of
producing the product.
Next is exchange value this is the properties that make it possible to procure other items
by trading. So, let us discuss.
A little more about the kinds of value; the use value it was the definition given by this
German philosopher. He said the value in use is the utility of consuming the good; the
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want satisfying power of a good or service in classical political economy this is two
broad definitions like the use value I can discuss. Using this Karl Marx philosophy, he
says that the political economy any product has a labour value or a use value and if it is
traded as a commodity in markets.
It additionally, has an exchange value here Karl Marx compare the value of the object. In
this case we have this apple that is fruit and a kind of antique piece that you can put in
the showcase in the display in your drawing room, but the use value is eating this does
not accomplish the use value. So, the value that is socially necessary labour time the; it
has use value and exchange value as its components. So, these are the material qualities
and quantities these are heterogeneous exchange value is quantitative and maybe it is
homogeneous.
Next is, cost value the term replacement cost or replacement value refers to the amount
that an entity would have to pay to replace an asset at the present time according to its
current worth. So, simply we can say it is the amount one is willing to pay for this
specific product. So, it is value is benefit per unit price.
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Next is esteem value esteem value is defined as the subjective value a client attributes to
the product that makes them feel good about the owning the product. The brand values
the apple iPhone Mac computer. For example, is a good example of a product that
contains high esteem component in the value of the products of the company
manufactures look at the Macbooks, iPod, iPhones. All these products have use
components functionalities very good, but the price people are paying for is also the
esteem value.
So, people feel good people who like to work on the apple products also feel also have
this esteem component in them. So, they own apple products they take pride in showing
of the apple logo sometimes. So, this esteem value is something like Mercedes car then
jewellery like doctor Ram Kumar said you wear Nike or Adidas shoes the shoes were
once designed to cover the foot, but now these are considered as a status symbol of the
person.
Refer Slide Time: 13:14).
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Next is exchange value is quantified worth of one good a service expressed in terms of
the worth of another. For example, in the business of foreign exchange the value of each
currency is in terms of the value of other currency we say dollar 1 or US dollar 1 is equal
to rupees 67 this is the exchange value. So, this creates an exchange value or exchange
rate for each major currency relative to the benchmark currency. This is this is the
benchmark currency us dollar 1 exchange value does not need to be expressed in the
money terms monetary terms not always I will have to cross this thing sometimes; the
emotional value is also part of the exchange value.
For example, my mother gave me a pen as a gift the cost of the pen was rupees 100. My
friend asked me to lend him that pen or he says you give that pen to me, I will keep it I
said no then he says ok. I will offer you rupees 50, that is; the cost of the pen then he says
I offer you rupees 100, that is the cost of the pen is say. No then he say I pay rupees 500
for that again I say no then he say I will pay rupees 100 for this pen. If you lend me this
again I say no, because I have some emotional values attached to that pen. So, in that
case the value of the pen or the cost of the pen cost is equal to rupees 100 and the utility I
am not even willing to lend it for rupees 1000 that is exchange value.
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So, next comes is value engineering. Value engineering is one of the most effective,
promising rewarding modern technique available to identify and eliminate unnecessary
costs in design, testing, manufacturing, construction, operations, maintenance, procedure,
specification, and practices and so on. So, I have put the word modern techniques here
though the value engineering started in world war two only, but these days also the value
engineering is being applied and recently we the other management techniques in
sustainable manufacturing.
We are developing the value engineering green plant; generally it is value engineering
job plan that is the systematic way it has normally it has seven steps 7 steps through
which we try to improve the value. So, we are working on the value engineering green
plan. So, these days also this technique is being very much utilized to improve the value
of the product or service. Let us see the definition of value engineering that is given by
society of American value engineers they say “it is the systematic application of the
recognized techniques which identify the function of a product or a service establish a
monetary value for that function and provide the necessary function reliably at the lowest
overall cost”.
Number one identify the function, number two establish the monetary value, number
three provide the necessary function. If they say necessary function there might be some
functions which are unnecessary I put hyphen here unnecessary functions. So, these are
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eliminated. So, what do we do in value engineering will talk about this in very much
detail, but broadly what we do think of the function of a product.
For example, I was talking about the pen I want something to write in blue colour. So,
pen is the first thing something; to write is pen is the pen only option though my purpose
here my basic function here is to provide marks to make marks on the paper to make
lines on the paper. So, I can use a blue colour pencil I can use a paint brush I can use
crayons for that.
So, these are the ideas those comes into my mind. So, these ideas do not think about the
basic facts that pen is the basic thing that is to be used to make blue marks. So, this thing
is known as creativity think of something that is not factual. So, it is said human mind
works like an umbrella it works only when it opens. So, this is the basic thing basic
criteria of value engineering.
First, what we do? We identify the function of the product the function of pen is to make
marks. So, let us think of I have a pen for example, this is a stylus the length of the stylus
is about 15 centimetres here.
So, if there is a stylus that is of only 5 centimetres this diameter is about 20 centimetres,
if they stylus the diameter is about 50 centimetres. For example, if this is the stylus
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holder if this is, my pen would I buy this no. So, identify the function of this body is to
make grip it is take the anthropometric dimensions of the hand human hand can hold
from may be 7 to 25 mm pens it depends on the precision that we require the blackboard
marker are quit broader; because the precision is precision is less.
So, this size is larger for the pen that, I use to write precisely for which we want good
handwriting to be there in on the paper the size is from 7 mm to 20 mm this is the
function of the body. Now this body needs to hold a refill in this in case of stylus it needs
to hold these switches it needs to hold this click here need to hold this tip here this is the
functions of my product.
So, we identify this function then we see are this function necessary is this much length
necessary. So, this small length pen or stylus would not work this much length is
necessary to hold it properly ok; then we see the monetary value of each function, what is
the function? What is the cost of the body of the pen to provide this much of diameter,
this much grip. This is actually a rubber grip, what is the cost of this rubber body? So, if
we provide a metallic body what would happen the grip would not be that good. So, we
have in electronics we have electronic integrated circuits in this stylus. So, what is the
cost of that?
So, is this is the kind of an active stylus the cost may be from 20,000 to 25,000. So, is
25,000 worth for this pen. So, we establish a monetary value this is value engineering
first we identify the function establish the monetary value, then we see what is necessary
and what is unnecessary if there is some unnecessary function which we can eliminate?
And a corresponding cost can also be eliminated, then we can provide it at a lower cost
the lowest overall cost is eliminating the all unnecessary functions or may be providing
these necessary functions also at the lower cost. So, in this week we will go through the
value engineering systematic study and we also see the various examples. So, by the end
of this week you would be able to apply a value engineering technique to the various
products and also will have a task on this thing.
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Now, value engineering improves value. Value engineering is an approach to
productivity improvement that attempts to increase the value obtained by customer of a
product by offering the same level of functionality at lower cost. I can put here same
level of functionality at lower cost. So, value was utility per unit cost this was our value
this utility can be performance; this utility can be time utility can be quality the
methodology does much more than just curtail the cost it improves the time performance
quality as well as determine the type of work that is to be performed to have this level of
performance the same level.
So, value engineering is the review of new and existing products during the design phase
to reduce cost. So, this is applied in design phase only value engineering is applied in
design phase in to increase the functionality in order to increase the value of the product
the value of the item is the most effective way of producing an item without taking away
its function.
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Let us see some history on value engineering. During world war II: At General Electric,
company Dr. Lawrence D Miles, during world war II were general electric company,
substitutions for the critical materials dictated by shortages resulted, in products that
accomplished their function at reduced cost.
So, in 1947: Mr Lawrence D. Miles, who is the founder of value engineering, he was a
general electric staff engineer, and he was assigned by the task in the purchasing division
to study the new proprietary concept where he succeeded in developing an amazing new
package of techniques and he named them value analysis. This was the first name given
value analysis these days. Value analysis and value engineering are used interchangeably
though there is still debate going on that value analysis is different from value
engineering.
Value analysis some of the contributors say that value analysis is only up to the analysis
part if we identify the functions we establish the monetary value we find what are the
unnecessary functions? That is value analysis and if we take forward unnecessary
functions eliminate those unnecessary functions and provide a new plan for the products
in which those components which are unnecessary those function which are unnecessary
are not present this is value engineering.
So, this line between the implementation and analysis makes the difference of value
analysis and value engineering some of the authors would say value analysis is; now
value engineering only if your provide if you have identified the unnecessary functions
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and are not able to implement that you are not able to provide the systematic way; how to
implement, how to obtain the final product that does the same function at lower cost?
There is no need of value engineering they say. So, use value analysis and value
engineering term interchangeably.
So, in 1954: the U.S. Navy Bureau Ships supplied value analysis to cost avoidance
during design, calling it value engineering. So, they gave this name value engineering
here the first government organisation to use this technique. U.S. Navy Bureau Ships
then I have divided into decades here in 1960s, the major contribution. (Refer Slide
Time: 27:11)
In 1970s the major contribution in 1960s this fast technique came into existence fast is
function analysis system technique.
So, what is fast will see in the forthcoming lectures. Since here fast is actually putting all
the functions into a diagrammatic form and we see what are the necessary, what are the
basic functions? How do accomplish specific functions? And why do we need that
function and necessary and unnecessary functions are separated in 1970s. The general
services administration began its building contractor value engineering program and
started using incentive clauses. In 1980 U.S. department of defense developed or
established the honorary value engineering or value engineer award.
So, these are the major mile stones. So, in 1990s value engineering boom in construction
industry came into play though it was already there in construction industry, but in 1990s
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even the small contractors started implementing value engineering techniques into their
works.
So, in 2,000 and onwards value engineering synergies with management techniques such
as six sigma you will find various research papers on; how value engineering is related
to? Or how value engineering can be implemented in a combined way with six sigma,
with lean manufacturing with green manufacturing with agile manufacturing and so on.
In India we have INVEST Indian Value Engineering Society which was established in
October 1977. INVEST organises awareness training programs and workshops
conducted by Certified Value Specialists. These are CVS also they provide AVS. AVS is
Academic Value Specialist they provide these certificates. So, they make their
participants learn the value engineering technique, in systematic way to apply value
engineering and they certify them. They are specialist in value engineering also they
conduct conferences and provide an exciting forum for the exchange of knowledge. So,
INVEST in Indian industry by a dissemination of specialized knowledge to professional
who in turn help industry to improve profitability through the technique of value
engineering.
So, it has various zones namely north, east, west and south and some prominent players
like, Tata, L and T are also the members of the INVEST society note. The company
specific the MDs the CEOs of the companies or the upper level management people are
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invest members or they are invited to the conferences or the workshops to provide
special lecture specialized lectures to the trainees there so.
Breaking down ‘value engineering’: value engineering is as I said the review of new and
existing products during the design phase to reduce cost and increase functionality in
order to increase the value of the product. The value of an item is defined as the most
cost-effective way of producing an item without taking away from its purpose. We are
revitalising the things again reduce cost at the expense of quality will simply be a cost
cutting strategy. So, this is not value engineering value engineering is maintaining the
quality and then reducing the cost.
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So, what is need of value engineering business are: lagging productivity, changing
business environment is there, evolving industry and business practices, changing
customer expectations, the product life cycles are contracting. So, life cycle in this case I
am talking in terms of when you purchase and when you dispose. So, this was if four
years before this has contracted to two years in general. So, misalignment of business
requirements and supporting applications is there the reason behind value engineering is;
if marketing or marketers respective produce a product to become practically or stylishly
obsolete.
The basic reason here is if marketers expect a product to become practically or stylishly
obsolete within a specific length of time they can design it only to last for that specific
life time they designed the product to last for this thing only like doctor Ram Kumar took
an example of tube light they say the tube light. Its tube the; it is outer cover covering the
glass does not deteriorate the clips at the ends does not deteriorate only the gas fails. So,
this needs some change the whole tube the whole tube light is disposed off, that is;
thrown out to the waste just because of the interior working or the gas fails here.
So, this is one example here the products could be built with higher grade components,
but with value engineering they are not, because this would impose an unnecessary cost
on the manufacturer also an increased cost to the customer here value engineering will
reduce this cost accompany with typically used the least expensive components that
satisfy the product life time.
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So, let me compare value analysis or value engineering with conventional cost reduction.
The conventional cost reduction is item oriented. Value engineering is function oriented.
For instance, if you think of the chair to reduce the cost of the chair you would say ok. I
change the material if the chair has arms; let us not put the arms that has some additional
cost associated with that. So, it is thinking about the item it is thinking about the chair
here item oriented is thinking about the chair.
When I say function oriented; I say what is the function of the chair is to support load to
support load of the body. Example, the chair is if designed for hundred kgs the average
weight is 60 or 70 kgs in India. So, it is actually the things are overdesigned or we have
factor of safety in that example, if it is designed for 100 kgs can we have something else
or some other way to support he say you use stool first I would put here support load is
the basic function here can we use a stool can we use some cane net something like that
value engineering works on the function.
The basic function of the chair is to support load, the secondary function might be
provide good look provide comfort we have cushions on the chair then provide support
to the arms then provide wheels. So, where the rotation could happen these might be the
secondary functions then the ideas in conventional cost reduction are just convergent
ideas like; I said in chair they say change the material of the cushion change the material
of the arms change the ways the legs are designed just convergent ideas.
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In value engineering first ideas are divergent then convergent. In this case we are just
thinking about the chair we are just listing the ideas ok. These are the ideas reduce cost
here in this case what will have first will list large number of ideas then will come up
with some selected ideas then we converge into one ok. This is divergent convergent this
large number of ideas creativity means just do not criticize, I have put this here as well
no criticism of ideas do just do not criticise whatever is coming to the mind just put in
ok.
So, cost reduction is usually an individual oriented work it might be a team work as well.
Value engineering is always a team work the multidisciplinary people work in there, the
production people will tell is this possible to produce or not the finance people will tell
are the funds available for this or not marketing people would tell would the customer
accept this change or not. Actually all these people work together in a value engineering
voice of customer is being transformed into the functions here; cost reduction follows the
past practises and is analytical in approach.
But value engineering is innovative value engineering says exercise maximum creativity
use the creativity techniques like brain storming delphi technique, then morphological
analysis there various ways to have creative ideas. So, in cost reduction the cost visibility
is the process cost or the processing cost and material cost now these always involve the
cost of the part the specific part components, then in processing we have the labour cost
overheads, but in value engineering the cost visibility is what is the basic function? What
is the secondary function? What is the cost of supporting load in chair that is the basic
function?
Then secondary functions are provide comfort. So, what is the cost of providing these
secondary functions? We divide the cost into these functions. So, this is value
engineering also we have unnecessary functions here these also have cost associated with
them. So, these are trying to be eliminated. So, with this introduction to value
engineering is over.
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I have a task for you people you, please select a product like you select a chair a daily use
product. You select a pen; you select a pencil you select your note book. This notebook
is your writing textbook or your copy text writing and think of; how can we reduce cost
of this thing? How can we reduce cost of this pen by changing material by changing its
appearance and see? What is the cost you are paying for and divide this cost into its
various functions? What is the cost you are paying for the pen that is the cost of writing?
What is the cost you are paying for its appearance? What is the cost you are paying for
its usability. Is the cover of the pen kind of press fit or is it a back click what is the cost
you are paying for try to divide this into various elements? This is the only thing the task
here.
Next when we will go through value engineering study, then will see the product which
you have chosen here the same product will use to provide the alternative for that use the
creativity techniques; if possible you should make the groups of 3 or 4 if you are close.
So, then you can think of various alternatives you provide some you come up with some
creative ideas ok; how this function can be accomplished in some other way those things
will do in the second part of this week.
So for now thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 10
Value Engineering Methodology (Part 1 of 3)
Good morning. Welcome back to the course product design and manufacturing; wherein,
we are trying to study the systematic way to design the product and to develop the
product, then to manufacture the product; manufacturing concerns as well.
So, I am taking the topic value engineering this week. So, in this lecture, we will discuss
value engineering methodology.
So, the contents would go like this. Will see, why the products have poor value. Then we
will see these phases of value engineering, which is also known as value engineering job
plan.
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Why do products exhibit poor value? The reason for that is, number one; poor
communication, poor communication between the customers and the manufacturers; the
scope of the product is not defined adequately. Scope remains limited. Next is lack of
consensus. This consensus is between the stakeholder between the manufacturers or
within the management. Next reason might be outdated design standards. Design
standards are sometimes outdated or inappropriate. We see their certain blocks, or certain
thing things those keep one from being creative. So, value engineering implies creativity.
Since value engineering implies creativity, so, outdated standards sometimes, one think
of ok, I have tried this, and this is true, this is working well, I will keep in rest. There is a
resistance to change that happens.
So, also one of the reason may be incorrect assumptions. Incorrect assumptions based on
poor information. If the information is not correct, or misinformation is there the
assumption which is made are not correct, those lead to poor value. The cost might raise
performance may fall. So, the next reason may be resistance to change.
Just ah, already mention it here; outdated designs. Resistance to change is a fixation of
previous concepts or fixing to the non-facts or concepts. Then also their honest wrong
beliefs, which also does not let one do the creative thing. So, there is a poor coordination
among the designers, failure to network with customers, and definition, poor definition of
the product is there. So, design based on habitual thinking or resistance to change is
there, mistaken beliefs are there, not enough time for project formulation on design,
sometimes failure to utilize the latest technologies. So, these things lead to poor value so,
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will see a methodology here that is known as value engineering job plan job plan. (Refer
Slide Time: 04:21)
So, I have divided into these phases, this is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 phases. Such and such
would be divided into 7 phases, some would be divided into 8 phases, some would even
be divided into 9 phases. So, I have selected 6 major phases here, Mudge 1979. He says
there are 7 phases. He says of before information, there is also phase known as general
phase or orientation phase. And other researches have given; given some other phases
after development, they say before implementation, there is the presentation as well.
So, what goes here? From information collection, the function analysis conducted;
creativity is practiced to find the alternative ideas. Those ideas are evaluated in the
evaluation phase, and the evaluated ideas are then developed. Developed means
evaluations are the ideas are compared for the best idea to be selected. Then the idea
which is selected is seen for it is implementation then finally, implementation is carried
out. In general, phase, what much says, it is just getting the swing of the things. It says
just gear up with the initial information; what your goal would be, who would be your
team, but that can be included in this information phase as well.
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So, let us start with the information phase. In the information phase, what happens, the
first step is to determine user needs; that is, identify the specific issues to be addressed
here. Identify the problem or issues. The next step here is data collection.
Data collection here is, to gather and tabulate the information consenting the item that is
presently designed. We gather the information and put the information in the right form.
That is tabulated, or provides the graphics data visualization. Tabulation is just like
putting the list of the materials that the product is made of, and the number of employees
would be required to work on this project, just put making the tables.
Data visualization is making the graphs of that, comparing the cost of the most expensive
component, and the various components with reducing cost. So, this making graph that is
a data visualization. So, in data collection, we do this.
*Next step is teamwork. This is actually not stepping, these are the characteristics or the
various tips in the information phase. Teamwork; the purpose of the team is to build
knowledge and understand the project. Essential team members characterise the project
goal, and they include technical and functional expertise. You can say; technical
functional, these can be the same. Then we have aesthetic and various interpersonal and
inter-functional teams; those who can work on, the financial manager, then marketing,
marketers. So, value engineering is a teamwork. In general, it is said a group of minimum
four people should be there when we talk about value engineering; because also the
creativity is to be practiced here. And when one thinks of the creative ideas, one can even
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skip of; one can even get out of the track if he is working individually. So, that is the
team members, those who work together would make the things come into the single
line.
So, next is broad use functions; the broad use functions is defined here, in the
information phase itself. The broad use function is, for instance, we are trying to design a
chair; the broad use function is, the chair has to made somebody to sit; it has to support a
load, it has to provide comfort. So, the major use function is, here is the primary
function. So, that is defined here. Next is, if it is a site, construction site; or if it is a
manufacturing facility or a factory or the tool room where our product is to be
manufactured, it is recommended to make a visit. So, as, this will give a broad
introduction to what kind of resources we do have at this time, in the current time.
So, we actually prioritize the issues here; in the information phase when we talk about
the project, when we talk about the product; there are lot and lot of things which are to be
handled. So, the issues are prioritized here. So, this is the information phase. Then
finalize the problem. We finalize the problem, we give the problem definition. We just
identify the problem in the user needs, like using may be QFD; quality function
deployment. And we have worked on the data, we have seen the data, with the help of
the team; the broad use function is defined, and looking out the, looking on the resource
is which; we have the problem is finally formulated; problem formulation. So, this is the
rule of the first phase here; that is the information phase.
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So, this Q F D as we have already discussed in the previous sessions; it is a methodology,

to transfer the customer's voice into the manufacturer's requirement. It actually works in
these phases, these steps. So, what happens? A customer requires are broadly identified,
they are broadly set here, and design requirements are made. Finally, actually, production
is to be made. Here production planning has to be made production planning. So, how
does it go? First, we need design requirements.
The customer broad or qualitative information is correlated with the quantitative

information that is the design requirements. Then these design requirements, we have
broadly listed what that design could be. Based on the design requirement, what are the
components so, the parts, which are to be manufactured here are required? For example,
if I need to manufacture a chair, (Refer Time: 13:01) the components of the chair may be
the backs, the supporting seat, the pedestal or legs, and all these. So, these parts are then
listed here. Then these parts for manufacturing, each part, the manufacturing
requirements are there.
What are the kinds of machines that are required? What are the inventory level workers?
All those manufacturing requires. Based on the manufacturing requires, now these go to
next step, next phase here; where manufacturing requirements are the input and
production requirements is the final output that we have; production requirement targets,
these targets are the final thing.
So, in this way the Q F D is practiced.
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So, next, I have an example here of a teardown process; tear down of a product. This is
actually tear down of Apple iPhone, this taken from a reference here. So, to this kind of
view is known as an exploded view. So, if one has to design this mobile, or make some
changes in this mobile; he has to learn what are the various components. He has to know,
is it display that can be separated from the body; from the enclosure, the loudspeaker
assemblies put in here, the sim card is put in here, the primary camera the module is put
in here, the location of each component, and also after this; the cost of each component.
The cost involves the material cost and processing cost. Processing cost also has certain
elements like labor cost machining cost, machining; and I will put rest as overheads.
So, each component is studied here in the information phase itself. We make a bill of
materials. Bill of material is the list of materials in a tabulated form, where we have this
is the serial number, this is the bill of materials; serial number, the part or component
name, then we have the number of components. Then cost per component, the total cost.
So, this is the bill of materials; this is just gathering the information. We do not know
what are the low-value areas here yet. So, value improvement potential; that we will
identify in the next phase that is the function phase.
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So, in the function phase; what happens? Specific purposes or intended use of an item is;
so, that definition of the function is; it is the specific purpose of or intended use of an
item. that means, what is are the product? What is it supposed to do? So, what else it can
do? I can put these questions here. You asked questions; what is the product? What
function does it accomplish? What other functions are being accomplished? So, this is
just listing of the various questions that one asks. So, it is generally said, I keep six
serving men, they keep telling me what I do. Six serving men are what? Why? How?
These are the primary. Then, Where, who and When? So, these questions are generally
asked to know, what we are going to do in a product.
What we are going to do. Why? why because, one through the value, how will use this
methodology, where the product or the site, or the project on which you are working on,
who the value engineering team will do, when that time would decide here. So, these
functions are determined by considering the user's actual need. So, what is the product is
one thing. So, what is the product? Let me say, I am carrying a mobile phone here. The
product is a mobile phone.
The basic function is to make a call, to receive a call, to send messages, receive
messages. What else is it doing? It is helping me to access the internet. It is helping me to
surf the internet in that. It is helping me to take photographs. It is helping me to record
data. It is helping me to take notes. So, many things mobile these days is a
multifunctional product. So, what other functions are being accomplished? This I have
just mentioned.
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So, next question we can ask is, what else can it do? Earlier the mobiles were just
manufactured to make calls, to receive a call; only do the basic functions, and what else
it can do? I am already listening to music, watching movies on the mobile. What else can
it do? Ok, I can think mobile is about 250 grams; I can use this as a paperweight. Ok.
What else can it do? I have a ring in this mobile. So, this is being carried; this is some
actually kind of an accessory, which is also we being used. So, earlier the mobile was not
ah, this big size mobile; was not easy to carry in one hand. Dialing, the dial pad would
make an issue over there.
So, in this case, I can hold this from this ring and use it with one hand only. So, this is a
kind of an accessory that is put in. So, this is a this value engineering might lead to these
things. So, here, in this case, the issue might be the holding of the mobile phone in one
hand, or the mobile fells if it is, ah, used in one hand only. Ok. So, this issue is being
addressed by this component here. So, we divide the functions into two parts. Primary
functions and Secondary functions.
In value engineering functions must be defined by two words, that is a verb and a noun.
So, it is said the less the number of words, the more defined or more clear is the problem.
If I say, the function of my mobile phone is to make calls; this is a big line. So, make
calls is the keyword. These are the keywords. Here make is a verb and call is a noun
here.
So, it can be defined make calls, then make or send S M S. So, here it is like this if the
verb is active and the noun is measurable. It gives the more clarity to our function. So,
this is our primary function. Always primary function would have an active verb and
measurable noun, like make calls; click, snap, surf internet. So, these are all; surf is a
verb, make is a verb, a click is a verb, internet, call and snap are my nouns. Ok.
So, this primary function is the basic function for which the product is designed for.
Actually, the customers are paying for the functions only; I can put it here. Customers
pay money for the functions. So, there is two kind of functions work functions and Sell
functions. Some functions are directly identified, directly seen from the product by itself,
like ah; making calls, receiving a call, chair; we can sit. There is a height specific, the
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height of the chair. The chair has arms, this the function; arm has to support, arm
supports are to supporting arms. So, these are all work functions.
Sell functions are induced in the product to sell the product. Suppose if I want a chair that
is of brown color; giving the brown color, brown colour cloth or brown colour paint or
maybe brown texture, is not the primary function; is not the work function. That is
something that is making the product to sell because the customer wants that color in the
product. Also, if I say, I want a pen that can also, help me to work as a stylus on my
mobile phone. So, actually, this is a kind of a multi-functional product now.
So, these two becomes the primary function, if that is the; my requirement. Otherwise, if
it is a pen, the primary function is made marks or write, make writing or write notes; the
way we define. Actually, this is a no specific way to tell the functions in two words.
Someone can say, it makes marks for the primary function of the pen. Some other person
can say, ah, provide notes. Someone can say record information. So, all these things do
vary here.
So, in general, the work function has an active verb and measurable noun. So, this work
is a performance or quality. Sell functions just need to have a verb and a noun. This can
be a non-measurable noun.
Sell functions, a verb, and a noun, that is non-measurable; like I just said in the exact. So,
defining the functions in two words, a verb and a noun is known as two-word
abridgement. The advantages of the two words abridgement is it focuses on the function
rather than on the item. It encourages creativity. It frees the mind from the specific
configuration. So, it actually gives the information in a crisp form crispy information. So,
like if I say, the function of a pen refill. If I say product; example, I have this pen here, I
am taking out refill here. The function of; if I say, ok, this is my refill tube. I have ink in
this. I have tipped in here. So, a cost reduction or a general, engineering concept would
say, we have these components, but value engineering would say what we have in this?
We have, I will put the parts here. It has ink, it has a body or tube that is of plastic, then it
has nib; actually, it is a tip.
So, what value engineering would say body, what is the body? The primary function is
store ink. So, also the secondary function is to protect or to, ok, we can put it protect
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leakage. The function of the tip is again, protect leakage; can be one of the secondary
function for that tip, but the primary function of the tip is to write notes. Actually, this is
the primary function of my pen itself, but which the tip is doing. So, the purpose of the
ink is to provide the medium, provide a medium for writing.
So, this is the way that cost reduction looks into the product and value engineering.
So, the next, similar phenomena you can see here in the case of a chair. In the chair, we
have these components; headrest, arm pads, arms, chair cylinder, then chair base. These
are castors that help the chair to revolve. This is actually a kind of an adjective chair.
They have various segments of this product. So, this is an adjective chair. This is a
cylinder cover, chair mechanism that may help the chair to go up and down. Then we
have a lumbar support system. It helps the body to keep straight. So, this is a seat pad
that provides a cushion that also gives a comfort here.
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So, if you see these two postures; which posture would you prefer? However, in this
case, this person is not even touching here, this is not the issue of the design here; it is
actually the way this person is trying to work here.
So, their kind of advertising let me say this company, this manufacturer is kind of trying
to sell his chair. He says that, in this case, this lumbar support would help your spine to
keep in the right position, right posture. So, what are the issues with this posture? This is
a cervical spine here. ok. He can have loaded on this thing. Then hip lection, hip lection
is here. So, all the issues, this is the worst posture I could say one can have. So, he is too
much indulged in this work, he is not even making his backrest on this back pad, that is
here.
So, then elongated inactive weak upper back muscles, with T spine curvature is here. So,
if we see these components here of the chair, or components if I say, ah, the parts of the
chair, I can define this functions of each component here. What is a function of seat pad
here? It has to support; I would say the user. The lumbar support also supports the user,
the function is the same; but is actually supporting the back. We can choose a way we
want to put this function. Then to support the user, actually, it is also the secondary
function can be, it is resisting the load of the user then resisting the movements of the
user, then distributes loads as well. Distributes loads into the area where the user is
sitting. So, this, this lumbar support the main, his ah, the main function here is support
user.
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The secondary function is to define the position, or ah, this can also be; better to put this
as a primary function; because this is the support here that is defining the position of the
person who is sitting, a user who is sitting here. So, the primary function is to define the
position, the secondary function might be support user. Then this cylinder is here, chair
cylinder. The, it is a function is rotated user. Then this arm pads and arms; these support
elbows. Headset supports the head, support head only; I have not put d here, two words
have to be used.
Then support bottom, this supports the feet or knees. Support knees or support feet. In
value engineering, no component is just seen as if a physical component, ok. This is
support, this is base, this is back, this is an arm, this is the pen tube, this is the pen rifle
and so on. We look into the function; what is the function it is trying to accomplish?
Then in the next phase, we will see in the creativity phase, we forgot what was the main
product, for the time ok then we say, what is the function? What does the way, what are
the various ways in which this function can be accomplished?
For this lecture, I have a task for you. You please choose a product; you can even work
on the product that you have chosen in the previous lecture, ok. Then identify or first tear
down. You need not tear down physically; you can just see the information about the
product. For example, if we choose a pen, you can see what are the various components;
of the pen tear down the product into various components, ok part 1, part 2, part 3, and
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part 4. Then try to identify the functions of each part. Then divide this function into two
categories primary and secondary functions. Ok. What you will see, the primary function
of the product you choose; for example, if you choose a chair, the primary function of the
chair is to support the user. What is the component that is accomplishing this function?
This is a kind of work function; the texture of the here, the blue color of the bag, or the
chair, the black color of the arm pads, was all aesthetics. Those are all selling functions.
So, what you will see here the primary function of the product of the whole body or
whole assembly here would also be the primary function of the part. So, please do this
task, and will meet in the next lecture. We will discuss the fast diagram function analysis
and system technique. That is a kind of a diagrammatical representation or presentation
of the various functions. We place the functions into various positions, where it should
be we will see how that works.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 11
Value Engineering Methodology, (Part 2 of 3) FAST diagramming
So, this is the second part of the lecture, value engineering methodology. So, we were
discussing the function phase; these things are discussed. We were discussing the function
phase, where in, we have defined; what is function? And we were on the fast diagram. There
is function analysis and system technique.
So, what is function analysis and system technique? Function analysis system technique aids
in thinking about the problem objectively; that is, it identifies the scope of the project by
showing the logical relationship between the functions. So, what we did in the previous
phase, or previous part of this phase, function phase, we identified the functions, we divided
the functions into two categories. Primary function and Secondary function.
The primary function, what the main function for which the product was made. Secondary
functions; may be some work functions, or may be some (Refer Time: 01:20) sell functions
as well, for which the product is followed, some functions which are not directly visible.
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Some functions for example, if I took this example of this,, mobile; the interior integrated
circuits here, the integrated circuits in the mobile are not seen, but those are work functions.
Those are required to work. So, some of those components are not for primary use, just, just
in the product to make the product work.
For example, if I need to take the picture, or take the snap from my mobile. I will just click
the camera button there, and the picture would be ready, ok. So, what is making this work?
There is an integrated circuit, and there are might be some other supporting circuits which are
helping that to work. Those are secondary functions, but also work functions.
So, what are the relationship between the functions, which we have defined previously, that
this fast diagram would tell us. So, the organisation of functions into function logic, this is
fast diagram. It enables the participants to identify all the necessary and unnecessary
functions. So, necessary function would come into the critical path; we will have a critical
path, or critical design path that, are diagram would follow, those functions would be
necessary. Some of the functions which are not in the critical path, they would be necessary
and some other functions might be unnecessary, which might be eliminated or may be
reduced. The number of this functions can be reduced.
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So, fast diagram can be used to verify if and illustrate how a proposed solution achieves the
needs of the project. So, it identifies unnecessary duplicated or may be some missing
functions; missing functions. these are all functions.
So, how does fast diagram work? So, this is kind of a layout of our functions layout, that is
used in the fast diagram. We have the function on this side, that is the higher order function.
We have the highest order function here and, we see how this function would be
accomplished. When we move on this direction, will see how the function A is being
accomplished by using function B. And B is being accomplished by using function C. And
also, when you are working on B function, this is when; so, when does function B is being
carried out, this function D is also needs to be done. We will see this with an example.
So, these are called as lower order function; this is, how do you? This is, why do you? So, I
say, I need to make a call, highest order function is make a, or make call. So, we will have,
put here, design mobile phone. How to make a call? Design mobile phone. How to design the
mobile phone? Design components. How do we design components? Get specifications
component specifications, ok.
So, this is how we doing and here, on this direction, we are moving towards; why? Why are,
why do we need design specification? Because, we need to design the components here. And
why do we need to design components? Because we need to have the mobile phone. I am just
taking very broad example here.
So, this also has scope of study; this is our scope of study. It is mentioned here, the where
function, active function is an active verb and measurable noun. This would be kind of a
critical path; this might not be, this function, might not be the part of our critical path. So, we
have the lowest order function here. So, lowest order function is the lowest function, that is
start of the product here.
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So, let us see the steps here. How to make? How to draw? How to analyse our functions and
we make the function analysis system technique diagram. First step is, determine the highest
order function. This is the objective of value study; that is the highest order function. This is
located in the left physic line here, highest order function. Then we identify the basic
functions.
The basic functions are the functions for which the product is designed, that is how does the
product, or process form the highest order function; that is how would this function be
accomplished, function A becomes B. B is my, again the basic functions; one of the basic
function, but not the primary function, ok.
This might or might not be the primary function. Then expand the fast diagram; once we have
identified the primary functions, that is function A, B, C, will expand it to function D, E, F so
on. Then that, using this, when logic, that when function needs to be there. This is our critical
path; A, B, C is our critical path here. Then we identify the supporting function, that is the
function D, kind of function D here. Supporting function do not depend on another function.
This is not connected here. Function D, if you see this, this is a connecting line here. This
green line is a connecting line here, but function D is not connected. So, this support
functions do not connect. So, any unnecessary function can be the only support functions.
The primary or basic functions cannot be the unnecessary functions here.
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This is very important point, please make a note. The unnecessary function can only be a
support function. So, then we verify the fast diagram. So, what happens once we have made
the fast diagram, sometime the support function which D, we can think of it is working with
B, it might work with C. We can keep changing. It is better to use the slips, write the name of
the functional slip, and keep arranging the slips in the order, and then you will see the various
alternatives, ok, this is the right position, where the slip to has to put, and will just verify the
fast diagram, that is the critical path right or not.
So, I will construct a fast diagram for pen here. I have taken pen as an example here. So, what
is the basic function of the pen? Write notes, ok. Then why do we write notes? Is there a
question? So, is there a higher order function here? Actually, this function or the primary
function, I am trying to identify highest order function. Is there a why that is adjusting? Why
do we write notes? Yes we need to record information ok.
Do the pen only write notes? It also make marks. Make marks, a marks means make lines that
is, make sketches. So, write notes and make sketches are the bored things the pen is doing.
So, could we have a single function that defines both these things? Yes, make marks can be
one thing that involves both right notes and make sketches.
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So, record information is a kind of my highest order functions. So, why do we record
information? We need to provide information to somebody. Let me put the highest order
function here is, provide information. Then I will draw scope line here. This is my highest
order function of a general pen. So, this is my pen, I have this cap, let me see the product, I
have this cap.
This is the pen. It has a rifle in it. It has a grip that holds this one. This cap secures the nib or
tip, so, why accidentally no mark is made. And, we are, this body is securing the rifle. This
rifle is securing the ink. The ink is used to make the marks. The nib is using the ink to make
the marks. So, these are all the components here. These components, I have broadly discussed
in the previous lecture as well.
So, let me try to make the fast diagram here. So, how do we provide information? We records
data. How do we record data? We are moving towards this side, that is how. This is my how,
in this side. Then how do we record data? Make marks. ok. So, how the marks are being
made? So, how, how is this pen working? How the marks are being made on the paper? So,
that is using ink to make the marks, using ink. So, let me put it in the better way. Deposit ink;
yeah this would be a good verb here. Deposit ink.
And how do we deposit ink? When we write, we apply some pressure or some load on the
pen, when we write. So, I could write here hold pen, or I could write, apply pressure. So,
when the pressure is here, we can also put the function head transmit force. How do we apply
pressure? We transmit force a little force on the pen. So, as the pen is able to write a little
pressure. ok.
So, it is transmitting force here. So, this is a simple pen. Transmit force, this body is used.
This size of the pen, as I have mentioned before, this is between 7 to, this is approximately 8
or 9, 9; 8 to 10 mm is the diameter of this nib here. So, this is the grip this body is here, that is
helping to transmit force here. We are holding this body here rifle is in it here. So, what is the
body doing? It is also protecting the rifle inside. So, I can write a function here, how function,
that is; provide or support rifle. I think, I need to mention, the rifle before here.
See, when you will draw the fast diagram, you will do number of iterations. I am also trying
of putting the function and rubbing. So, this iteration will happen. So, when you try to do this.
Actually, I have read, the fast diagram for pencil, that is, by N P, N P D solution. N P D
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solution is the website. It in new product development solution. It is by D R M associates. So,
that is fast for pencil, fast diagram for pencil.
So, I am trying to adapt that way, that same diagram to draw the fast diagram for this pen. So,
I was talking about the rifle here. So, transmit force, we need to, we heat the bodies that is
transmitting force, and also, we need to; I can put it here in the note right side; parallelly, we
need to support in casual. And support ink is done by provide refill. When we provide refill,
refill also have as tip in it. So, I can say secure tip; secure tip is helping to deposit ink as well.
This will be connected; will make the connections.
So, next, provide refill. Refill is supported by the main body. So, that is done by support
refill. So, we are recording the data. We are making marks. How do we record data? Marks.
How do we make marks? We deposit the ink. How do we deposit ink? We apply pressure.
How do we apply pressure? We transmit force, this transmit force is actually done by our
support refill; is one function, that is our body. I can write it in a different colour here, this is
actually my body; which is helping to, support refill and transmit force as well.
Also, we can say we have this grip over this body. So, purpose of this grip to is to make the
user hold the pen properly. So, that the pen does not slip. So, with support refill, I can also
say here; provide grip. So, this is one of the functions. So, I think, there other functions like
aesthetics, provide aesthetics to the pen provide information, that is the company name here;
Cello Butterfly pen. So, all these things can go to the support functions.
So, this is, on the body only. So, I can write it here; provide aesthetics. And, the company
name, I can write provide identification. These two are my support functions. So, I think, I
can draw the scope line here, and these are the support functions. Support ink cannot be a
support function. It is basic function only. Will see how does it come into your critical path.
So, we provide grip here, and finally, we can hold the pen. So, let me connect this record data
by making marks, by depositing ink, by applying pressure, by transmitting force.
Transmitting force is done by support refill. And apply pressure is done by this support refill
transmit force. This is also connected here; I will connect these things, because this is not a
support function only.
Support refill is; again, we need to provide refill and secure tip; secure tip, I can divide this
into further components. How do we secure tip? In this case, we also need to protect tip as
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well from breakage. Ok. That comes in secure tip only. So, this is done by using in this case,
we are using this cap here. The cap is used to protect my tip. So, let me put; provide cap.
This is not connected in the critical path, but this is just to secure tip here. Provide cap, we
can provide cap. We can have some click type of pen, that is clicked from the back; click that
is provide button, that button makes the tips to come out and to go in again. So, also there is a
kind of a pen; I have this pen in which the tip comes out and go in by using this nut and bolt
mechanism here, this is nut and bolt mechanism.
If you know the nut and bolt mechanism, nut and bolt is, this is also a kind of nut. This back
support is also kind of nut. So, when I rotate this, it goes, it screws in, it screws out. This nut
and bolt mechanism is used to secure or protect this tip, ok. So, I can write these other
alternatives here. Provide cap, provide nut, and, and a, maybe provide button, ok. These are
the functions which are helping to secure the tip.
Finally, we will hold a pen. So, let me enclose this into the boxes here. And these are linked,
any alternatives can be used. This is my fast diagram of a normal pen, ok. So, my scope of
study is here. This is my scope of study. Study means scope of value engineering study here,
in which I need to find the functions on which we are need to work on, which what are the
four value and high value functions. We are having, how on this side and when on this side.
So, there various functions like a support refill. If you see this support refill function. So, this
is not only carried by this body, I have put this body in bracket here; actually this is a
component not a function. This support refill is actually done by three components here. It is
the body here, this is the refill, it is the back nut, that is helping the refill to keep inside, and it
is the front nut. So, these three components are would have this function; support refill, ok.
So, also this function, the colour of this back nut is blue. The colour of this front nut is silver.
These are aesthetic function, these are secondary function; these would have the primary
functions to support refill, and the secondary functions would be provide aesthetics. So, this
is my fast diagramming of a pen. So, there is no correct or perfect fast diagram. One can even
choose different names here; for example, this is provide identification, one can say, ok, I
will display information, kind off. Provide aesthetics can be enhance aesthetic, enhance
appearance.
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The verb and noun should imply, should mean the same thing. The, the word you choose
does not matter here. So, this is a normal pen. So, let us try to extend this diagram to other
kinds of pen, that is the multi-functional pen. I have carried a few kinds of pens here. So, this
is a pen that has multiple colours. It has blue colour, It has blue, green, red and black colour
in it.
So, these are also two other kinds of pens. So, this is a pen that is also doing the stylus
function. The back side of this pen, actually, the secure tip function is carried out by this nut
and bolt mechanism, and this back can be used to work as a stylus on the mobile. We can, I
can doodle on my mobile, ok. So, let me think of a pen that,, even it is having different refills,
ok. The different colours that we can choose, and also it has this stylus function; over this
rubber over here. ok.
So, how to; see I having, I am having two kinds of stylus here. One pen is having the stylus at
the back. I can keep writing the notes, and work on the stylus on my mobile. This is one way.
Second way is, this is a back button; click pen, in which I can keep writing notes and switch
this button off, and on the front only, I have this capacity of stylus here, the two ways to do
that, ok. They have chosen, different ways, different companies.
So, what is the way to provide this function here? That we can see that, we can put in the
function; that, this is actually a kind of alternative in the function analysis will just put here,
in this kind of pen. We can change colour of the refill, ok. So, where to put this change
colour? When I am, transmitting force or when I am applying pressure, I can put change
colour here. Ok. Change colour, that is only done by clicking thing only here. Ok. By
clicking by this switch only. So, also if it is a stylus here, I can switch mode, write the pen
with this one, switch to stylus. So, this is switching mode by clicking. Writing the notes,
switching to the stylus.
So, this switch mode; in this also I am actually applying pressure. This can also come here.
Switch mode, do I put it; I, I can put it here only with apply pressure. Switch mode, that is
switch mode is switchi ng from the ink to stylus; to the capacity of stylus. So, this switching
mode can happen in two ways. We just provide it at the back; that is provide nut security. It,
this can be connected here. Switch mode can be done by ‘provide button’, select user
different colour here; because, this is a ‘provide button’, and may be by ‘provide nut’.
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This change colour and apply pressure, this is my critical path; critical path. I will put again a
different colour. Let me choose this one. This is the critical path. Critical path means, it has
all the basic functions. This should also come in the critical path, I think this support ink is
also required. Provide refill, secure tip, choose any one of these path, and this would be
connected here.
So, I am going in the other direction now. Changing colour; why do we change colour?
Because, we need different colours. And, why do we switch mode here? Because we need to
have the stylus. I can write here, secure or secure stylus can be right word here. Secure stylus,
ok. And, why do we secure stylus? Because, we need to doodle on the form, or we need to,
again record data; if not recording, we need to collect some information. ok. These are again
the higher order functions.
In this way, we can construct fast diagram for any product we like. Change colour is
something that is connected to the upper part only. And this lower part is the multi-
functional. So, this is my fast diagram of multi-functional pen. Multi-functional pen means, it
has stylus in it. And it has different ink colours. So, not to forget, this is a when logic. When
do we change colour? When we need to apply a pressure? When need to; When we need to
write something? When depositing, we need to change the colour.
And when do we switch mode, when we need to apply a pressure on the mobile on the on my
touch screen in on interactive tablet or laptop here, ok. So, this is when logic here. So, this is
the fast diagram of a pen, which I have tried to make. So, you can even choose to make a
different diagram, different locations; but the basic layout would be same here. So, let us
move forward.
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Is there a correct fast diagram? There is no correct fast diagram. But there is a valid method
of representing the logic in a diagram.
The way I said; I can choose to put support refill on the function; on the left or the right side,
it can vary. But the basic logic; the layout of functions is here. Ok. The basic logic would
remain same. Ok. The validity of a fast model for a given situation is dependent on the
knowledge and scope of the workshop participants. It is my knowledge, that is, trying to build
this fast diagram. Ok. If a team comes, they can say some different way to do this.
The fast diagram aids the team in reaching the consensus on their understanding of the
project. So, when they doodle on this thing, when they work on different alternatives; where
to put this, where to put not; they are working on the project, they are trying to bring the
ideas, they are working on the final product in a way here. So, in that way, they come to a
consensus here, ok. This is a right fast diagram. And their understanding spear heads to way
single goal, single goal or target. This is something the team would enjoy, and their
engineering skills would also work here. So, let us meet in the next active.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 12
Value Engineering Methodology (Part 3 of 3)
So, this is the part of the lecture Value Engineering Methodology. So, next phase is creative
phase.
So, in creative phase, various ideas are developed for the alternative ways to perform each
function that is selected for the study.
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In the function phase, we actually select the function the function that is low value function
that is a technique known as will do that in the next lecture; Numerical valuation. That we get
value improvement potential for the specific function or we will do that, will see.
So, this was just diagrammatic representation of my functions, identifying the basic
functions. To identify the low value functions is; one that is done using this Numerical
valuation technique. When we have identified the low value functions, we develop the
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alternative ideas using creativity techniques. So, there are generally two approaches in
problem solving; analytical and creative.
Analytical approach is the general cost reduction technique. In analytical approach, the
problem is stated a direct step by step approach to the solution is taken. So, in creative
technique what happens, we work on the function and not on the part or product here.
So, there are various methods of Creativity; Brainstorming, Gordon technique, Checklist,
Morphological analysis, Attribute listing are a few of them. So, in creativity, we use creative
thinking no rules, no limits. No rules, no limits to ideas, no criticism of the ideas this happens
in Brainstorming. So, we do not let the regulations or other people control our thinking and
thing is that if you do not look for the second answer, if you do not look for that you will not
find that. So, it is better to think out of the scope, out of the available scope or the perceived
scope you have.
So, what happens in Brainstorming, criticism is ruled out, free wiling is welcome it is actually
the group of 4 to 6 people at least who are launched around a table and they perceptually
create thoughts intending to technical a particular issue. So, the combination and
improvement sort here.
Next is Gordon technique. In Gordon technique, there is one team leader; team leader who
announces the broader function, the broad like you say tell me something to make marks.
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People can say, ok to make marks you use pen, use pencil this is one thing using product ok. I
can say to where to make marks is not defined yet to make marks on a ground, use a stone to
make mark, to make marks on a mud use your finger these are all creative techniques,
creative ideas that is rule is coming out. So, those not a kind of the factual or product oriented
ideas, but these are not at all ruled out. No criticism in is practised in no criticism is allowed
in this creative phase so.
In Gordon technique, the broad idea is listed. Broad idea is set and they the team start
working on. And in between, he will take a break and make the notes of the ideas which are
being given. And if the team is getting out of track, he will again try to bring the team into the
track and they will work on the objective which they are to improve. So, next is Check
listing. In this strategy, agendas are planned to tackle a particular issue that is the help our
flood memory; the memory in our back brain. Checklist is check listing questions are out
here.
Like I said, the questions which I put in the starting slides here; what is the product? What is
the cost of the product? What does the product do? What else will do this job? What else is
very important here? So, whatever else is there, what does that cost, this else the other idea.
In this way, the list is made. So, creativity or creative phase in itself is a big topic. We can
talk about each technique at a stretch, but I am just trying to give an overview of what
techniques are the other techniques as well like Delphi method is there.
Then, we have Morphological analysis. In this what we do? We list the factors responsible
for the product, for the product; for example, if I need to manufacture a pen I will list; the
material is one factor, then colour is another factor, colour of the ink colour of ink, then
colour of body is another factor. Then let me say, I have chosen this material, one is plastic,
the outer body one is metallic and one is wooden or simply you put wood here. Colour of the
ink is red, blue, black, green, purple, golden and so on. Colour of the body, let me say simply
black, silver, golden, white or some texture.
So, what does morphological analysis say? It makes a kind of a factorial design; what is
factorial design? If we are having 3 levels of materials; 3 kinds of material, we are having 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 6 levels of ink and we are having 5 levels of my body. Each of the material is
combined with each of the other factors here. Plastic body red colour ink; black colour body,
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plastic body red colour ink; silver colour body. In this case, will have 3 into 6 into 5, 90
alternatives.
This is Morphological analysis each of the alternatives here is selected, but in case of
manufacturing when we do there are certain other techniques like Response, Surface
Methodology and other Taguchi method etc are there, which reduce these number. Those are
actually the number of experiments which are to be carried out. So, in this case, we will do
the full factorial of all the factors would be worked on here.
Next is Attribute listing. In Attribute listing, the first step is to list all the various
characteristics of the product which we are which is under study. The second step is to
change or alter these attributes. By methods of this system, it is consumable to unite new
mixes of quality or trades that will satisfy some current needs better way.
So, next is Evaluation Phase. Evaluation Phase selects and refines the best ideas to develop
into specific value improvement recommendations. So, what we do? We define the
performance measures; we define the performance measures, then we rank the measures here,
then we evaluate the alternatives. So, for instance if I have chosen this Morphological
analysis, I have chosen these alternatives here. So, this all alternatives would be then
evaluated plastic material with red colour ink and with black colour body. So, what would be
the cost? What would be the performance? What would be the acceptance by the customer?
So, we can define the performance mere here as what is the cost? Ok.
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Second is Durability. For instance, if I select plastic metallic and wood body, the durability
would be different, then what is the appearance, if the select that is one of the measure. So,
these are all based on the customer requirements. How would the customer react, then market
acceptance or market response better to put here. This can be put if we have once made the
prototype and just tested in the market; test market has been carried out.
What we do here, we eliminate the low potential ideas, that is we mark the ideas as
acceptable ok, not acceptable and acceptable with some change if there is some minor
change; little change. So, all the ideas are put into one of the categories; the idea acceptable
or is the idea preliminary not acceptable or is the idea acceptable with some change. So,
eliminate low potential ideas here. So, these ideas are acceptable appears to be feasible and
have a relatively high probability of success.
So, the low potential ideas are which are not acceptable. So, that is the ideas will have little or
no potential this time. So, this acceptable with a little change is kind of a maybe this we
selected or maybe not. These ideas have potential, but they appear to need additional
refinement or work before they can become the final proposals. So, then ideas are grouped
together. The similar ideas or the remaining ideas which are selected this the higher potential
ideas only; high potential ideas.
They are grouped according to the similarity. So, the categories are examined and there
examined to determine if they should be modified or combined with some other ideas, those
things happen. Then we select the appropriate idea. Selecting the appropriate idea is, we
select the highest potential idea based on this criterion. These are the idea criteria, criteria or
measures you select the appropriate idea finally, this is the champion idea will serve the
purpose in a better way.
So, we also list the advantages and disadvantages of each idea and keep the record. So, as if
this idea does not work does not go well in the implementation phase, we can select some
other idea from the reservoir.
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So, the next phase is Development Phase. So, in the Development Phase, we determine the
best alternatives, that is made ready for presentation; the alternative for presentation to the
decision maker. So, we conduct a Life-Cycle Cost analysis. Life-Cycle Cost is purchasing
cost + operations cost or you would say operating cost + disposal or replacement cost. First it
like when you purchase your motorbike, the purchasing cost is rupees 40,000 and operating
cost is you spend rupees 2,000 per month on the fuel. Replacement cost is when you sell your
motor bike after 5 years; when you want to change that bike, you will sell it at may be 15,000
rupees.
So, actually this is (-) here, I will correct myself here. Purchasing cost is 40k here, let me say
in 5 years you spent 2,000 per month is 24,000; per year 24 into 5 is about 120 120k on fuel
(-) you sell it at 15k; is your life cycle cost.
In general, the normal cost is just the purchasing cost; that is the price of the product. But it is
recommended to conduct a life cycle analysis to see what is the Life-Cycle Cost? What will
be the replacement cost? What will be the disposal cost of this product ok? So, in this
operating cost may be new tools repair cost is also there; we need to get the bike. Repaired
preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance all those things comes into play here. Then
new tools or fixtures additional materials, new assembly instructions in manufacturing all
those things come into this Life-Cycle Costing.
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Next, we determine the most beneficial alternatives. In evaluating the alternative, the value
engineering team should consult personnel who have knowledge about the item function. We
consult the expert here ok, expert who has the knowledge about the product function, the
operational constraints; experts who is having knowledge on functions, the operational
restrictions, dependability and requirements and so, on. This person will tell us what is the
life cycle benefit? Or do the benefits out way the cost, what are risks? Then we develop the
implementation plans to implement it in the next phase.
The implementation plan for each alternative should include a schedule of the requirement
implementation steps that when and where the specific step has to be conducted. Identify
when would dis-conducted again out of 6 serving man will use this, when who would do this?
Who would do the specific step here? Then they will specify the resource is required, the
time to market. Time to market is the time between the starting of the development of the
product and the time specific point when the product reaches the customer.
So, this development time is time to market. So, then also a necessary documents and timing
requirements, the coordination requirement, documents which are required and so forth. This
is developing implementation plans. We will see the case study in the next lecture, in that will
see all the steps and will see how do we conduct the value engineering on a specific product
and finally, will have the cost savings.
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Now, next I have here is the Implementation Phase. The first step here is Prepare Report.
This report has to be a written report. The oral presentation is also helpful, but written report
is required for the decision maker to see the fact; the data visualisation is used here, will see
the potential savings or may be profit. Then, we enhance the probability approval by
involving the change to status score; because of this or other pressing priorities, a manager
may be slow in making decision.
So, we enhance the probability approval in some way. So, once the approval is made, we
monitor the progress that when would the implementation final implementation or final
manufacture of the product would start. So, implementation progress must be monitored just
as systematically as value engineering study. The value engineering team should ensure the
implementation is actually achieved. So, this has to be a sustainable plan. Sustainable does
not mean the environmental friendly; sustainable means it should be implementable, it should
be a realistic.
Next is Expedite implementation; to minimize delays in the implementation process, the

value engineering team should provide assistance, clear up misconceptions and resolve
problems that may develop in the implementation process. See, minimize delays here by
clearing misconceptions or solving problems that may arise in the process. This is again a
kind of monitoring here. So, this was our value engineering job plan here, we will see how is
this actually carried out in the case study in the next lecture.
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Next we have the range of application of Value Engineering. Value Engineering can be
applied to almost everything; because every project or process has a function anything that
has a function you work on that function. So, value engineering can be applied at any point of
the design or process. We elaborate this thing further; because it is best to apply VE during
design or initial phases only. So, Value Engineering is a problem solving technique. This
technique can be used for developing design criteria.
So, let me see when to apply a Value Engineering? When should be the Value Engineering
applied?
The potential savings from Value Engineering is maximum if it is applied in the initial phase
only. In the planning and analysis phase only if it is applied, the savings are maximum. In the
planning, we review the program, we perform a functional analysis of the facility or of the
resource which are available and the maximum cost, and this illustration is for the
construction site here. So, if Value Engineering is applied when the construction is going to
be started at this point; even the construction has not started, then what would happen? In
some time Value Engineering brings a total transformation of the plans.
The plans or re-planning or re-designing, re-documentation all those things has to be carried
out. And at this point when the construction starts, all the resources are gathered and
therefore, we will have loss here. And if some of the constructions has carried out here, then
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there will total loss, we need to demolish the building and rebuild again; obviously, value
engineering would never be applied at, do not apply VE, but here we can fudge between two.
Planning and analysis systematic design; design development. Some savings of Value
Engineering would be there, cost savings would be there. So, at design phase again I am
repeating, the benefits are tremendous. Any changes to the program at this stage have very
little, if any impact on schedule on the total project here. The project would be developed
fewer change is redesigns and greater understanding by all parties.
At planning and analysis an independent Value Engineering team can do the job, but at the
later stage is here, they are other stakeholders, other contributors who are already working on
the project. So, Value Engineering as to has team has to has team has to have coordination
with these people here. So, Value Engineering should be applied, when should be the value
engineering applied? The answer is apply during planning stage.
So, I have a task for you people. So, today I give you a task regarding FAST Diagram. So, the
product which you have selected in the previous lecture, you identified the functions. You
have seen what are the primary; what is the primary function of the product, what are the
primary functions of your components, then you also seen the secondary functions. You have
seen the functions which are work functions and sell functions. I would like you to put those
functions in a Fast Diagram repeats and those functions in a diagrammatic way of the product
which you have chosen, then see what is the scope of your study, this is regarding Fast
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Diagram. Second task here is regarding the creativity. So, as I told before if possible, you
please group into 3 persons; 3 to 5 persons, then you if even if you have different products,
one person has chosen product A, second person product B C D E. Let you should all work
together on product A, first on come up with the ideas for product A.
How to accomplish function X? How to accomplish function Y? How to accomplish function

Z of product A, please work on this. Creative create ideas, use some technique like
Brainstorming, then you can even checklist various questions just enlist the ideas. And in the
next task when I will do the case study in the next lecture, then we will carry these ideas, will
evaluate these ideas, will put the cost to each idea. And then we will evaluate each idea based
on the certain years, certain criteria that we will select. So, let us meet in the next lecture
where will see the case study on Value Engineering.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 13
Value Engineering, a case study
Welcome back to the course. So, in this week we are trying to study value engineering.
So, today I will take value engineering case study; a case study on value engineering.
I will select a product, apply value engineering methodology.
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The product that is selected is a foot operated air pump; you might have seen this product
we apply pressure here. Apply pressure using your feet or single foot and this is the
cylinder and piston the air goes to this pipe and inflates your car tyre or the other object
you want to put air in.
So, the objective of study here is to improve the value of a foot operated air pump by
cost reduction using seven phases of value engineering; here seven phases were used that
is the general phase was also used. This was the study carried out with one of my M-
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Tech students; so, actually the whole study took several months to do, but I will just take
some part of that to explain how value engineering is carried out.
So, in general phase there are certain general rules number one is use good human
relation value engineering team is over dependent on data collection, analysis, data
implementation so; obviously, the HR human relations would come into play. So,
inspired team work this is also the kind of human relations thing; one of the fundamental
principles of value engineering is to employ teamwork, a team can only work to conduct
full value engineering study.
Now, apply good business judgement; this is a general statement that the judgement has
being based upon the facts and data and used quite often in this decision making. So, this
is the kind of the general phase or orientation phase.
Next, we select the product; these are general guidelines for selection of the product
these are also given by Miles; the founder of value engineering he says it should have at
least three different subassemblies if it is a mechanical product three different
subassemblies is a group of actions that is the components could be made into groups for
example, if I say I selected my pen as my product before. So, in that I have 5 or 6
components body front nut back nut refill four components were there.
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So, these four components can be grouped into maybe I am working on the body front
nut and back nut one group; second group is body, front nut and refill; third group might
be only refill in only refill we have ink, the tube and tip these are the groups. So, these
are kind of subassemblies here; so, it should have at least eight to sixteen components or
action these are the guidelines given by miles, but it is not very much necessary that
these must components have to be there.
It should be in current usage or planned usage that is the absolute products are not
recommended here absolute or not in used products. No major change in the item should
be under study or in process if the item is already under study that is some major change
is going to happen that conducting value engineering that would not help.
It can help if we know that change; if we know that what change is going to happen and
if value engineering can even help in that way as well; it can enhance that process the
change that is being carried out. So, it must be something on which changes can be made
after the submission of recommendations that is the decision maker should have the
power or authority to make the changes its purpose is or function should be definable and
understandable; these are general guidelines for selection of the product.
So, the next is information phase information phase the first step we are what we doing is
determining the cost and specifications; specification is this drawing is made drawing
made in design software. All the components here are made and they are then assembled
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the use of this technique is to determine the cost of various components of the product.
So, that the value engineering team can identify the poor value and high cost areas in
function phase for analysis.
So, this is the table that gives us the material details; so, this is called bill of materials.
So, if you see we have various components this is again the tear down; tear down process
or in design software’s, we call it exploded view exploded view of the assembly.
So, this product has these much number of components 24 components are there for this
is the component one here is base plate. This base plate is connected using this
component nine that is pin with this lever the lever is further connected with the
component 10; that is foot pedal this foot pedal is here foot pedal we apply pressure this
foot pedal and also we have component seven and eight has the pins or pivets; then we
have the piston here this is the cylinder component 5 is cylinder cap is there and in
between in this we have this piston mechanism here this all is piston mechanism these
are the components of my product.
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Next what I do? To elaborate the information phase further I put the bill of materials and
cost of parts; if I do not put the cost of the parts it is just bill of materials if I put the cost
of the parts this further elaborates our materials details here. We have the base plate is
costing rupees 25; it is in one quantity here actually the total cost of the base plate is
three rupees 32 of which rupees 25 is the material cost and rest rupees 7 is the operation
cost that is being carried out to manufacture this base plate.
And in this case foot lever the cost of material is rupees 12 cost per piece comes to
rupees 15 that is rupees 3 is the operation cost; that is 32 - 25 or 15 - 12; these are the
operation cost. As you know the total cost of the product is material cost + operations
cost; I have just put one element here that is operation cost this involves everything
labour cost and over heads. So, that two components two quantities here; so 15 into 2
total cost is 30; in this way we enlist all the materials.
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Next comes the function phase in function phase the functions of the components under
study are defined just to recall function is which make the product work or sell functions
are classified as primary functions and secondary functions at part level as well as
assembly level will see how do we do this.
Or defining the function there is certain rules here the functions of all the parts of the
pump are defined rule 1 the function should be a accomplished in two words verb and a
noun and active verb and measurable noun.
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For example, the function join parts join is verb part is noun rule 2 all functions should
be divided into two levels of importance it is primary and secondary. Primary function it
expresses the primary purpose which is only one for the part of the product the product
could be doing multiple function, could be doing may be 5 or 6 or 7; may be 10 functions
ok, but there could be only one primary functions for which the product is made all other
would be secondary.
Now, secondary function it expresses the purpose of that support the primary function,
but does not directly accomplish it or it is resulted from specific design approach.
We will see this; so, this is dividing all the components into the function the base plate;
the basic function of base plate is to provide support provide support to the cylinder it is
the primary function.
Secondary functions are ‘provide location’ for the pin location for the cylinder, with
stand impact when the pressure is applied it has weight and impact, provide clearance is
between the levers between these levers and the base plate it has to provide some
clearance here as well. Then foot lever; the primary function of foot lever is to transmit
motion transmit motion to our cylinder to the cylinder piston mechanism here; this is the
primary function. So, all other are provide location for the pins and other joining features
here, facilitate the movement join parts with stand impact these are all secondary
functions.
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Now, we can see at assembly level the primary function that is identified is generate
pressure; this is the primary function of my assembly that is of my pump; foot operated
pump that is my product. And if the primary function of the product exists in our
component here; it would be the primary function of the component here this is for sure.
So, we cannot have ‘generate pressure’ here and that becomes the secondary function
because generate pressure is the primary function of the product for which the product is
being made. So, this would be an; this should be the primary function of our component
which has this.
Now, next is cylinder cap also you can we can see the various functions here. So, I have
just selected ten components here the whole other component would divided to you in
the notes. So, we have piston rod, piston rod also has this function primary function you
consider there are certain components like piston rod pivot, piston rod spring, bucket
washer metallic, bucket plastic bucket these all are the components that helps to fix and
operate the piston in the proper way; here this movement of our piston is being carried
out. So, these do not have the primary function of assembly in them, but in the present
design they do exists we will see are they essential or just desirable.
If they are found to be essential components will keep them if they are just desirable that
that is the product could operate, product could do it its main function without these
components we can eliminate them that as well we can find some other alternative.
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So, next we will evaluate the functions for evaluate of the functions for evaluation of
functional relationship there is need to determine the relative importance of various
functions. The numerical evaluation of functional relationship is carried out here all the
functions of the parts under study are considered from the functional definition
worksheet; these listed functions are then allotted with the key from A to T; there are
number of functions like join parts generate pressure with stand impact; we enlist these
functions and denote them with some letter some notations from A to T; there are these
many number of functions here.
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Then what we do we make this numerical evaluation chart here how do we do that? I will
just let you know.
To decide the importance of a function following weight factors are considered and
allotted to the function depending on the difference of importance between them. What is
happening here we have given these weight factors 1, 2 and 3 for minor medium and
major difference in the importance of function. In this case if I have put B 1 here; B 1
means function B is important than function A with a minor difference 1 is for minor, 2
is for medium, 3 is for major.
Let me take an example of medium difference function G is important than function H

with a medium difference function G that is transmit motion is important than provide
alignment with medium difference of importance let us pick some other here function F
is important than function M; function F here is join part that is important than function
M function has F from this side, M from this side. It is important function M with a
major difference of importance that is my join parts is much important than provide
reservoir; provide reservoir that is provide space for the piston. So these ratings are done
by the experts; experts or team of experts; experts means they do it based on based upon
the customer requirements.
So, a customer would like to have the parts joint that is the function than he would think
of to provide a reservoir. So, function F is much important than function M here. So, let
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us see two functions which are close here let me see this H 1; this function H is
important because function H is important letter H is put in; what is the difference as
potted? It is minor difference importance H 1 function H that is provide alignment is
important than function K that is restrict movement by minor difference important that is
the importance of this functions are very close.
Then the similar way we put the letter whichever is important function for example, this
O 2 again I will take one more example here O 2; this O means O is important function
than this matrix O and I; O is important than I and the difference of importance is
medium. So, what we do? We have this rate as function B is important from function A
by minor difference therefore, in the cell it is written B 1 function B is important than A
by minor difference.
So, in this way this rating factor is used to evaluate the function numerically. Now what
happens? We calculate the weight of the functions; now this is the weight of the function
A, wherever we have A that is A 1 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 3 + 2 that comes up to 12. Similarly,
I will take some other example this is function M; M 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + on this side M 1
+ 1 + 1 + 2 + 2. Now this is all added for M; these numbers and these numbers where
ever M exists so, how it is happening is M 2 + 2 is equal to 4 + 1; 5 + 1 6 + 2; 8 + 1; 9 +
1; 10 + 2; 12 + 2; 14 + 2 16 + 2 total 18.
Similarly, for each function for O this where ever we have O in the column for the O and
in the row for the O these weights could be added. Now because the generate pressure is
our basic function L that would have maximum weight we have the function L the here
weight here is 45. And one function you always find the way to be 0 that is least
important function that is function S that is provide identification provide identification
is nothing here they have put the sticker the logo of the company here.
That customer does not care at all because we are talking about the customer
requirements or customer needs or customer view point here. So, what we do we add 1 to
all the function 12 + 1; 13, 11 + 1; 12, 27 + 1; 28 so, on we add 1 to get its adjusted
weight factor here.
Then total of the adjusted weights is made here 361; this is normalized with respect to
100; so this comes out to be percentage adjusted weight that is 13 / 367 what is the
percentage contribution? 3.5 percent; 12 / 367, the percentage is 3.2 the maximum would
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be for 45 this L function; that is 46 / 367 that is 12 percent contribution. So, this is the
weight of the function that is the customer are trying to look for function L first they
want something to generate pressure something to inflate their objects, then the second
weight we can see here is 9.8; they want function N function N is transmit; they want to
transmit the pressure from the pump to their tyres, this is function N; the second highest
level of weight. This is the weight of the function based on the customer requirement.
Now, next what we do? We confirm that the numerical evaluation is correct; following
checks of consistency are carried out as given by Mudge. He says that the data obtained
from numerical evaluation should match the customer requirements; this is based on that
only. Weight factor for least important function must be 0 that is the function S in this
case; in the present case. No two functions should have equal weights; that means, no
these weight factors should be equal.
Then no loop formation should be there loop formation is if we have for in case if we
have 2; 2; I am talking about this P 2 here 2 here and if it is 2 here and 2 here this makes
a closed loop had a 2 here and 2 here 2, 2, 2, 2. So, there is no closed loop formation; so,
these are certain checks for our correct numerical evaluation. Actually, we added 1 here
because we will use this as a factor somewhere and if we use 0; 0 by that total would be
0 contribution, it has least contribution this function S has least contribution that is 1 by
367 and we do not want any function to have 0 contribution.
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Now, this says the line diagram the plot for the functions line diagram or data
visualization is used also this is known as screw plot.
Line diagram could be any line like this in the plot; when the plot is like this it is flowing
down like this kind of plot is known as screw plot this is line diagram. So, what is
happening here is.
We have high point L that indicates the basic function of the object studied the AC
function is generate pressure that is the point L. Next what we have? First major drop
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that is L to N that is isolation of basic and secondary functions secondary level functions;
that is from L to N that is the first drop, this becomes our primary functions P of here is
primary function.
Second drop is here at N; this is secondary function functions level 2; this is actually
level 1, then the rest of the functions after function F are secondary functions level 3;
level 3. This is a kind of illustration that identifies the top function that is the highest
order function L and shows that how the functions since in the one level that is the level
2 and in the other level 3 three are closed to each other. So, this is the difference in
weightage here from N to F this difference is here; for j to S this difference is there this is
all this levelling or drops are mentioned here.
Next is function cost matrix and value improvement potential. After the relative
importance of each function is identified, now it is essential to determine as how much is
it costing to provide particular function we have given the weights to the functions. Now
we need to identify the cost of the function, as I said before value is utility per unit cost if
we know weight we know utility. And if we know the cost of that we can take that ratio
to find the value the cost of components is distributed to the function performed by them
and hence total cost of accomplishing each function and percentage is taken here. So,
will come up with value improvement potential here.
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I will show you with this chart; so, this base plate has these functions. So, this plate has
functions A, B, C, D, E in it that is provide support provide location it is an impact and
so, on and foot lever as these functions function A, B, C, E, F, G and H; what we are
doing here is this was the total cost of the base plate we have divided this cost into the
functions rupees 32 is divided into these components out of 32 rupees 12 is for function a
rupees 10 for function B, 5 for C, 4 for d and so, on rupees 30 is again divided into these
components here.
What happens here each of the components is divided into functions at the cost of the
components is divided into its functions. This is again done by the experts who are
manufacturing experts; they know what is the cost of this specific function. For example,
to provide support there has to be some material that can withstand load there is a to
withstand impact they have has to be some material cost of the material is there, the cost
of the operation is there; considering all these points these components are divided into
functions there their cost element is divided into its functions.
So, with this what we get? We get cost of these functions, cost of getting function B is
the total cost of column B here. This is the total cost of function B; similarly, if I say cost
of function L that is my primary function is this much rupees 43 this is rupees 36.
Again, I take the total of this cost what I do? I take the total of this cost 14 pus 36 + 41 +
6; this would come out to be see 351 and this would also be the total cost of my pump 32
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+ 30 + 17 + 22 component wise and function wise; this total cost would be rupees 351
now fourteen by 351 is my cost contribution; 36 / 351 is my cost contribution for
function B. For function L it is 43 / 351; the cost contribution is 12 percent. Now what I
do? I take my VIP Value Improvement Potential; VIP, your Value Improvement
Potential is exact opposite of value what we defined.
In this case I take various the percentage cost over percentage weight. So, VIP is equal to
percentage cost over percentage weight; we actually want to reduce the cost here if the
cost is high this VIP would be greater than 1, VIP greater than 1 implies poor value
function and we will work on that.
So, let us see in foot operated pump following on the poor value functions A, B, C, D, F,
S, H and T. Now foundation had being laid for application of various techniques to
generate every possible solution to the problem. These are the functions on which we
will work on till this point we identified the poor value functions. So, the value and
analysis part is over.
So, now will go to value engineering in which we will work on these functions.
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This is an indifference line; indifference line indifference line is the plot between weight
of the function and the cost of the function. That is the functions which fall below this
line that is their cost is higher than their weight are the poor value functions.
Now, next comes the creativity phase; in creativity phase we create creative worksheet.
First, we group the functions which can be worked on; these are the parts I have selected
base plate, piston rod pivot, lever spring support pin, foot lever pivot, lever spring these
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are the parts and the functions provide support provide location withstand impact provide
clearance and joint parts.
So, working on this group of parts and functions we will generate the idea. So, this is one
idea use 25.4 millimetre square for base plate, round bar for piston rod pivot, cotter pins
for foot lever, search new suppliers for lever spring. So, these are all mechanical
engineers thing because now we are into manufacturing then second idea we have. And
these are all ideas which are practically feasible; practically feasible or preliminary, it
seems to be feasible. Some ideas might not be selected or might not be feasible in that
technical or in the cost evaluation phase other.
So, this is creative worksheet one continued we have seven ideas actually; they are not
only seven ideas when we work on the creativity phase, multiple ideas number of ideas
comes down. So, out of those only seven ideas are listed which are practically feasible.
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So, similarly creative worksheet two the; this are the parts, these are the functions they
are grouped together. In the similar way in this study about 7 to 8 worksheets were made
and actually 12 worksheets were made out of which it was found that 4 worksheets, 4
creative ideas or 4 groups of the parts and functions did not work and they worked on the
8 creative worksheets and changes were made.
So, I have listed only 2 worksheets here just to have the overview of how this conducted.
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Next, I will go to evaluation phase; the objective of the valuation phase of value
engineering job plan is to analyse the result of creative phases; skilful applications is
triggered at for the prevention of unnecessary cost and development of value alternative
in order to guard these possibilities this phase implies following techniques, establish
cost on all ideas number 1, number 2; evaluation by comparison.
How is this carried out let us see establishing cost; cost of the ideas that is cost on all
feasible ideas is established for this purpose ideas are rated into the following manner.
Acceptable idea and an unacceptable idea; now the cost for acceptable ideas is estimated
and allocated and reasons for unaccepting an idea if we do is mentioned.
So, in evaluation phase a thorough review of various alternative to select the best idea of
cost reduction is done. it is kept in mind or made sure that the product is not cheapen or
degraded making sure that there is no reduction in durability or ease of operation or other
aspects.
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Below the requirement of so, this is function evaluation worksheet 1; in this is the idea
same idea which we had in the creative phase. And this is the cost of the present design,
this is the idea this is status of idea is acceptable. Then we put the cost of this idea. Total
cost of this idea for these components this group of components is rupees 77; the
previous cost was rupees 67 because this was in creativity phase, we did not think about
the cost much. So, this is greater cost idea.
Similarly, second idea is rupees 1 or 7; third idea is rupees 67 if cost is the criteria these
idea would be rejected. This is equally important to the present design that is rupees 67.
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Similarly, we can see the idea 4, 5, 6, 7 had this cost rupees 217, 92, 117, 45 this is the
only idea here that has the cost less than that existing cost of the group here.
Similarly, the this is the function evaluation worksheet 2 in which these ideas 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 are put into the status all ideas acceptable that is they are feasible practically these
can be done and cost of acceptable ideas are put, it can be seen that most of the ideas
most of the ideas cost is high and, this rupees 35 is less than rupees 57.
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So, evaluation by a comparison after allocating the cost to the ideas; the ideas are
evaluated by comparison by using appropriate criteria of evaluation for selecting the
final acceptable ideas. These all ideas are compared based on certain measures, as we
discussed the criteria here selected is cost saving, durability, ease of implementation and
ease of operation; first what we do we rank these criteria.
How do we do that? The same method numerical evaluation is there we see that A is
important than B that is cost is important than durability with a medium difference. Then
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cost is important than C that is ease of implementation then with major difference.
Similarly, we find the difference in weights and we take the total 2 + 3 + 1 is 6 for A, for
B it is 2 + 1 3 for C it is 0; C is not at all in this triangle; for D it come down to 2. So, we
add 1 and we add this adjusted weight.
So, for decision matrix we choose this criteria decision matrix is made finally, to select
the suitable alternative by ranking, ideas are ranked by finding value scores of ideas
using weights from numerical evaluation of criteria; these weights are used and a 5 point
scale mentioned as under how do we put that in our decision matrix?
We also use scale for cost savings that is not saving 0 more than 20 percent saving 5 we
calculate the percentage of savings if it is there.
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So, what happens here is in decision matrix one we have put the parts and functions in
the same way, we put the 5 point scale here. Now we see that the function that is cost;
function B durability function B is implementation and function D is operation these are
the weights of this function and we see that there is no cost saving only one alternative
was there in which cost saving was there. And the cost saving was more than 20 percent
more than 20 percent; that means, this rating 5 is given.
So, this rating 5 * weight 7; 7 * 5 is equal to 35 similarly the points for durability are
given, these are again the group of experts who give the opinion for that they say that if
this idea is there durability would be rated 3, the durability would be good the
implementation is also good, but the ease of operation would be fair. So, these are the
numbers which are taken from this scale; all the numbers all the numbers in brackets are
taken from of this scale these are the ratings which are given by experts and these are the
numbers at the lower side this the number is 3 * 4; 3 * 4 is equal to 12. This is 4 * 4; this
4 * 4 4 * 4 equal to 16; this works similar to what we did in QFD; Quality Function
Deployment.
So, in this way we have the total score for the ideas here this is the score finally, the
weights are considered, the criteria are taken into consideration here. So, this is 12 + 3 +
6; 21, 12 + 2 + 6; 20; we see that the maximum score is of idea 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; idea 7. So,
this is the idea that is selected that can be implemented.
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Similarly, we find the scores of various ideas for various groups for based on various
worksheets from creative worksheets; we develop the functional development worksheet,
then we have decision matrix.
So, in this case this is the maximum score this idea is selected.
Now, comes the implementation phase; what we have done we have selected this idea
use sheet metal fabrication process for foot lever and foot pedal and threaded are under
pivot. We have selected this idea use sheet metal fabrication process for base plate and
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so on. Now we need to see is there any idea which has contradiction with each other is;
can we combine one or two ideas?
Because there are multiple worksheets; so, the combination of the ideas or if the ideas
are contradicting those are taken care of. So, the proposal finalized after evaluation are
brought forward to investigation phase; for combining the changes made in the same
parts in different groups; please note combining the changes made in the same parts in
the different groups.
For example, in base plate if the change is made in creative worksheet 1 and again in I
would better say decision matrix one and in decision matrix 5; we will see is the change
same or do we need to redo the things. It is observed the most of the final proposals
involved different parts except for the foot pedal which is there in the final proposals
decision matrix 2 and decision matrix 6; it was found that this foot pedal was there in
both the matrix.
Next is presentation of cost; the new bill of material is made showing the changes
modifications, additions, eliminations, presentation, specifications; new drawings are
made the exploded view or the tear down way is again presented. So, this is our new cost
of the parts with bill of materials.
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So, this total cost here is rupees 252; earlier the cost was more than rupees 300. So, in
this case the certain modifications are made; these parts are eliminated parts and some
parts are newly added new added parts are there and some parts are just modified.
So, we present this to the decision maker and tell them that the cost savings is this much;
the cost before value engineering is rupees 351 after value engineering is the this is the
same rupees 99 per pump. And the company on which we worked manufactured 200
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pumps per month that is it was total 2400 pumps per annum; total saving was this much
it is rupees 99 * 2400.
So, this is the potential of value engineering 28.2 percent about 30 percent of savings.
So, we had this value is equal to x / cost new value is x / 0.7 of the cost; 30 percent of the
cost reduced; this 0.7 is actually this comes from x / 100 - 30 /100 into new cost.
So, this is how do how we implement value engineering; also when we implement value
engineering we would always find some limitations in our study.
Some drawbacks or something which we were not able to do or some things which we
have observed, but we will do that in future so, those are always to be listed in this case
new pump has almost all parts of sheet metal fabricated. So, the pump manufacturer
company has to be dependent on the manufacturer for the production. Because in house
production will necessitate the installation of new plant equipment with the machines
this was for the specific case study.
Many criteria like time for implementation resistance of implementation employees to

change which although are not so, significant, but might also have given more rigorous
result are not considered. We will list the limitations and take them in future and the
ideas which are not accepted in value engineering in the evaluation phase the creative
ideas, those are also note just thrown away they are kept in record. In future also if we
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conduct value engineering on the same kind of product or even if on the same product
those help; so, this was all about value engineering.
So, I have a task for you people; the product you selected you did function analysis, now
you need to identify poor value functions here; using this numerical evaluation. So, that
you need to allocate cost, cost for function. cost for each component and that is for the
component cost would be divided. You need to compare the functions according to their
importance this whole exercise is to be carried out; identify the poor value functions then
bring ideas that is creativity I think this you already did.
But now you will work on the poor value function that is use VIP; Value Improvement
Potential is more than 1 you work on these functions. Then try to conduct the evaluation
and implementation phase as well. So, you will have to apply lot of judgement here; a
team is desirable thing here if possible this was all about value engineering.
Next, I will discuss, rapid proto typing in this course in which we will see what are the
what is rapid prototyping; how rapid prototyping is related to additive manufacturing,
rapid prototyping techniques; we will see the application. Then we will see what is plant
layout; we will see various kinds of layout and I will take to smart systems and
operations lab in IIT, Kanpur where we will see the plant simulation software, we will
see how the plant layout factory design is being carried out and let us meet next in rapid
prototype module.
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Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 14
Material Selection (part 1 of 2)
In this lecture we will more focus towards Material Selection. So, today there is a big
spectrum of materials available for the product designer to choose and interestingly, today the
materials have become something like cooking. So, it add to taste, same way here you add
material to the base material to get the necessary properties.
Materials are of three basic classification; one is polymer, metal, and then you have ceramics.
So, you have to decide which one to choose and today interestingly, you have a
combinational material which is called as composites. So, where in which you use polymer
and metal, polymer and ceramic, you can have metal and ceramic. And, today the technology
has gone to such an extent you can have a combination of all the three; that means, to say you
can have a material which is made out of metal, polymer and ceramics together to meet out
the customer requirement or the products requirement.
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So, in this lecture we will have the following content. The first one is going to be the
importance of material selection which is very important because this is directly proportional
to your cost and performance, ok. So, importance of material selection, then factors affecting
material selection process, material selection procedure and then design recommendations.
So, this is; these are the four topics we will try to cover in our lecture.
So, importance of material selection: For a successful functioning and the feasible low cost
manufacturing of any product the choice of material is important. A simple example is your
chair; initially these chairs were made out of wood, then it changed into steel and today it is
all made out of plastics. Initially, the customer could not digest how can I sit on a plastic
chair, but the product designers presented the chair in such a nice fashion.
They brought in lot amount of comfort in the chair plus they tried to have maximum strength
which got integrated into the chair, the design of the chair was very wonderful. So, this
slowly over a period of time plastic chairs have got accepted by people and today plastic
chairs are the most common thing you find in any living room or dining hall in any house. So,
it is the material which changed from it is properties from a soft material to a very hard
material and a design which is integrated into the material made it a robust structure for
people to sit on it.
It is widely accepted that the final cost of the manufactured product is largely determined at
the design stage. So, here at this point clearly states that the designer, product designer has to
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have an idea or has to have a team member who is in material expert in his team to make a
proper choice of material and manufacturing you make a wonderful product, but if it could
not be manufactured then the product fails miserably. So, it is always good to have a
materials expert in the design stage itself and try to keep manufacturing so that you make
your final cost less. So, this is widely accepted that the final cost of manufacturing a product
is dependent largely at the design stage itself.
The primary selection of material is used to construct or make a product should lead to
essential properties, least overall cost, easy for fabrication and environmental friendly. Till
now we were not bothered about environmental friendly. Today, we talk about sustainability
in the products or sustainable materials. So, this environmental friendliness is also talked up
in a big way. So, plastic bags for example, slowly are getting removed or processing is done
such that the plastic can be modified or reused into a different product.
So, you have to have a proper for selecting a material, you should essentially know it is
properties and it has to have a least cost and it has to have the ease in manufacturing. Ease in
manufacturing is very very important. For example, plastic parts are very economical because
it is one shot process. So, the fabrication is very easy whereas, when you take steel, it has
multiple steps have to be done to manufacture and make a product. So, this is what ease for
fabrication. So, these are the prime selection for the material construction we have.
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So, when we talk about importance of material selection, shape is very important. Shape and
size is very important. Shape means goes to form, then there is a link between function and
then there is a link from the shape to the process, shape and size to the process. You change
the dimensions if you go larger and larger and larger in your dimensions, the process which is
involved in making those large dimension products are going to be offered through a different
process. So, process and then; here are materials.
So, the function you have to do a material selection which is here and this in turn is linked or
the properties linked are material attributes, process profiles and environmental profile. So,
where are you going to use, what is the process to be done, material attributes how are they,
what are they which is going to make the product very successful is there. So, the function
with this if you try to take this as material selection they look at these properties and they are
linked with the process. So, this happens to be back and forth the functioning, processes,
shape and size and this, all these things go back and forth to get a good product.
So, the requirements and constraints come from the customers. So, you will have technical
you have commercial and you have government constraints which are there and then this will
lead to classification of clarification of need, conceptual design embodiment design, detailed
design and manufacturing design they in turn are linked with the material selection or
material attributes. So, this one is again a back and forth motion; these are the typical steps
which are involved in designing.
So, if you try to look at the knowledge source where do they get from; education, experience,
customer, organization, literature and vendor. So, it is nothing, but the voice of the customer
which we discussed in the QFD. So, this is what it is.
So, these are put together, this entire schematic diagram integrates function, shape size
process, knowledge and the constraints with the material selection. So, all these things put
together are very important when you try to choose a material.
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So, the factors affecting the material selection process; one is physical form, size, weight,
shape. Today, we look at aspect a product to be as light as possible and then we also look at a
product which has more comfort that means, to say more customized. The shape has to be
very smooth and it is sleek. They are looking at shapes which are very elegant weight which
is as light as possible and we also look at products which are sized as small as possible. For
example, cell phones these sizes have gone down. The first cordless phone which came into
the market had was at around the weight of 1.5 kilos. Today, we talk about a cell phone of
100 grams or less than 100 grams.
So, then this one the mechanical factor is the other thing where in which we talk about the
strength, modulus and fatigue. So, the strength modulus strength is talked about in the plastic
region, modulus is talked about in the elastic region fatigue is nothing, but cyclic loading
happening on the on the material which it has to the product on the product which it has to
withstand for a longer time.
So, for example, a chair, chair when a person sits it is going to be an impact load and then he
gets up and then once again he sits or he slides. It is cyclically it is getting loaded, impact
load is there. When one person gets up the other person sits, it is another load which comes
in. So, it is a compressive load which comes here. So, it is fatigue. So, all these factors are
mechanical factors.
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So, here are size factors, these are mechanical factors. Then you will have processing and
fabrication factors, say for example, whether to be done by casting, deformation. Casting
means you try to take it to a higher temperature melt it and then pour it into a die casting.
Deformation is you apply load and you try to deform a material; it is deformation and then
you have a subtractive process called material removal wherein which this, the unwanted
material is removed and then you get the feature what you want.
So, the processing and fabrication factor is also important to decide whether what is the
material for the given product, the life of the component and factors like corrosion, wear
resistance this is also very important and then the cost and the availability plays a major role.
So, the five major factors which play a major role are physical factors, mechanical factors,
processing factors, life factor; life and component factors and finally, cost.
So, let us take a simple example and just work for a product. I would like to develop a spoon
which is used in party and my customers are going to be customers are from the age of 5
years to 70 years. So, this is what I decide. So, I want to make a spoon and the cost what I
give is going to be per spoon I am going to give rupees 2 per spoon and I would also try to
have the spoon which looks very close to that of a metal, little spoon, ok. Naturally, by
looking at the cost, you can quickly say that it cannot be a metal spoon.
So, I have to look for alternatives in ceramic spoons or I can look for wooden spoons or I can
look for polymer spoons, ok. So, then this is what I conclude. So, first what I do is I try to
take polymer, I try to take wood or I try to take ceramic, but what is the problem with
ceramic? Ceramic is always brittle. So, I try to remove this option also. So, I am left with
only two options, with these two options I will start working.
So, first I would look at what should be this polymer material or wood material, what is the
maximum size I can make, what is the intricate shapes I can make in the spoon and what is
the weight; maximum we can give it for that spoon and I have said it is 2 rupees and this
spoon has to be also long lasting ok. So, if it is to be long lasting. So, then you can remove
wood, but if it decides to have a use and throw spoon. So, both these materials can be
considered next.
So, from here I move to the next one. So, I have chosen these two physical factors; size shape
and weight I choose these two metal go ahead. Next factor is I look for strength modulus and
fatigue. This is very important because when people try to eat heavy when that spoons are
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loaded very heavy it should not deflect. Second thing, it should not ascend when I start using
in hot environment it should not deform very fast. So, now, what I do is I try to take these
two spoons and I proceed further, but moment I said that it has to withstand heat then, the
polymer spoon goes away. What I am left with now? Wood. So, now, I choose wood because
wood can withstand all these things. So, I move to the next one.
Now, I should decide a process for making wood spoons, the processes has to be decided. So,
when I talk about wood so, the subtractive process, machining is one. The other one is I try to
take a sheet of wood and then I try to press it; try to shear it and then I try to give a shape to it
by heat. So, that I get the impression of a spoon. So, you see here the processing route is
completely different from whatever was thought about for a wood or other things.
Next, I move to this factor and I say it has to have corrosion resistance and wear resistance,
wooden spoon can withstand that. Wear resistance of course, if it is a use and throw spoon,
so, you do not bother much, right. So, then we look at cost, yes; wood is available and the
standard things can be manufactured. So, the cost and availability the wood fulfils it can be
taken further. Suppose, you decide to choose polymer as an alternative and today there is a
technology where in which you can do metalizing of polymers which has become a very
common feature. So, when you look at spoons today, it looks as though it is a metal spoon,
but it is a polymer spoon.
So, if you make that choice the processing route is completely different. Then the life cycle is
completely different. The mechanical properties are completely different. So, looking at the
options whatever a customer wants, you can keep start changing the material and if you make
a wrong choice of material, you might not be able to meet out the customers demand, ok. So,
this factors which affect the material selection process, all the five factors are very important.
They are all links for to the material selection; factors affecting the material selection.
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So, the physical factors as I discussed earlier it is size, shape, weight of the material is
needed. The space availability for the component is also very required, is also very important.
So, when I talked about the example of a spoon; spoon is a single part which is a product, but
many a times in reality you will have several parts put together forms a sub-assembly.
Several sub-assemblies put together forms a main assembly, ok.
So, the shape of the space available for the component is also very important because you
might increase. For example, if you choose a material with lower density, so, here the volume
is dictated not the weight for example, cotton old taking of a cotton wool the volume is
dictated not the weight ok. So, you should understand the space. So, when you choose the
material also you should choose in such a way it tries to fit in the space which is available.
So, what are the mechanical factors? The mechanical factors which are very important are the
capacity withstanding the stress strain. So, we always go by the stress strain graph for the
given material. So, if it is a ductile material it goes like this, if it is a brittle material it goes
like this. So, it stands here. So, we always look at what are the stress strain behaviour
responses for a given material such that it can meet the requirements. The strength, ductility,
modulus, fatigue say strength, creep, are some of the mechanical properties that influence
what material needs to be used. Many a times it will be pretty interesting to see all of a
sudden your flower pot which was hanging, fails. So, it is, it has failed because of the creep
behaviour.
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So, what happens polymer is not having a very good creep resistance. So, that is why people
suggest whenever you put a flower pot which is hanging, please hand it were using a steel rod
or steel wire. But, the only problem with the steel wire it does not have the freedom of easily
changing or manuring to the requirement whereas, a polymer has that facility. So, when you
try to choose this you have to see those things and second thing, it is also the when you see
the rope which we use for drying clothes, so, what happened that also fails in creep behaviour
and it also fails when it is exposed to temperature.
For example, comes summer, the temperature goes to 40 - 45 degrees and it is oh, it is for 8
hours or 7 hours it constantly maintains then immediately the polymer starts yielding
whereas, a metal does not yield in those points, but when you try to choose a metal, metal
always corrodes when you try to put a wet cloth on top of it. So, polymer has its advantage.
So, you have to strike a balance between these two.
So, today what has happened people have started buying polymer with a metal coating on top
of it. It works fine or people have started taking metal core and the polymer tube on top of it
which is just like your wire, those rope materials are used for drying of cloths. So,
mechanical factors are also very important for material selection.
Next is processing we have discussed enough. So, if you want to produce any part which is
very economical, we look for polymer and then we also look for a process called as injection
moulding. So, injection moulding; the cycle time is enormously less. It is there about 45
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seconds you get spoons made. So, injection moulding is a process whereas, when you try to
look at metals and if you want to do it at very economical price, so, then what we do is we
always go for metal forming. So, that means, to say sheet metal pieces are used; sheet metal.
Sheet metal are used so that it can start making it.
So, casting and deformation process are constant volume process where in which the starting
material and ending, if you sum up the end products it will be almost the same. It is a
constant volume process. Here, it is not thought of this process is not thought of for a mass
production. Mass production, where the product cost is economical. The life of the
component plays an important factor and the cost and availability also plays a very very
important role in choosing the material.
The like in biology, botany and in zoology, we have a taxonomy followed. So, here in
material selection also we follow a taxonomy which we talk about family, class, subclass and
members, ok. So, a range of materials can be subdivided into families; families further will be
divided into classes; classes will be further divided into sub class and subclass will be divided
into members. So, why is it done, suppose, if you are able to you are able to identify the
customer need and you are looking for a material for your product so, then by do by looking
at this you can quickly find out which material suits you. So, each member is characterized
by a set of attributes, its properties.
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So, look at it here you have family which is ceramic, glass, metal, polymer, elastomer and
composite. These are all family is attached to a kingdom called material. When I choose a
metal it is basically; ferrous and non-ferrous. So, it is steel and then you have non-ferrous
materials. So, it is steel and all the non-ferrous copper alloy, aluminium alloy, titanium alloy,
nickel alloy and zinc alloy. So, all these material are having strength which are lower than
steel and then they are also that density is also less cost compared to that of steel.
If you are looking for primary application, that means, to say primary application has weight
taking primary structure, load bearing, so, then it is better to have a steel one. Suppose, you
are looking at some structure wherein which it is a secondary structure not of load, but it
needs to have lot of heat conduction then we go for copper. If it is going to be secondary
structure which has to be light and no heat taking, you can think of aluminium.
All the space vehicles they try to use titanium alloy and nickel alloys because they are light
and weight, they have very high strength properties and this by combination with several
alloys show different performance when you put in even vacuum or when you put it at very
low temperatures.
So, when you again, so, this falls in that class. So, first is kingdom, family, metal family and
then from the family we get into fall in the classes. So, this steel is again sub classified into
T300, T400, 600 whatever it is 10000, 20000, TS10000, TS20000, 30000, 40000. So, this
these nomenclatures basically tries to talk about the copper which is present in the carbon,
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which is present in the steel and also some properties. So, this is a subclass of this is a class,
this is a subclass then what are then you will have members. So, these members are nothing,
but these are the properties which are there.
So, you have thermal conductivity, electric resistance, corrosion, oxidation, specific heat,
yield strength, hardness and elongation. These are the members which are attached to this
subclass, subclass to class, class to family, family and then you go to the kingdom. So, this is
very important property which is nothing, but grouping out the materials in a family.
So, grouping of material based on process capability; so, here what we did was we grouped it
according to only mechanical characteristics or mechanical properties and physical
properties, but this has nothing to do with that of process capability or processing. So, here
we group the material based upon the process, process capability. So, usually screening,
ranking and cost optimization process are used to arrive at the best combination of material.
Screening and ranking diminishes the candidate that cannot do the job because one or more
of the attributes lie outside the limits imposed by the designer.
Say for example, quite attributes, shape and material for a component to be manufactured.
Shape is required, the pressure is required, uniform wall required, uniform cross section
required, low draft not required, axis of rotation not required, regular cross section not
required, capture cavity not required, closed cavity maximum, temperature of 500 degree
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Celsius, material excellent corrosion resistance to weak acids and alkali. So, these are the
attributes these are the conditions what is given.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 15
Material Selection (part 2 of 2)
So, minimising material cost; a few tips are there. So, you always try to choose. The cost is
the major parameter, if you have a cost which is economical, so, then the product is going to
be the cost to customer will not be very high. If you choose a product which has a material
cost very high or the processing cost very high it is going to affects its performance or its
sales performance in the market. So, minimising material cost.
So, there are few tips we are giving here commercially available mill form should be used to
minimise in-factory operations. So, basically what we are trying to say is you go to the
market, find out whatever is very easily available, choose those material, come back, tweak
your design little bit and make sure that it meets outs the customer requirement. So, if you
use a commercially available one then the success of your product is going to be very high
the cost of your product is going to be low standard and whenever you try to give a design try
to use the standards which are already available in the market.
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So, standard stock, shapes, gauges, grades or formulation should be used rather than special
ones wherever possible. So, that is why we try to standardise the screws and bolts m 1, m 2.
m 3, m 4 and shafts when we are there we get half inch shaft, quarter inch shafts, 1 inch shaft
or 20 millimetre shafts whatever it is, we get it according to the standards and when we have
a nut or when we have some mating component that dimensions also we get it accordingly.
So, it is always good to use easily available material it is always good to use a standard
material so you do not have to worry much.
Just for your information, the price of a computer falls down drastically year after year after
year, but an automobile cost does not fall drastically year after year after year. Why because
in computers they have established standards. The standards are given to every vendor and
they say if you want to make a computer, your computer should have all the standards to be
followed. The shape standard size standard is given.
So, if you want to make a laptop so ,they say your laptop should have a serial port which is
used for giving a thumb drive of this standard size and the other standard, which is given to
all those people who manufacture thumb drive they say if you are manufacturing at thumb
drive and that shaped should we finally, this you can have in the memory, that is left to you,
that is your capability, but when it gets attached to a laptop this is how it has to make.
So, now what has happened these standards are given so, there is huge competition and
people work on those standards and come to the market. So, whoever gives it at a better
performance lower cost succeeds and goes forward and the rest of the people over a period of
time die so, it’s only because using the standards the computer price of the laptop price falls
down drastically.
The material should be selected based not only on the operation environment, but also the
temperature to which the product is exposed during the manufacturing process. For example,
polymer if you say a polymer has to be machined the polymer predominantly can with stand
up to 100 – 150 degree Celsius. So, when you try to machine the temperature always goes
above 150 – 160 degrees. So, what happens just it tries to distort the material while
machining, but in real time it can withstand the temperature or I will share a recent
experience what I had.
We were trying to drill holes on rubber, on rubber sheet for developing a set up. So, when we
were trying to drill the hole, the rubber on the rubber material, the hole was perfect 6
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millimetres hole has to be done; we got 6 millimetre and over a period of time maybe after a
day or so this 6 millimetre always used to becomes 7 or it used to become 5. So, we were not
able to understand why is this variation always happening. Then, later we realise that while
machining there is a temperature, this temperature induces thermal stresses and these thermal
stresses relaxes over a period of time. So, there can be a shrinkage or expansion of the hole
geometry. So, that is what we are trying to say.
So, if you are trying to use a material and if that material has to be machined or processed, for
example, injection moulding; in injection moulding what we do we increase the temperature
convert the solid material into a visco-elastic material and then we inject it inside a die. So,
when we do that also there is a temperature phenomenon which is involved in the process and
once you injected into a die and if you do not hold it for some time while holding it you also
try to cool it if you do not do this properly then as soon as the product is made and left in the
free atmosphere it tries to get distorted. So, this is what we are trying to say.
So, that three tips are going to be the commercially it has to be available, you have to always
used standards and you choose a material which does not get distorted while manufacturing.
So, here are a list of materials we have display. So, all these things are metals and we have
given also the processing temperature. So, you look at epoxy is around about 95 to 290, if
you are look at carbon it is 3700, that is why all the high temperature applications we always
go for carbon. So, if you are looking for a crucible which has to be kept inside a furnace
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temperature might go up 1800 – 2000 we always go for a graphite or a carbon crucible where
and which the component is made.
You can also have Tantalum, but it is expensive; tantalum and tungsten are expensive if you
look at the lower side all the borosil, borosil are nothing, but the glasses soda lime glass it is
290, polyester which is a polymer material. So, soda lime is around about 290 degree Celsius
that is why you see in the chemistry lab they always used to work on glass bars because if
they want to make a tight air tights setup so, then they always use glass and then they go
either for silicate or they use glass deform it to make the shape, ok.
So, if you look at steel it is given at very high temperature when you look at this place like
ABS; ABS and all it is 60 to 80 degrees 60 to 100 degrees Celsius. So, ABS is one material
which is used for rapid prototyping wherein which you have an FDM process where and
wherein which a wire is used polymer wire is used ABS is one material which is exhaustively
used.
So, looking at this you can choose material for your choice. So, it is only talked in terms of
temperature. We have not put cost, there is only one variable, cost is another variable, third
variable is the manufacturing it, fourth variable is the physical properties, fifth variable is the
lifetime, that is lifetime efficiency. For example, polymer cannot withstand very high
temperatures and fatigue look for a longer time in rapid prototyping whereas, rubber can
withstand for a fatigue cycles.
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So, some design recommendations we are just giving it for your knowledge. So, when you
talk about ferrous metals, cold finished steels; avoid holes, avoid grooves and the avoid
undercuts they are very expensive. So, this is feasible cutting it under (Refer Time: 08:28).
This is less expensive and this is very much prepared, but here you will have something like a
dovetail, this is also feasible, but manufacturing this is expensive. So, if you want to have
sharp corners it is not advisable because a stress can grow and second thing when you want
sharp corner to be manufactured, it is very difficult.
So, it is always advisable to give a small radius at different corners. So, that it tries to make.
So, this is a L angle. These are all rectangle channels, cylindrical channels you can this is
made out of copper, this is made out of aluminium, steel is also there you can get, You can
these are standards which are available, you can get a rectangular cross section, you can get a
circular cross section. Rectangular cross section with varying aspect ratio can be a square. So,
you get that also you get a solid shaft, you get a hollow shaft. So, you can get for varying
materials.
So, these are all standards which are available in the market. So, use standards rather than
special shapes which I have already discuss. Avoid sharp corners as they are also they are
stressed concentrated point, but on top of it they are all manufacturing is very very difficult.
So, when you try to take the design classifications of ferrous metals. So, the ferrous metals
are classified into pure iron, then for steel, then for cast iron. Many a times this pure iron and
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all they do not pure metal does not have any functional application. They always get mixed
with an alloy so that they try to have some property strength properties or conducting
properties, whatever it is. So, here you see wrought iron, which is where the carbon
percentage is less than 0.1 percentage.
So, here wrought iron is an alloy with a very low carbon content, it is commercially known as
pure iron, but this has no use. So, we had carbon into it and more of carbon we put it becomes
a cast iron, the cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron. So, you get more than that.
So, cast iron you will have classification grey cast iron, white cast iron, malleable cast iron
and ductile cast iron. See here also you try to have varying cast iron depending upon your
requirement use where is cast iron exhaustively used, wherever you have heavy load for
example, church well made out of cast iron. It does not corrode, it has graphite in it. So, if
you play with the heat treatment properties you can try to play with the microstructure and try
to get varying requirements.
So, when you talk about steel, the steel and again classified into three; one is called as plain
carbon steel and low alloy steel and medium alloy steel. Of course, you also have a higher
alloy steel. The difference between these three is the difference in carbon content which falls
between 0.1 to 1.5 or anything above 1.5 goes to cast iron. So, here what I have done this I
have put you the list. So, you can see low carbon, medium carbon, and high carbon. So, this
is all plain carbon steel, this is non alloy steel and here alloying elements are greater than or
less than 5 percent.
So, here you see that low carbon, low alloy steels are there medium carbon, low alloy steel,
high carbon alloy steel. So, here the difference between this one and this is the alloying
element less than 5 percent. So, when you talk about medium, the alloying element can it
should be between 5 to 12 percent and the alloying element anything less than 12 percent you
go on this steel. So, here we have given all this tool steels another things. Today, we talked
about the new steel which is called as high strength low alloy steel.
So, here which is now talked about in automobile application, very high-strength low-alloy
steel so, here you have weathered steel, the control rolled steel pearlite-reduced to steel ah,
dual phase steel, micro alloyed steel. So, all these steels are different varieties which are
falling under the category of high strength low alloy. So, it is a combination of plain carbon
steel and low alloy steel. So, it can be considered to be intermediate between carbon steel and
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alloy steel is this and this has a huge application today. So, I am just put you how is the
ferrous getting classified.
Again, getting back into design recommendations, so, the grooves deeper than 1.5 times
width of the part are not feasible. So, if many a times what happens, if you want to have a
blind group so, what generally people do is there trying to make a through hole and then that
try to put a closure and close it, one way of doing it. The other way of doing it, because they
talk about something called as aspect ratio. So, aspect ratio is nothing, but width versus depth
or depth versus width whatever it is. So, you can try to talk and anything which is late greater
than 1, it is very hard for a tool to get inside and machine. So, what people do the other way
around as they try to enhance the width and make it equal to 1, of the depth.
So, here making high aspect ratio features is a big challenge and if at all there is any try to
use this logic or try to change the width. So, that you get the output. So, grooves depend
rather deeper than 1.5 times the width of the path are not feasible unless the bottom radius are
generous. Avoid abrupt change in the cross section thickness.
What they are trying to say if you have something like this a step so, what they say is rather
than continuously changing try to have something like a taper such that you tried to get
whatever it is and finally, you have a step one here. So, that it does not have sharp edges and
it does not have anything. So, avoid sharp change in the cross section as they introduced local
concentrations, so, cutting a credit card by bending it, ok.
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So, that is what is one of the thing. So, you should always try to avoid having a change in
geometry.
So, when you talk about non metals there are thermoplast and thermoset; thermoplast can be
re-melted and used thermosets are one time melt and used for example, it is Bakelite. So, you
can see you can interesting and polymers you can also having these are inserts which are kept
inside the thermosets and they try to make a product which meets of the customer
requirement. So, when you tried to work on this there is not much to worry the shrinkage is
very less, but when you try to work on thermoplastic there is going to be a huge amount of
shrinkage.
So, when you try to create a die and then when you try to inject a component inside a die, a
component is injected inside. So, you will try to hold it for some time and you will also take
into account for the shrinkage of a polymer. So, shrinkage on cooling and curing of thermoset
plastics must be taken into thermosets or thermoplast must be taken into consideration while
designing a part. Internal and external undercut should be avoided. So, ah, so, this is also a
recommendation which can be followed for metals, but for polymers, yes it has to be
followed.
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So, here we have listed varying polymers what is the percentage of shrinkage it can do. So,
phenolic 0.1 to 0.9 percent if you look at it ah. So, here are 2 to 2.5 acetate; acetal. Acetal is 2
to 2.5 and you can see PVC can go up to 5 percent, polypropylene can go up to 2.5 percent,
and polyethylene can go up to 5 percent. See these are some things which you should be very
careful, polycarbonate does not undergo.
So, people try to replace from polyethylene to polycarbonate, polypropylene they also try to
work polyvinyl chloride PVC, PVC are flexible it can go from 1 to 5 percent. So, almost all
the tubes which are used for agricultural applications are made out of PVC which is a flexible
tube, PVC flexible, you can have transparent, you can have non transparent you can have
rigid tubes which is generally used for construction civil constructions. We use a rigid to
venture of flexible and when we think of applications in the garden agriculture, we always
talked about flexibility in the plastic.
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So, by the way today plastics have taken over in the agricultural field. Lot of lot of
agriculture implements today are made out of plastics because it tries to have the flexibility, it
tries to have the impact load, it is non corrosive and it is light. To a large extent people have
moved from metals to this when we talk about ceramic and glasses ceramic parts part edges
and corners should be generous radius because in ceramics it is always prone to have defects,
that defect density in ceramics is very high as compact to the tough polymer and metal.
So, here what will we are we suggest or it is suggested it is you should give a generous radius
such that the crack densities are; the sharp edges do not act like a stress concentration points
and the cracks can grow very easily and here that cracks growth is not there. It is brittle, so, it
can easily fragment into two pieces or several pieces. So, generally in ceramics what we do is
we always try to say please be generous in giving radius around. So, that is why if you see
many components it will always be made into circular or chamfers to prevent the chipping on
the stress concentration point, the outside and inside radius should be at least 1.5 millimetre
to 2.4 millimetre respectively.
So, when we talk about the ceramics and glasses by manufacturing method. So, you can take
material and method, normal economic production quantity, typically ceramics mostly
machine does short to medium, technical ceramics mostly pressed is medium to long run,
pressed glass are for used for long run, blown gas are used for low blown gases nothing, but
your bulb incantation bulb, then flat glass are used for long run, white wares are used for
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medium to long and refractories are used for medium to long. So, we have put various
processes and their costing in developing these ceramic pieces.
So, rubber, rubber is one interesting material, but if you look at the periodic table there are so
many elements there, right and all these things are to a large extent you have metals, rare
metals and rare earth metals and this and that. In the entire periodic table, you have you will
never have a slot for polymer, but today polymer dictates the world 30 to 40 percent or even
80 percent of the domestic products are made out of polymers, ok.
So, in polymers the, we classify them into three; one is thermoplast, one is thermoset and
third one is elastomer. Elastomer is pretty interesting, you see a rubber band to tyre for a
plane, all these things are elastomers. Elastomer and the thermoplast, the only difference is
the ductility, of course, the bond structure, but here you see elastomer, it can make it, can be
used for making rubber bands from there to a spectrum it goes and it can go for making tyres
of planes. Huge friction, huge weight, and impact load, you take and it is very successfully
used material. So, the hole should be shallow and should be as wide as possible consistent
with the functional need. Avoid through hole for small surface if necessary through hole
should be at should be at least 0.8 millimetre in diameter and it can go and 16 millimetre in
depth.
So, I have just put all those because we had a recent experience of drilling of rubber. So, we
have just put those example and this is also taken from literature, but elastomers are another
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set of materials which are becoming more and more common today and they have a wide
application from rubber band for that is a domestic to heavy loads.
Somebody talk about rubber, these are different types of rubber; one is natural rubber, you
have styrene butadiene rubber, EPDM ethylene propylene diene monomer, then you have
nitrile butadiene rubber, then you have thermo plastic rubber, polyurethane rubber, isobutyl
isoprene rubber, then chloroprene rubber. So, you can see here these are the advantages, these
are the disadvantages.
Look at the applications natural rubber tyres, SBR you can use for tyres, EPDM you can use
for seals NBR you can use for O-rings and O-rings what, whatever O-rings and hoses. So,
this there are two things; one it is used in normal; normal room temperature, another one is in
vacuum. Whatever rubber, rubber O-ring which works in normal need not work in vacuum,
ok, but whatever works in vacuum can work in normal. So, vacuum if you see O-rings are
used in vacuum the rubber is completely different.
So, then thermoplastic rubber; your shoe soles are made out of thermoplastic polyurethane
you have cushion in rolls automobile parts are made out of polyurethane, isobutyl isoprene
rubber which is used for making inner tube body mount for automobile and then the chloro
CR rubber, CR rubber is used for making host tubes and V-belts which are used.
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So, you can see these are the rubber, these are the application there advantage and
disadvantage. So, you have to choose a rubber to your choice, you have to choose a rubber
based upon your product.
When we talk about non-ferrous till now; what we have studied as we have studied steel then
we went into polymers and ceramics, elastomers and now last we will get into aluminium. So,
ah, we will take into non ferrous metals. Nonferrous metals most commonly used for
secondary structure as well as primary structure primary structure means load bearing area it
is aluminium.
In almost all the automobile, automotive ;automotive structures today are made out of
aluminium and if it is more moving towards high performance people have started going
towards titanium, which is much lighter and people have started moving towards magnesium
which is much more lighter, but the processing of titanium and magnesium is expensive. So,
people are happy with aluminium. So, aluminium again it is not aluminium; it is not
aluminium alloy there are several elements which are added to it to meet out to the
requirements.
So, it aluminium the largest possible bend radius should be done when forming and to avoid
tearing. So, what we are trying to say bend radius, largest bend radius has to be given
otherwise it will try to tear and then start failing. While attaching to other metal parts the
facing surface should be insulated to avoid galvanizing corrosion. This is very important
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many a times what happens we try to, but aluminium with that of copper. So, at this portion
there is always something called as a galvanic corrosion. So, this corrosion tries to destroy
the material. So, you should always try to insulate the material such that this corrosion is not
transferred.
So, you have copper and brass. So, copper and brass so, generally copper is highly
conducting materials. So, we try to avoid machining ah, we try to extrude copper machining
to large extend is avoided. So, avoid copper machining, use extrusion and press forming to
avoid loss of material, use stock size requiring minimum processing such that you try to get
output. So, this is, you put your fingers inside. So, this is something like that tool which is
used for yourself protection are people nowadays used it for just for fun. So, you put your
fingers inside. So, that you get it right. So, ah, so, copper and brass copper, brass is alloy of
copper. So, we try to avoid machining here.
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Titanium is one material which is talked about more in aerospace, biomaterial, and nowadays
in automobiles. So, here when bend; when bending and titanium sheet generous bending
radius should be provided, the cross section should be 16 millimetre or more, the cross
section thickness, whatever it is a because when you try to machine titanium the heat gets
accumulated at the cutting zone.
So, next you have to provide enough generous draft angle so that you can easily remove the
material. Rib widths should be 10 millimetre or more. Rib is what? So, you have a material,
so, you have several ribs. So, the rib width should be 10 millimetre or more and the rib height
should be exceed four times the rib widths so, that makes it little stable. The fillet radius
should be at least 25 times of the rib height.
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Zinc and its alloy. So, zinc is also nowadays becoming little general to use for various
applications. Bending is regular commercial rolled zinc should be at right angles to avoid
green or directional green or rolling directions. The bend radius should be at least equal to the
material thickness. The forging zinc used a combination of zinc and manganese which put up
to 25 percent. So, these are some of the nipples which are made out of zinc for various
applications uses zinc alloyed.
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So, if you see engineering materials you have metals, ferrous, non ferrous, non metal,
organic, inorganic. In organic, you have polymer; polymer you have thermoplast thermoset,
elastomers. This is a spectrum of material in each and then when we look at organic others;
we see the carbon, wood, fibre, paper, leather these are all naturally available. Then when you
talk about inorganic we talk about ceramics, we talked about glass and we look at others
when it is when we talk about ceramics or at high temperature ceramics there all alumina,
magnesia, berylia, carbide, nitride and sterlite. So, carbide is silicon carbide, nitride is silicon
nitride. So, these are all ceramic materials. When you talk about glasses it is silica, soda lime
glass and lead which is part of glasses and you have the other spectrum here.
When you talk about ferrous I told you earlier, it will be steel and cast iron and it will be
plain steel medium carbon steel and then cast iron when you look at non-ferrous today is
picking up. Nonferrous materials and polymers are picking up in the market. So, aluminium,
copper, brass, bronze, zinc, magnesium, titanium, tin, nickel and lead all these things are
getting very popular today which gives hell a lot of combined properties, strength + thermal
conductivity, strength corrosion resistance. So, it tries to give combined properties for non
ferrous materials are also thought about in a big way.
So, the task for the students today you will try to take a milk cooker or a milk pan and try to
analyse what is the material used. Next, what all possible materials can be used; can be used.
Next, what are the latest advancements keeping energy as a prime performance. Next one,
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what is the maximum aspect ratio; aspect ratio possible in a milk pan? What is the aspect
ratio? Aspect ratio diameter to depth, ok next one is what all shapes can be made; what all
shapes can be made in a milk pan. So, that means, to say whether circular, square, rectangle,
oblong, etc. ok.
So, you are supposed to do this assignment and when you do this assignment you will try to
understand what is a big spectrum of materials which are available and how did you choose
or what all can you make a choice and here when I said latest development today we talked
about copper bottom vessels. So, please look at those options also. The bottom is made out of
copper it has a steel on top. So, what is the advantage? How is the performance varying with
respect to energy and then you also compare with cost, compare with cost, right.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 16
Manufacturing Process Selection (part 1 of 2)
Last lecture, we were more focused towards material selection and this lecture we are
going to talk about manufacturing process selection. If you choose a material, then
naturally the process has to be chosen next step; and many a times it will be process
dictating the material or material dictating the process. So we, it is a trade-off we have to
keep both the weightages, if you give; both has to be given uniform weightages while
you choose you also choose the process or you choose the process and then choose the
material; because finally, what you want to do is?
You want to give an economical product to the customer. Economical product which is
performing such that by using the product the customer is happy so, in this criteria; I said
cost is one of the major thing. So, the costing is predominantly decided by the material
used and the process which follows after the choice of the material.
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So, here we will see an introduction followed by it, we will see how to select a
manufacturing process; a small algorithm and then, next we will see a primary
manufacturing process; what are primary manufacturing process? What is secondary
manufacturing process? What is ternary manufacturing process? And some design
guidelines which will be slightly taking up from yesterday lecture or the previous lecture.
So, we will try to add some more design guidelines for while choosing a material; or a
process, manufacturing process is a science and technology by which the material is
converted into a final shape with the necessary structure and properties for its intended
use. So, this is called manufacturing process.
In manufacturing process, if you see there are only three major parameters, they are
nothing, but pressure, time and temperature. You take any manufacturing process, you
will have basically three process parameters; if I want to convert this pressure, I can
write it as force per unit area. So, now in any manufacturing process, these are these
three major parameters which dictate the efficiency of the process or the output product.
So, it can be all the three be involved or it can be only one involved or a combination of
two involved.
So, we have. So, much of clarity, but why we are not able to dictate the manufacturing
process such that; we get very good products; the only thing is the weightages of
individual parameters are still not known or during the process, the weightages keep
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dynamically changing which is very difficult for us to understand and model. So, that is
why many a times the manufacturing process is called; is told to be as trial and find out
or hit and go so; that means, to say you do some experiments you get a good output. So,
then freeze the parameters saying that these are the best parameters for making this
output it need not be optimum over a period of time many company start working on the
manufacturing process and move from the hit and go trial experiments, whatever they are
frozen parameter towards the optimum and fine tune the quality of the product.
So, it is very clear in manufacturing we have three process parameters; the science and
technology by which a material is converted into a final shape. This shape is basically, if
you go back to design; the principles, we talked about shape and form that is; what is the
final shape with the necessary structure and properties; for which it is intended to use;
the performance of the manufacturing process depends on first is; availability of material
which is directly proportional to the cost, then the capability required to process material.
Then the product dimensions and size, surface finish. Surface finish is very important,
because if you are trying to mate two parts, the surface finish is going to be the contact
surface, we would like to have as good surface finish as possible today, we talk about
nanometre surface finish.
So, basically what is surface finish; if you try to take a surface of a shaft and I tried to
take zoomed place at this point; you will have undulation on the surface something like
this. So, here what happens when you mate it with the bolt or when you mate it with
another contacting surface, the contacting surface will sit on this peaks. So, if you see
these peaks over a period of time gets destroyed and they try to fall in between the two
mating surfaces.
And if you see in the beginning, the load bearing area will be very less, if you have a
rough surface. So, that is why people talk about getting nano finish surface. So, nano
finish means these peaks will be very less. So, these peaks would have now changed into
peaks something like this. So, here and when you do this you will have because; when
these peaks are predominant when you try to meshing this peaks there will be next other
peaks which come into existence. So, the load bearing area is now distributed.
So, because of this wear and tear of the material is very less. So, nano finish is very
important. So, people talk about surface and the interesting part is people also talk about
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textured surface for various applications people also talk about it and in surface finish,
please do keep in mind that you can have two different signatures having the same
roughness value it is possible two different signature; that means, to say two different
surfaces can have the same roughness value. So, you have to look at the figure and you
have to correlate with the magnitude and then decide what is to be done.
So, this is very important; the next one is tolerance, what is tolerance? Tolerance is
nothing, but when I try to make a part, it is very difficult to repeat and get the same
accurate dimensions. So, because there is a variability in the import raw material, there is
variability in the human and there is a variability in the machine; that means, to say as
and when time goes the machine parts have averment. So, because of this; what I try to
officially do it? I tried to say ok, I allow you to have a small deviation. So, that deviation
is the tolerance so; that means, to say you will have a basic size maybe 20 millimetre ±
0.1 millimetre I say.
So, here what I do is; I officially give you a small variation on the basic size saying that
you cannot exactly make this. So, this is called as tolerance. So, this tolerance dictates
the process or looking at the tolerance you have to choose processes. So, that is what is
called as design tolerance and then waste produced by the process is also very important
today; we talk about sustainable manufacturing. In sustainable manufacturing or in green
manufacturing, whatever we use in during the process and the by-products, whatever it
gets developed on the waste, whatever it gets developed; it is nowadays becoming a big
challenge for environment friendly discarding. So, that is what we have just put waste
produced by the process has to be as low as possible.
So, the next one is the maintenance costs of the process see; for example, to when you
talk about nanometre surface finish or when you talk about IC chips, it demands a room
or an ambience, where the machine is to be maintained in a proper manner. So, there is
lot of maintenance cost which is involved. So, all this process; manufacturing process
depend on all these parameters; availability, cost, capability then product dimensions,
surface finish, design tolerance, waste produced by the product and maintenance cost.
All these things we have to be considered while deciding a process, if I have to logically
select the process I follow these steps.
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So, the selection the first step is selection criteria as have to be returned; manufacturing
volume. In manufacturing, there is nothing called a unique solution. Suppose, if I want to
produce a shaft of 10 numbers, then I use machining process if I have to produce
something like 100 or 1,000 I always go for a rolling process. So, you see depending
upon the number, depending upon the cost which you can pay for the product the process
differs.
So, manufacturing volume is one of the major criteria, which helps in deciding a process
Same shaft, same material only the number changes; the process changes if I have to
machine, I buy a lathe and then I start doing turning which is not an expensive process.
When I start going for a rolling, it is a capital intensive machine. So, it is little expensive.
So, here the output has to be produced in bulk same way. Let us take plastics, if I have to
produce 5 spoons. So, I will not do injection moulding process. In injection moulding
process you will have to produce at least 100 or 1,000 in volumes such that you take out
the cost of the die which is used for injection moulding; the machine is also very
intensive.
So, the other way round is, I will try to go for manual injection and I will try to have a
very small sprue around which I put a heater and then I press it vertically down and then
I injected into a die and try to pick one piece at a time. So, here the product might not be
of a high quality and the time taken is large, but you have to understand that just by the
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volume, the process changes it will be injection moulding, but it will be manual injection
moulding. The value of the product and the part geometry is also very important.
Suppose you try to say, the part geometry; part geometry means, if it is very large; if it is
very large. So, then you can say for example, you take a lathe machine, in a lathe
machine the work piece has to be held in a chuck. So, you have various types of chuck; 1
is 3 jaw chuck, you have four jaw chuck sometimes you call it sometimes you put
between centres, put a dark plate and then start doing it depending upon the geometry of
the shaft you decide, what will be the work holding device, same way depending upon
the geometry you decide; how the machine should be.
For example, if you look at tires which are used for heavy trucks, heavy duty machines
heavy duty vehicles like trucks and buses, the tires have to be done by elastomer as the
starting material and then they put it inside a die and then they allow to cure, the rubber
is allowed to cure, but reinforcing with various items in inside. So, the die is extremely
large which might run for a meter size.
So, if you want to hold the die and then machine it, you can’t do it on a lathe machine
which is having horizontal axis. So, what we do is we try to mount the die which is of
around about a meter again circular or cylindrical. So, we try to mount it on a chuck
which is which is having in and the tool list in the vertical axis. So, you see depending
upon the part geometry the machine axis itself changes; it can be horizontal axis or it can
be vertical axis just by the geometry I give you one example.
So, the part geometry also tries to dictate; what should be the process? So, why is this
important, because the vertical, it is otherwise called as vertical turning machines or
some people call it is as also vertical boring machines and other names are given, but
vertical turning machines are rare, you never find it and this machine occupies lot of
space, the investment is too heavy, the manufacturing process itself is different, though it
is done by turning, but it is completely different.
So, part geometry dictates and same ways; if you have a prismatic job and you have to
do some machining operation or a lathe machine or you have to do make holes. So, then
what people do is they try to use a four jaw chuck, mounting on a four jaw chuck is not
an easy job it needs skill. So, part geometry dictates the manufacturing process, the value
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of the product is also very important, the value of the product is the performance for
example, if you want a single piece; single piece to be done or a single shaft to be done.
So, then what happens you try to do it by casting and when you want to do 10, you do it
try to do it by machining and when you want to do it by 1,000 you do it by metal forming
operations. So, if you see the property or the mechanical property or the behaviour when
you try to put this; shafts on real time application, the casting fails first because of the
grain orientation. Next machining happens and the third one, last to fail is going to be the
sheet metal or the metal forming operations.
So, the performance; that is what is called the value of the product also dictates the
manufacturing process. Next is the required tolerance, the tolerance if it is very tight or if
it is very small, then it demands for more and more and more processes. For example,
you turn afterwards you try to grind and then you try to lap whatever it is. So, that’s you
why? Because the tolerance is given; for example, if you say 20 ±0.1, then I will do
turning; if I do 20 ± 0.01, I do turning + grinding if I say ± 0.001, I will do turning then, I
will do grinding and then I will also do one another surface finishing process to get the
output.
So, look at it is all diameter of a shaft. So, you see only by wearing the tolerance, I add
processes to whatever it is right. So, this is what and last one is the material see; if I take
polymer as a material, if I take rubber as a material I will try to avoid machining, I will
try to do it by other process, where is like injection moulding or I will try to do curing
and I will try to get the output. So, depending upon the material you try to choose
different-different processes. For example, if I have a ceramic material, ceramic pipe to
be made, it is very hard to do machining why? Because in ceramic, it is a brittle failure
and moment there is a brittle failure; the surface finish whatever you get is not going to
be under the control of the process you have to do some other applications or you have to
apply some other forces to make sure that; the machining happens use your very good
surface finish or people do not even try to do machining, they try to take a starting
material will be a powder ,they put it inside a die compacted it this compaction can be in
cold isostatic processing or high hot isostatic processing, you get the finished product
directly rather than undergoing any of the machining cycle.
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So, here depending upon the application if it is going to be high temperature, then you
choose a ceramic; then when you choose a ceramic you do not use subtractive process or
you do not use the deformation process or casting is not thought about. So, this is what
we I am just trying to put it here. So, based on these four points you trying to you keep it
as a selection criteria and decide the process. After identifying the process by step, one
has smaller range of process will be available.
So, here to a large extent you have you have narrowed it down to; what is that? Then in
the next will be with small variations. So, wherein which we try to put the fixture, we try
to talk about the tool all these things will come here at this point, you should ideally
work with an experience manufacture to identify those processes that can satisfy the
requirement of quantity, material requirement and part geometry.
So, it is after deciding the first step manufacturing process it is, now going to be more
towards the process parameters, work holding device, tool geometry something.
Then what you do if you try to evaluate. So, now, you have chosen, once your chosen a
process the next step which comes into existence is to; how do I evaluate the process you
already have a result now. So, you have to now check the result whether, whatever I have
got is correct or not and manufacturing, I repeat there is nothing called unique. So, you
will have multiple solutions for the same problem.
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Now, you have to evaluate each solution and try to identify, whether it is good or not. So,
next comes the evaluation of the process; evaluation of the process here we are trying to
talk also about reducing the scrap. So, that is what to visit of prime focus. So, after
identifying the potential process from manufacturing a product, it is time to evaluate
them based on less brought parameters such as process capability. So, you can talk about
six sigma; whether whatever I produce, I get it within the tolerance and I can produce it
for a longer time; what is the processing time, see in product design.
When I started itself I told you, there are customers they need a product and you have to
have it in mind, how quickly you reach out to those customers with those products., if
you are time is very large, let it be for prototype making or let it be for final product
making, if the processing time is large, then you will not be there in the race ok;
processing time is what parameter which we try to evaluate the process, next to the
tooling and the equipment cost, if it is very expensive and if the volume is very less. So,
naturally; what happens the investment you made by number of parts you produce you
just divide and the unit price will be exorbitant.
So, now what will happen if you it, because your investment what you did on the
manufacturing process is very large. So, we do it for example, in IC chip manufacturing
the investment on the process is extremely large; extremely high, but the volume what
they produce is very high. So, when you divided by the investment by the number of
parts produced the cast goes down. So, in electronics industry by and large they follow
batch production.
So, in silicon one wafer can produce almost close to some 100 Ic’s. So, so here you
should look at the tooling and equipment cost. If it is very large that is only the volume
should be large, if it is very small you can always try have a trade off I can have a very
small volume. Then the degree of automation is very important, why is degree of
automation which is very important today we talk we are in the era of internet of things.
So, when you have internet of things understanding there is a customer he wants twenty
parts to be produced quickly what we do if we try to automate place I will place an order
to him get the material added to the to your inventory and immediately from the
inventory you have a conveyor which moves to the machine and you start producing. So,
that is the level of automation we are talking about.
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So, if you look at all the process industries the level of automation is very high process
industries, the level of automation is very high; it is very high. So, next one is the skill
required for operation today, what is happening is we are trying to; once you move
towards automation we are trying to remove all the unskilled labours and use only us at
certain places we try to use a skilled operator to do it for example, for quality check for
assembly today industries have gone to a level all the parts, For example, we have a
product, it has sub assembly it; from this sub assembly save it as parts almost all the
parts are nowadays, it has been given for sub contract and from here.
Now what has happened is they have also given from here to here; sub-assemblies are
also not given subcontract. So, what industries have started doing is they are started
doing only assembly, the products. So, here what is happening you have to evaluate the
performance of the sub assembly and then you have to assemble inside of product and
get the required output?
So, here we are looking for the skilled operator. So, you should also look at what is the
skill you expect in your process. So, this is very important because you do not have a
skilled operator everywhere or skilled operator is very expensive, that is why I ended
today, what has happened if people have started working on computer assisted process
planning or computer aided process planning; people have started using so that the skill
of the operator need not be a bottleneck in deciding the process.
Next, the waste produced after the process is very important you talk to you; when you
do any of the machining operation we use coolant and once the coolant is used. So, these
coolants there are two types of coolant: one is natural coolant, other one is synthetic
coolant. Synthetic coolants are predominantly used which are it can be oil based on it can
be chemical based. So, these coolants have to be discarded. So, discarding this is a big
challenge; say me when you work on process industries and chemistry you have to
discard some of the by products.
So, that is very important, if the discarding cost is very high then it is not going to be a
viable process. The last one is the post processing required; I tried to make a chair and in
that chair I would like to have a texture of my choice if you say that after making the
chair try to use a single point cutting tool and the machining or use a skilled operator and
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try to remove it is going to be costly or if I say that after making a chair try to paint the
chair with a green colour it is not possible.
So, the post processing operations have to be as minimum as possible or I will put it this
way today we look at near net shape manufacturing. So, to a large extent we try to get
the required product to the final state just do final small tweaking, such that it can get to
the market. So, these are the criterias which we always use in evaluating the process
which is chosen for producing a product; process capability to reduce the scrap produced
and have a consistency in the process.
Processing time it has to be less tooling and equipment cost has to be as low as possible
the degree of automation has to be as high as possible, skilled labour requirement for
operation has to be as low as possible; that means, to say I have automated then the
waste produced by the process has to be has minimum as possible and then it is the
process industry.
See for the PCB, the biggest challenges they used led as one of the element; let it be PCB
computers or let it be given mobile phones smart phones they use lot of rare earth
materials. One it is expensive; two discarding is a big problem. So, people are now
working on; how do I salvage the rare earth material; which is used in those computers
and bring it back to use.
So, for example, cadmium is used, platinum is used. So, people are working hard on it.
And now what has happened because you have used it, now it has got discarded, you
cannot discarded in free in nature. So, you tried to process it and when you process it you
try to make it once again a useful material and then start going and in the same way
when you try to talk about chips which are getting produced it is the same thing.
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What do I do the chips?
So, the selection after doing this three first what did you do you had some selection
criteria you had, then you have identified a process then you are evaluated the process.
Then the fourth step is selection; you should now be able to use the weighted decision
matrix many a times in your selections.
Selection if you have three parameters, it is always the weightages you have to put and
weightages and you have various criteria for each criteria you give some weightage and
you multiply it with some factor and that when you sum it up it tries to give you in some
numbers. So, these numbers help you in taking a decision for example, people talk about
SWOT analysis; strength weakness opportunity and threats.
So, here also what people do as they try to say put all the points and strength, put all the
point and weightages, put all the points and opportunities S W O and threats and now;
what they say is? They try to say you give some weightages wait; this is weakness. So,
weakness suppose you feel the weakness whatever is there any process or is there in the
individual; this weakness is going to completely dictate the performance of his future
when you say weakness this is ninety percent you give.
So, when you multiply all those things you will get a summation. So, with this you can
see whether the strength is very high for this particular process, weakness is very high
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opportunities are high, threats is high. So, then what you do is you try to change those
things and convert or choose another process where and which the weakness are not high
strengths are high. So, that you can start taking it.
So, always in taking decisions we have the weightages factor let it be QFD, we have this
weightage factor you should now be able to use weightage decision matrix, you created
in step three to identify the best process, if you clearly evaluate each elements giving
extra weightage to those elements that are most important, the results will be single
process that will produced the part required to the standard requirement for an acceptable
cost of production. So, these criterias you try to give a weightages and after doing these
weightages you sum it up, get it and then you choose a process.
So, now let us see some of the process, when you try to talk about manufacturing. So,
first classification of process are primary processes; primary processes are you try to take
it from an ore or you try to take it from ore and then you try to take it from metal which
is there in bulk what you do is you try to melt it and then you try to give a shape to it.
So, if you talk about manufacturing; manufacturing I can very crudely classify into
constant volume process, subtractive process, additive process. In constant volume I can
apply heat which is nothing, in casting I can apply force which is nothing, but metal
forming and I can. So, here you can also do this is heat is to melt. Then heat I can do to
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do a treatment; heat treatment here the volume the shape is not even changed, the size is
not changed only the microstructure is changed.
When you talk about subtractive process you have tool where in which you use tool in
coming in contact or you do non-contact machining and then you try to remove material
from the starting material to produce a required output. additive manufacturing; which is
very much talked about today it is nothing, but you use building blocks and you try to
add material at those places where you want to construct a material now keep moving.
So, this is how we predominantly classify and if you want to do in manufacturing much
more classification is trying to produce a part and trying to assemble parts. So, assembly
is the other classification. So, when you try to look at the process constant volume heat.
So, here what we talk about is you have starting material you try to heat it about the
melting point of the material. So, that you try to induce viscosity so; that means, to say
you take it to lower viscosity and then you allow it to pour inside a confined mould or a
die to get the required part.
So, that is here casting and then by force is nothing, but you try to give a force through a
machine tool and then try to deform a bulk material or sheet material and get the required
output. So, those things are called a metal forming and here force is predominantly used
Heat treatment is try to play with only the temperature and time you try to play with a
grain structure which in turn influences its performance in terms of mechanical property
as well as in ware and te. So, that is what you do.
So, here we are more focus towards the investment casting. Investment casting is very
much used for those products where the features which as sharp features, which has to be
produced. So, we always go for investment casting, here I have just taken only a glimpse
of certain process and I have put here, but there is spectrum of process available. So,
investment casting So, this is called manufacturing process ting. So, a metal mould is
made for a part a wax is injected into the metal mould. So, this metal mould can be made
through additive manufacturing also today. So, a metal mould is made; a wax is injected
to the metal mould as shown in the figure. So, these are all the moulds the resulting wax
part are then gated. So, gate is nothing, but you have a part you have to connected to the
main reservoir. So, this is the gate.
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. So, gate to the sprue the reservoir is nothing, but the sprue to form a cluster of wax
moulds which can be used to increase the production rate so; that means, to say I can
have gates I can these are the part lets what. So, what happens when I try to pore a hot
metal this wax melts of and then it. So, the metal whatever gets filled up is the final
product.
So, here you can make it up to from the weights can be from 0.001 gram to 35 kilos you
can starts making it up and then you can have a minimum wall thickness of this to this
the tolerance are which are given as this, you can also do it by sand casting you can do
by die casting, you can do it by pressure die casting. So, all this things are some of the
advancement and all these things are classify comes under classifications of casting.
So, that you I request the students to read some introduction to manufacturing process
book you get more knowledge.
Next one is a metal forming process. So, this process is nothing, but an extrusion. So,
extrusion what we do is we try to keep we try to keep the raw material. Raw material
inside a die and then here you see there is a punch which is pushing and this punch is
activated by the hydraulic system, whatever is there and this tries to give you the
pressure.
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So, this pressure tries to get applied on top of the aluminium and then; what we do is? we
have a small exit and orifice through which the material is squeezed out. So, this
squeezing out is called as extrusion. So, you whatever you have on the die ship you get
the profile or the extrusion which comes out. So, here we can do it for aluminium people
are starting using for steel and many more application you can start doing it right.
So, here a metal billet or forced by a mechanical or by a hydraulic extrusion, this is the
hydraulics and here is the hydraulic oil giving pressure, this is the piston which moves
down and this piston moves the punch and this punch tries to do it. So, here you apply
force and then you try to extrude material and then for example, all the steel rods, steel
rods of diameter little smaller they are extruded they are extruded and slightly larger
diameters are rolled. So, you can also do rolling.
So, what happens just rolling when you do you have to reduce the diameter in several
steps you get it down and in here also you should take a you should keep one thing in
mind if you want to reduce the diameter drastically it is not advisable. So, it is better to
do it; step wise, but here what we do is we try to play with the geometry and try to get
what best we want, but these are some of the tricks which we have to first understand the
process and then try to produce, where ever you want to use extrusion or metal forming
operations you should have a volume large.
In casting, you do not have to have you can have from number one to maybe even 10
numbers of production, you can have a batch size parts can be produce 10 or even 100
can be produced, but when you are talk about metal forming it has to be large we all
generally talk in terms of 1,000, 100 to 1,000 again these numbers are not sanctity
depending upon the cast depending upon the material you keep changing with the
processes.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 17
Manufacturing Process Selection (part 2 of 2)
Next one is machining. Machining is a process, where, in which the material is removed
from the work piece in the form of chip to produce the shape, whatever we want. So,
here this is a turning process we do. So, you can do by turning, drilling and milling.
There are so many processes; turning, drilling and milling, grinding, these are some other
process; I am just listing it down. So, all these processes, what we do is, we try to use a
tool, a tool which is harder than the work piece, harder and which is in contact with the
work piece and then, it tries to remove material in the form of chip.
So, when this is getting done, as I told you, during the process, there is a temperature
rise. A typical example is this, because here, when it is in contact, there is going to be
friction. So, tool-work piece, you will have a friction. So, this friction increases the
temperature and you tried to produce a chip. So, the temperature tries to dictate the
material and the temperature has to negotiate. If the temperature is very high and if the
material is deforming that the geometry, whatever we try to retain will not be accurate.
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So, here are some of the processes which have told, I have just put in front of you. So,
and then, I have also set what are all the different materials can be done, what are the
different applications. These are just a glimpse than what is the material removal rate.
So, you can see here, I have put it 21. Why is metal removal rate important, because it
will try to dictate the time required for producing, the next test tolerances and the last one
is roughness, as I told you earlier, roughness is very important when you are in
contacting surfaces and tolerances, because you have to mate and then, so, these are the
tolerances we can do.
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So, turning and facing have taken little bit. Turning is a material removal process where
in which; we use a single point cutting tool. So, it moves whose major motion is parallel
to the axis of rotation, of the work piece and facing, So, if I wanted to reduce a diameter.
So, reduce a diameter. So, here this is, this is along the space parallel to the axis. The tool
moves parallel to the axis. So, this is called Turning. If I move perpendicular to the axis,
then it is called as Facing.
So, this is turning and this is facing ok. The dimensional accuracy, depending upon the
machine, you have precision lathes, you have precision machines. So, you can try to go
to very small dimensions possible. For example, you can even go today with 0.01
millimeters, it is possible today, because there is precision lathe which have come. So,
the dimensions and accuracies, I have already talked, have just given in detail.
Next, when I talked about milling. So, milling I said, drilling is the 2.0 cutting or multi
cut, two cutting edges will have in milling, what you will have as you will have multiple
cutting edges. So, we will have multiple cutting edges. These multiple cutting edges,
when it is rotated, it tries to remove material as chips. You can see how the chips flies
and falls. Milling is a cutting operation in which, the material is removed by rotating a
multiple tool cutter. So, again here, depending upon the axis, it can be vertical axis, it can
be on horizontal axis. Horizontal axis, right, vertical axis, you try to cut a profile are you
try to cut pockets. Profiles and pockets can be cut, or any other shape. It can be of three
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dimensions. Horizontal predominantly used for cutting of slots, grooves. Here, we talk
about the cycle time; this cycle time is directly related to the material removal rate.
horizontal
Next is grinding. Grinding falls under the category of secondary or process. So, grinding
falls under the domain of finishing; that means, to say here; the material removal rate
will be very less and the finished will be very high. In these two, material removals rate
will be very high and RA will be very low. So, here we are not bothered about material
removal rate to a large extent. We are more worried about surface finish. So, here we
talked how accurate it can produce. So, you see; there is a paradigm shift. Here, time was
talked about, here finishes talked about, here appearance is talked about, and here
functional requirements are talked about. So, here we do not focus on material removal
rate.
So, grinding is a process. The only difference between milling, turning and grinding is,
here what happens is that, tool is nothing, but abrasive. So, they are random and by
nature, several of these abrasives are put together, they are stuck to each other by a bond.
There are several bonds: - vitrified bond, sulfide bond and other things. So, they are
stuck to each other and then, you tried to give shape to the abrasive bonded. So, the
bonds and it is called as an abrasive wheel. So, this wheel rotates at very high RPM and
then, it tries to grind the surfaces. So, here the grinding as a process, that removes
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materials from the work piece using a tool made out of abrasive particles of irregular
geometry that can be embedded on the surface of a rotating wheel.
So, the wheel speed, is generally, today we talk about 1 lakh RPM easily, but in general,
what we talked about in lab scales, academic scales and there or in machines, whatever
you get today is 1000 RPM to 5000 RPM, you can get like handheld. You can get of the
1000 - 5000 RPM. See 10 - 1 lakh RPM, it has to have a stable structure and rigid
structure, and generally when you talk from the designers’ perspective, we have hand
hold grinders, which rotate with the speed between 1000 RPM to 5000 RPM. It is pretty
high. So, that is why what we do is, when you try to grind, we try to hold it by two hands
and then, start doing it.
The cycle time is relatively low as I said the material removal rate is less and the
finishing is, size of the cycle time is pretty low. The dimensions whatever you can get
are pretty high. So, if you are looking for very tight tolerances, then after the machining
operation, we always try to do a grinding operation to get the required tolerance.
Now, I will just have to put a glimpse of the non – conventional, where the tool is not in.
So, in subtractive two processes, as I said, subtractive process, as I said the one is
conventional and the other one is non – conventional. Ok? Conventional means that tool
is in contact. So, when the tool is contact, the material removal rate is high, the surface
finish, what you get this good. So, when you talk about non - contact, the tool is not in
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contact. So, what are all the possible tools? We use electron as a tool, we use photon as a
tool, we use electron, photon, we use plasma as tool, we use chemical etching as a tool.
So, electrons, what happens is it can lead to a spark or it can do and electron machining
directly. So, it here, we use photon which is nothing, but laser. So, then we use here
plasma, which is the four state of material and chemical etching. Ok? The next one, last
one is going to be the jet. So, jet can be in water. So, all these things are subtractive to
process. Since the material is not in contact the tool isn’t contact with the material,
naturally, the material removal rate is going to be extremely low and the power
consumption is going to be high. You can never compare a non - conventional process
with the conventional process. Ok? And all these non majority of the non -conventional
processes are energy intensive. The photon; laser which is used today, the efficiency of a
laser while machining is around about fifteen percent.
So, electron can be done in two ways. So, what we do is electron, we have electrodes.
This is negative and this is positive. In between we have a dielectric. So, we bring this to
as close as possible and then, we apply a potential. So, when it is brought very close to
each other and when you apply a potential, there is going to be an ionization, going to
happen between these two sides and once the ionization is mature, there is going to be a
spark. The spark means; it is a sudden surge of electrons and it is going to move from
one side to the other. The numbers of electrons are pretty large. The bunch of electrons
have a pretty large, when they try to hit at the surface, that is going to create a spark. The
ionization is matured, spark is created.
When it tries to hit at the work piece, through this is your work piece, this is your tool.
So, now what happens, there is going to be a melt vaporization phenomenon, material is
going to be removal. So, wherever you have a harder work piece, where the tool cannot
be used for machining, then we go for electron as a tool and then, you do machining and
if you do not want this electron this system So, what we do is, we try to have an electron.
Ok? We try to have the tool; we try to have work piece. Ok? And then, I put it inside a
vacuum and then, I start the electrons to hit at the work piece. So, here it is also again
melt-vaporization, but it is happening inside a chamber.
So, this process is called as electron beam machining and here, it is called as electric
discharge machining. So, the discharge happens. So, the melting happens and the
material is removed. So, here the tool, whatever I said can be in terms of solid tool or the
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tool can also get into a wire form. So, with whatever is a basic principle, I use here and
then, I start machining. Wherever you have a very hard material to machine, we
generally go for this process. So, that is called as electro machining or electro discharge
machining. So, here wire is used. I have explained all this, since a cavity cut or it is
otherwise called as die shanking and people start machining it.
When you move towards plastic, the most commonly used process is injection moulding
process. Here, it is a secondary process. So, what happens is, you have a heated plastic
which is extruded. An extruded process, your over extrusion, we saw extruded and there
we saw about metal here, it is polymer extruded into a hollow tube. This is a tube and
then, the mould is closed, hollow tube, it is extruded right and then, this portion is closed.
Ok? And then, once it is closed, what we do is through this tube’s bottom side, we try to
push air or you can even, you try to crimp it here and push air from the top both sides are
possible.
So, here in this example, we have used pushing air from the top. So, when the air is
pushed from the top, this is a visco elastic material polymer. So, it tries to expand and the
air is given enough or the volume of air is made sure, such that the volume of this
container or slightly higher is there. So, then, what happens, all the visco elastic material
gets expanded and touches the die surface, whatever is a die surface and impressions on
the die surface, is getting transferred to the exterior of the polymer and after this, what
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we do is, we hold it for some time such that, the curing of the polymer happens and then,
we open the die and then, what you get is the product out.
So, this is a process which is blow moulding process. Since, you see lot of pearl pet
bottles around or lot of mineral water bottles around, I thought I should explain this
process. The entire process takes hardly 5 seconds or 10 seconds depending upon it and
you can have multiple dies at the same time. So, one shot you might get 3 or 4. So, this is
a secondary process. I have just put because polymers are, they are also growing in a big
way to make product today.
When you talk about sheet metal process, here is a process which frequently people try
to get confused. One is called as punching and the other one is called as blanking. When
you talk about metal forming, there are two categories. One is called as bulk forming and
the other one is called as sheet forming. Wherever you have a larger surface area, it is
sheet forming, where larger about the volumes, surface area is not very large then we call
it is bulk forming. In bulk forming, we apply lot of a force to deform the materials. Here,
comparatively it is slightly less. Ok? So, in sheet metal forming the most common thing
which people always get confused is punching and blanking.
When I try to take a sheet, when I try to take a sheet, I tried to create impression for a use
of punch. I create an impression and pear some material out. Whatever gets out of this
ring, if I make it as a useful part, then that useful part is produced by a process called
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blanking. Whatever part I produce, which gets out and if it is a scrap, then that is called
punching work scrap. Right? So, here punching is whatever comes out of it is not used.
So, then it is called as punching. So, you can have progressive punching. So, you can
also have washers. So, first outside is punched and then, next internal is punched
possible. So, you get an over doughnuts structure like this, for sheet metal. Ok?
So, punching is a sharing process, in which the scrap slug is separated from the work
piece, when the punch enters into the die, blanking is a process in which the piece of the
sheet metal, that is separated from the punch action is required finished product and it is
left over sheet metal is the scrap. Then, it is called as blanking. Ok? So, the coins,
whatever we use the currency coins, all of them are done by blanking and then, it is done
by stamping, you try to get the impression like one embossment, whatever they do it on
the coin.
Next one is forging as I told you, if you have a bulk, if you have surface area, not so
large. So then, it is called as volume surface to volume ratio, if you do and if the surface
is area is very less, then the process, whatever we use is called as forging. So forging,
what we do if we try to take a material and here, you should understand you try to take a
material, you try to heat the material. So, the load, whatever you apply for deformation is
less, if you do not heat the material, the load is very high. So, that is what I said. If you
go back to the manufacturing process; pressure, temperature and time all are linked. So,
in a process, you can have temperature and pressure. So, this is our example for it. So,
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depending upon the temperature, the force applied is less or more. Ok? So, you can do it
at hot state, you can do it at warm state, you can do it at room temperature state.
So, when you talk about a very large surface, the entire surface and it is a prismatic
surface. If it has to be machined, prismatic surface has to be machine. We call and we
call a process called as planing. So, planing is a process where in which, we use a single
point cutting tool to produce a flat surface on a prismatic, very large area. We are not
talking about the bed size will be very light. For example, the lathe complete bed will be
planned. Ok? The saddle complete one-meter-long saddle will be plane. So, of those very
large, where the bed size is, what is over the process, what to use is called a planning.
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When the process area, when the work piece size is small, then we call it as shaping. So,
the only difference is here, the bed moves, the tool is a single point cutting tool, which is
almost a constant. Here, that tool moves and the bed is constant that’s the difference and
here, you can make flat surfaces, you can make V surfaces. So, all are possible by this
process. The next interesting one is called as broaching, which very rarely, we use.
Broaching, what happens is it, here we use multi - point cutting tool and it is a finishing
process. Ok?
So, here the tool is like your corn. So, corn. So, it is something like this right. So, you try
to pull, you try to pull the tool through your work piece. So, initially it is of a smaller
diameter and then as and when it keeps going, it tries to expand the diameter and then
finish. So, here the difference and diameter will be maximum of few millimeters or it
will be less than millimeter.
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The last operation is heat treatment. So, heat treatment, as you have made a shape, you
have made a size, but you wanted to play with a mechanical property alone. So, what we
do is, we try to heat the work piece and then, after heating the work piece, we try to leave
it in the atmosphere; furnace atmosphere or we try to bring it out and then, we try to go
quenching. So, here what happens, only the mechanical properties keep changing.
Heat treatment is a process, where in which it is heating and cooling of metal to change
its physical and mechanical property, the shape does not change, and the size does not
change. So, what is the advantage? It refines the existing non - uniform structure. So;
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that means, to say a structure, means in say, microstructure, and the grains will be large
grains will be small because of the machining operation. So, in there will be not non -
uniform distribution of stresses mechanical or compressive stresses on top of the surface.
So, if you want to refine them. So, that is possible by heat treatment, internal stresses can
be relieved.
The grain size can be refined and the improvement of toughness can happen. Toughness
is in turn required, because you want to enhance the fatigue behavior. Fatigue behavior
you want to enhance. So, that is what we do. So, if you make a grain size smaller, than it
is the work. The work piece is going to demonstrate a harder hardness is going to be
high. So, if it is, the grains are large, then it is going to be toughness going to be large.
So, this affects the mechanical property on the physical property of a material.
So, the hardening which involves heating of steel and keeping it at an appropriate
temperature, until all the pearlite is transformed into austenite and then, quenching it
rapidly in water or oil you can do it. So, basically here, what are we trying to
demonstrate is, we are trying to demonstrate heat treatment wherein which; temperature,
time and ambience are important. So, if you see that temperature, time cycle is there. So,
something like this, you have cycles and when we try to do it, you can.
The ambience, it can be quenched oil quenched, you get a different profile, then you try
to put it in the furnace, you get a different profile when you put it in an ambience, where
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it is full of nitrogen, you get a different response. So, that is what you are trying to say.
So, the temperature at which the austenite rapidly takes place depends upon the carbon
content in the steel.
So, the next one is tempering is nothing, but I try to heat the steel and then, quench it and
hardened to an adequate period of time so that, the metal can be equilibrated. So, you see
their tempering color of steel. So, if you try to play with the heat treatment, now, you can
try to play with the color. So, today what people are talking, trying to talk about is, I will
make a shape then I will do heat treatment, when I do heat treatment, if tries to introduce
a color, which tries to remove the painting operation. Ok? So, today just by playing, see
you see the normalized play, quenched play at 350 degrees, then you do 400 degrees
tempering and then, at 540 you see at different color is coming 590, you see a blue is
color coming.
So, just by playing with the temperature, we are able to; you are able to change the color.
So, this is good information, which people have started working from the designer’s
perspective, you get the shape, put it inside and then, you try to play with the heat
treatment, you get a color which is getting impregnated without any operations. Ok? The
heat treatment, the higher temperature can result in higher ductility, but lower strength, a
compromise, a lower tempering temperature will produce lower ductility, but the higher
strength and hardness in practice appropriate tempering temperatures are selected, which
will produce the desired level of hardness and strength.
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So, the other process is annealing. So, in annealing, it is the heat treatment material, in
this heat treatment material are heated up to a desired temperature. Which is held for a
specific period of time, before the material is slowly or rapidly cooled down, depending
on the type of material, the process refines the grain size. So, if you look at it initially or
cold state; that means, to say you have done a metal forming and then, you heat it what
happens that the high stress areas are dissipated then, a recrystallization happens then, a
recrystallization leads to grain growth happens.
So, you see here, the grain sizes are changed from one to the other, such that you tried to
get a different mechanical property. So here, what did you do, you did not change the
size you just changed with the grain structure and if you have carbon, which is in internal
by just playing with the heat treatment, we can move the carbon all around to the grain
boundary and it gets precipitated along the grain boundary.
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Normalizing involves a heat treatment. Here, heating steel here I have taken only an
example of steel, you can also try to do with copper, aluminum, anything. Ok? For
everything, there is a heat treatment cycle, you have to watch out for it and then, start
doing it. I am walking through only steal, because steel is predominantly used material
for primary structure load bearing area.
So, and then, keep it at a temperature for a period of time and then, cool it in air. So,
these are discs, which are cut and that are undergoing normalizing structure. The
resulting microstructure is a mixture of ferrite and cementite, which has a higher strength
and hardness, but lower ductility. So, now, what you do is, after doing this you try to
take it once again to heat treatment and then, you tried to change the grain structure and
start converting these billets into flat rolls for coils possible.
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So, just play with the heat treatment. So, some of the design guidelines, forecasting the
shrinkage can cause induced the stresses and distortion in casting components. So, the
sections thickness, here, if you have abrupt change, it will always try to introduce, you
will not have uniform cooling. So, there will be a possibility of defect might be caused.
So, you and there, can be lot of internal stresses in order to avoid it, whenever you try to
do casting, you try to give a radius and avoid the sharp edges. So, that you can try to get
a better performance and shrinkage is also not there.
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When you try to forge the parting line, what is a parting line? Parting line is when, you
have two surfaces. When you have a product, the parting line surface, this is a parting
line because you generally make with two dies. If you look at the bottle, for example, we
have demonstrated. So here, if you see here, the parting line can be here or it can be on
the other side, 90 degree rotated can be a parting line. This parting line is important
because this parting line is decided, based upon the strength with gets or the load with
gets applied on to the one on the product.
So, if you do a wrong choice of your parting line, the strength of the product falls down
drastically and second thing, parting line is always decided because the die has to be
separated. You cannot make through a single die. So, you always make it through split
die. So, how should be the geometry on both the dies that will be decided by the parting
line or moment? I know the parting line; I can take that decision.
So, parting line decision, as far as plastic parts are concerned is a big challenge. This is
ok? Suppose you are trying to make a pencil box. So, the symmetry on the pencil box is
very difficult. So, now, making a parting line is also a deciding a parting line, such that it
can withstand lots, is a challenge. If you have bottle cylindrical part, it is a different and
an easy job.
But if you have something like a skewed geometry, then it is very difficult. So, here that
is what I was trying to talk about, the parting line should be in the plane perpendicular.
So in the bottle, so, this is the bottle perpendicular, means 90 degrees to the axis of the
die motion. So, no portion of the parting line should be inclined more than 75 degrees
from the principal parting plane and much shallower angles are desirable.
So, this is what. So, here we have, this is very important. Let it be a metal part, let it be a
polymer part, when you try to use die. So, parting line is very important. So, here, I have
given the radius depth of the rib to boss. So, rib is nothing, but this is a rib. Ok? So, or a
boss, so the corner radius and I have given the fillets.
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So, if you want to produce a part like this and then, you want to do a sheet metal just as
an example, in the computer desktop computer, you have the server. So, there you have a
sheet metal parts. So, you see various geometries like this appear, because the heat has to
be exhausted and extracted.
So, here if you, instead of making this, it is always easy to make this. So, here what we
do is, we just expanded the width and then, we made this thin. So, that we try to get the
required output. So, this is not recommended, this is recommended; thin walls are
recommended. Thick walls are not recommended, because these thick walls can try to
distraught over a period of time.
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So, in extrusion what we studied about the pipe or the rod which is getting extruded in
metal in polymer also extrusion is possible. So, avoid sharp edges; that mean, to say you
always try to take cylindrical, never try to take a square extruded part, then the generous
be generous, in giving the internal and the external geometry. Here are some materials
which we are given and look at the corner radius for aluminum and all it is 0.75 fillet,
radius is 0.75, for ferrous it is 1.5 and 3.
So, depending upon the material, the fillet radius is also done. So, all this information are
available in books; in standard books, for example, you can look at data books where and
which different process, these guidelines are given. So, you have to go through that while
deciding the geometry for the die.
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So, this is called as an unbalanced die. So, this is called as a balanced die. This is
desirable, this is not desirable sharp edges are never desirable in punching operation, it is
always good to have a fillet at radius, because sharp, when it is piercing, making a die is
also a challenge because if it has to be punched. So, to have a punch which is square,
making a square geometry is little difficult. So, if you have to, if you can make a filtered
one. So, the sharp edges can be avoided.
So, these are some more for stamping. So, ensure the maximum stock is utilized. For
example, I do not know, how many of you have seen, when you walk out, you will also
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see rubber pad, where in which different foot wears are cut at varying angles. So, what
they have done is, they have maximized the utilization in producing whatever product
they want. Ok? This is called as nesting. So, nesting itself is a big algorithm. So, you
have a sheet metal, you have a product, how many parts - parts can be made, what all
orientation it is not necessary all has to be in one direction. You can do it anywhere, but
you try to reduce the scrap.
So, ensure maximum stock utilization, the diameter of the pierced holes should not be
less than the stock thickness, keep that in mind. The spacing between the holes should be
minimum of twice the stock thickness. So, that is what is required. So, that you can try to
do stamping operation, this also holds good for elastomers and plastics.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:35).
So, today’s task for the students is going to be a fun task. So, try to take the finger chips,
which is readymade available. Try to put it in a pan, where it is with oil, right, try to drop
it inside a pan. Ok? So, here what you do is the temperature of your pan oil pan is fixed.
Ok? So, now, what you do is, you try to vary time so; that means, to say. So, you have
time maybe 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 25 minutes, 30 minutes, after the oil has
come to a stable state. Ok? And then, what you do is, you try to take the performance.
So, what you do is, you try to take a finger chips, which is already available or take a
potato. So, this is a potato finger chips, take a finger chips right.
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And it is readymade available. Today, drop it inside the oil pan, this is oil. The
temperature has come to a stable state and then, what you do is, you try to and here, it is
still burning right heat is away, heat is applied. So, it comes to a stable state, to a large
extent and then, here is a time. So, you just try to put the chips at then, keep it for this. I
have just put it as 5 - 10 magnitude of my own choice. It can be 1 minute, 2 minute, and
3 minute also and then try to see whether you get a crispy shell, soft core. Ok? When do
you get at which temperature and then, as when you keep increasing the time and so, it is
going to stay there for a more time. So, you will see a crispy sheet outside and the core
also will become crispy.
So, try to do this exercise. So, what I am trying to demonstrate here is, just by taking the
constant finger chips work piece material, dropping inside a heat treatment process, just
by varying the time, you see different taste of the same material comes. So, it is crispy.
So, it breaks or it taste nice and completely crispy is of a different taste and the
performances different. So, this exercise, just try to do it for yourself. So, that you will
try to appreciate the heat treatment effect on the work piece and its performance here, we
talk in terms of taste, but you can also make it brittle. So, it is brittle another thing.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 18
Product Costing
Welcome to lecture number 18. In this lecture we will be more focused towards product
costing.
Costing is very important phenomena, because it decides the success of a product. When
a customer goes to a market and buy the product, apart from its performance, he also
keeps cost as one of the major objectives to be met. So, in this lecture we will focus little
bit on introduction followed by, it will be cost and price structure, then information need
sources, then estimating direct and indirect costing, design and manufacturing costing
and ways to model manufacturing cost.
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The ratio of perceived quality to its cost is called the value of the product. Thus the goal
of design activities is to create a product that satisfies customers requirement and to
maximize product. So, any company which comes into market, so they always try to
maximize their product, the profit. So, when they try to maximize their profit, they also
must keep in their mind that customer requirement is all met. See, there are two three
ways of strategy forming; one strategy is use, sell very small number of plots or products
and make your profit. The other way around is sell more number of products, have a
smaller margin in each product, but sell more in numbers, you still make your total gain,
whatever it is. The third one is, you try to which is not ethical, you try to cheat a
customer and all you have to do is, cheat him only once.
But you cheat more number of customers and the product dies off after one sale; that is
the third side strategy, some companies do follow, but that is not an advisable strategy.
We will always look for the first and the second, sell lesser number, have very high
quality, make profit, sell more in number, have very small profit, but since you are sell
more in number, you also still make the same profit. Within this, you have to make a
strategy and then start doing it, but whatever you do, the company wants to make a
profit, but the profit cannot be sacrificing customer’s requirements.
The difference between the price at which the product is sold and the cost of product
providing the product to the customer is called as the profit. So, the difference between
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the price at which the product is sold and the cost of providing the product to the
customer is called as profit. A profit is required for business enterprise to remind viable.
See nobody will make a product, no company will make a product, where and which the
product is not making profit just for sustaining. If somebody makes a loss in the initial
few days of the product establishing that is ok, they have a business strategy, but this
cannot be done for a long time, or I will put it in this way. No product is sold for zero
profit, as cost is the most accessible and universally understood measure of the resource
consumption. So, cost is very important.
Many a times we talked about performance, we talked about quality so, but this
performance and quality are indirect measure. Quality, you always say, if the quality is
met the customer is satisfied or customer is happy. So, what is this happiness, I cannot
quantify. If the performance is very good, what is the performance, how can I evaluate
the performance, it can be in terms of energy reduction or it can be in terms of cost, but
measure which is directly accessible by everybody and accepting by everybody is
costing. So, costing can be readily used as an important metric on which to base the
engineering design decision.
So, this point says very clearly that costing is very important, the difference between the
price at which the product is sold, and the cost of providing the product to the customer
is called as profit.
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Engineering economics and cost analysis engineering, Economics is the application of
accumulated knowledge in engineering and economics, it is used to identify alternative
use of resources and to select the best course of action from an economic point of view.
For example, a chair can be made out of steel, a chair can be made out of wood, a chair
can be made out of plastic. So, what we look forward is, how do you decide wood,
plastic or steel. So, this choice is made on top of engineering, where and which
economics is also kept a major point.
The cost analysis is necessary for determining the manufacturing and life cycle cost of
the specific product, cost estimation, and thereby profitability, cost estimation is
different, profitability is different. Cost estimation and thereby profitability is necessary
for determining the economical advantage of the business which distance, which
determines the ability of a company to be competitive. If a company is competitive in the
market, it has to have regularly assessing the product, performance and the cost, then
decide what is to be done.
Cost and price structure,
(Direct labour cost) + (material cost) = (prime cost/operational cost).
Direct labour cost is cost of the actual labour used to produce the product. So, since the
labour cost is going very high, today there is lot of demand for automation. So, people
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look for automation and robotics, as a big field where and which they try to replace the
human labour. The direct material cost comprises the cost of raw material or semi
finished material that can be directly attributed to the product.
(Factory overhead) + (prime cost) = (cost of the goods manufactured / Manufacturing

cost),
whereas something called as overhead cost.
So, overhead cost is indirect material cost, factory supplies, lubricants, indirect labour
cost, cost of a supervisor inspection, salary of a factory club, fixed and miscellaneous
cost; such as rent, insurance, tax, depreciation, maintenance, repair, utilities and small
tools. All these things fall under overhead cost. When you go to a shop or canteen or
when you go to a hotel, the bill which is getting generated where and which we use a
paper which is nothing, but an overhead cost, you cannot live without a paper. Today the
scenario has come to such a good extent that what they do is, even the bills what you eat
are getting transferred through mobile phones.
So, like what you have in Ola and Uber, the same way, as soon as you finish your dinner
the bill comes on to your cell phone and then you go to the counter, pay that money or
you can pay through PayTm directly. So, that is what is the new advancement. So, there
the paper what we used is an overhead. So,
(direct labour cost; material cost) = (prime cost) / (operational cost). What is direct
labour cost you have seen factory overheads, you have seen all the factory overhead
here.
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The information needs and resource and sources. The accurate estimation of a cost
requires reliable information. So, you cannot do lot of approximation. For example,
when I start talking about pharmaceutical industry for tablet, they talk about a profit of 2
paisa 3 paisa. So, that is the profit margin they talk about here, they have to boil and mail
down to the last decimal point or take it to the last level and do all the cost estimation
very precise ok. The flow of information should be uninterrupted, timely, and consistent
throughout and simple. See today we talk about digitization in a big way. So, the
digitization, it’s trying to reduce the time and it is also talking about using a data source
which is consistent ok.
So, the flow of information should be uninterrupted, timely, consistent, thorough and
simple. Usually three kinds of information are important; one is historical, measured and
policy. Historical is what is a sell last year and what is the measures we have taken in
this year, and policies are what are the government policies which is given for this
discount and other things. The information from internal report historical and typically
included in accounting information. measured information generally is in dollars or time
dimension such; such as material quantities calculated from the drawing ok. So, that is
measured information. Policy information is a fixed in nature and includes information
such as union management, wage settlement, social security, tax liability insurance,
etcetera, etcetera.
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For example, the weights, every year there is a government policy; they revise the
minimum wage for daily wage worker, and this they have in, in India there are two
systems followed; one is central government wage minimum wages and state
government minimum wages. So, there are two things, an industry or an organization can
decide which one do they follow and which one they have to, and then they follow one
have to complaint to the complete thing. So, these are all policy decisions and every year
or once in 5 years, there is a revision in the salary. So, this once the salary increases, it
has to be increased for all levels of skilled people, skills in the factory. So, that is a
policy information.
The sources of information there is access at internal as well as external is there. Internal
information is accounting department, personal department, operating department,
purchase department, sales and marketing. Accounting department is way talk about
what is the cost, today I invest the capital into this, product to be bought. So, when will I
get back my capital, and when I put this capital and everyday it also has interest. So,
when will I get back the interest? Certain interest, certain the capital money can be
borrowed certain you have your own money so you’re trying to reinvest.
So, that information is called as accounting information, where department gives. Then
personal information how many people involved in that. Operating department try to say,
whether we can subcontract this or whether we can try to produce everything inside. So,
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that is what is the operating department says, how many staffs required whether we
should run in three shifts or not, when is the material to be procured, should we buy it
and multiples of hundreds or should we buy what is the back size all those things are
done. Purchase department decides whether it is to be done inland or it has to be
imported.
Inland is within the country is production itself can I get it same or, can I get it from
abroad for the cost whatever I can offered. Earlier it was talked about, when we try to
buy it inland, the cost is going to be economical. Today the cost has become the, cost the
technology so much developed, and the costing has come down drastically. Today we try
to compete with international market. The international market products are comparable
with that of inland.
So, those things and sales and marketing; all those things talk about the internal
information which is to be added to the product costing when we talk about external its
government agencies, international agencies, business firms, trade association and
publications. They all are the external source of information which are to be added to,
which are to be taken up when we decide the costing. When we talk about international
agencies, see take a simple example of petrol or diesel today.
So, the diesel price is now become dynamic, and it depends upon the international
market. So, there is a rise or a decrease depending upon the international agencies,not on
the government policies, for one particular product as a petrol. Government agencies
they try to, they try to decide and give that the depreciation and the interest labour all
those things estimating direct and indirect cost.
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So, direct cost and indirect cost, direct cost are those cost where the material, where the
material cost and the person who is involved in developing, they directly touch the
product they are called the, costing which is involved is called as direct cost. Indirect
cost or something like a supervisor purchased all those things are called indirect cost.
The structuring cost information is, it is a process of grouping like facts about a common
reference on the basis of similarities, attributes and relationship.
So, basis of similarities between the product attributes, so very fine colour, texture all
these things are attributes and their relationships. Once the cost information is classified,
it is summarized. Cost information is classified based upon whatever we have seen in the
earlier slides. Sometimes a master list of cost codes is used. For example, if you know
that a screw, a screw M10 screw, M 10 screw cost rupees 10. So, then a screw M 6 might
cost something like 6 rupees. So, suppose if I do not have the costing or suppose if I
decide to do, if I want to produce between M 6 and M 7 some screw or M 6 and M 8, I
want to produce M 7. So, what it does is in the master file, I can see M6, I can see M6
and M10 and then I can try to take a price in between these two and then start putting it
as a cost.
So, master list of cost codes is available and, and apart from that what happens when you
try to see, you always see a price listing given for several products in a manual or in
websites. So, these things are nothing, but master list of cost coding which are used,
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materials, supplies equipment cost and the likely are assigned, cost from the original
documents and giving the appropriate code numbers are there; for example, when you go
to buy a pizza in a shop.
So, eat pizza has a code number. So, what they do is, they just punch the code number
and then you see the rest of the cost coming up, and then when it is done, you can see
apart from the costing, you have that all these say tax costing and then they put G S T,
whatever it is and then finally, they say this is a totally X X X amount and if you see the
denominator is a very difficult number to give a change. So, then also it approximate and
it says X X X and then stops this two digits ok. So, all these things are structures of in
costing.
So, direct labour cost, two things are required to determine the direct labour cost; one is
that time which is taken and second one is the wage; that is right. So, for producing a
chair, a chair, you need a skilled labour, you need a semi unskilled labour. So, there is a
wage for unskilled labour, there is a wage for skilled labour and what is the time required
in converting a raw material into finish product. So, that is the time which we multiply
and then we try to take the cost. So, this labour, this direct labour cost depends upon the
skills he has, and depending upon the skill the wage differs ok. So, here the direct labour
cost depends upon the time required on the wage require. The procedure used in
determining the time, it is taken to complete the task is described in the next slide.
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So, what you do is generally, suppose if there are some 20 events to be happened to
convert your raw material into a finish product. So, each event we will try to split that
event, split that event into several small sub events, and events we try to split 1 2 3 4 and
5. And now for each event I know what is a cycle time. So, then I add the cycle time,
find out this major event, from here I try to find this event like this, I try to do 10 or 20
events to do one job, and finally, I tried to total this sum and then try to do it.
When I try to split smaller and smaller and smaller what happens is, there are standard
which are established by industrial labour law organization. They have said that for this
micro event what should be the time to be given. So, here what we do is the estimating
the direct and indirect cost, observe the task being performed and record the time it takes
to complete the direct cycle of the task. For example, if somebody is repetitively doing a
job. So, what you doing, you will go there stand beside him and start recording, how
many times he does the job in one shift, say for example, repetitive job he does in one
shift.
For each job what is each time, when you repeat what is a time he takes. So, first what
they say is they try to say please observe, then what they say is then time the number of
task cycle is recorded and average and then average cycle time is called the observed
time. So, what they say is for example, for doing X job, he takes 11 minutes 12 minutes,
11 minutes and then he takes 14 minutes. So, now, what they say is they say, add up all
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these things, a simple thing is I said 10, so plus 1 plus 2 plus 1 plus 4. So, 1 plus 3 plus 1
4 plus 4 8 8 divided by 4 2. So, it takes 2, it takes 12 minutes; 48 divided by 4, it is 12
minutes. So, what have you done you have taken, the time taken for the same task to do 4
times and then you have averaged it out and then you have try to figure out this is 12,
this 12 is called the observed time.
So, what is the normal time; normal time is nothing, but observe time into rating. So,
what I do is, I do not take 12 minutes all the time, because if I do it a 12 minutes then we
do not give any fatigue allowance. We do not give an allowance where and which he has
to attend to his nature’s call, we do not give a small, because if you do not give a
relaxation, then that might lead to fatigue and tiredness and he does not perform very
well or there is a possibility mistakes can happen. So, generally what we do is, we try to
take 12 minutes, and then we multiply to the factor of called 0.8. So; that means, to say
80 percent of the time he will do it more focus; so 12 into 0.8.
So, that will be the normal time which is taken, places at which the operator being
observed to work that is the, waiting to be always multiply with that and then what we
say, this is the time which you take for a cycle time, then what we do standard time
divided by the job standards, that is nothing, but normal time plus allowance we give. So,
what is a job standard, this man does it at this ways, but when I do it, I do it within 8
minutes ok.
So, then if an old men does or if a unskilled labour does, he might take more time, but
when a skill labour does he does it in a short span of time. So, now what you have to do,
you have to now establishes a standard. So, that is nothing, but the standard time as job
standard. So, that is normal time plus allowance, which is all put together, and that is
how you try to find out what is the estimated direct cycle time.
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The next topic of discussion is going to be estimating direct and indirect cost. So, here as
we have already seen
(Average absorbed time) = (total time of X complete cycles of the task / X).
(Normal time = average observe time * rating).
(Standard time = normal time / 1 - P D F allowance).
So, all these things are very important. Please remember these formulas, there can be
questions in the examination point of view. So, what is P D F allowance? The P D F
allowance are the fraction of the normal time, devoted to the personal needs unwanted,
unavoidable delays and recovery from fatigue. So, these are all given us part of P D F.
The standard time may be expressed in seconds, minutes or hours, depending upon the
job. The standard time may also be used to determine the output per hour in terms of
number of pieces as follows,
(Pieces per hour = 60 / standard time in minutes);
(Output per day = pieces per hour * 8 * pieces). So, this is a trivial one. So, for
calculating the number of pieces what is to be produced?
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From the preceding the direct labour cost can be calculated as follows,
(Direct labour cost / piece = wages rate($/hr) * standard time (hour / pieces)).
So, the direct labour cost per day, when you try to do a per piece. Now when you try to
talk for day is nothing, but pieces per day in to standard time, hours for piece in the
average, this average rating which is in rupees per hour.
So, note the wage rate may or may not include the cost of fringe benefits, where are
small fringe benefits which we try to give in industry; that is and not there. If the cost is
not included, the wage rate must be modified to accommodated.
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The actual wage rate in that cases,
(Actual wage rate = wage rate * (1 + F + U + W + H)).
F is nothing, but FICA fraction, U is unemployment compensation fraction, W is work

compensation fraction health, H is health and other insurance compensation fraction.
So, all these things put together we try to get 1 plus F, U, W and H, we try to multiply
with wage rate and what we get is the actual wage rate. So, the next thing is, sometimes
it is necessary to modify the time per unit to account for the effective of learning. So, this
may be read an
Time T for piece after cumulative production P,
(Cumulative production P = To * Pn)
production, added production, T not is the time to take the first unit, P is the learning
rate.
So, initially is the learning rate will be very high as slow learning rate will be slow, and
then what happens is, after certain saturation of time the learning rate is not going to be
so much. So, it reaches the saturation point. So, here what you have done as, we have
tried to put that into the formula, so that you can try to get. So, if you assume that at
initial time n will be slow at later time the n will be, after some point the, initial it will be
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point 1 point 2 point, so that understanding the process when she has learnt it, then this
does not come into existence.
So, the direct material cost, the bill of material is essential for determining the quantities
of material required, as it generally contains the pound cubes or square yards board
sheet, board feet, board feet, square feet, gallons, linear feet etc. etc. So, we try to
calculate what is the material which is used and how much material which is used.
Basically, if it is given in weight, we try to come in density and then we try to find out
the volume. So, we tried to criss cross and play many things. The next step is to apply the
appropriate material per unit and the cost in. So, we have found out that 25 grams of to
be used.
So, now, what I am trying to say 1 gram is what. So, with that what we do, if we try to
multiply and then we try to get the material cost. So,
Material cost for a unit = W * (1 + L1 + L2 + L3) P-R
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So, what is W, W is weight in pounds for a unit, P is the price per pound, R is the unit
price of salvaged material per unit, L 1 is the last due to scrap, L 2 is the last due to waste
and L 3 is the last due to shrinkage. It’s all in fractions, all the three can be there, any two
can be there, only one can be there that is left to recall the product on the process what
about us. To determine the material cost one have, one can use several rules. First in first
out cost, last in first out cost, current cost or the actual cost. You can you any of these
thing and then we can try the costing.
The actual price required requires calculating equal and cost and work as the follows
CostEquivalent = (∑ Ci * Ai /∑ Ai )
What is A? A is a unit in dimensions compatible to the cost C and i is varying the lot
number, it can be 10, what is a back size that called as a lot number.
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So, we have seen direct cost we have. Now we will see what are the indirect cost. The
overhead cost or the indirect cost or the portion of the cost that cannot be clearly
associated with particular operation product or project. It may be prorated above all the
product units on the same basis. Overhead cost includes labour cost for persons, who are
not directly in involved with specific manufacturing process such as manager, secretary,
various facility cost such as utilities and the mortgage payment.
Non cash benefits provides to employs such as health insurance, retirement contribution,
unemployment, insurance and any other cost of running the business such as accounting,
taxing, furnishing, insurance, sick leaves, paid vacation etc etc. All these things fall
under indirect cost.
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When overhead is allocated based on the direct labour cost, it is often called as burden
rate, and is used to determine either the overhead cost C oh, or the burden labour rate L R B
as
(COH = Np m * b * Cl)
LRB is that that is nothing, but the burden rate.
O H is the overhead cost; overhead cost N is the number. B is nothing, but the burden
labour burden rate which always takes a valuable point 3 to 2
(LRB = LR (1+b)). Often expressed in dollars per hour, which when convert to an annual
basis is employment gross average basis.
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What are the other hidden costs? Hidden costs are those costs that are difficult to
quantify. Example for hidden costs products gain or loss the market share, company’s
stock price changes portion in the market for futuristic product (Refer Time: 29:26),
positioning the product to the futuristic market, impact of competitors. Future value of
engineering manufacturing and support experience associated with using new
technologies and material. Long term health safety, environmental impact, are some of
the hidden cost which are involved in costing.
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So, design and manufacturing cost. Till now what you will saw. We saw overhead cost,
we saw direct labour cost, then indirect labour cost, then we saw hidden cost. The next
time we will say manufacturing cost. So, manufacturing cost forms the basis for
determining, the actual recurring cost of making a product. Manufacturing cost are
generally the sum of cost from four primary sources. The first one is recurring labour
cost, the labour cost refers to the cost of people required to perform specific activities,
the labour cost per unit associated with an activity performed during manufacturing can
be determined by this formula.
So, these two formulas are the same. So, where N L is the number of people associated
with the activity, it can be values always less than 1, then T is nothing, but the length of
the time taken by the activity, and P is a number of units that can be treated
simultaneously by the activity. For example, if you have something like gang drilling.
So, you have one work piece, you have several drills which are attached to a spindle,
which is attached to a spindle and you can do all three holes these are drills. So, you can
do all the three holes machining at simultaneously, that is what we called as number of
units that can be treated simultaneously by the activity, or generally you take about heat
treatment, all 1000 parts to be done in one heat treatment that is what you are talking
about N P.
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So, design and development cost. So, here what we saw was manufacturing cost. The
next one is design and development cost. Design and development costs are referred to
as non-recurring cost. So, here manufacturing cost is recurring cost, every part I
produced there is a manufacturing cost. Designers one time, I make it and that is frozen
for rest of the time the product is made in the factory. So, as they are one time charges
and no matter how many units you produced are manufactured.
The specific elements of design and development cost that that must be included are
development of product specification, conceptual design after listening to voice of
customers, intellectual property acquisition or of a protection against licensing, design of
a product including the creation of engineering drawing, software development, creating
prototypes, functional testing and environmental and product qualification and
certification. So, all these things are nothing, but costing which are involved in design
and development, this is one time of air. When you talk about manufacturing cost, it is
every part you produce, there is a recurring cost.
So, the recurring material cost can be further found out. The cost of a material associated
with an activity can be given by
(CM = UM * CM)
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and what is UM? UM is the quantity of material consumed as indicated by its count,
volume, area or length. CM is the unit cost of the material per count is nothing, but the
CM. So, we tried to calculate the recurring material cost in terms of C M then allocation of
non recurring tools. Tools cost are non recurring cost associated with the activities that
occur only once or few times. So, for example, once and 100 cycles I have to replace the
drill.
So, for every 100 parts you do it once and many a times you buy a spanner and that is
spanner is all that pass spanner stage with your rest of the life whenever you do some
operation of it. So, those things are called as one time offer, or a few times in this cycle.
So, examples of tooling cost are pro programming and calibration cost for manufacturing
equipments and training people some other examples maybe a purchase or manufacture
of a product specific tools, zigs, stencils at etc etc.
What is the capital cost? Capital cost is a onetime investment cost; it can be construction
of a building, buying a huge capital intensive machine. So, capital cost of those cost for
purchasing and maintaining the manufacturing equipment and facility. In general capital
cost can be associated with this, T is the length of the time, where limits the activity is
going to take, C e is the purchase price of a capital equipment of facility that is C e, Np is
a number of units which is produced, T op is operational time of the equipment, and T d is
the depreciation life in here.
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So, many a times several of these buildings what are existing today, they have a value of
almost zero. The depreciation has gone so low that they have the task reached, the value
of the building as per the records are zero. So, this is where there is a depreciation life,
which places a very important role in costing. Many items if you start putting
depreciation over a period of time become the value becomes zero, but this product or
the part or the part of the building what you hold, has a value even after the depreciation
life period is over. So, here costing place a very important role ok.
So, this is how you tried to calculate the capital cost, and equipments. Please understand
many a times when we do disaster management camps, what we do is, we try to establish
one time and that is only for a small period of time maybe 15 days, 1 month, 1 day
whatever it is something like. So, those are called disaster or occasional or an even best
this thing. Here what we calculated a long term project, a car manufacturing site, the
investment involves or a college construction. So, that is what we try to talk about, and
here I am always talking to about the product when you talk about an institution, it is
number of students it can accommodate ok. So, we have to tweak the definitions little
bit. What is a process flow model?
So, process flow model is manufacturing process can be model as a sequence of process
steps that takes place in a specific order. For example, as soon as you get into your
house, you remove your shoes, and then you try to wash your legs and hands and face.
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Then you go sit in your living room or in your dining room and start having a cup of tea.
So, then you sit in your living room, then you have a cup of tea, then you have a small
talking session with your family or with your friends, and then what you do is, you
finished the cup and put it cup for wash.
So, here what is happening, these are a sequence of events which happened as soon as
you enter your house. So, manufacturing process also has a similar sequence. So, this
sequence can be in such a way that you do not even remove shoe you directly go sit have
a cup of tea, or you just do not even have a cup of tea which choose you just go tour start
talking to your friend sitting in the living room, possible ok. The process is established, if
the sequence is established, you can follow the same sequence all the time, you can even
jump over the sequence and execute. The process in manufacturing also it is the same.
Manufacturing process can be model as a sequence of process steps that takes place in a
specific order. The steps and the order are referred to as a process flow. In a process flow
model, a product unit acquires cost, as it moves through a sequence of process steps.
So, every step it does, there is a value addition for a raw material to get convert there is a
value addition, and for every value addition there is a costing. So, I costing its built up to
the product, each process steps start with the state of the unit after proceeding process
steps. So; that means, to say here I have assumed every product undergoes every step.
The current step then modifies the unit and its output is a new unit state, which forms the
unit of the next step. For example, every state if you are not interested in this example,
you can try to remove it. I will try to give another example. Other example is, let us take
a pizza.
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So, pizza base is there. So, then you add a topping to it ok, topping and then you add
topping can be base and then you can have vegetables on top of, top in and then it
undergoes a heat treatment cycle and then it undergoes a packaging cycle, before giving
it to the customer.
So, every step there is a value getting added to the product and based on this value
addition, the next stage in the costing also goes increasing. So, this is what we are trying
to say in this process.
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So, the cost of ownership model, this is one COO is one model, the COO calculates an
effective tool, cost for ownership for each piece of the equipment in the manufacturing
process and then charges each unit of fraction of that cost based on the portion of the
lifetime of the equipment used by the product for example, I buy a tawa and this tawa is
used for making 10000 [FL].
So, what I do? This tawas cost is 10 rupees or 100 rupees, I divide this 100 by 1000. So,
when I try to sell this [FL] I try to add. So, much of component into that [FL] as a cost
for the oldest model and then I try to sell it. For example, this is the capital cost, capital
cost I have incurred, I have incurred. So, I divided by the number of products and then
get it, the another one is called as Activity Based cost, activity based cost model ABC
model, the activity K base cost model is a model is a method of assigning an
organizational resource cost, through activities to the products and services provided to
the customers.
So, here it is only the products, which is produced here. It is also and the service is also
done once activity and their associated cost driver are identified and activity rate A R is
given in determining the relationship. So, AR is nothing, but activity cost pool divided by
activity based. So, here Activity Based Costing is a method of assigning and
organizational resource cost through activities to the product and the service provides.
So, that is ABC Activity Based Costing is a method of assigning and organizations
resource cost ok, through activities to the product and service once the activity and
associated costs drives are identified and activity rate is determent for the relationship.
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Where the activities cost pool? What is the activities cost pool? Activity cost pool is this.
So, I can say it is ACP. So, the activity cost pool is the total number of overheads
required by activities during some period of time and the activities based in the number
of times. The activity was performed on the product during the period of time. So, the
total cost of the i-th activity of a single product is determined by
CAi = (ARi * NAi ) + C Li + C M j).
So, this is the i-th the product ok.
So, a N A i is the number of times, the activity must be performed to manufacture one unit
of a product, the product AR i and NA i in the above equation is the overhead allocated to
one unit of the product by the activity for one unit. C A i is overall activity associated with
the manufacturing sorry, in today's lecture it is all more of costing and it is a simple say,
a formula, these formulas are very simple, but you have to remember this from the
examination point of view, it is just applying logics and then they start doing.
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The last one is called as a parametric cost modelling. So, we have see two models cost of
ownership model, activity based cost model, then we have parametric cost model. So, the
parametric cost model forms the basis of many top down cost models that seek to
estimate establish, an estimate of the cost of a product from higher level design
parameters that defines the products performance functionality and physical attribute.
So, this is called as parametric cost model here forms the basis of, for many top down
costs, many top down cost models that seeks to establish an estimate of the cost of a
product from high level design parameters, that defines the product performance
functionality and physical attributes. The relationship between the design parameters and
the costing is called as CER, which is nothing, but cost estimating relationship.
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So, the technical cost modelling the process of determining the primary cost contribution
from the physical parameters associated with the manufacturing process and the product
specification, specifying details as called as technical cost model. So, this can be used in
conjunction, with any of the model approach that can be associated. So, for discuss, so
this can be associated. So, what all did, we see, we saw cost of owner activity, based
cost, when we saw parametric cost model and then finally, we saw technical casting
model.
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So, task for students take, ballpoint pen and then try to dissect; that means, to say strip it
off to the last information. For example, you remove all the parts, keep it in front of you
then put a small for example, So, here you put the cost, here you paste the part,
something like this. So, here what you will do is, you will start putting approximate cost,
what is known to you here and then what you will do is, you will try to put a total price.
So, here what will happen is you will have a total cost looking into all the parts, you will
try to summarize and then put then go to the market try to buy the same pen and compare
your costing, what you are done piecewise to the pens price and now, you will
understand how difficult or how much is costing important or what is a variation you
give and in this, you have put only the manufacturing cost right.
So, here in this behind, this manufacturing cost, there are process cost, design cost, all
those things. So, then you will try to understand there will be an error. So, now, you will
have to divide what are all the possibilities for error, when you do this exercise, you will
have a thorough understanding of the difficulties, which is involved in costing.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Dr. Shashi Shekar Mishra
Department of Mechanical and Design Program
National Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Lecture – 19
Design for Manufacturing
The next topic of discussion is going to be design for manufacturing. Any product you
design, if it is not maturable or if it is not manufacturable, then the product does not play
any sense. So, when a product is designed or developed, the basic thing what a designer
should keep in his mind is design for manufacturing. A simple example is when
somebody says a hole immediately what comes to our mind is a circular one, and we
give a depth to it. Why nobody is thinking of making a square one, why do not there be a
square hole why do not there be an oblong hole, why do not there be a hole of star shape
cannot be there because from the process of manufacturing, the simplest process which
can be used for hole making is drilling. In drilling there is a relative motion between the
tool and the work piece, so the tool rotates the work piece is kept stationery and then you
start giving a feed you generate a hole.
So, now when you have a square profile to be made in a hole, as a hole then what
happens is the tool has to is not cannot be cylindrical. And if it cannot be cylindrical and
if it rotates, so it is going to create more of wobbling and it is going to have an impact on
the whole geometry. So, that is why people always try to keep this idea of manufacturing
at the first stage itself. After getting customer, voice from the conceptual ideas are
getting developed, then and there itself people start putting this design for manufacturing
also parallely and start tweaking their concept keeping this manufacturing us primary
source.
In fact, when we talk about manufacturing it is not only material, it not only helps in
processing, it also helps in material choice. And it also helps in moving towards the
concept of modularity. Moment modularity comes into existence; it also tries to pushes
you towards subcontracting. So, many things are attached with this manufacture. So, this
is the next topic of discussion.
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So, we will try to understand what is designed for manufacturing then design review,
then, why design for manufacturing, how to perform design for manufacturing, then
design for manufacturing some basic guidelines which has been drafted over a period of
time. Today, design for manufacturing is followed by every automotive company follows
it, in fact, food industries have started following design for manufacturing.
Definition for design for manufacturing is a design technique for manufacturing ease of
an assortment of parts that would constitute the final product after assembly. So, it is not
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only for a single part for assortment of parts. For example, when I try to talk about a hole
you can have through hole ok, you can have blind hole, you can have blind hole and
through hole for varying aspect ratios, where the aspect ratio can be less than 1, equal to
1 or it can be greater than 1. So, you see here a hole, just a hole and then if the thickness
of the material is very less, then this hole can be created by a punch. When you talk
about a punch, we also have square punches, a square hole can be made right, but the
process is different ok.
Depending upon the sheet metal for example, sheet metal when you use it for desktop
you see on the size of the cover of the desktops, you see lot of holes are there, these holes
are basically air belt holes to remove the heat which is getting generated during the
working of a computer. So, you can also have punched holes, where square holes can be
made or perforations can be made. If you want a larger fit, then hole can be of two
classifications here.
So, what am I trying to say is I am trying to say about this assortment of parts that could
constitute the final product after assembly. So, we are not talking about a single part
becoming a product DFM cannot be used in a big way, you cannot enjoy more of DFM.
If you have several parts put together as sub-assembly, several subassemblies put
together and assembly, so assembly means a product then you can think of enjoying the
advantage of using DFM.
DFM for manufacturing focuses on minimising the complexity involved in

manufacturing operation as well as reducing the overall part production cost. Here when
I try to say minimising the complexity, so but maintaining variety that means, to say any
part I do or any assembly I do, sub-assembly I do, I would like to make it modular. In
this modular, I would like to add variants such that I can meet out to several
requirements. So, this is what minimising the complexity means if I minimise the
complexity, I make it as modular. So, I use more of standard parts and then start using it.
For example, the mixer whatever I was talking to in the in the last lectures, so I was
talking to you about a mixer it has a motor which is separate, which is which is a
standard part. And then you have three or four jars for various applications. One would
1, 1 liter, you can have 1.5 liter, you can have 1.5 liter, you can have 0.25 liter and then
you can have a separate jar for juice. So, if I do this for jars along with the mixer, it
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caters to all demands of a kitchen. So, this is a modular concept where and which the
complexity of having of the parts are reduced. And once the complexity of the parts are
reduced the manufacturing operation is reduced moment you make the manufacturing
operation simpler the cost is going to fall down, so that is what we try to convey through
here. So, when you try to follow design for manufacturing we try to group the
operations. And once you try to group those operations, we try to generalise a machine.
Once you start generalising the machine, then we start generalising or producing parts in
a standard manner.
So, design for manufacturing is also the process of proactively designing products to
optimise all the manufacturing functions like fabrication, assembly, testing, procurement,
shipping, delivery, service and repair. When we t,alk about design for manufacturing it is
interesting to know shipping is also part of manufacturability. So, delivery service, and
repair, so here we are trying to talk about manufacturability, design for
manufacturability.
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Design for manufacturability is also the process of proactively designing products to

assure the best cost, quality, reliability, reliability and repeatability are two different
terminologies, you should understand that. I repetitively do a job that is different.
Whenever I try to start for example, a cell phone which are not used it for 3 months,
when I when I start operating it after 3 months, I put everything battery back and then I
just press on button it starts working that is a reliability. I put a key in the keyhole of a
car and I start cranking it, it starts cranking that is reliability ok. Repeatability is a
different story. I try to produce a same part I get consistency is this repeatability.
Then regulatory compliance so that means to say it is energy efficient it does not produce
fumes, it does not use any by product which has hazardous which are hazardous in
nature. So, all those things are regulatory compliance safety time to market which we
have already dealt when we do the initial design itself. What is the time it is going to take
from understanding the customer voice to giving it to the customer as a finished product
is called a time to cost, ok. Then completely customer satisfaction, all these things are
assured when we follow this design for manufacturability. Design for manufacturability
is a process of proactively designing products to meet out all these things.
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The purpose of a design review is existing see design for manufacturing can be done for
a new product, for a existing product. Existing product again you take the existing
product go to the customer asked what is the problem, comeback start sorting it out.
Maybe it is cost, maybe it is the performance; maybe it is even appearance. So, you come
back get the feedback comeback, sit on your desk and design desk and start working on
how do I redo it such that I can meet the customer’s satisfaction. So, design for
manufacturing can be done for existing product, can also be done for the new product
which is getting evolve.
The purpose of a design review is to provide a systematic and thorough product process
analysis product and process; please note it down. Product is a chair; product is a table;
process can be carpentry; process can be injection moulding; process can be even
machining, sheet metal process, so through product process analysis ok. The next one is
a formal record of that analysis. The third one is feedback of the design team for
products and process improvement. So, the process of a design review has these three
points. So, you try to provide a systematic and a thorough product process analysis, then
you try to look at a formal record of that analysis whatever you have done. And then you
try to give a feedback to the design team from the product process analysis and
improvement what has to be done.
Some common associated problems with the implementation of design review process
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are unevenly matched skill and knowledge among the design review team. Your team is
not good, the skill of the team is not so great, so then what happens is you try to land up
land up with a team where it is not providing a good output. Then lack of communication
between the product developer and the related departments. So, this is why we try to
push for concurrent engineering. In concurrent engineering is it is a discussion and in the
discussion we have team members who participate from different departments, different
expertise sits together communicate together and then start evolving the product. So, lack
of communication can also be a problem in implementing the design review process.
No time to make design-review-based changes people just keep working on let us make a
cosmetic change, just change the colour, just change the texture, just change the material,
so that is what is called as, no time to make design review, based changes; lack of design
review experience each department considers design review a separate stage and not
includes in the initial designs process. So, these are some of the problems which are
associated and which always makes this design review of failure. So, please make a note
you should have a strong team, you should have a team with multiple skills, you should
not give a cosmetic change, you should look at changes which is a very fundamental
completely relook into it then get into the market. So, and when you try to do it, every
department should understand that the design process is the initial process compared to
rest.
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So, if you want to put it in a very pictorial view, you have defined the problem, and then
you design, then you try to build and then you try to text. It is not one cycle circuit; the
cycle keeps on repeating. So, this is the design review iteration cycle. So, this keeps
going. After testing once again you look it into relook into the definition you redefine,
then what you do is you try to design, build, then test. Suppose you feel it is ok, so output
is good then fine you go for the output. Then review changes and plan and then sign it
off, the sign off happens here, but no company goes to the sign off mode. They keep on
going to this vicious cycle. So, they always try to come up with innovative product you
take a typical software, they have releases, they have versions.
So, why do they have these two they can come up with the first stage itself the best
product, but please do understand the companies get feedback from the customers try to
improve, and then they also wanted to have a market. So, every time when they release a
version or when they try to release a release, so they make a new branding and they get
into the market. So, this keeps going on. And this is what I am talking about only for a
software product. The same thing is also used for games videogames. The same thing is
also used for automobile, the same thing is also used for domestic appliances. No
product enters the market the best way; that needs to say there is always a chance or a
scope for improvement, so that is what is this design review iteration cycle keeps going
on.
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So, there are soft-hard reviews. So, what are the soft-hard reviews the soft-hard review
addresses the need to design a product for safety that is in turn in terms of the real-world
conditions, so that is called a soft-hard review. It is only predominantly looking for
safety. The soft reviews look into the careless misuse of products by user, beyond normal
wear and tear, very crude, very speaking people many a times use their pen to clean their
ears, it is just a careless misuse of the product ok. And then what they do they dig their
ears and then come back and start writing on a piece of paper, the ball gets stuck from
rotates and then they start cursing the product that it does not perform what it is supposed
to perform. So, these two are called a soft and hard review. So, soft-hard review is for
addressing the product for safety.
Soft reviews look at the careless misuse of the product. Then there is another tool which
is very effectively used which is called as FMEA; failure mode and effective analysis,
this is used when the product is getting designed itself to evaluate what can be the
possible failure of this particular product. And if this product or if this part fails in the
entire product, what is that going to have on the complete performance of the product.
So, one failure here in the product, what is the performance in decline that is what they
do. And the performance declined can be safety, can be efficiency, can be even look ok.
So, the failure mode effective analysis, the basic method is to describe the part of a
system, and the list of consequences if each part is failing. Suppose there are ten parts, a,
b, c, d, e, f, g, and if a fails what is the impact on the performance.
Now, what you have you have weightages. Now, you what you do is you try to fix out
which part can fail more, and start going to that particular part start looking at
improvising the design. And once you improve the design again go back and see the
efficiency is the still weightage maintaining the same. If the weightages are shifted to
another part you keep improvising the second part, when you keep doing you also have
to fix the first part design. So, like this you keep on iterating. And finally, what happens
you try to reduce the failure, failures whatever it can happen and then you try to improve
the product itself.
So, in most formal system, the consequences then are evaluated by these criterias and
associated risk in indices, severity likely for of occurrence probability of occurrence, and
inability of control to detect. For example, if there is a crack growth on a ceramic
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material we do not have any tool to measure the crack growth as and when the it is in the
when the part is getting used or when you put the part for a service condition. And the
failure is trying to grow, it is very difficult for you to find out the crack growth on a
ceramic material that is what I say inability of control to detect.
Then the next thing is likely to occur likely to occur is you are pretty confident.
Probability of occurrence, so you look at the data, and you look at 100 pieces what is the
performance and then you come up with the probability because I am not pretty sure
whether it is going to. So, these two are completely different likely of occurrence,
probability of occurrence. And then severity of occurrence is very important. If this part
fails, how severe it is with respect to the output.
Next is experimental design. So, here what we do is we try to do experiments and then
try to figure out what is the optimum parameter. For example, you try to take variable x,
variable y, variable z. We have experimental design in experimental design you have
three parameters x, y and z and let us take an output O; experimental design. In
experimental design, what we have is we take a process wherein which in the process
you will have three variables x, y and z are input variables; output is O which is one
variable you have.
So, now, you have to find out what is the best process parameter I should choose in each
of these such that I get the best output. So, for this if I start doing experiments may be x
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can vary from 0 to 100, I am just giving a range, y can vary from 0 to 100, z can vary
from 0 to 100. And now if I start doing experiments fixing y and keep on changing each
individual value for x, I have to do so many number of experiments to find out what is
this fellow is influence. So, in the same way, I will fix x and z and then try to vary y;
same way I will fix x and y and vary z. So, you see there are so many experiments which
have to be conducted and conducting experiments means it is going to be costly. You
have to have so much of raw materials or machines to conduct and evaluate.
So, what we do is we try to talk about why do not we have a structured way of doing it.
So, the structured way of doing is nothing but designing proper experiments. So, the
objective is to determine those variables in the process or the product that form critical
parameters and their target value. So, there are three parameters. So, first of all what we
do using the design of experiments, we try to do only one factor of a time try to find out
the variable ranges, and then what we do is we try to do experiments a choosing discrete
levels in each range, and this interval must be almost equal. So, we do that.
And then with minimum experiments rather than doing continuously all points we do a
discrete points and then we try to find out which is the significant parameter and what is
the target, what is the optimum parameter in each such that you get the best target out of
it. The target can be higher the better; the target can be lower the better; the target can be
mean the better ok, so that is what you structurally do the experiments and try to figure
out the best parameter, so that you get the good output.
The objective is to determine those variables in a process and or a product that forms
critical parameters and their target values. By using this formal experimental techniques,
the effect of many variables can be studied at one time ok. So, here there are six steps to
be followed, one is establishing the purpose, identifying the variables, design of
experiments, I said the logical way of doing experiments, evaluate each experiment with
respect to the output, analyse the result and then interpret and communicate the analysis.
So, when I try to do experiments at various process parameters, I try to get the output.
And once I get the output, I analyse the result. So, here I plan for experiments then I do
the experiments then from this experiment, I try to get the output, so that is what is
analyses of output and from this analysis I try to give my own interpretation and
communicate the analysis back to the system such that the product performance can be
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enhance.
Then why DFM? DFM methodology allows for new or improved products to be
designed, manufactured and offered to the consumer in a short amount of time. So, the
time from the design state to go to the customer state is very important. When you follow
DFM, you will try to reduce that time. DFM helps in eliminating multiple revisions and
design changes that can cost program delays and increased cost.
So, when NASA was trying to work on improving our enhancing the productivity, they
followed design for manufacturing as a concept and they try to standardise so many
parts, and they were also standardised certain subassemblies, and their assembly was
made very fast the productivity of men making a launch became very fast. With a design
for manufacturing, the design is often more comprehensive efficient to produce and need
the customer requirement the first time itself. So, earlier people were talking about let us
make prototypes, and then show it to the customer and then start to prototype to
customer. Then they say prototype to product, then we will show to customer. And then
when the customer says then there will be a feedback which will go back and forth.
Today what we say is we say with the first piece we produce should be the best piece.
So, the customer requirements are met the first time itself.
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How to perform DFM? Many companies today are integrating the DFM and DFA
practices. DFM is design for manufacturing, DFA is a subset of a design for assembly.
So, now they are integrating see assembly is a separate job. When you talk about
manufacturing, manufacturing, there are two approaches I have told earlier also. It is part
producing and then assembly. So, assembly is a subset of manufacturing.
So, today what has happened is people have started blending this assembly into
manufacturing practice, so that the design and manufacturing team can work together in
developing new this DFM concepts in the or implemented DFM concepts in the product
development. Design for manufacturing and design for assembly techniques are two
different classifications. Design for manufacturing techniques are focused on individual
parts and components with the goal of reducing or eliminating expenses, complexity or
unnecessary features ok; complexity and unnecessary features which would make them
difficult for manufacturing.
So, what we are trying to talk about here is try to make the geometry as simple as
possible, and try to remove unnecessary features such that you can quickly produce the
part and meet out the requirement. DFA technique focus on reduction and standardising
of parts and subassemblies and assemblies. So, DFA is only from the assembly point of
view. The goal basic goal is to reduce the assembly time and costing, so moment you are
doing manual assembly if you standardise it then comes the conveyor belt.
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So, in a conveyor belt, the parts move from machine to machine to machine and the
assembly keeps happening. For example, in terms of a car, automobile, automobile they
put the lower part of the car and then they put it on the skid, it tries to move from place
to place to place to place, from station to station, station to station, and then slowly at
every station parts are getting add up and finally, these skids are removed and then you
will have tires fixed and then you try to go
So, first people did manual, then people started using conveyor belt for part moment
alone. Today what they have done is the conveyors are used and the human is replaced
by robots, these robots does see events sequentially when the car comes and stands in the
station. So, if you want to go towards automation, so first the easiest thing which you can
do is automate the assembly line. Part producing, yes, it is ok, but assembly line takes lot
of time, assembly line takes lot of here is where lot of defects can happen. So, if you
automated, then you get the best product out of it.
So, DFM, DFA, so the first guideline is, minimise the number of components in the
product. So, when you try to take a PCB or when you try to take even a RAM or you
take a mobile phone, in a mobile phone the only moving part is the vibrator. So, rest all
parts are all static, all the moving parts are removed. Moment you have moving parts
first assembly becomes a challenge then there is a wear and tear concept which also
comes into existence. So, in order to avoid this wear and tear and manufacturing lot of
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defects in the assembly line, so what people suggested is trying to reduce as much as
assembly operations as possible then it boiled down to reducing the number of parts. So,
assembly cost can be completely reduced.
So, today I earlier told an example people make furnitures wherein which they do not do
assembly they just shift the individual parts to the customer and give a manual ask the
customer to go through the manual, and they do assembly. Why one the shipment cost
when you have a large volume occupying objects, so shipment becomes expensive. So,
what they do is they pack it individual parts, move it and no, no company or no customer
will try to pay money to a product saying that this product is assemble. So, assembly
costs are reduced.
Today, you buy computer wherein is there you has modular concept you have a hardware
separately. You have battery separate, you have RAM separate, you have hard disk
separate, all the you have you have so many processors separate you buy the best and
then you start assembling assembly costs are reduced. The final product is more reliable
because there are few connections only. Disassembly for maintenance and field service is
easier ok. If we have so many screws nuts and all coming into existence which it is very
hard for you to maintain. So, if it is a clip assembly or if it is like shirring fit or it is like
circlip fit, so there is only one part you just put it fix it and then get it done or like what is
there in transition fit in RAM getting fixed on the slots. So, disassembly for maintenance
and field service is easy.
Reduced part counting usually means automation is easier and it is implementable. The
work in progress is reduced and there are fewer inventory control problems. So, work in
progress, suppose you have you have an assembly line you have several stations. So, in
each station, there will be material which are stored. So, work in progress is reduced and
there are a fewer inventory control problems. When you have a conveyor belt, so all
across the conveyor belt you have several stations. Each station, we will try to have its
own inventory of parts. So, when you have each station has its own inventory, then the
inventory in each one summing up leads to lot of work in progress.
So, work in progress means there is a product which is existing or a part which is
existing which is which I cannot sell it at that point of time. So, until I work more, I
converted into some usable form, so I cannot sell it. So, till I can the time I can sell it
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whatever happens is going to be an inventory record in my factory. So, every company
fights to reduce the WIP that is nothing but work in progress. So, if you follow number
of parts to be minimised, so I do not need to have. So, many stations fewer parts need to
be purchased which will reduce the ordering cost also.
Next one is the very interesting thing and very important use standard components for
the for manufacturing the product. For example, screws, nuts, springs, ok. So, please use
the standard which are already available that will be economical for you and easily
available for you. So, the design time and the efforts can be reduced. Design for
customer engineering components are avoided that means, to say the customisation
cannot be thought in a very big way that is what we are trying to say that is what is
followed in your shoe company like they put all the issues into several boxes, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10 numbered and then kept. So, there are fewer number of parts inventory control is
facilitated, and then quality discount may be possible if you have standard commercial
parts as parts as parts used for your product.
Use common parts across the product line. So, if there are 10 places or 5 places where
the shaft has to be used at several layers, assuming this is a product. Here is a shaft, here
is a shaft, here is a shaft, here is a shaft, so use the shaft which is getting assembled at
across different product lines at. So, I am taking one product, you have multiple places
where a same shaft is used at different places or what I am trying to say is the I am trying
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to say I have a car, and then I have several different models of the same car. For
example, I can change the engine spec, I can give more comfort, I can give more space
inside the car. I can give you different colours. So, these are all different varieties
wherein which a single product can be given. So, I have multiple lines. So, I try to make
the parts which is used in every line to be almost the same.
So, predominantly what I do is I try to use a technology called group technology while
doing this. So, what is group technology, group technology means you try to group you
try to group different parts almost having the same features into one group, so that you
can start manufacturing it at an economical price. Implementation of manufacturing cell
may be possible. This we have gone one step into deep into it. When you apply group
technology, I can start grouping the machines. And once I start grouping the machines,
each group I call it as a cell, so I can have more number of cell. The idea is rather than
having a single conveyor and having so many machines around. What I do is I do
clustering, I have individual lines may be all these lines are trying to produce the same
part, but I have several lines which goes in parallel and produce the output which come
to the main conveyor.
So, here if this machine comes up or if this station comes up, the conveyor comes to
stand still, but here I have different, different manufacturing cells. So, if one cell fails
only this conveyor fails, but rest all will start producing. So, that is what while
implementation of manufacturing cell may be possible when I start using this point, and
quality quantity discount is possible. So, you produce more you get a discount.
Designed for ease of part fabrication. So, today there is the big concept or a big talk
which is going on. Let us start producing parts to the near to the net shape and the near
net shape processors are feasible. For example, earlier days they used to make a wheel
drum by casting and then what they do is they used to machine it to the requirement.
Today what they do is they directly make it through pressure die casting you can have
aluminium, you can have magnesium, you can have titanium you can have steel
whatever you want. And what they produce is the shape and the size is exactly what
matches for the requirement in the real time situation or the product dimensions are
made. So, this is what is designed for ease for part fabrication. Choose processors such
that you can try to produce to the near net shape. The part geometry is simplified,
unnecessary features are avoided, unnecessary surface finish requirements are also
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avoided. So, this makes the ease in part fabrication.
Next one is design parts with tolerances that are within the process capability. Do not try
to just demand here is a part which mates with another part a male part and the female
part. Let us ask a tolerance of 0.001 millimetre. Why did you ask I thought this is good
but can your machine make, no it cannot make? So, what are you doing? Since you get
this dimension, I am going to add one more process while producing the shaft for a
whole and pass the process through that.
So, what we are trying to say in this design for manufacture is knowing the capability of
the process, you try to change your design such that these high type tolerances you do
not give. Moment you do not give type tolerances, then the process which is trying to
make becomes easier, and the process capability of that process is also higher. So,
tolerance tighter than the process capability should be avoided; otherwise additional
process or short stations will be required.
Bilateral tolerance should be specified. So, this is the bilateral tolerance, because when
you talk about assembly, you have a maximum material condition assembly. So, you try
to take a shaft, you try to take a hole the maximum material condition of the shaft,
maximum material condition of the hole then you try to understand what fit you want.
So, the tolerances play an important role. Try to make tolerances as liberal as possible
when you do that you should make sure that you do not sacrifice the performance of the
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product,
Then design the product should be foolproof during assembly. Many a times today you
see in electronic industry, when you try to place a battery, it does not give you a
possibility you to place it in the wrong direction. The fixtures are made in such a way
such that whatever mistake you do, the design itself shows it to the customer that you
have not place it in the right direction. So, the product or the battery will not get into the
slot.
So, what we are trying to say is try to make fixtures or slots wherein which the product
or the part has to go assemble unambiguous. So, I should place it only in one direction
and see for example, in battery the positive and negative, you have a small projection on
the top of flat, but at the bottom. So, the flat portion; the top portion with the head, you
always say it is positive right. By looking at the design itself you try to say that, so that is
what it is if you do not have that top, but which is projecting. So, both sides will be can
be considered as positive and negative. So, this is unambiguous design.
The components should be designed, so that they can be assembled only in one way or in
one direction. Special geometrical features must sometimes we added to the component
to achieve foolproof assembly. Foolproof assembly means even an unskilled labour
should place the part in only one direction which is the right for the assembly. Minimise
the use of flexible components. These flexible components giving the pressure, it can
expand or contract or this ‘flexible components’ always have a lifetime which is which is
lower than the metals.
So, the flexible components including rubber, belt, gasket cables must be avoided,
because these flexible components are proven for failure. In automobile also earlier days,
the belt whatever was done we did not get proper choice of material. So, it used to fail
frequently because of the belt failure a car stops moving. So, now, the belt technology
has improved. So, you do not see the such belt failure. So, composite belt comes that is
what we say flexible components include part made of rubber, polymer, gaskets and
cables have to be avoided. The flexible components are generally more difficult to
handle an assembly because when you try to the automatic assembly and this flexible
components the shape size and all gets deformed when the assembly happens.
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So, we have a task. So, try to look at your desktop computer and then try to find out
locations where they have used DFM. This will try to give you when you start doing this
cross-sectional analysis of the desktop, so you will try to appreciate how DFM is
followed in electronic industry.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Dr.Amandeep Singh Oberoi
Department of Mechanical and Design Program
Department of Industrial and Producation Engineering
Lecture - 20
Design for Assembly (and disassembly)
So, welcome to the next lecture which is more focused on design for assembly. Last
lecture we studied about design for manufacturing. This lecture is more focused towards
design for assembly and disassembly.
As I told last class, manufacturing has two components; one is producing the part, then
other one is assembly. Again, an assembly there are two type; one is permanent assembly
and temporary assembly. So, assembly place a very important role. So, now we will see
more about design for assembly.
So, design for manufacturability we saw last class some information, then this time we
will start looking into design for assembly, some guidelines for different modes of
assembly, methods for evaluating design for assembly, design for assembly method
based on MTM standards, design for disassembly, design disassembly process planning,
design for disassembly guidelines, optimal disassembly sequence planning for product
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recovery, disassembly sequence planning for your product with defective parts,
evaluation of disassembly planning based on economic criteria. We have proactive
design for disassembly method based on MTM standard, reasons for not implementing
DFMA, advantages of applying DFMA during product design and then finally, will see
design for environment
What is assembly it is a process, where in which we try to join or we try to consolidate

number of parts and make a single product or make a part of a single product; such that it
can meet out to some requirements. So, assembly of a product is a function of design
parameters that are both intensive and extensive. Intensive is material property, extensive
is physical attributes.
Example, for such a design parameter includes, not only limiting to shape, size, material
compatibility, flexibility and even thermal conductivity is considered. So, assembly of a
product is a function of design parameter that are both intensive and extensive in nature.
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What is disassembly process? Disassembly is the organised process to of taking apart us

a systematically assembled product. So, disassembly means, it is not like breaking, when
you try to remove parts from a product without damaging the parts in the product; that is
what is disassembly? Disassembly is the organised process of taking apart, a
systematically assembled product and it need not follow the same sequence. Assembly
took over from 1 2 3 4 5 to 10 and disassembly need not start from 10 to 1, it can follow
some other route also.
The product may be disassembled to enable maintenance, enhanced serviceability and or

to affect end of the life objectives; such as product reuse, remanufacturing and recycling.
So, today when we talk about manufacturing, we try to say reduce, reuse and recycle. We
use these three parameters exhaustively in manufacturing; that means, to say you reduce
as much as possible material usage of machines or usage of other secondary items which
are used in producing. So, you reduce them.
Next you try to reuse the part produced or finally, nothing happens then you try to
recycle, but in which the chip whatever comes out and manufacturing or even you try to
produce a defective part it is corrupt, it is re-casted and then it comes back to the
manufacturing. So, we always have to follow these 3 R’s in manufacturing exhaustively.
So, here if you see the products may be disassembled to enable maintenance, enhance
serviceability and or to affect the end of life objectives; such as product reuse,
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remanufacture and recycle. So, whatever I have said it is given here
So, addressing common manufacturing process, injection moulding process, sheet metal
process, in a casting process assembly and machining; so, these are examples of common
manufacturing process. So, we try to produce parts through form injection moulding,
sheet metal, casting, machining. And then finally, what we do is we try to put integrate
everything and then we try to do an assembly operation
Sheet metal example; so, detects slot parameters and issues. So, here this is a slot which
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is there on a sheet metal part it. To a large extent it looks something like a bracket or
what you see used in the in the desktop computer in recover. So, detect, detect slot
parameters and issues and here bend parameters and allowances, then hole parameters
and allowances and distance between the hole and the feature.
This plays a very important role and then multiple bends; you can see multiple bends and
manufacturing challenges, cut-off and distance between the features. Then Hem
parameters, Hem is nothing, but bending, bending of it and allowances rolled tear dog
and open hem. So, these are some of the parameter or issues, which are attached to a
sheet metal part. And here we have put multiple bending, we have put hemming parts
the, we have put bending parameters et cetera.
When we talk about design for assembly definition DFA seeks to simplify the product,
so that the cost of the assembly is reduced ok. Consequently, application of DFA
principle to product design, usually result in improved quality and reliability and
reduction in production equipment and part inventory. So, when you try to follow design
for assembly, you will see the part inventory level goes down. Like I said in the last class
you WIP goes down, it has been repeatedly observed that these secondary benefits often
outweigh the cost reduction in assembly
For example, you will have a nut, which is there and then you will have a clip which
comes and attaches to it, here is a nut. So, this is pushed and then here you come and
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then you will have nuts. Suppose in case let us assume that how do you want to follow
DFA here. So, what I will do is, instead of having these screws, this hexagonal nuts, see
this hexagonal nuts are always prone for, prone for failure; that means to say it can get
unbound and it can fall down when it is put on dynamic load.
So, now what people are suggesting is, try to remove all these hexagonal nuts, try to
make a thread here and then thread or whatever. So, here there is a thread. So, you
pushing the thread into the hole and then start putting it or you just do a press fit and get
a done do not try to go for the next one.
So, here the pins are attached to a bracket or this is a lead which is attached to a bracket.
So, you do a press fit this is attached to it and then we have now removed it. So, this is
this is how when we try to do design for assembly or design for manufacturing. So, we
try to remove the number of parts. So, when you follow design for assembly you will
have a improved quality and reliability product.
So, there are different ways of assembly. So, one is manual assembly the other one is
automatic assembly. Manual assembly you can see that there are a series of operators or
there are many operators sitting one besides each other and trying to do a job. So, here
the product can move from the first person to the last person, a sequence of operation can
be done and they can produce a finished part at the last or individual operator tries to
produce parts which are very similar
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So, here we try to use vision base; that means, to say we use our hand and we use our
eyes and then we start doing the assembly. So, all the sensor; vision sensor, tactile sensor
what is there, it is all controlled by man. So, it involves parts that are transferred to work
bench, so this is called as a workbench. Workbench is nothing, but a place where
something happens. If we talk to an electrical guy he says the work bench wherein which
he puts his breadboard and he assembles all the electronics gadgets into it
So, it involves parts that are transferred to workbenches, wherein which the assembly of
individual components into a final product takes place. Hand tools generally are used to
aid the worker to for easy in assembly. So, everything is done by hand. So, the tactile
sensor which is there or the 4 sensor, is all human being only.
So, the other way around I do not want to have man. Why I do not want have man? One
decade there is a possibility that defects can happen, because of fatigue reasons and
second thing sometimes, because of wrong judgement they could have done an assembly
So, and then the forces what they apply in fixing, there can be variation from human to
human. So, these are some of the possibilities for error to happen when you do assembly
by manual way, in order to avoid we try to use automatic assembly. This method is used
either synchronous, synchronous indexing machines and a part reader or a non-
synchronous machines, where parts are handled by a free transfer device is used.
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So, synchronous and asynchronous machines, we have said synchronous machines are.
Suppose if there are three machines, so all the three machines if they transfer, say the
cycle time for each station 1, station 2, station 3, if it is all balance 3 minutes, 3 minutes
and 3 minutes. So, then what is happening is, when I move from one station to the other
station, others station to the other station, there is a synchronous motion or there is a
synchronous indexing machines.
So, what this is, suppose you have 5 stations around, and then you have an indexing
table. So, every time when it index. So, and the new job or the part to the machine comes
in contact with the work piece ok. So, that is synchronous and you can also have a
nonsynchronous machine; like a cycle time can vary. The entire line can wait till station
of having a highest time is fulfilled and then it moves possible
So, here and then the part feeding in the previous system, the part feeding was done by
hand many a times, when the components are very small, manual part feeding is very
difficult and if you want to automated and do it in a high speed, again manual feeding is
a problem. So, here what we do is, we try to have part feeders which are automatically
controlled. So, a Robot does it, so this is what is shown in this figure
So, when you try to plot assembly cost per product was is maintainability. So, you can
see there this is manual assembly, which is a straight line, the automatic assembly, the
assembly cost per product, initially will be very high and slowly after a period of time it
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goes very low. So, maintainability or you can put it as time. So, and then if you see Robo
assembly, it starts from here, it is very interesting graphic, you see it goes from here to
here.
So; that means, to say it comes very close with respect to casting assembly to casting and
all becomes very cheap, and then a very economical and then it starts slowly rising with
respect to maintainability. And here what we talk about is, assembly cost per product.
So, depending upon the type, depending upon the production volume and the cost this
curve is given.
When you talk about assembly, there are two types of assembly; one is manual and I said
automatic assembly, then you have fixed automation and Robotic automation. Fixed
automation, see the difference between Robo and the other automation is Robo, it gives
you a freedom of reprogramming ability. So; that means, to say multiple tasks can be
done, when you do hard automation the operation, what you can do is, within the fixed
bracket you can do. For example, the diameter of the shaft can be 3 millimetre, the
diameter of the shaft can be 50 millimetre.
So, it can handle cylindrical shafts within this diameter ok. So, within the given
spectrum, and suppose if it is only handling a shaft without doing anything, then hard
automation is very good. So, fixed or hard automation characteristically involves your
custom-built machine that assembles only one specific product and entails a large capital
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investment; that means, to say day in and day out, it will try to produce only one part and
that part, there can be a very small variations happening, but it is capital intensive, but
the production rate is very high in fixed or hard automation
When you talk about Robotic assembly, this can be taken in the form of a single Robo.
The biggest advantages as I said earlier it is reprogrammability or a multistation Robotic
assembly cell with all activities, simultaneously controlled and coordinated by a PLC or
a computer, this gives the flexibility of reprogramming. So; that means, to say I can
handle shafts, I can handle prismatic jobs, I can do painting, I can do die-casting, I can
do sheet metal operation, I can do machining. So, all these things are possible by Robotic
assembly
When we talk for design for assembly, here we have said 1 to 5 and then here are these
numbers are given. Please these numbers are not sanctity numbers, these numbers are
just taken for representation. So, here in this graph we clearly distinguish between
assembly methods based on the production range. So, if you want to do manual
assembly, you can the number of parts which you produces very less or the variety is
very less and the production rate is also somewhere close to 100.
If you want to do with Robotic arm, you can touch 200. If you have a multiple station
Robotic you can do up to 500. If you have a special purpose automatic assembly lines;
then you can do varieties more and the production volume also, can be high and the
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number of components, this is number of components 5. So, you can produce that and
the product here you can also see the volume. So, manual the volume is less by
automatic, when multiple station the volume is large. So, this is what you have to
understand
So, the next one is manual assembly; ensure good product accessibility, as well as
visibility is there. This is the assembly guidelines eliminate the number of assembly tools
or a special gauge by designing individual components to the self-alignment and self-
locating principles. So, it should have self-alignment and self-locating alignment and
locating are different different things, self-aligning me locating is where there is a hole
gets located. Aligning means it gets adjusted. So, these two are different
Minimising the total number of individual parts is possible to facilitate this objective
multipurpose components can be used. So, eliminate excess parts and combine two or
more parts in one, if the functional responsibility, if functionally possible. So, here what
do they say, is instead of having a shaft, then you have a hole, then you have a projecting
shaft.
So, first of all you try to see whether these two materials can be made of a single material
and if these two has, there is nothing big, it is going to bring a difference when it is made
of a single part, then they say please go for a single part. So, eliminate excess parts. So,
these two parts and then now what you do. You try to make this; you try to make this
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assemble. So, now, if you make it as a single piece injection moulding, you want to make
it. So, if I draw the side view, it will be something like this. So, for this, here the excess
parts and combine two or more parts into one give the functional, if functionally possible
then avoid or minimise the number of reorienting the parts.
See if you look at PCB all the assembly of IC, other things happen only in one direction
why, because all assembly happening in one direction is much more easier and faster,
you can always do bi-directional both sides. So, then what happens, all the all the
assembly components have to be, the PCB has to be held vertical and the components
will be fixed on both sides, but it might fall down, when it is starts moving.
If you do it only on one side, the number of approach of placement of IC or whatever it

electronic components is, only one direction, then the gravity is used as an advantage and
also the welding can happen, the accept the, the soldering can happen only at the bottom
side rather than on the top side. So, here what we are trying to say is, if at all you want to
do an assembly, the design for assembly when you think about, we try to have one
directional approach, or you try to minimise reorientation of the part during the assembly
operation.
The automatic assembly guidelines, avoid the possibility of part tangling, nesting and
shingling during the feeding. So, when you say automatic, automatic you will always
have a hopper, then you will have a feeder. So, this is hopper, wherein which you put all
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the parts, then you will have a feeder. So, this is a feeder and then you get one piece at a
time, whatever it is ok; one piece, one piece you get. So, what we have to do is, when we
are trying to do it from the hopper and then pushing it, the parts might get tangled, the
springs might get tangled
So, now that you try to make sure that the parts are not getting tangled, nesting does not
happen, shingling does not happen during the feeding. Since it can complicate and
unduly delay the assembly process, avoid reorienting assembly as such moves, we are
require a separate workstation or a machine.
Thereby increasing the cost, I have discussed about, it design parts to ease automation by
presenting or admitting parts to the assembly machines in the right orientation, after
minimising in the possible time in the feeder. So, these two points are just a small
difference. I have already told you about the example of the design parts with a low
centre of gravity. Thereby imparting the natural tendency to feed
(Refer Slide Time: 20:12).
So, here you see the Robotic assembly, in many Robo manipulators have poor
repeatability. Therefore, the features such as lip lead chamfer assumed a great deal of
importance. So, these are lips leads and chamfer, all these things are some of the features
of the Robo ok, a great deal of importance. So, that has to be taken care the design
components; such that all can be gripped and inserted using the same Robo gripper. So,
when we do this, this is a Robo end arm and this is a gripper. So, the gripper must be
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made universal; such that it can be used both for insertion and removal
Some of the methods for evaluating design for assembly. So, one is Hitachi assembly
evaluation, next is Lucas DFA method, the third one is Methods Time Measurement
Standards.
So, the Hitachi Assimilability Evaluation Method goes like this, product design step,
prepare product concept drawing including ones for automatic assembly, making
prototype drawings, preparing product design drawings, receiving samples. Then
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assimilability evaluation, degree of difficulty of assembling operation and then
approximate assembling costs. So, these two comes here.
Then the next one is comparison of various concept designs, comparisons with other
company products, product assimilability ranking. So, it identifies the point to be
improved, estimates the affect of improvement and facility design improvement. So, this
is, design is an iterative process, so it keeps going back and forth.
So, comparison us, evaluation and then design step. So, once you make the design, then
you start assembly evaluation is done. Then once evaluation done it is compared, then
once again the product design is reiterated and it starts going. So, this method is called as
Hitachi method of design for assembly
The next method is Lucas DFA evaluation method. So, here the product design
specification, product analysis, functional analysis. So, functional analysis is the first.
This is the first time people started talking about functional analysis, then they talked
about manufacturing analysis. So, the functional analysis loop back to step 2, if the
analysis yields problem and then what you do you reiterate and then come back. Then
you get into manufacturing analysis. After manufacturing there are two steps; one is
handling the other one is feeding.
So, handling analysis, automation analysis, feeding and gripping and then what you do
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is, if the both are put together we do a fitting analysis, then insertion fixing and then
finally, you get results. So, here if you have a problem after manufacturing analysis again
we go to loop 2. And then here if you have a problem after the results, once again we go
to step 2 and then start reiterating. So, here interestingly functional analysis,
manufacturing analysis, handling analysis and feeding analysis, all are talked about in
Lucas method.
In method based on method time measurement standards, various factors are taken into
consideration in n improvement methodologies; such as weight, size, shape of the
component being assembled; Frequency of assembly task, personal requirements,
postural requirements, sitting down.
So, see when you are trying to do assembly, if you try to sit on a very bad posture or if I
try to take some element which is backside to me and then if I want to take it out and
then keep it here, it is not going to be easy task. So, the posture or the location plays a
very important role where the parts are kept, then material handling requirement and the
need for the component preparation. These are the various factors which are considered.
So, method for time, time calculation, stopwatch time study, the reproducibility method
description; This shows good suitability, this shows poor suitability, it is 50-50, then
unique method time relationship it is also 50-50. Advance planning of method and time,
stopwatch time study method is also 50-50. Then you look at self-recoding, it is only one
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quarter and self-recoding unique method time relationship is 40 45 percent ok
So, when we talk about MTM you see, all the reproducibility method description is is
100 percent, unique method time relationship is 100 percent, advance planning in
method and time is 100 percent, internationally recognised time standard is 100 percent.
So, here what are we trying to say, whatever method, see, when we use MTM method,
this is a standard method which is used to evaluate design for assembly and here this is
internationally also accepted
So, design for disassembly definition. In the modern era of environmental awareness,
end of life objective; such as component reuse, remanufacture and recycle constitutes
some of the most important reasons for disassembly products. For example, I try to buy a
refrigerator and the refrigerator they say, the compressor is used to for. I give a warranty
for the compressor for 14 years; the refrigerator life time is only 10 years. So, once I
throw the refrigerator what do I do, the compressor which is already working.
Now they come and say let us try to apply disassembly, try to remove the compressor,
either you try to refill it with gas or what they say, they try to take the entire compressor,
place it in the new machine and start using it, or place at the lower machine and start
using. This can be attributed to the strategic impact of industrial and domestic waste of
environment; So, primary producer, remanufacturing, reconditioning and the end
product. So, primary producer, we try to. This is primary producer, we remanufacture,
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primary producer we remanufacture. After remanufacture we also try to do
reconditioning, remanufacture, reconditioning and then we give it to the user.
The user starts using it back and if there is a problem he repairs. If the user gives it back
and then it can be reconditioning and use. If the user gives it back it can be
remanufacturing and it can come. If the user gives it back, it is a recycle and it can come
to primary producer. So, here you will also have virgin material, here user finally,
developing comes out it goes to landfill. So, this is what we try to say. So, user just a
repair can be done, reconditioned can be done, remanufacturing can be done, recycle can
be done. So, this is all part of design for disassembly
So, depending on the extent of disassembly, non-destructive disassembly can be further

classified into two categories; one is total disassembly, the other one is selective
disassembly. Total disassembly means our product is done into its constituent
components. So, you try to take a car strip of every part of the car total disassembly. This
may not be economical feasible, due to the imposition of external constraints; such as
time, economic factors and presence of hazardous material
If you want to repair a car, it is you try to take only fixed location or fixed parts which is
not functioning, rather than doing it if you remove the entire car, yes it is good you do
over oiling and then place it back, but while placing, many a time in the time consuming
and many a times it is also difficult.
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What is selective disassembly? Selective disassembly is the reversible dismantling of
complex products into less complex subassemblies or single parts. Selective disassembly
is the reversible dismantling of complex products into less complex subassemblies or
single part. It involves the systemic removal of desired constituent part from an
assembly, while ensuring that there is no impairment of parts due to the process.
So, what we do is, one of the part you try to remove and the rest you do not even touch,
and while ensuring that there is no impairment of the part due to the process. So, exactly
remove one replacement and the machine goes. The first one is completely you try to
dismantle
The stages of dismantling process plan, you have product analysis, functional analysis
product analysis, it consists of assessing the end value to be realised by disassembling
the product ok, it consists of assessing the end value to be realised by disassembling the
product.
So, that is product analysis. Disassembly value comprises the potential of the product to
be reused, its value to be recovered, risk potential as well as existing recycling
technology. So, this point is very very important. So, all these things are thought of as
product analysis.
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Assembly analysis, it is essential to understand how a product has been put together in
order to make it a part. This planning consists of tool requirement, magnitude of force,
time and personnel and knowledge of the functional, more valuable components. So,
these are important things which we have to plan.
Usage, mode and effective analysis, we studied FMEA; failure mode effective analysis
last class we studied. So, usage mode effective analysis are very important. So, first we
saw about product analysis, assembly analysis, then we see all these usage, mode
effective analysis. As most of the products are disassembled after they have been put to
actual use, they have been subjected to considerable wear and tear, which is called as
usage mode and effective analysis.
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Disassembly process plan has product analysis; assembly analysis, usage mode effective
analysis and determining dismantle strategy. So, here given the group products, risk
value reuse recycles, assembly joining elements, assembly and components. When you
trying to talk about usage mode effective analysis, where wear and tear is an usage
condition unexpected.
So, here determining dismantling strategy, non-destructive way, partially destructive and
destructive way, and finally, what we do is the process plan. So, here design for
disassembly process plan is product analysis, assembly analysis, usage mode effective
analysis, determining dismantle strategy. So, all these things put together comes.
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And decide for process analysis; Disassembly process planning, determination of

dismantling strategy. So, we have seen the first three points here; product analysis,
assembly analysis, usage analysis and then we are trying to see the determination of
dismantling strategy. So, keeping the basic reason for dismantling in mind, the strategy
for dismantling is. For example, if a product is to be recycle at the material level,
disassembly need not be performed carefully.
So; that means, to say anyhow you have decided that you are going to recycle the
material. Now, do not spend enough of time and do it. For example, what happens in the
in developed countries, once the car and it what they do is they try to discard the car.
When they try to discard the car, they try to discard it in a very crude manner why,
because they know very clearly the entire thing is going to get melted and then it is going
to be remanufacture. So, that is what they do
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Since, only the intensive property of the components are important, destructive
disassembly can be used to quicker the process. So, the design for disassembly
guidelines, to minimise the assembly work, similar elements need to be combined
together, it is just a repeat, material variability should be minimised. So, as far as
possible compatible material should be used, any harmful material, if functional
important should be grouped together into subassembly for fast disposal.
For example you take PCB, when you take PCB or when you take a smart phone, there
are about, there are about 25 to 30 rare earth material which are used, which are highly
toxic. So, that is what we say any harmful material, if functionality, if functionally
important, should be grouped together into subassemblies for fast disposal. any value
valuable reusable harmful parts need to be easily accessible, this saves a lot of time and
effort during reaching out as part in the question
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So, what they say is, they say if at all there is some part, wherein which you have used
rare earth materials or it is going to be an explosive. So, those parts should be easily
accessible while disassembly; the achievement of predictable product configuration,
aging and corrosion material combination need to be avoided. What is said in the
preceding point holds equally true, as far as protecting subassembly from corrosion. So,
these are some of the design for disassembly guidelines which is talked about.
So, minimise assembly work, similar element should be joined together, material
variability should be reduced, as far as possible compatible material should be should be
used for disassembly. Then harmful material should be avoided, then if you are still
having a harmful material it should be easily accessible to remove. Then achievement of
predictable product configuration should be there, ageing and corrosion is also talked
about.
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So, product recovery approach. So, I have a product for example, I have a desktop
computer and this desktop computer has finished it life or it has become slow or it has
become inefficient in its performance. So, then what we do is, we try to apply a product
recovery approach, try to extract whatever material is good for us and try to replace
those, and then certain things are not use for as, you scrap it.
The objective in the product recovery is to recover as much as possible of the

economical, as well as ecological value product components and materials, so that to
minimise the ultimate quantity of waste.
So, when you try to see options for product recovery after disassembly, it can be repair
option, refurbishing option. This is a very common phenomena in the electronics
electronic products today. Refurbishment is, there is a defect in the product, the company
pulls back the product, tries to work on the product and then the company itself tries to
come and give it to the market. So, those things are called as refurbished products.
So, refurbished products are generally economical. So, here they try to improve the
quality level through, though not like new one, but they try to improve. Here module
levels they do, some modules are repaired and replace. When you try to talk about repair,
they restore the working condition, remanufacture, restore of to the quality level as new.
Then cannibalization; So, cannibalization is limited recovery. I cannot use major, I use
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only a very small, so that is called a cannibalisation. So, selective disassembly and
inspection of potential reusable parts falls in this cannibalisation. The parts reused,
recycled or disposed of. Recycling is reuse material only, so it happens at material level,
the material used in the new products in, the material it can be used in the new products.
So, this approach is called as product recovery approach. Today what has happened in
order to fix the customer, the companies are coming up to the strategy.
That they will say that after 10 years if you come back to me, I will try to put a better
value for the product, and then I will try to give a discount for the product what you are
giving it back to me; So, the disassembly sequential plan for product recovery. The
disassembly sequential plan which is otherwise called as DSP, is a program of task that
begins with the product to be disassembled and terminates when all the desired parts of
the product are disconnected.
So, disassembly sequence plan is a program of task that begins with the product to be
disassembled, take a car disassembled and terminates when all the desired parts of the
product are discontinued, disconnected.
So, the DSP aim is to optimise product recovery through minimisation of cost,
maximisation of material recovery, minimisation of disassembly time. So, this is what
very, this is also very important point. I should not spend a lot of, lot of money to
disassemble, then I should try to recover maximum material whichever is unavailable
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with me, and I shall try to do it in faster time. The DSP uses mathematical technique;
such as linear programming, dynamic programming and graphical tools for solving this,
or this can be used as a product recovery approach; that is.
Disassemble sequence planning for product recovery, if you see gain and costs and then
if you see here, this is the disassembly time we do. So, if you try to take this disposal
costs and recycling costs, it gains over a period of time, disassembly time.
The optimal, optimal end of life strategy, it comes in this zone. So, this is falls under the
gain region. This is the total cost, this is the total cost, optimal end of life strategy and
this one is the disassembly cost. So, this is disposable cost, this is disassembly cost, this
is the optimum end of life strategy and this is the total cost which is spent, and along this
direction you have disassembly time and here is gain and here is the cost.
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So, the disassembly sequence plan for product recovery has three distinct type of
geometric assembly can be defined; Type 1, type 2, type 3. Type 1; an assembly having a
main component to which other components or disassemblies are directly or indirectly
assembled; for example, breadboard, PCB. Type 2, an assembly having low main
components or components are assembled with each other, this may can be disassembled
only as a single component.
So, this is something like which is used in toy. An assembly having no main competent,
so there is no, there is no base. All components are assembled with each other there all
like, like a wheel or a nut or whatever it is, this can be disassembled only as a single,
single can be can be disassembled only as a single component when you try to remove
type 3, an assembly that is a combination of both the types, this can be disassembled as
further as further components.
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So, the three kinds of sequences driven by disassembly cost are analysed on formation of
disassembly tree. So, here type one is target disassembly sequence, the special
components are disassembled to remove valuable components. Type 2 is optimal
disassembly sequence, disassembly stops when marginal return on the operation
becomes uneconomical. Complete disassembly sequences, complete disassembly of the
product.
So, these are the three kinds of types which are involved in the product recovery, target
disassembly sequence; that means, to say you try to remove valuable components alone;
that means, to say in the car, I find that the engine is pretty expensive or it is the heart, so
I wanted take it. So, that is called target disassembly sequence. Optimal is you try to
keep on the removing till a level; such that it is you do anything more.
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It is going to be uneconomical, so that is optimal disassembly level and complete

completely disassemble all these things into small small parts. The disassembly level
planning for defective parts in the product, for defective; Till now what we were talking
about is, we were talking about original new parts, now for defective parts in a product
we are trying to talk; Changes in DSP, what is this DSP? DSP is disassembly sequential
planning, have to be incorporated to handle factors leading to uncertainty, uncertainty
happens leads to defective
Availability of original CAD drawing and unchanged product structure has to be, has
been assumed. The tip, the physical relationship among components is respected using
the disassembly precedence matrix, developed from the original CAD model for the
product using the AND, OR, OR AND relationship. These are some of the Boolean
relationship what we have used. So, I am using this relationship, having a drawing I am
trying to use it for design for disassembly.
So, the next, an optimum disassembly sequence is generated by using this, by using from
the CAD itself you start and then you try to do Boolean operations.
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So, here you can see generated disassembly sequential planning. So, generate
disassembly sequential planning, then this is sequential planning, it is disassembling
sequential planning. So, here you try to look at performance and then here incoming
product.
So, you see if there is anything we try to performance of disassembly we see and then
parts to be remanufactured, parts to be a recycle, modify DSP, disassembly sequential
planning and then modified disassembly sequential planning. So, this goes back and
forth and it tries to enhance the performance disability
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The disassembly cost must be justified by the economical advantage of recycling. The
recycle cost and benefit differs from the, for specific fraction of recovery material. So,
there are three types of recovery; primary recovery recycling, secondary recycling,
tertiary recycling. Primary recycling is nothing, but cycling, recycling of a compatible
quality level. Secondary recycling is at lower level quality, so and the tertiary level is
decomposition
So, here no alloy present in the component, polymer content in the component, present of
an alloy in the components. So, you can see a recycle order comparable quality level;
recycle on a lower quality level, decomposition and incineration with energy retrieval.
So, there are three types of recycling, so this very important.
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So, the evaluation of disassembly planning; So, a proactive design for disassembly
method based on MTM study motion time method study. So, first what the prospective
estimation of assembly work content and cost in series, cost in series production. Then
what we do is assembly orientation product model for data representation. So, we do a
back-and-forth data mining and then what we do is, we try to generate something called
the cross domain knowledge. So, here we have product data, here we have process data.
So, this is something like a funnel which comes here. So, identification representation,
process relevance and product attributes. So, here reduction and mapping of the product
characteristics process pattern, it is here. So, the cross domain knowledge is product and
process structure mapping.
So, you see here functional BOM, engineering BOM, manufacturing BOM and
manufacturing BOM we have two things. So, here process planning, development
engineering BOM we have development, so then we have process planning. Here it is
product planning, here it processes planning and here it is production. So, this is all
evaluation of disassembly planning
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The reasons for not implementing DFM; So, not inventor here; In general, any proposal
to implement DFM should come from the designers themselves. It cannot be top to
bottom; it has to be bottom to top. Though many, if, though more frequently it is the
manager or executers who have heard of the successful, successes resulting from DFM,
who wishes their own designer to implement the philosophy, so not invented here.
So, this is why are, we not implementing DFM. So, the one is no time. So, designers are
usually constrained by the urgent need to minimise the design to manufacturing time,
because of that they do not follow DFM, so not invented here. So, the designer
themselves do not have any big proposal
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So, then Ugly Baby Syndrome, it is important, therefore, to involve the designer in the
analysis and provide them with the incentive to produce better design. So, you have to
keep the designer in the concurrent engineering loop and start doing it. Telling a designer
that this design cannot be improved is much like telling a mother that the baby is ugly.
So, its, this is what is the Ugly Baby Syndrome.
So, here, because of the Ugly Baby Syndrome they do not implement, then low assembly
costs. So, description of the application of the DFM showed that the first step is a DFA
analysis of the product of, or the disassembly. Quite frequently it is suggested that since
assembly cost for a particular product form only a part proportion to the total
manufacturing costs, there is no point in following DFA. So, that is what this is. So, they
say that assembly cost is too low, why do you follow DFM.
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So, the production volume is too low. The database does not apply to our products, so
that is what is the other thing.
We have been doing it for several years. So, please do not try to teach us, it is only a
value analysis, it does not come into reality.
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So, these are some of the reasons why people do not implement DFMA. So, DFMA is
only one among many techniques, since the introduction of DFMA many other
techniques have been proposed like design for quality, design for competitiveness,
design for reality and many reliability and many more. So, here are defective parts and
here are manual assembly efficiency you can see that.
The efficiency for the manual is 60 percent, major advantage of applying DFMA during
product design. So, this has many advantages, this survey take taken at engineering
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design shows reveal somewhat surprisingly the reduction in the manufacturing cost,
product manufacturing costs is very high, is not necessarily considered to be the most
desirable outcome for redesign efforts. The other advantage is that the DFM produces a
systematic procedure for analysing a proposed design DFMA tools also encourages
dialogue between the designer and the manufacturing engineer.
So, this is what is done. So, now what we will do is, you will try to take task for the
students, you will try to take ball point pen and then it has to be spring loaded that try to
remove every part in the ball point pen. Try reassembling the same, try to see their
performance. This will clearly distinguishably say what is the difference between manual
assembly and we will try to talk about machine assembly, manual assembly, machine
assembly. Machine assembly can be hard soft hard automation etc etc ok.
With that we come to an end for this lecture. In this lecture we were more focused
towards design for assembly, design for disassembly. So, we have seen several factors
and then we have also seen different levels of disassembly to be executed keeping costs
as one of the prime criteria
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Department of Mechanical & Design program
Lecture – 20b
Design for Maintenance
The next topic of discussion we are getting into Design for Maintenance; this is very new
concept. People initially started with design for manufacturing and in manufacturing you
have part making assembly. Then, people started making design for assembly and
disassembly, now people have started talking about a new concept called design for
maintenance.
(Refer to Slide Time: 00:49)
So, in this topic we will go through an introduction, then importance of design for
maintenance, factors affecting ease of maintenance, then maintenance element and
concepts, corrective maintenance, then we will have preventive maintenance,
maintenance of a degrading system, total productivity maintenance, design review for
maintainability. So, these are the topics we will cover through this.
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So, introduction, when a system fails to perform as required it is said to be repairable or

maintainable. Car you buy and the car count of after 10,000 kilometers or a scooter you
buy count of at 10,000 kilometers, then the system would have been promised for 1 lakh
kilometer, but now it has got count of after 10,000 kilometers. Suppose if it is a
manufacturing defect the company pulls back and then gives replaces a new product to
you, if it is your problem; that means, to say a customer when because of his driving
performance the performance has fallen down or the machine has count of then it is then
there is an option for maintenance. So, it is said to be repairable or maintainable.
It can be maintained by a suitable methodology and maintenance also cannot be done

haphazardly. So, today what is happening is we have preventive maintenance, predictive
maintenance and even the maintenance today what they are saying is it has to be given a
schedule and you have to follow that schedule, and in that schedule also it is not
necessary that you should do 100 percent maintenance of all the parts.
They try to divide, suppose if there are 100 spots where you have to look for
maintenance and in that also they try to rank them which is more frequently to fail which
fails very rarely. So, then the checking cycle also reduces for doing those parts with
rarely fail, on top of it there is a schedule which is given what all schedule and a suitable
protocol is given what all and how should it be checked. So, it can be maintained by a
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suitable methodology be at repair over oiling are replacing the either manual or by
automatic action.
So, today what happens is many of the automotive sectors what they do is after selling
the scooter or car or even a truck the agent keeps calling you at regular intervals of time
and he says that sir your vehicle is prone for is a schedule now for going a maintenance
check. So, the maintenance check generally they try to do oil maintenance, they used to
check the engine performance, spark plug performance and all those things, that is
scheduled. And in scheduled also there is a protocol what has to be checked and how.
And while checking if they find out any untoward incident then they say sir please
replace this, ok. So, that is what maintenance, repairable or maintainable.
It is important therefore, that preferred be to reduce maintenance requirements for nearly

introduced system and equipment. So, we would love to have 0 maintenance, but many a
times it might not be possible. So, as far as possible try to extend the maintenance time;
that means, to say frequency of maintenance should be reduced drastically, ok; this is
what we are trying to say.
Here if you look back, we have done this FMEA analysis, right. In that FMEA analysis
also what we try to do is we try to see which are the parts going to fail and how do you
improvise their design and after getting the points we rehydrate and re-rerun the entire
FMEA and then get to see the points we compare it and then do it. So, this design for
maintenance also is an offshoot, it moves off from FMEA and we look for this design for
maintenance.
So, these two are completely different, but I am just giving you an analogy FMEA here
also you do failure mode effect analysis, and here what you do is you have design for
maintenance, ok. A very similar one, but it is not the same.
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So, standardized maintenance work management process; so, if it looks like this I met
with the production supervisor and priorities the work. So, this is the maintenance job
request, set job priority; so this is what it is. So, it is for a preventive maintenance. Then
what he does is he plans all the activities and then he schedules the activities, and then he
job executes either he or through another one he does.
And after job executions he keys in what are all the components has, he keys in the status
of different parts of the of the machine and that is used to hold the record and if you go
back and see design for assembly disassembly, we said acquiring data from history this is
the place where they record the history, ok. And then what all has to be charge they
charge and what all has to be free they give it free and this is given to the customer.
So, here if you see the production and the maintenance meet week to fix the schedule and
the plant access. So, here what do I mean the scooter agent calling you is based on the
scheduling, ok?
Lastly, I met the maintenance supervisor and explain him the details. So, this is what is
breakdown and then he does. He also tries to give the complementary and this fellow is
very smart to analyze it, ok. At that here if you see the planning action, so according to
this planning action. So, it also tries to plan the stores and others other purchases which
is to be done. So, then failure analysis ,I have already talked about you, reliability growth
and then what we do is we try to have strategic reviews and try to figure out why this is
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frequently failing and if need based we try to introduce a better material property there or
we try to heat treat or we try to do some modification in the geometry such that we meet
out the requirements.
So, this is maintenance and planning scheduling which is generally followed in a

product. So, this a standardized maintenance work management process. So, you have
maintenance job request, then set job priorities, then your plan, then you schedule then
you execute and then you start reporting it this is KPI reporting.
So, the importance of designing for maintenance is maintainability is the degree of

facility with which an equipment or system is capable of being retained in or restored to
serviceable operations. So, after doing this maintenance we are trying to pull back the
equipment to 100 percent efficiency, if not 100 we go stop at 90 percent efficiency. So,
once you do maintenance we are trying to pull back or improvise the system and try to
achieve 100 percent.
It is a function of part accessibility, interval configuration, use and repair environment,

and the time tool and training required to do an effective maintenance. See earlier days
when you are on travel we always used to say please check the radiator coolant whether
it is full or not, then they say please check the oil level whether it is full or not, then they
say please check the pressure in that tire is to the required specification or not; today all
those things are replaced by sensors, ok.
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And now the and the sensors are also nowadays trying to tell us if a particular part has
got worn and torn; that means, to say a particular part is very rapidly wearing it out, so
they are sensors today which measure and directly tell us that please look into these
particular points where there is there needs your attention. So, the maintenance and when
they say maintenance today you also see it is software based. So, you also it also displays
what is the protocol to be followed to access that point and what all the points to be
checked before we try to do any more big maintenance, ok.
The US department of defense defines maintainability as a characteristic of design and

installation which is expressed as the probability that an event will confirm to specified
conditions within a given period of time when maintenance action is performed in
accordance with the prescribed procedures and resources. So, maintenance should
always be followed with the protocol. This protocol will try to, you do not follow a
protocol then that is not called as maintainable maintenance or design for maintenance.
The protocol has to be displayed and then you have to follow this protocol and then try to
get your machine repaired.
The factors affecting is for maintenance as far as design equipment for maintenance is
concerned, it has been practiced more as an art than as a science. So, art means you do
not have to have a set procedure, science means you have a set procedure. For every
action there is a question raised under standard procedure or an explanation is given in
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science, in arts it need not be; so that is what it is told. So, as far as that designing
equipment of for maintenance is concerned it has been practiced as an art. Now, today
this art has to change into a science.
So, what do I do? How do I do? When do I do? And is these the best practice? All these
things has to be spelt out, to the extent that it can it has evolved to a greater extent as a
result of common sense than by means of scientific investigation. This science also has
to be predominantly around common sense. It is worth noting in this context that
maintenance perhaps is most expensive of all human machine system activities, very
important.
Today finding a person for repairing is next to impossible, it has become pretty
expensive. For example, in your own house or in my own house when there is a
plumbing failure happened. So, we have to wait for a plumber for 3 days and the
plumber who comes does half an hour job and gets the entire day salary from us. So, that
makes it very clear that maintenance, whoever does it is more expensive that is why
today world has more to the concept of use and throw. When you follow this use and
throw concept, we are now concerned about sustainable manufacturing.
So, when we throw, we have to make sure that we throw certain things which are not
going to make any hazardous damage to the mother earth. This is because of the
increasing need to perform maintenance activities and high and ever-increasing cost of
human labor; so, this is what it is.
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So, the factors affecting for the ease of maintenance continuing criticality of equipment
for sustainable production, cost of new equipment versus CDM cost, cost of equipment
downtime. So, all put together goes to factors for consideration of condition monitoring
based maintenance management. So, then availability, then availability of standby
redundancy, equipment duty cycle, and then it effect of outage on environmental and
surrounding. So, these are the 6 factors which affect the ease for maintenance. So, factors
for consideration of condition monitoring ,based maintenance management.
So, now, what people are talking about condition monitoring. What is the condition
monitoring? Condition monitoring of the part where there is go, where there is a wear
and tear effect going to be there. So, you are trying to measure a part where there is
going to be wear and tear and at regular intervals you are going to tell me the status how
is the status going and what was it before 10 minutes and how was it now.
And today the software’s are become so powerful it also gives you a speculation saying
that it can behave like this be very careful, condition monitoring, ok; so, that is condition
monitoring. Condition monitoring can be for a compressor, condition monitoring can be
for a car, condition monitoring for a cutting process, condition monitoring for
refrigerator with air condition, everywhere today there is condition monitoring because
the sensor technology has become more energy efficient and reliable.
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So, the criticality of the equipment cost of new equipment, cost of equipment downtime,
availability, equipment duty cycle and effect of outrage on environmental and
surrounding place. These are the 6 factors which are to be considered for condition
monitoring.
So, the maintenance elements, the maintenance element describe the maintenance
concept and requirement of any system. It includes the analysis and verification of
customer requirement. Look at it. Maintenance includes analysis and verification of
customer requirement. The priority selection of each element depends on the particular
requirement. Maintenance elements have interconnection among them self, ok. So, this is
very important maintenance elements have interconnection.
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What are the corrective maintenance? Corrective maintenance is a reactive in nature.

Every time a product or a system fails repair or restoration must be followed to restore its
operation. And wearing footwear the footwear gives off I take it to a cobbler get it fixed
that is corrective maintenance, ok. I have a pipe which is leaking, I have a computer
which is which is not opening, call an expert, he comes repairs the system, makes it
functional, go. That is corrective maintenance, which is reactive in nature.
The following steps constitute corrective maintenance; once the failure has been detected
it must be confirmed, ok. If somebody says the tap is broken and without even seeing it
people try to communicate the message that is not correct. You have to confirm yes there
is a tap breakage happening. If the failure is not confirmed the item generally is returned
back to service. This no fault found problem leads to considerable wastage of time at
significant cost. So, once you call a plumber and then he comes and say oh that is not a
problem at all and then still you have to pay 500 rupees what he has done and he has also
wasted his time.
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So, the product availability, product maintainability, and logistics delay. So, you have
maintenance ability, reparability, serviceability, this is logistics delay and administrative
delay. So, these are all factors of product for maintainability.
So, this is the maintain, the interrelationship between the maintenance elements which I
dealt 3 slides back, so the maintenance element is preventive, corrective. Preventive
means it is scheduled maintenance, inspection, condition monitoring and analysis
preventive. You just check at every half an hour or when you go by train, and once the
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train comes to a halt at a big station immediately you will see a railway employee going
around checking the temperature profile or the temperature at the wheels or at the
suspension system. What is he doing? He is trying to see is there any very is there any
temperature rise drastically and then if it is drastic, he goes reports this and then
immediately necessary actions will be taken. So, scheduled maintenance, inspection,
condition monitoring and analysis is preventive.
Corrective is moment the failure has happened, so the failure determination, failure
isolation, failure repair, calibration and functional check are part of the tasks which is to
be done. So, in a car also you try to figure out the motor of a car whatever the wiper
motor concept. So, you just strip of the wiper motor alone, take it to the shop, replace the
motor and start going that is corrective; you are isolating the system from rest, ok.
Next is maintenance items; so, maintain it, the maintenance elements can be policy, can
be a times, location and procedure. So, maintenance time is preventive, servicing,
inspection, replacement and overhauling ,these are the maintenance time. Corrective it
can be preparation failure isolation logistics correction adjustment and calibration. It can
be stationary that means, to say field shops, maintenance labs; they all can be part of it,
ok. Then maintenance location it can be mobile, it can be remote; mobile is maintenance
vehicle.
Say for example, if you nowadays you see that you have tow vehicles which go around
on the highways. So, the tow vehicle you just give them a call number they just give
them a call, they come to the spot with all the kits with all whatever it is required for that
particular car and then quickly they start working on it set it, right give the bill on the
spot take it and then take the cash or take the money and then leave.
Or the other way around is they tow you from the spot bring it to the service station,
work on it and put it put you back to the main road. So, you can have maintenance
location mobile, you can have maintenance location remote. Remote is today when you
have all this big cars big luxurious cars which are sold. So, all the cars have their service
stations only at metros.
For example, Chennai, Bombay, you might have in Delhi and then maybe in Haryana.
But suppose if somebody own owns a luxurious car, at a very eastern corner for a
somewhere in (Refer to Time: 20:26) he holds. So, he does not have a maintenance
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person to come all the way from Delhi to go to his place that is what is called as remote
locations.
Then procedures, it can be documented, guidelines, standards and specifications, this can
be in hardware, this can be in software, which can be shared or which can be transferred
to the people. So, the maintenance environment can be the maintenance procedure.
The maintenance environment it can it should have temperature proof, vibration proof,
shockproof, radiation proof, electromagnetic. When you are talking about when you
talking about sensors or when you are talking about electronic gadgets EMI plays a very
important role.
The maintenance data is going to be from the conception stage you take it, design and
development stage you trying to take the maintenance; that means, to say when you are
trying to build a cars, when you are trying to build a car or trying to build a machine
when you have screws; you can always put the screws on top of the surface where you
can access your screw, access those screws with the screwdriver to remove a lid.
You can also put it right at the bottom where in which you do not show the screws at all.
When you put, right at the bottom the accessibility difficulty comes. When you put
exactly on the spot or on his eyesight when it is visible then that is going to hamper or
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that is going to make the entire product look little uglier. So, you have to have a trade off
in the design stage itself where to have the screws and bolts such that they can be fasten.
The other way around is the design stage itself you say I hate this screws and bolts let us
have press fit, sitting fit, done. So, it is in the design concept itself you should bring in
form the maintenance data has to go. From demonstration phase from field in use phase
you take the maintenance data and then analytical calculations in the existing data bank.
So, this is for trying to figure out what is the performance.
Then maintain maintenance personal can be general training, specialized training, on the
job training, updating training, and then skilled level and personal requirement. General
trainers are people who can do any job jack of all trades. Specialized trainers are turner
fitter welder they know only all about turning. On the job I do not know anything even in
turning I can do only this job that is on the job training.
Updated training, till now I was a drafts man now I realized the computers have come.
So, I will I would take a training of computer and I updated myself and then I start doing
it. Skill levels is also very important and the personal requirements.
But you look at corrective maintenance, the item is prepared for maintenance if the
failure is confirmed and then the failure report is complete. So, in US or in even
developed countries or in costlier automotive things they always make a sheet which
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says serial number, it says defect and then they say remarks and then they will have one
more column they say who is responsible. So, then he starts not looking at the product
and then he starts writing on the defects.
And in fact, in certain cases they also give a space where in which you can draw the part
and then try to mark which all locations the defective has happened and then try to write
your remarks and then say who takes the responsibility in fixing it. And then if you still
want you can also have you can give them what is a time that they have to fix them and
then give back.
So, localization and isolation of the failure parts in the assembly is the natural next step
or corrective. The failed part is removed for disposal and the item may be reassembled,
so that it can put back into working conditions.
Preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance; I have just put the full example. So,
imagine you have purchased, imagine you purchased a new economic car 3 months ago.
To get around you alternate between riding a bike, walking and driving your car. So, in 3
months since you have owned the car you have driven about 1000 miles on it. However,
the car manual says to get the oil replaced every 3 months or 3000 miles.
So, now, the company has already prescheduled assuming that in 3 months time you will
go 3000 miles, 3000 miles in 3 months divided by 100, it is a day you will go 30 miles. I
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am staying in a campus where my house and my office is hardly a kilometer away. So, if
I have a car and if I have to use the car I go morning, come back for lunch, go to the
office and then come back for dinner.
So, I go 4 time’s maybe this 4 can become 6 times or 8 times a day. So, 8 kilometers a
day I go. So, if I want to even touch 1000 kilometers. So, 8 divided by 8 its naturally
takes me almost, so 100 divided by 8, I said 1000 divided by 8, so it is 16 times, so 12,
96 40; so 125. So, it takes me 125 days and it is all 125 days I do not go. So, it is all
Saturday, Sunday coming in between, so it becomes almost.
So, now the company by taking a data from so many people and knowing their
performance of the engine and all they say please replace the oil within the first 3 months
time or this. Since it has been 3 months you dutifully take your car to the shop for a
costly oil change that is supposed to keep your car running in a great condition this is an
example for preventive maintenance. Understood?
So, a schedule is given do or die you go to the shop or to you go to the repair shop throw
your vehicle, dump your vehicle there, get everything replaced, pay that money and then
come back; so that is preventive maintenance. If you logically say I have only travelled
100 kilometers as again 1000 or 3 months time. So, should I still do it? So, now the
company says, if you do not want, we will we were our schedule thing is to do 4 times
free service, I remove one of the free service you come for the next time I will do
whatever I can do, that is what is it; so, this is preventive maintenance.
But suppose if your vehicle is running for a long time maybe 10 years is over, now this 3
months time plays a very important role. Every 3 months you go to the you go to the
mechanic shop and show it to him, get yourself assisted because your vehicle has crossed
the your vehicle is moving towards old age. So, it is 10 years passed by; so, that is
preventive. So, preventive for a new vehicle is a different impact, preventive for a 10
year old vehicle has a different impact. Let us now move to predictive maintenance.
Now, imagine you own a luxury car, maybe a BMW that is equipped with condition
based service indicator, for your engine oil and air filter among the parts. You drive the
car 6 months put around 5000 miles on it and then an alert comes on that say you have
500 miles left before you must change the oil. This is an example for predictive
maintenance. So, what happens here is you have put sensors, these sensors maybe base
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or it has a vision based sensor, it sees once the color changes when it is a becoming dark
in color.
So, it quickly comes and tells you boss now it has become very dark or very black in
color. So, now, you have to go for replacement or do some corrections and it is not right
now you go we will give you some more time; we will give you another one more month
or 15 more days by the time please make sure it goes; so it is called as predictive
maintenance.
So, preventive maintenance is triggered by time, event, and meter reading; on the other
hand predictive maintenance is based on actual condition of the equipment rather than
time and age factor.
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So, equipments condition; so failure indicates, so if you say predictive, preventive,

predictive, preventive, run to failure this is the time period, ok. So, this is called as
predictive, in predictive you have failure indicates and here is a technique ultrasonic
technique which is used which is used for detecting the failure, then in preventive we
always try the vibration detection, oil analysis detection we do it. And once it crosses this
time limit then what we do is we use aquatics, we use temperature we use mechanical
loss, we use auxiliary damage and then finally, we look at the catastrophic failure; so,
these are the things which happens.
So, here the failure is indicative, so that is predictive. Preventive is ultrasonic detection
and vibration it is preventive and run to failure is you will have audio. So, suppose you
keep running a car an hour or over a period of time you say all of a sudden all of a
sudden there is a sound which comes out. So, you say something is wrong I hear a new
sound. So, then you go to the mechanic and say this is what a sound I hear is. So based
upon your interpretation then he starts working on it to give to us also solution; so what
are the benefits and what are the limitations?
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Full product visibility, cost effective, preventive, predictive with when will failure occur,
improve product life cycle and downtime is reduced. Limitation requires condition
monitoring and skilled based of staffs.
Saves energy, predictive sales energy and the resource cost effective, it is effective
efficient productivity, redundancy of unplanned downtime. So, all these things are part of
benefits and these are the limitations.
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So, maintenance of degrading system, degrading system is a human body is also

degrading. For example, when you are born you have been given the best flexibility, but
over a period of time this flexibility is killed and you become more and more and more
rigid. Let it be even your spinal cord the sitting posture, the fitness what we have it is all
like degrading of a system. So, most system operates with some sort of degradation
occurring throughout their useful lives.
Review has been, has been done periodically to determine what action need to be taken
to enable the maintenance of such system. To optimize the maintenance schedule, it has
been suggested that the level of degradation be monitor instead of time; so this is
degradation this is the time. So, degradation happens like this they say please do not look
at that time. But look at the life sacrifice or the damage which is getting induced to the
peace more than this time. This approach enables the addition of factors such as
maintenance cost and distribution of degradation.
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Aggressive maintenance; aggressive maintenance implies a much more aggressive and

far seeking maintenance philosophy than preventive maintenance. In aggressive
maintenance strategy seeks to improve overall equipment operation, drawing on the
concept of total productivity maintenance, ok. So, this is little bit more than preventive
maintenance.
So, what is Total Productive Maintenance? Total product TPM total productive, pt
management is also the total productivity maintenance. So, here we talk about total
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productivity maintenance is a system of maintaining and improving the inter integrity of
the production and the quality system through machines, equipment process and
employment that adds business value to the organization.
So, is a system of maintaining and improving the integrity of the production and quality
system, maintaining and improving the integrity. Integrity means it is a holistic approach,
ok. So, it can be through machines equipments process and employment employees it
can be done.
So, the TPM goal is 0 defect, 0 breakdown, 0 accident, so it is all in 0 is going to be TPM
goal.
So, you have autonomous maintenance should be there, planned maintenance should be
there, you should have focused improvement should be there, early equipment
management should be there, quality maintenance should be there, then education and
training system should be there, TPM in the offline platform should be there, safety and
environmental management also should be there. Basically, they try to say 5 s and visual
management system has to be there. So, these are all the building blocks or pillars for
achieving the TPM goal of 0 defects, 0 breakdown and 0 accidents.
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So, design review for maintainability. The quantitative and qualitative examination of the
proposed designed to ensure that it is safe and has optimal performance with respect to
maintainability, reliability and performance variables need to specify the equipment.
So, this is a definition which is given by Thomson. It is usual and necessary to undertake
a review about the 4 principle levels of design; design specification review includes
market need in the product design, system review, equipment evaluation and the
component analysis. These are the 4 principle levels of design, ok; these all are for
review.
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So, the objective of the design specification review to make certain that all parts and
specification are understood at the outset and importance of different statements is
appreciated. Review of the design specification, specification to ensure that the
specification of all the point containing within the design specification are understood,
prior to the commencement of any design activity, activity system level review.
So, these are all the different reviews we done. Equipment to evaluate quantitatively
critical items of equipments; so these are the equipments and these are the component
level design review techniques. System review is also part of that. So, here it was defined
design review, design specification for design for maintenance.
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Then system review for planning, a system review, a peer reviewer obtains an
understanding of the firms accounting auditing practice such that the industry the as the
industries of its clients are. The design of the firm system includes its policies and
procedures how the form checks itself that it is complying with them. So, the system is
supposed to make a car, so the car has to have certain specification how good is your
manufacturing and how did you meet the specification. The reviewer assesses the risk
levels implicit within different aspects of aspects of the firms practice and its system.
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So, with this we come to an end to this lecture. So, task for students. So, what you will
do is you try to look at a product, let us try to take your scooter. Try to understand
preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance, corrective maintenance, system
maintenance, ok.
You try to figure out what type of preventive maintenance, what type of predictive
maintenance, what type of corrective maintenance are going on in your scooter and
finally, your system maintenance also. Then you will also try to appreciate how your
scooter performance, performance was before giving it to repair and then after, ok. So,
you will see how, because of this maintenance how is the performance getting enhanced,
ok.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lecture - 20c
Design for Environment (Part 1 of 2)
So, welcome back to the next lecture which is on Design for Environment, today there is
a big push towards design for environment. Today what is happening in manufacturing
people they slowly started talking about sustainable manufacturing so; that means, to
say try to produce any object with minimum resources and try to do very minimum
damage to mother earth. So, that is sustainability, whatever product we do that has to be
sustainable for example, the plastic bags what we produced it was a; it was very handy it
gave customer satisfaction, but today we realise that it is no more user friendly what has
happened you are not able to bio degraded or dispose it.
Today people are started giving statistics saying that within 10 years from now we need
another earth to dump all our plastic things and other materials which gets waste for
example, electronic waste, rare earth material getting added to the soil. So, all those
things are making big damage to mother earth. So, now, the topic of design for
environmental is very important, initially we were talking about design for
manufacturing then we slowly more towards design for assembly, but today we are
talking about design for sustainability or design for environment it is a very important
topic. So, let us keep discussing this topic in brief.
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The content of the list lecture is going to be product design for environment, how are we
going to develop design or products or packages which are user friendly to environment
what are the three R’s which have been talked about from school days till now, now this
three R’s have become four R’s. Then Life Cycle Analysis LCA now this has become a
part of all of the product lifecycle management softwares.
Softwares they are now making it part of their software for doing simulation and trying
to do this analysis, life cycle analysis, then sources of waste, then waste reduction, then
implementation of design for environmental process.
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Product design for environment; product design for the environment is very
contemporary topic it is very important. Several researches all over the world are busy
attempting to design products that minimise the impact on environment which I was
telling to you. For example you take CNC machining or you take turning or you take
grinding examples what we do in grinding we try to do machining operation and what we
understand that when machining there is going to be a huge temperature rise.
In order to remove the temperature between the tool and workpiece we try to apply
coolant, but we are also pretty sure the contact between the tool and the workpiece is
going to be 100 percent or perfect. At that instant so, when we try to when we try to
inject or when you try to apply coolant there it is not going to reach the contact zone
exactly.
So, what we us what we do is we try to spread all around coolant of that cutting zone and
what we argue saying that we try to extract heat from those positions. So, if you look at it
many a times and many of the machining process we use flood coolant, this flood
coolant is not serving it is true purpose, that is why people started talking about
minimum quantity lubricants and so on and so forth. So, all this thing are to reduce the
impact to environment because the coolant which gets converted into fumes that fumes
are hazards to human operator, ok. It gets dispersed into the free atmosphere which is
later going to be hazards for are for from the pollution point of view.
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The present chapter or the present lecture is an atom to motivate young researcher’s
works to pursue in green product design.
So, product design for environment is a design approach for producing the impact of the
product to the environment. The products can have adverse impact on the environment
through polluting processes and the consumption of a large quantity of raw material and
energy. When we talk about sustainable manufacturing or manufacturing design for
environment we try to also optimise the use of energy.
The impact can be adverse also due to the consumption of a large amount of energy and
difficulty during disposal. For example the plastic chairs today are economical and very
well accepted why because this products are one shot products; that means, to say from
the pallet to the final chair it is done in one shot injection moulding process. Whereas, let
us take the same there if it is made out of wood or if it is made out of steel there are
several processes which has to go through and finally, you get the same output.
As far as the customer is concerned he only needs a product for setting if it is made out
of metal, ceramic, plastic, steel, he is least bothered ok. So, now keep the customer into
picture and then you see that cost which is going to be done and then look at a product or
a material which can be quickly processed and you get the output so that is what is told
about amount of energy and the difficulties during disposal.
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Because of this, one must consider a product’s entire life cycle, from creation through
used through disposal. So, this plastic has only one problem today is disposal, you can
quickly make it is a most economical thing it has a shorter lifetime of maybe 5 years or 6
years when it is exposed to sunlight. So, then on top of it when you have to disperse it
these plastics are not degradable.
So, thermoplastics yes it can be at least recycled. So, people start doing it recycling and
in the recycle also what happen every time when you just try to process the material
loses it is strength and other properties so it is not like a origin material.
In this life cycle there are many elements of creating pollution and many opportunities
for recycling, remanufacturing, recycling is different remanufacturing is different. So,
recycling remanufacturing reuse see there is first something called as reduce we will see
all the three R’s reuse and recycle. When we talk about reduce you try to minimise the
consumption for example, today we use lot of products which are 5 star rating for
example, electronic devices let it be geyser, let it be refrigerator, let it be a air condition,
we try to use 5 star because the energy consumption is quite less so, that is reducing the
resources.
Next whatever we have reusing it, my elder son has a shirt and that shirt is still glossy
and very good, but he has grown up to wear that shirt I could either transfer to my
younger son or to a person whom I know and he reuses the same shirt, the shirt still has it
is life and it can be used without doing any alteration so that is what is reuse. And the
last one is recycle; recycle in the sense ,I take that shirt I tried to convert it into some
other form and make a product for using for example, you have a jeans pant you can cut
the jeans pant and try to make it into shorts that is also not recycle.
Recycle means you apply energy, you apply complete a new things and then try to
develop a product it can be a same one similar one it can be a different product that is
recycle. Reduce energy is produced, reuse there is no energy consumed in it, recycle
there is an energy consumption it a. So, as far as possible we should try to reduce, then
we will try to reuse, then we will try to go to recycle that is what is talked about.
In this life cycle there are many events of creating pollution and many opportunities for
recycling, remanufacturing, reuse ,ok, remanufacturing is changing for example, scrap
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which is coming out of machining operations can be converted into a billet for a low
strength material application and reduce the environmental impact.
The stages of product life cycle is to meet this challenge designer must understand the
process of life cycle assessment that adopts a total view by analysing the entire life cycle
of a product, process, package, material and handling activities. So, when we try to think
the take an example of thermoplastic bags plastic bags polythene bags, these polythene
bags where never thought in totality. It was only thought of let us give a product to the
customer so, that he is happy that is all, but they did not see.
After a while when the customer wants to throw this what will happen they did not think
about it, because at that point of time there was a market pull then they needed a plastic
bag, economical bag. So, that people can just walk into any shop any mall pick up a pick
their commodities put it inside a plastic bag and come so that is what.
So, here they did not do the life cycle assessment properly it is not that was a mistake we
are learning and in the process of evolution we also learn many new things as and when
we grow, ok, you can take it as learning exercise rather than saying these are all not
thought off right. So, to meet this challenge designer must understand the process of life
cycle assessment that adopts you a total view by analysing the entire life cycle of your
product process, package, material and handling activities.
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Life cycle stages encompasses extraction which is a very high energy intensive process
extraction and processing of raw material manufacturing, transportation and distribution
use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and composting and finally, disposition it. So, all
these things are different stages of product life cycle.
The importance of DfE, Design for Environment is an important activity for a design
team because environmental damage is greatly influenced by the early design phase. So,
at the early design even when we do concurrent engineering at the early stage itself you
try to think about the product it is solution to the problem and because of this production
what is it is influence on the environment? So, it has to be thought of in the early stage of
design itself, 80 percent of the environmental damage of a product is established after 20
percent of the design activity is complete.
So, 80 percent of the environmental damage of a product is established after 20 percent

of the design activity is complete. The design for environment is essentially due to 3
factors, customer demand design for environment customer demand, government
pressure and ISO requirements. Today people are talking about carbon footprints right
carbon footprints so; people are more worried about carbon footprints. So, people are
now, there is a governmental pressure that is why every time you see new auto norms are
coming into existence Bharat 4, Bharat 5, Bharat 6 and earlier it was then there were a lot
of auto norms stringent auto norms have come into existence, ok.
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Same with ISO requirements what happens in a tannery industry, what happens in paint
industry, what happens in a pharmaceutical industry, what happens to the water after you
use it for processing how do you disperse. So, all these things are now becoming very
much stringent and it is required for any company to become international they are
pushing very hard for design for environment.
The customer demand, from the business viewpoint the reason a design team should
choose to complete design for the environment is that modern customers are now
demanding products with least environmental impact, now people are aware of it. So,
people look for 5 star rating, people look even though the cost is little high they look for
5 star rating, people look for cars which do not which do not cause smoke out of it. So,
they are going to electric cars right and people also look for a many products after the
product life is over ,what happens for dispersal.
The world’s population is becoming aware of the societies influence; society is

attempting to minimise it is impact. Creating a product that impacts the environment less
becomes a market advantage, today companies have started putting as there USP Unique
Selling Point this design for environment.
Xerox has a committee to be a waste free company has committed to be a waste free
company, as a part of it is operation and it is product, it will generate no waste material
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that cannot be recycled or remanufactured, Xerox aims at 100 percent recyclable
products ,ok.
When we talk about frugal engineering the one of the best examples of frugal
engineering is making a new not incubator using car parts, ok. So, now, recycling of
products is being 100 percent recycling is now been thought of in every product you buy
in automobile every part is thought of 100 percent recycling. Thermo sets are removed
and elastomers also are to some extent recyclable and all other parts are made of
thermoplastic or it is made out of metals which are recyclables. So, 100 percent the
automotive industry is also looking for recyclable products.
The government pressure government agencies also enforce reduce environmental

impact standard for products. Such regulatory pressure will only grow with time this
regulatory pressure will grow with time. Many company countries now have the product
such as packaging computers and transportation vehicles, completely recycle
components are being used.
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ISO requirements, today when one company has to make it are product international they
look for a international certification body. So, ISO is one of the certification bodies, so,
where as part of their certification they have also added this design for environment.
Standards are now being developed to support design for the environmental as a practice.
Now, it has the support documents have come and the standards are doing established
because we are also as said we are also evolving. So, the standards are also now only
recently added.
Underlying all these activities are the market force that demand design for environment
as a necessary part of modern product development, today lot of the multinational
companies have gone for a paperless office or it is called as digital or it is called as e
governance. So, electronic governance so, this is now moving towards paperless office.
So, they have reduced the consumption of paper this has led to the reduction of tree
cutting and the advantages there is a digital document which is always kept in the trawl
in the in store or it is saved.
And second thing is the retrieval of these data’s have become very fast and the correction
of these data’s have also become easy. So, now, this part is now added as part of ISO if
any company wants to get an ISO certificate their product should follow design for
environment and they should move towards the paperless factory. So, this is in turn
putting lot of pressure on the companies and to meet out their requirements.
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What are the environmental factors, it is important to understand pollution types, their
range of impact and what can be done in product development to reduce their impact of
pollution is one factor which is thought about. There are many guidelines develop to help
industry understand and deal with the impact on environment. Coalition of
Environmental Responsible Economies, as the CERES principle establishes objective
and guidelines to help the companies maintain good environmental performance. These
principles are adopted by Exxon cooperation and later adopted by hundreds of
companies.
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Outline of these objectives, company must reduce the release of pollutant that endangers
the earth. Consistency of use of resources, companies might use raw materials at the
level where they can be sustainable. Companies will minimise waste wherever possible.
When waste cannot be avoided, recycling must be adopted. So ,waste water from big
industries are getting recycled ,ok.
Companies will use environmental safe energy and invest in energy conservation. So,
that is what we are looking for wind, solar, tidal, these are all non conventional energy
sources, companies are requested to look for these things. And companies will minimise
health risk to employees and their and the communities as part of this design for
environment, the electric vehicles are part of now design for environment.
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The companies will sell products that minimize environmental impact and are safe for
consumers to use ok, sell products that in minimizes the environmental impact for
example, plastic bags. Companies will take responsibility through cleanup and
compensation for environmental harm now this has become a mandate. So, if the
company gives a huge amount of packaging and is packaging materials are dispersed
because they are these packaging material plays an important role in protecting the
product from impact. For example, when you buy laptops it is packed in a carton box
with lot of Styrofoam’s there and that Styrofoam’s are not reusable.
So, but these Styrofoam’s have to be there because they come when while movement if
there is a impact load the laptop has to take that. So, now, companies have decided they
have produced so, much they have also now involved in cleaning up so much hm. And
this is out now it is become a mandate of the company companies will disclose to
employees and the community and the community incidents that causes environmental
harm or pose health or safety hazards.
For example if you are running a iron and steel company or if you are running a copper
extraction company. So, what happens is the, the companies responsibility is to tell the
public near and dear staying close by the company that, this is what is the environmental
impact is going to be made and this is how your health is going to get decorated.
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So, if you are interested you stay here otherwise you look for a place apart from that and
now companies also have taken the responsibility for example, lot of companies which
are involved in energy production, they have also in now started getting involved in
planting trees and making the place green and trying to clean up earth. So, these are
some of the social responsibilities they are doing so, that they can try to keep the society
happy.
At least one member of the company board will be qualified to represent environmental
interest and senior executive for environmental affairs will be appointed. So, now, in all
boards ,you see a member who is extremely conscious about environment, environmental
representative, ok, he talks about the environmental impact of the company on the
mother earth.
The companies will conduct annual self evaluation of progress in implementing these
principles and make results independent of environmental audit available to the public.
Pollutions can be organised by the scope of their environmental impact from global to
regional unto local impacts. So, from global to local to regional to local these pollutions
have a huge impact.
Suppose now in Delhi there is a huge set of pollution, the same pollution can also happen
at Chennai or Mumbai or Calcutta, but the beauty of it is they have sea close by and the
pollution moves or the fresh air there is a scope of coming whereas, in Delhi it is covered
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by Himalayas at one side and the other side it is too far away it is having lot of land and
the downward also it is having land. So, the fresh water the fresh air coming in is very
difficult so, the pollution there is very dominating.
The global issues which are related there are pollution problems which exist on the
global scale this includes concern over climatic change ozone depletion and biodiversity
loss climatic change for example, the ice over the north zone is getting melted and if the
ice or the north zone melts. So, the water level increases moment the water level
increases there is always a possibility of a flood or a storm, because there is a imbalance
in the water level. So, there is a climate change temperature increase temperature
increase melting of ice melting of ice lot of water lot of water leading to flood or storm,
ok.
Ozone depletion because we send so much of rockets here and there they peers the
atmosphere and they go out. So, ozone depletion happens moment there is ozone
depletion then there is lot of health problems which come into existence and since we
disperse lot of waste into the sea ,ah, sea water and nuclear materials are dispersed in the
sea there is the bio biodiversity is loss lot of small birds, fish and small animals die
because the water is lost it is purity the atmosphere has lost it is purity.
When I was a young kid I used to play with lot of sparrows through rice here and there
and these sparrows used to jump and eat and I used to have fun, today when I wanted to
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do the demonstrate same thing to my son that I do not see sparrows in my vicinity itself
people say because of the cell phone towers they get disturbed, second thing because of
pollution also they get disturbed. And it is so surprising nowadays the place where I stay
I do not see crows also. So, biodiversity is getting disturbed and there is a huge loss.
The concern over climatic changes because of the probable consequences of possible
large change in the earth’s climate due to increase in the greenhouse gases. This is due to
burning of fossil fuels which increases carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. From the
product design point of view, developing products that uses less energy will help to
mitigate this problem.
So, that is why from IC engine car we have gone to electric car electric vehicles and
these electric vehicles CO 2 is not used and they are, but the only major challenge with
this is energy density which people are now trying to work very hard in developing huge
energy density so, that they can store energy and travel for a longer distance. I am sure
keeping this environmental norm all these IC engines will slowly, slowly go away.
Another global pollution concern is the depletion of ozone layer. The ozone layer is a
thin layer on the upper atmosphere that blocks the UV radiation from reaching the earth
surface. Fluorocarbon gases from our industrial society may also react and reduce the
ozone gas in this layer, from a product design view development products that do not
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make use of release this harmful chemicals, either in use, manufacture or dispersal, will
be used to solve this problem.
So, fluorocarbon gases were initially used as refrigerants now it is slowly removed in
several places which was used in air condition, slowly it is removed such that they try to
protect the ozone layer.
Regional and local issues, other environmental problem persist on the more regional
level, these include problems of acid rain, when pollution by products in one region can
cause acid rain in the another region. So, in a peak summer recently at Bhopal we could
see there was a ice rain So, it was a peak summer and the rain whatever fall we had was
full of ice. So, it was all change in the atmosphere we got this and the acid rains are
something which happens because of pollution.
The air pollution and the smog also are regional problems. So, if you see that the trains
planes are not able to take off trains are not able to reach and it creates a huge case in the
transportation of the community. So, this come December, January, February in the
North of India we have a huge problem because of the smog and air pollutions, the trains
are not able to move traffic on the roads are not able to move. So, this leads to lot of
pollution they are leads to lot of CO 2 and this CO 2 intern is in the atmosphere creating
pollution.
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So, air pollution and smog are all regional problems water pollution either in the
groundwater, river, bay or ocean is also a regional problem often caused by herbicides
and pesticides in addition to the sub urban and urban street water runoff. So, these are
pesticides when we add to the farms and herbicides which is added they get mixed with
the groundwater and the groundwater also many a times because of this chemicals which
are getting used they leach away the soil and that is called as what leaching which is also
a very big thing which is coming up today.
Other contaminants can enter through to streams and landfills as water pollution.
Herbicides and pesticides are typical problem compounds whose amount introduces to
the regional area must be controlled. So, today we talk about a major control of
pesticides people are talking about organic farming and people are talking about
precision agriculture where and which the use of this fertilizers used of this pesticides are
controlled to a large extent, this in turn tries to reduce the pollution.
The 3 R’s which we were talking about reduce, reuse, recycle, now it is also called as the
energy is also talked about it is renewable energy,is also talk about these are the 4 R’s
which are talked about, it is the mantra recognisable by it is distinct the arrows in the
triangle pattern. So, we have reduce, reduce the amount of use we are coming up with
way to reduce the amount of water use the amount of materials used in the container buy.
For example, making them lighter to better value our resources so, this is reduce.
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Recycle is used as a resource we are actively using recycled materials, we are also
incorporating processes and designs to make it easier for recycle. And reuse use over
again we are reusing container such as beer bottles and cases as well as on premises non
alcoholic beverage bottles. So, these are all the 3 R’s reduce recycle and reuse or we can
say reduce, reuse and recycle. So, 3 R’s now renewable energy is added so, it becomes 4
R’s.
Reduce your waste closely monitor your inventory supply and look for the way to
improve your process. Closely monitor your inventory supply you can try to do it in the
domestic front closely monitor your inventory supply for example, we go to mall and
then we pick up 3 soaps.
So, along with 3 soaps you get 1 soap free so, we buy for soaps and hardly our
consumption rate is a family can consume only 1 soap a month. So, what has happened
you have to closely monitor your inventory, because if you have more inventories you
are going to consume more liberally or it might get wasted. So, closely monitor your
inventory supply and look for a way to improve your process.
Research is the key, can you switch to water based or less toxic ingredient? Can you
switch to synthetic oil and extend the time between oil changes just a bit? So, now, that
is what earlier be used to have radiator, radiator was water cooler water cool now they
are ingredients which are added synthetic ingredients which are added which makes it
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sustainable and it is used for a longer time. Buy only what you need so that you do not
have to worry about expired unused chemicals, this always happens for me in my house
with medicine pharmaceutical.
So, when I go to shop I buy medicine and when I have cold I do not buy 1 tablet 2 tablet
I buy an entire strip and over a of time of I do not consume it gets expired and it is waste.
So, that is what we talk try to have tried you what you need so that you do not have to
worry about what about the expiry of unused.
So, that 3 R’s reduce, reuse, and recycle so, the waste reduction since 2009 more than 90
million tyres have been diverted from land filling that would be as tall as 33000 CR
towers. So, so much has been used more than 90 million tyres have been diverted from
landfills.
So, the other thing is over 100 million dollars of new investment into research and
development and the creation of hundreds of new jobs in Ontario it is done for reducing
the waste, 100 percent of scrap tyres collected on Ontario are recycled into sustainable
products, more than 12 million tyres recycle in Ontario annually, over 15 projects built in
Ontario community since 2015 through the community renewable fund users using
Ontario made recycled rubber products. So, these are the things which government has
taken countries have taken so, it is called as Ontario tyre towards shift. Since 2009
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Ontario tyre towards shift has been working towards a more sustainable future 1 tyre at a
time.
Reuse what you can again do your research I read that you can extend the life of
Buffered Hydro Fluoride BHF in semiconductor manufacturing with ammonia and water
evaporated from the BHF, extend the life of BHF in semiconductor with ammonia and
water evaporated from the BHF. The etching rate can be maintained and the BHF is
reused when it was previously only used once per application. Do your research, there is
an information out that that pertaining to you. So, you can start looking for how do we
work on this BHF and use it many times.
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Recycle is the golden child of the 3 R. So, it is recycled smart paper, metal, cardboard,
plastic glass, 5 for the cart. So, this is recycling in the traditional sense where you might
send your spent oil for fuel blending and it is recycled as a fluid. On or perhaps you send
your fluorescent light electronics to a facility where it is dismantled and the parts are
recycle separately.
However, there are other wastes that are not hazardous waste that also has the ability of
recycled. I have a client who sells the crushed glass from flawed products on their line to
another consumer who makes something new out of their waste products so, this is all
about recycling. Recycling is the golden child for of the three.
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For example, one - three shift soft drink bottling plant can easily generate 20 million
gallons of line lubrication waste water per year. However, there are technologies that
enable sustainable games in sustainability by reducing the water for lubrication from
hundred of gallons per shift down to merely ounce. So, people are worked on it and they
are trying to reduce the 20 million gallons of line lubrication waste water per year to few
ounces per day.
A leading producer of biscuits, cookies, crackers implemented a technology that allows

less additive adhesive in ceiling package for multiple lines of cookies and biscuits
reducing adhesive consumption by 70 percent. As result the company saved 35 barrels of
oil, a significant amount of the energy to run the line and more than 260,000 gallons of
water previously used for traditional packaging of glue. So, look at it so these are some
of the examples where big companies across the globe awards started working.
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Now let us see life cycle analysis, regardless of the name the main aim of the life cycle
analysis is to identify the environmental impact of the materials and resources used in
manufacturing and use of a product. This is similar to the procedure that financial
manager calls resources and uses. Large publicized trading companies will include a
sources and uses of fund statement in their report. So, sources and uses of funds, the
resources in this case is money where it is obtained, it is source and how it is used to
carry out the activities of the business.
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So, when we talk about life cycle analysis you have goal and scope definition and this is
the interpretation, you have inventory analysis, you have impact analysis. So, all these
things are part of life cycle analysis, goal and scope definition inventory analysis impact
analysis and interpretation.
Life cycle assessment, individuals and institutions that are contemplating lending money
to a startup company look for sources and uses the worksheet because it is an excellent
summary of the new venture financial plan. In a similar manner and LCA can be viewed
as a source and used statements. Most LCA life cycle assessment includes a
comprehensive list of inputs and resources. The output defines how effectively the
facility is in converting these resources into products while minimizing their waste.
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When you look at a simple life cycle analysis you can take raw material, food, you can
take newspaper, you can take computer manufacturing, you can take food production;
food production. I will tell you a very interesting case study which we recently did, in
our institute where there are 450 students; 450 students they dine 3 times a day, everyday
generate close to 90 kilos of biomass waste, can you believe? 90 kilos of biomass waste
450 students 90 kilos for simplicity sake let us make it 100 kilos just for calculation, is it
a huge number, yes 100 kilos of waste which is a biomass waste we do, this can be while
making Aloo, the peel of the Aloo while making some other Gajar you peel the from
there and what is getting wasted in their plates put together is 100 kilos.
Now let us do a simple calculation, I divide this 100 and this is for waste for 3 sessions 3
sessions ok. So, then per session it is close to 33 kgs when I divide 33 kgs with this 450
students it boils down to maybe, let me do for just for calculation sake let me take it as
45 kgs ok. So, 45 kgs 450 students ok, it is 45 divided by 450 students I have converted
into grams. So, this goes one this one goes so, every student generates 100 grams in one
session and 100 grams is very typically your Cadburys weight or today’s mobile phone
weight. Do you think that a student wasting 100 grams of biomass is a big thing, no it is
not big thing, but when you see in totality 100 kgs or 140 kgs it is big.
So, now what people are trying to say is try to reduce even this 100 grams to 50 grams
and reduce this 100 kilos to 50 kilos. So, if you look at that this figure looks to be very
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decent, but this figure is alarming and over a period of time if this is for a day, then think
of for a month, then think of for a year and this is for one hostel you multiply it with 13
hostels. So, it is everyday we generate 1300 kilos of so, 1 ton of biomass we generate it
is a huge waste.
So, now what we have are started doing is, we have started looking at can we reduce this
by doing some pre-processing prior and trying to reduce the waste ok. So, this 1300 is
per day so, you think of per month then per year you generate so much of waste. So,
now, the life cycle analysis we started doing it and we have started relooking into the raw
material so, here is a schematic diagram which is put for an example for LCA. So, first is
raw material so, raw material we apply energy, it tries to convert the raw material into
some usable format proceeds further and you also generate some amount of waste.
So, whatever raw material we process and we send it is a production again in the
production what happens we generate waste and we also try to have emission of air and
water is there, here also we try to apply energy. So, then after you produce you transport
you apply energy, you generate waste and it also is doing emission of air and water waste
is happening. Then we take it to the user, user applies energy again you try to generate
waste and emission for air and water is done, then we take it to the dispersal and recycle
again you apply energy waste and emission is done.
So, you see that so these it keeps on going when you try to recycle again it becomes in
the production. So, this cycle keeps on going at every stage you see you apply energy
and at every stage you see you generate waste and at every stage you see you generate
emissions. Now this is what when we do this LCA life cycle analysis you have to reduce,
reduce the waste, reduce the emission, reduce the energy, consumption that is what is
LCA? LCA is life cycle analysis.
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Life cycle analysis input includes all raw materials, stock, resources that are used for
creation of a product you have to put all the inputs. So, here when you put the inputs you
will also talk about the energy, you also will talk about energy the life of the material
process disposal everything. You will try to talk resources include energy demands like
electricity, gas, oil, coal etcetera and water. So, today apart from this is also becoming
scarce this is also it getting into crisis.
Drinking water is a crisis, water for processing is a crisis in some special instance land
use might be also included for resource land is also used when we start doing mining
there are 2 types of mining, one is opened mining and other one is you do you do in the 3
dimensional mining. So, people are now trying to look from the open mining they are
also trying to do deep mining. So, while land is not considered a consumable in the
creation of a stock or a product there could be situations or circumstances that would
make the land unusable after a period of time.
For example, this is talked about from the point of view of using pesticides or fertilizers
in the agricultural land there we use or strip mining what we talk about. So, land is also
becoming a major crisis today so, in the resources we that is why we are also talking
today the life cycle analysis we are talking about precision agriculture. So, where in
which the land productivity is improved water productivity is improved people talk about
water productivity enhancement, land productivity and other.
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In one acre of land what will be my production if I tried to take if this is one acre, the
other way round what people talk is if 100 litres of water is used what is my production,
because they try to talk about evaporation and other things. So, precision agriculture is
something which is coming upon that is also getting integrated into life cycle analysis.
So, the sequence of when and, but here in this course we are more focused towards
manufacturing when we talk about life cycle analysis keeping in sequence of
manufacturing, raw material you create stocks and then you do a manufacturing process
you do assembly. So, manufacturing is generally divided into two; one is producing a
part, the other one is assembly.
So, raw material stock then what happens you try to produce a manufacturing process
produce a part, then assembly, then assembly it will go into transportation then sales
disposal and then what happens after they are trying to throw the product out then that
gets disposed, it gets accumulated, it is gets recycle, it creates a stock. So, this is what we
are trying to see, today when we buy a compressor when you buy a car they say the
engine has 10 year warranty the compressor and a fridge has 7 year warranty, but if the
fridge life is only 5 years, then what is the use of having that 7 years.
So, when we have a 7 year compressor it means to say at the end of 5th year you bring
take the refrigerator to the particular company, they remove the compressor which has 7
years of warranty now they fit in into a new refrigerator where you buy. So, you do not
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give a cost for the compressor so this is also life cycle analysis they do ,ok. So, it is
divided into 3 stage manufacturing, then this is manufacturing, this is for primary
manufacturing, secondary manufacturing and this is sales and service.
So, the format this format includes the most common step in manufacturing sequence
plus extraction of raw materials and repair or service. The outputs of course, include the
product as well as everything else, which is defined as waste the output is defined as
waste. The major waste categories are water, water effluent, airborne emission, solid
waste and recyclable. And item that is often overlooked in the analysis of manufacturing
waste is packaging, we are least bothered about packaging, but now packaging is
something which is more talked about in life cycle analysis.
Now, they do not talk about product alone they talk exclusively on packaging unit life
cycle analysis, this is not the case in LCA, but today it is more focus towards that. A
major source of waste in the distribution step of LCA is a single use packaging. So, when
you when you look at it there are 3 types of packaging which is primary, next is
secondary and the third one is tertiary or trinary.
So, primary means where the packaging material comes in contact with the product, the
secondary means it can come it need not come or it comes in contact with top of the
product for example, I try to buy a pharmaceutical item. So, in the pharmaceutical item
that tablet comes in contact with the packaging that is primary. The next one is the tablet
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along with the cover coming in contact with some material is called as secondary, all
these tablet us getting packed and then while moving from one place to another is
trinery. So, you have primary packaging, secondary packaging and trinary packaging, all
these packaging’s have to be reduced and you should think of applying life cycle
analysis for packaging ,ok.
The most source of waste is the distribution system of an LCA is single use packaging,
the LCA like the manufacturing sequence, addresses the material in the first 2 steps. On
the left side of the above figure these steps are identified as stage 1 which we have
discussed.
In the first 2 steps of LCA extraction of material and creation of stock is done, the
industry carrying the name of the material being converted to a stock these are called as
primary manufacturing industry. Example, when someone says a steel industry what
comes to mind is the, in most cases and image of a steel mill will pop up in your in your
eye even. However, when it becomes a coil of cold - rolled steel it is a stock that is used
to manufacture a product. So, beginning with this third step stage 2 is above figure of an
LCA the industry name changes from material name to a production. So, when you go to
the third step we do not talk about steel, we talk about the product.
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Steel is now replaced by a product name called as auto or appliance, it is apparent that
completing an LCA on just one group of material or a single industry such as appliance
industry is a major undertaking involved involving hundreds of companies. So, life cycle
for everything is now added to software today and we look for the products.
However, it is approach that the analysis use uses that is valuable it is the approach that
the analysis is valuable, measuring and quantifying the costs of all the materials and
resources requires to create a product is a basic of manufacturing. Cost accountants have
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been allocating direct and indirect cost to specific products and work centres for more
than a century. An example of direct cost is the amount of a stock used to create a
product, indirect cost are more difficult to assign. The classic example of indirect costs is
a person who sweeps the aisles when a shift is over.
So, life cycle analysis model these are the resources, these are the stages of raw material
and these are the by-products that is solid waste liquid waste, airborne, recyclable,
service, demand, local state and federal and if you see that extraction of raw material,
creation of stock, manufacturing process, assembly, distribution, sales and service and
disposal all these things are now add up in the product life cycle analysis model.
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A general approach of LCA would be useful for building a new plant; it is not difficult to
list the activities of each of the 7 steps of the manufacturing sequence for construction of
manufacturing plant. You can list the 7, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and these are the 7 which are listed
ok. You can list the stock and the process used to construct the building and the assembly
operations to put in an electric distribution system, the HVAC the plumbing and so on
that is needed for completing the facility. So, all these things are now thought of and
added at the first stage.
Servicing the building and it is final disposal can also be handled effectively today. So,
today we talk about something called as green building and where and which we allow
the light to enter inside the building maximum light natural light to enter inside building
and reduce the electricity cost and it is also thought of today from the cleaning point of
view the building. So, not much of energy is applied for cleaning that is what is we
talked about. Therefore, LCA is an excellent technique for assisting, management in
costing and designing an environmental effective manufacturing facility. So, with this we
stop.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 20d
Design for Environment (Part 2 of 2)
So, next discussion is going to be on the potential for waste and value added, today what
is happening people are started generating products out of waste whatever gets
generated. In fact, a country like Finland starts getting waste from various places and
now what they do is they convert this waste into a useful product and then they sell it
back into the market. So now, people have started talking about waste management and
the next thing is waste getting converted into value added products.
For example from PCBs people have started making key chain holders, it is a killer, but
still at least what is happening is it is getting re-used into a useful product. So, each of
the 7 major activities in manufacturing sequence offer manufacturing opportunities for
creating value and waste, the table below lists some of the opportunities.
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These are the 7 which we are looking at it. So, extraction from raw material, create stock,
manufacturing process, assembly operation, distribution, sales and services and
disposals. So, if you see look at the potential for creating waste, raw material it is going
to be extremely high. So, the potential for value addition at this extraction process is
going to be moderate, then create stocks it is going to be moderate to high waste you are
going to hold inventory. So, it is there is going to be waste creation is going to be
moving from moderate to high. So, the potential for adding value is going to be
moderate, manufacturing process, it is the same, it is going to be from moderate to high
and in manufacturing process potential for adding value is very high.
So, this is where people are more talking today for converting waste into a value added
product. Assembly operations it is going to be low to moderate, distribution it is low, the
creation of waste is going to be low, sales and services the creation of waste is going to
be low and the potential for adding value is going to be moderate, disposal creating of
waste is going to be high and from here getting converted into a value added product is
going to be low.
And this is the next region where people are working very hard, for example, the carton
boxes which are used people are looking forward after the process is over what can we
do with a carton boxes which are available and primarily it is used for packaging and
people are looking for other products which could be made out of this carton box. So,
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these are the 7 major activities in manufacturing sequence the table below lists these
opportunities along with the potential for creating waste, this potential will vary for each
of the 7 steps.
For instance and assembly operation may generate some waste, but generally the
environmental impact will be very minimum ok. So, that is what we are looking at it so,
here if you see moderate to high and the environmental impact will be minimal.
However, in some of the other steps the waste and environmental cost can be quiet high,
as an example for the extraction of raw material, a large part of all waste will be
environmental costly for example, today people use cyanide for extracting material from
the ore. So, those cyanides are getting dumped somewhere in the world in a soil and that
soil the cyanide gets diffused or the rare earth material gets diffused into the soil and
slowly slowly over a period of time that soil becomes little potoxic for even agricultural
applications so, this is what we saw in detail.
The true or not, he eventually concludes that effective large volume manufacturing has 4
principles effective large volume manufacturing has 4 principles. The product uses
interchangeability parts no custom fitting or modification should be required. So, what is
this, if you want to reduce potential for waste and value addition. So, the first thing is in
your product whatever you develop it should have a concept of interchangeability,
moment interchangeability comes into effect, then the cost slash down and the waste also
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which is getting generated is also reduced why because almost all the manufacturing
processes are stand products are standard standardized and month moment the product is
standardized the process is also standardized. So, low custom fitting or modification
should be required at so, that is what people are looking forward for interchangeability.
The product moves to each station at a predetermined rate so; that means, to say from
one workstation to the other workstation the cycle time, we will try to balance or it will
the number of operations will always be equal. So, that it goes in a predetermined rate
this was the introduction for continuous flow manufacturing. So, what we are trying to
say is, let all the process products be developed through continuous flow manufacturing
currently assembly happens like that now we are talking about manufacturing processes
also like that.
The work to manufacture the product should be broken down into sequence of simple
easy - to- learn tasks so that what happens, we can easily go automated and we can also
understand the process more and then get it done. Reducing or eliminating waste of all
kinds is an ongoing effect it is not a saturated one, it is always ongoing, it is like creative
thinking. So, every time when you start thinking looking at the same problem looking
from a different perspective or from a different customers angle you will always have a
creative solutions. So, the 4 principles are very clear interchangeability, continuous flow,
simple and easy to learn and reduce or to eliminate all kinds of ongoing efforts.
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Waste and it is unexpected sources too often companies feel that most effective way to
determinate their product and maintain sales level is through price. Specifically price
reduction, this is what is, companies always thought about so, they always think of
reducing the price. After the price is reduced the company then looks for ways to reduce
it is manufacturing cost so that it can remain or once again become a profitable
organisation.
So, what happens is first the companies, to sustain they look at the pricing and after
maintaining a very low price then they look for profitability. So, they cut corners and
they do not give lot of importance to design for environment. Too often, organisation try
to reduce cost by taking away value from the product that is wrong, please understand
you are trying to cut corners, when you try to cut corners you are going to make an
impact on the environment because of your product. Reducing value by eliminating
features, service life, functionality is placing the burden of cost reduction on the
customer when it should be the organisation’s responsibility.
So, today what is happening you get up you get a product which is very economical, a
toy for 5 rupees and if the toy keeps breaking very frequently every time you have to
replace the same toy or buy another toy, and keep the child happy. So, in that case what
has happened you have reduced cost you have also started eliminating features service
life is also reduced, functionality is also reduced and then what happens you put a huge
burden on the customer to buy new one and because of this buying he is adding more and
more waste.
So, when the company should take it as a responsibility without sacrificing the features,
without reducing the functionality, without reducing the service life, they should be able
to reduce the cost and they should keep the customer happy.
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The first source of waste; the first major source of waste originates in the way the
company makes it is product. So, even I cook and my wife cooks, my wife is a
professional cook. So, she makes things very tasty and she organises the kitchen in a
very nice fashion; when I enter into the kitchen I also do the same cooking, but my taste
of the food is less and the organisation what I do in the kitchen is also bad.
So, what has happened, I as a manufacturer in producing a product and making a

delightful customer I fail why because I have not organised my kitchen properly, once if
I am not organised my kitchen properly, so while cooking I do not give enough time for
enough time for converting the raw material into a useful product, the value addition
whatever I put is not revealed out in the product. So, many a times the customer are
unhappy, when I cook, my family is unhappy with the taste, but when my wife does it
they enjoy.
So, you should understand the way a product gets evolved reduces the waste also, if you
can organise if you can buy exactly what you want if you can cut exactly what you want
so that it can be converted into a food product then it is good. The first source of waste is
going to be how do you make the products, much waste is due to the product design and
the manufacturing process used in the plant and many a times if you see in a
manufacturing plant the for the part moves up and down left and right frequently and
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then it is at after doing so much of moment it gets processed step by step very very
slowly.
So, now the manufacturing process, product design, plant layout design, all these things
play a important role in reducing waste, first it that is what we say originates from how
do you make a product. Next certainly the type of materials a company uses which is a
function of the product design will dictate the plant design and the process. For example,
if you are objective is to make a chair, the chair can be made by 3, wood, it can be made
by metal, it can be made by plastic, just by looking at the functionalities a chair.
So, the product design by choosing the material whatever it is like wood or plastic or
metal, the entire plant design is dictated by the process what you choose to make a
product. Each material and the associated manufacturing processes have their own set of
waste parameters that defines the facility. For example, moment you have started using
plastic so it is injection moulding process, moment you go for metals then you have a
series of machines the series of machines will have coolants, will have lubricants.
So, in order to maintain the coolants and lubricants properly you should have proper
ambience for doing it. So, you should have a high ceiling roof for it so that the vapours,
move up and then you have exhaust proper. So, you see now because of the choice of
metal you have to change your plant layout that is what is told here. So, each material
and the associated manufacturing process have their own set of waste parameters and
define the facility.
So, as I told you coolant is used in injection moulding, you do not use coolant in metal
cutting you use a coolant since you use a coolant the machine size becomes large look at
it. But some of the waste occurs due to the organisation of the facility and the operation
norms that has to be established ok. So, once you have a large machine and you need a
very high power. So, it is also necessary that you should maintain safety norms make an
expanded a space for running away from when there is a fire or something the operator
should be given enough space to run away from the machine to a safer zone.
So, you see because you have chosen metal you are now making using metal cutting
machines and since you are using metal cutting machine, it are it has hazardous things
you are supposed to maintain a safety norms. And because of the safety norm your
company becomes large, because of your company becomes large you have to use lot of
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lighting, because you have to use lot of lighting your energy consumption goes high, see
one leading to the other leading to the other leading to the other. So, that is what is said
as the first source of waste.
The following are the 2 example of items that would contribute to the source of waste
one is resources, another one is water. The fuel needed to operate the process machine
and the equipment used in the manufacturing sequence. This also includes the part and
the office heating, lighting and air conditioning present. The resources is very very
important that is what, when we talk about energy today I was talking to you about
renewable energy.
So, today what is happening people are talking about rooftop it is otherwise called as
rooftop energy is you produced for yourself and if you produce extra or excess please
give it back to the grid. So, today we talk about metres energy metres which are dual
energy metres which can run in bi direction bi direction running. So, you can you can
consume the metre moves in the forward direction and when you try to generate and
deposit it goes in the reverse.
So, what happens, the unit gets subtracted so this is what people are trying to use. So,
people are trying to say please reduce the using of energy and if at all you want to go for
renewable so that you can reduce the waste. The next one is water, water is also water
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also includes the associated cost of sanitary and storms sewer services, sanitary is
another thing which is very important.
Since you look at it chair you have moved is made out of plastic so the number of
processes are reduced, so number of machines are reduced, number of machines are
reduced, number of operators are reduced, then number of sanitary or toiletry whatever
you say is also reduced. You see by a proper choice of the material you have reduced all
these things. So, this is what I said very clearly the first thing you should look forward is
the way you are trying to make a product this is very very important the way you are
trying to make a product is very important and the next one is water.
The next is supplies and wage paid; the secondary material that are required to complete
a manufacturing operation or a process, but do not become part of the product is called as
secondary material they do not become part. So, for example, packaging and example
might be cutting tool coolant lubricant, towels, cleaners, copy papers, etcetera. These are
waste materials that are “accepted” as being part of the manufacturing process or
operation, ok.
So, since it is metal lubricants you are using and since lubricants are there you are giving
towel, since you are giving a towel, since you are using lubricant, you are also giving
cleaner. So, and then because you are using an oil environment. So, you have to appoint
more cleaners for cleaning ok. So, look at it so it keeps on be expanding it like a vicious
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circle it keeps going. So, suppliers supplies are the other things where in which we talk
about secondary material.
The last one is going to be wages paid, the payment of individuals and to contractors or
suppliers who do not add value to the product is also getting is also getting added. So,
since I had more number of machines I need to maintain these machines so I have a
maintenance cell separately and in the maintenance cell I appoint I appoint engineers or
technicians so, there salary goes. If the entire process would have been made by injection
moulding machine, injection moulding machine has a lower processing time, has low
cycle time. So, the production is very high and the second thing is maintenance, it is to a
large extent it is maintenance free of course, and the die cost is there.
But, apart from that once the die is set on the production is start then the cycle time is too
less and there is a lot of consistency, consistency in the product, moment there is the
consistency in the product the cost or the quality is very high, ok. Consistency and
quality of the product is very high. So, you look at it if by choosing a proper product and
the material the way it is manufactured you have been able to reduce the waste to a large
extent, these wastes and it is unexpected sources. The second source the first source we
have seen 4 points one is resources, water, supplies and wage. Water is also something
which is very alarming more and more damage you do to the earth.
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Sustainability we are not looking forward, the mother earth water is getting more and
more infected and it becomes more and more toxic. So, drinking water is going to be a
challenge for the next generation. The second source of waste, the second source of
waste comes directly from manufacturing operation, ok. This source has received the
most attention since factories were established to produce product, manufacturing
operations. Over the past few decades the people involved in controlling the source of
waste now include manufacturing operation and engineering, human resource, training
and development.
Maybe my technician does not do the operation, in a very efficient manner, he lacks
training he has to be upgraded and he has to be told what are all the problems if you do
not have if you do not try to use optimally all the other parameters. So, then he will also
understand and start appreciating. So, training and development is also one thing where
in which the waste our reduced. There are a lot of names and acronym for programs,
techniques and tactics used to reduce waste in manufacturing.
The concept of lean manufacturing has become the most comprehensive approach for
waste reduction and now being employed, lean manufacturing is being taught, is being
taught for the last 4 decades. In general a lean manufacturing program works to reduce 8
types of waste. A starting point for reducing waste is to conduct a “check - up” not
unlikely the way a physician conducts an annual physical thing. There are tests to be
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conducted an information to be gathered along with the physical examination. So, there
are 8 to reduce 8 types of waste.
The manufacturing facilities have to be examined in a similar manner, like doctor

examining the manufacturing facility also has to be done. A helpful approach is to use a
checklist for developing a diagnosis, an assessment of the problems from the 8 sources of
waste. Waste from overproduction, that is one of the very very important thing you
generate waste; more products are produced than required to the customer. So, you
produce more hold it in an inventory, maintained the inventory and later it might get
waste. So, first is never over produce. The next one is waste from transportation there
may be excessive movements of products or it is components during the production
process it can be within the factory or outside the factory.
So, what basically it says is try to use resources which are available with you available
with you, while developing products developing or manufacturing products it is very
important. See if you see the countries like Hong Kong, Taiwan, Taipei and all these
countries what they do is, they try to have their thermal power plant very close to very
close to the sea shore because they do not have the coal as a as a major resource. So, the
coal comes from various countries and it is getting dumped along the seashore along the
coastal area region.
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So, very close to a port and then it is all getting dumped in a port and a thermal power
plant is very close by. So, the water for running the thermal power plant and re
circulating is also taken from the sea and it is used for various thermal power plant
applications right. So, if you see here if the location is not planned properly or if the
product is developed from a resource which is not available with you, so, naturally the
transportation is going to be very very expensive and this transportation is going to lead
you for or more release of carbon dioxide when you try to move in trucks. So, this is
another big waste, waste from transportation is to be controlled.
Waste of motion, the waste of motion occurs when the operator has to look for tools and
or information to make adjustment, repair, to free jams, or to fill out in incentive tickets
or routing sheets, for this it is all waste of motion. So, here what happens? So, that is
what I said an example of a kitchen. So, try to organise your kitchen properly such that
you have everything at a hand pick distance and then organise it whichever you use
regularly front and which you do not use regularly little back side and if you can use a 3
dimensional space it is going to reduce the waste for motion.
Next one is the waiting, waiting is another thing which is which is deadly time may be
wasted. For example, waiting for setup to be completed, material to arrive, equipment to
be repaired, waiting is something very big recently in one of the factories which I visited
they are trying to make products and in their products, they had 100 products, they forgot
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to order one part which is a bought out item and which has to be imported. They forgot
to order or it was a slip on their side so, 99 parts were ready and they were all assembled,
but because of the because of the one part which is required they had to wait and when
they had to wait for 3 months they realise the products which are manufactured all went,
all got corroded and it lost the quality check.
So now, there is there is a loss of all the products which are produced and 99 parts which
were made could not be used, the company went for salvaging, again for salvaging they
had to spend money. So, waiting is something which is very deadly which has to be
reduced. Work-in-progress, work in progress includes all stock component
subassemblies in the manufacturing system, they have to be seen very seriously and the
work in progress should be as minimum as possible such that the inventory is not very
high and waiting time is not there so, plan in such a way WIP is reduced.
Next one is handling, after manufacturing the handling of the finished product is done
and it is also becoming the source of waste when it takes more space and time. For
example if you are making a heavy part if you want to make a small cuboid which is
made out of led it is too difficult for a operator to move. So, naturally what happens you
have to use an automatic handling device moment you put an automatic handling device.
This automatic handling device has safety norms and it occupies a space. So, this tries to
expand your company size so that is what we are saying handling.
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Next is defects, do not produce defects this includes spoiled or rejected part,
subassembly, finished goods, return, warranty work and product recall, all these things
are defects. So, try to reduce defects as much as possible and the last one defects are
possible, there can be salvaging. But scrap whatever you produce it is not possible for
you to for you to salvage. So, when you try to produce a scrap because of trim because of
a flash which is getting created in a product, this flash in metal forming, these are flash,
ok, they are required they are required because they try to maintain the product quality.
But if you have more number of more amount of flash then all this flash will be trimmed
and again energy has to be applied it will be recycled and you tried to make a fresh billet
for another product. So, scrap also has to be reduced in a big way when we talk about the
secondary source of waste all the 8 has to be reduced. So, one is waste from over time,
waste from transportation, waste of motion, waiting, work in progress, handling, defects
and scrap all these things have to be reduced.
So, we saw the first source first source was water and then we also talked about energy,
we talked about resources, we talked about water, we talked about supplies and we
talked about wages. So, these are the first source of waste and the 8 are the second source
of waste, now let us talk about the third source of waste.
The third source of waste major source of waste is the material and activity that are part
of the value added operation and processes used to manufacture the product, these are
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nothing, but value added operation. To minimise the source of waste requires the
designer of the product and the manufacturing engineer and technician to optimise the
material and process needed to produce a product. So, here we try to work on value
added operations.
This source of waste is controlled by 3 groups of people, the first group specifies the
product characteristics and function, the second group uses this specification to design
and the product and work with, the third group to specify how it will be manufactured.
So, these 3 groups work together and try to reduce the third source of waste.
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They are the ones who will select the material processes used to the manufacture the
product. A basic perception in the design states that the selection of material defines the
manufacturing process that will convert the material stock into a product. Therefore, a
new product for a new product the reduction of waste and emission begins with material
selection so, I gave you a chair example and that you should always remember.
There are several ways to cut out this process but we will consider just 3 ways sawing,
shearing and flame cutting. So, this is for cutting a piece from a metal thing, of these 3
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shearing would probably result in virtually no waste generation, minimum energy use
and no primary emission. So, here what they are trying to talk about is, you are trying to
take a metal piece and you are trying to cut the metal piece.
So, the cutting can be done by sawing, it can be done by shearing, it can be done by
flame cutting, flame cutting it will lead to it will lead to smoke, it will lead to improper
smoke and it will have a, the quality of the surface generated is poor quality of surface is
poor, generator and it also smoke is there it is also not very energy efficient. When you
talk about sawing you might use a coolant and you might get a good cut, but still
shearing is a better operation, shearing involves lot of energy at the initial thing, but the
quality of the output is good the product is also sound, ok. So, that is what we talk so,
choosing the material is the first thing.
A new product, first phase for waste reduction; for a new product the first phase of waste
reduction involves marketing, product engineering, manufacturing, engineering, to make
these decisions when you talk about concurrent engineering we involve all these
engineers to sit and discuss about the new product. A below figure shows the group
involved and the input guide and inputs guiding the decision making. These inputs
sometime call them for constraints form the criteria that shape of the design.
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So, these are the different waste reduction which is done. So, here it is the competitive
offering, customer need is put together, then we do a market search, then we look for
product engineering, then we look for manufacturing, then we look for profitability
design, we develop a product or, to manufacture product design to manufacture,
government regulation and compliance government regulation for product engineering
and compliance are made. So, this itself make sure that the waste is reduced to a large
extent the functions and the input responsible for design and production of a profitable
and the complex product is given below.
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The manufacturer that has a product design function has to maintain an engineering
database that reflects the current state of the art in materials and the process technology.
Today new and newer and newer materials are coming into market because of this newer
and newer materials the manufacturer should have everything in his database and the
current state of the art should be very good. The point being that the government
regulations are continuously impacting material stock and the way they are being process
to use.
Lead - based paints are no longer included in the engineering database for furniture
manufacturing, earlier lead was also add in steel so that the machine from the
machinability point of view it was very good, but then later it was realise that these leads
when it create fumes are toxic for the operators. So, it is now been removed so, today
whatever steel we get it is lead free steel and the paint is lead free paints we get.
So, the existing products, the second phase of waste reduction, the organisational
function taking the lead in developing the strategy will change from design engineering
to production manufacturing engineering and from market to human resources and
training. So, this is about an existing product what all things to be done for waste
management.
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So, for the existing product so you see that customer specification, product engineering,
and design, specification, environmental regulation you will see. So, the product
certificate and voluntary compliance procedure is all seen and that is given as an input,
manufacturing engineering is done, operations are taken care, human resource training is
done. So, the operations are good and the product from a complaint facility comes out,
this is the safety stock which is a stock and resources which is given to that.
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So, the secondary resource is existing product, existing product the first one what we
discussed was a new product next one was existing product which is where the waste
reduction is done. So, this is stocked here also.
And the next topic is going to be regeneration; organisational fat can be detected by
observing how an organisation handles problem. When a major problem arises does
management handle it by creating a new department or groups to deal with it. So, this is
going to organisational fat when a new problem arises are we going to create a new
department or the existing fellow are we going to retrain them and use it.
If this is management approach it makes the problem an ongoing fixed cost causing the
organisation to swell in size with this specialist group, ok. So, whenever you have a
problem if you start the forming new groups or new departments then the organisation is
going to be fat, so that leads to regeneration. The problem solving is a basic function of
line management not a specialist stuffs. Management must clear away it is organisational
structure as it should clear away out-of- date equipments and stocks.
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Ideally a plant should be operated in the same way as a conventional centre or a theatre
of performing arts so; that means to say, what we are trying to say is this stage will be
constant the artist come and there is customers there or audience are there. So, the artist
comes and dance or do performance, but the auditorium is the same. So, it can be used
for singing, dancing or a dramatic play. In the same way a company also should be in
such a way such that depending upon the products they should be able to change the
machines, upgrade the machines and make their factory efficient towards an output.
This will try to reduce waste in a large way; that means, it is setup for the event that is
currently running, but can be quickly changed over to handle a new event and
differences. Each event will use profitability and environmental compliance
manufacturing process; unfortunately most plants are hardwired facility. These facilities
have so much inertia that it is initially impossible to make a meaningful improvement
quickly and efficiently.
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One of the first objective from managers when asked why are they not adopting a more
effective method for producing their product, their product is cost. Because if they have
to change the factory and recover the cost naturally per product cost goes high. So, they
always justify saying that the cost will go high if I make it more agile. They explain the
price tag for new equipment and processes make it prohibited and they cannot afford or
do not do not have the money to invest, this argument misses the point. First of all
buying new equipments and trying to sequence squeeze it into some corners of a packed
manufacturing floor is not the solution.
So, when you try to buy new equipment try to buy the entire factory a set of new
equipment so that can be used. The first step is not buying new equipments, but getting
rid of the waste is the first thing you have to do keep this in mind. This you should also
do as an individual if you have a bicycle and if you know frequently the bicycle is going
to keep giving you problems and you keep spending money every month 100 rupees or
200 rupees.
And if you do it for one year it is around about 200 rupees, one year it is 2400 a new
cycle might cost you 3000 rupees. So, first thing is you have to get rid of the old and buy
a new one and moment you start buying it the maintenance goes low and the comfort is
high the customers are happy. So, this is what is very important when you look at from
the company perspective.
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Comprehensive waste reduction program must make money that later on can be used to
update processes or purchased new equipments and locate it where it should be. One
starting point of for regeneration is adopting the concept and technique that are that are
known as lean manufacturing. Each of the 3 sources of waste provides a starting point
and the reason for adopting the value to a lean manufacturing. So, 3 sources primary,
secondary and tertiary.
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So, the life cycle of manufacturing facility, the life cycle is actually another term for a
lifespan. If you drive around the outskirts of any large city in the Midwest or the
Northeast one can see the sad site of huge crumbling factories. But it does not limit to
just these areas of the country during every economical down turn, there are factories
build old factory buildings old and new that go vacant. It is part of the life cycle of
manufacturing.
So, they always say a manufacturing goes like a sinusoidal wave, today you are here you
might go to the top you have to come down and then you will have to go up. So, you
keep going like this. So, whenever there is a turn down whenever there is a new product
coming you have to see a life cycle of the manufacturing facility. So, it is part of the life
cycle of manufacturing unless an organisation is committed to re generate it is it will
cease to exist. Buildings like people have a finite working life, companies and
organisations are no different unless they become adaptive and regenerate themselves.
One plant manager explain that a company should never own a building because it is
constraint to it is ability to regenerate itself. An apt analogy was the experience of a
couple that owned a house that they were they had lived for 20 years. An excellent
business opportunity became available for them in a town 45 miles away. They took
advantage of the opportunity, but decided to commute each day instead of moving to the
new location.
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So, putting social and family ties aside, the transportation cost and the time spent
commuting to avoid relocating became waste causing by the inertia of the property
owning. So, that is also true this where they say if there is a good business proposal for
the existing building you should always try to sell it and recreate and regenerate new
manufacturing facilities such that you can do, to meet out the requirements.
(Refer toSlide Time: 40:01)
The last topic of discussion is going to be implementing DfE, the environmental review
will require design team to review the checklist of key requirements and to consider
guidelines for reducing the environmental impact. When DfE process is first
implemented, design team will have to fill out the environmental scorecard after the
product design is complete, very very important, ok. Doing this begins the process of
recording environmental data and allows the design team to adapt gradually to the new
process.
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The lesson learnt summary will provide the innovation statement metric. Below figure
next we will see shows the safety review process and environmental review process
running in parallel. The following sections discuss the aforementioned environmental
activity in more details.
So, if you look at it these are the stages, 1 2 3 4 5 6, these are the safety review process,
these are the environmental review process, in a safety review you have potential safety
hazard, minutes list of potential issues action plan.
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Then you have safety reviews as required, minutes list of professional issues and action
plan, you have safety environmental review, initial safety review and final safety review,
when you look at environmental, it is also the same, environmental review
environmental review, these are deliverables these are deliverables, these are processes,
these are inputs and these are the path with which you have to go.
The product initiation document, the product initiation document is a document that
Black and Decker used to benchmark competitors define performance target and predict
profitability. The first environmental review is coupled with a safety review so that is
very important, we saw that. During this meeting the design team should discuss current
environmental regulation design, guidelines and environmental guidelines matrix. A list
of the regulation and design guidelines can be followed in the checklist of the document.
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The environmental metric are located in the environmental store scorecard, all lessons
learned document from similar products will be reviewed during the meeting to facilitate
environmental design ideas. The result of meeting is an essential assessment plan that
included the tests to be conducted on the analysis to be performed. A list of
brainstorming ideas for environment improvement should also be considered.
The second environmental review is held separately first is held, then it is from safety
review so, first is held, with is, coupled with the safety review. The second is held
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separately from the safety review, the second conceptual idea is evolved and it is used.
The third one is coupled with safety review during this meeting the project team should
ensure that all the environmental compliance issues are resolved, so this is very very
important, ok. The results of the meeting is updated is an updated guidelines and
checklist document and meeting minutes.
The fourth and the final environmental review is coupled with the safety review during
this meeting all environmental complaints issue must be solved. Optimally, no design
changes due to environmental reason would have been made between the last meeting
and this meeting. The reliability representative will finalize the guidelines and the
checklist document and write the minutes. The lead engineer will finalize the scorecard
and create a material declaration statement packet for the product.
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The post launch review includes the lesson learned summary in their product
development. This document discusses what went well within the project, what did not
go well within the project, reasons why the product did not meet the target set in the
trigger document. So, you list down everything and put it black and white and keep it in
a separate place.
The lessons learned summary will include environmental design innovation realised
during the product development process for publicity and customer questionnaire. An
example of an item to be included in the lesson learned summary in the materials index.
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There is a feedback loop, the complete guide lines on the checklist document and the
lessons learned summary create a feedback loop for DfE. Design engineer working on
similar products can use this information to make it a better decision making. The
information is also valuable when the next generation of the products are designed. The
design engineer will record what environmental decisions were made and why were it
made. So, all these things you take a decision you will not be able to meet out in the first
version.
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But in the later version you will be able to meet out the decision information, score card
comments on the guideline document will be archived permanently. The goal is to save
the right thing so that the information is there for the future.
So, to recap whatever we have done, why product design for environment is necessary?
We saw, what are the stages and their importance? Which issue comes under the scope
of environment? What is the manufacturing sequence in life cycle assessment? What are
the main 3 resources of waste? How to implement DfE? And what is the post launch
review and feedback loop for DfE.
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Task for students; try to take carton box carton box used in computer slash desktop. So,
where you have a CPU, ok, take that carton take a carton box and make 15 products
which can be sold. The products need not be the same, say for example, if you have
made a spoon you cannot make 15 spoons and then give it you have to make spoon, fork
whatever it is. So, this is an assignment please try to do what we are trying to do is we
are converting a waste box into a value added product and that can be sold. Try to record
customer feedback for further revision in design, ok, try to do this exercise you will try
to appreciate how to convert waste into a useful product.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 21
Quality Control
So, the next lecture for discussion is going to be on quality control. Pretty interesting
quality is one thing which everybody expects I need a high quality performance product
like I need a quality watch, a quality shirt, a quality car, a quality cell phone. But how do
you define quality? Quality is a relative term a good quality for you need not be a good
quality for me right. So, quality itself is very interesting and it is very abstract for
definition. However, people have found out several ways of defining quality. But people
expect this quality everywhere.
So, now in this lecture we will see what is quality control. We will try to have an
introduction, and then we will try to see some of the process controls statistical process
control, design for experiments and sampling techniques little bit.
(Refer Slide Time 01:15)
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So, quality has become one of the most important consumer decision factor in the
selection among competing products and service. The quality of a product can be
decided by looking forward towards the following factors related to the product. One is
performance: will the product do the intended job? So, pretty interesting pen, you take a
pen. So, what is the function of a pen is to write; correct.
So, now people use this pen also as a page marker pen with a cap is used as a page
marker. So, when I do it as a page marker many a times the pocket holding that fellow
fails right. So, now what was your intended job to be done writing. Now that clip
whatever was there has failed because you have tried to push it keeping some 50 pages.
Because of the thickness it does not have a space because the pen is intended to just sit in
a pocket where the thicknesses defined to a large extent it is defined ok. So, the
flexibility is given only to that extent.
Now when I try to hold 50 pages which was not the intent of this pen, now the pen has
not performed. Watch now that clip has failed now I cannot hold my pen. When I put my
pen without a clip whenever I bend it falls down. Now the pen has lost its credibility
because it did the job which was not intended to do. Now is it clear? So, what is intended
job and what is not intended job. Many a times the product fails because it was asked to
do a non-intended job but finally what happens the product has failed because of that and
people say the product is useless ok.
So, keep this in mind performance is very important: will the product do what is intended
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to do? How often the product will fail? How long will the product last? So performance,
reliability, durability is taken care. How easy it is to repair serviceability is taken care.
How good does it look? Aesthetics has been taken care. How does the product do?
Features is taken care. Perceived quality: what is the reputation of the company or its
product? I am trying to hold a pen which is a Parker pen. Parker has its own reputation
because of the Parker company’s reputation I hold his product my reputation also goes
high perceived quality.
What then last is conformance to standards: is the product made exactly for what the
designer has intended to do? So, conformance to standard these are some of the factors
which are related to the product wherein which the quality of the product is talked about.
So, statistical methods for quality control and improvement; so there are three major
areas where people have been working on drastically and they have included lot of map
also behind; that means to say it is a scientific approach statistical process control.
People have come out with design for experiments and people have also come up with
acceptance sampling. For example, I buy 10000 pieces= in a lot and before I accept if I
start checking all the 10000 pieces and then I say yes the lot is good and then I will
accept it is going to be time consuming.
But one logic if you see all the 10000 are manufactured from the same company by a
machine or by a group of machines. So, then naturally the products which are produced
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are going to be good. So, every time inspecting 10000 pieces is next to impossible. So,
what do I do is I random pick some 5 or 10 and then I check the status of all the 10 and if
it is all good then I accept the lot. So, that is what is acceptance sampling.
And here also there are lot of logics. If it is a vital project all 100 percent has to be done.
If it is a non-vital with this thing product or a part then what they say is they say out of
this 5, 2 fails also is it you can accept the lot. There are certain things like that.
The statistical process control is a powerful collection of problem solving tool useful in
achieving process stability and improving capability through the reduction of variability.
There are seven tools which are generally used as part of SPC: Histogram, Check sheet,
Pareto chart, Cause-and-effect diagram, Defect concentration diagram, Scatter diagram
and Control charts. These are the seven tools which are always thought of as part of SPC
which is to be followed inside your factory to so, that you produce a quality output.
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The other thing is Chance and Assignable Cause of Quality Variation. So, in any
production process a certain amount of inherent or natural variability will always exist.
This natural variability is the cumulative effect of many small essential unavoidable
causes. The other type of variability may occasionally present in the output of a process.
So, this is called the charts. There are Control Charts; if you go back here this histogram
analysis is ok.
Histogram analysis is it tries to say suppose let us put the defects and you say this these
are the number of defects or whatever it is. And then you say what are the different y
axis can be parts. So, it can say part A, part B, part C, part D. You have a block diagram
which says that what is how many parts have failed in that period. So, you can write here
50 second week. In that week how many parts of A failed, B failed, C failed, D failed.
So, that is called as histogram analysis.
The check sheet is check sheet you can even go to the you can see in airports and other
places where a list of check sheet is given. People ask you to check whether this
document is submitted that document is submitted then this then this then this then this
then finally you upload. So, that is a check sheet we give a standard procedure you
follow it.
Pareto analysis is nothing but it is almost the same. But here we try to see what is the
effect of these defects on the output. So, that is what we see in Pareto analysis. Cost-and-
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effect diagram is something like a fishbone diagram, we try to say these are the causes
and this is the effect of it.
And then, defect concentration diagram. Defect concentration diagram is it tries to tell
how many defects have happened in that period of time that is called as defect
concentration diagram. Scatter diagram is always you try to put all the defects and try to
make a cluster. So, then what you do is you try to circle out the cluster and try to figure
out what made this cluster to come. So, that is what is scatter diagram and you can talk
more about the scatter diagram. Control chart is p chart x chart we will see all those
features later.
A control chart is one of the the primary technique of statistical process control. This
type of chart plots the average of measurements of quality characteristics in samples
taken from the process versus time ok. So, we try to take a product we try to take a part
which is produced and this part can be ones in 50 parts or it can be ones in half an hour.
So, we pull out and then try to check the various dimensions and deviations and note it
down.
The control chart is very useful process monitoring technique because at every 50 or
every 100 you try to pull out measure the features, report those features and then do it.
Whenever usual sources of variability are percent sample average will plot outside the
control points.
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So, you can see that it is called as Upper Control Limit, Lower Control Limit. So this is
what is the mean and here is the deviation whatever you have, it can be diameter or
something and x can be time or number of parts or whatever it is. Now, if you look at the
diagram it is very clear. There is a variation which is happening at regular intervals of
time.
So, whenever it tries to go very close to the upper critical limit or to the lower critical
limit very close, we try to reset. For example, we try to re-sharp and we try to relook into
the fixture. We try to change the tool. So, all those things happen and once it is done, so
you can see that it pulls back and it goes into the normal way. So, that is this tries to give
me a lead that yes the time has come to reset your process.
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So, basic principle I have already explained to you. So, it talks about the chart containing
a central line that represents the average value of the quality, characteristics
corresponding to in control states. So, you have an upper control you have an in lower
control the deviation has to fall in that only. So, the upper control limit is nothing but
sigma mu so that is the mean, the w is the sample statistics; that measures some quality
characteristics of interest and suppose the mean of w is mu w and the standard deviation
is given a sigma w and then this is the standard line L stands for the distance of the
control limits from the centre line.
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Statistical basis for the of the control chart: the control chart is a device that describe in
precise manner exactly what is meant by statistical control such it may be used in a
variety of ways. In many applications it can be used online and many a times it can be
also used offline.
So, input here is a process; process can be reading, process can be cooking, process can
be machining, process can be assembly. So, input process you get an output. So, you try
to measure. So, when you try to measure you try to detect assignable cause. Then you
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identify the root cause for the problem. This is done by the Ishikawa diagram and then
you try to correct it implement the correction whatever it is. And now verify once again
whether the defects are coming or not. If it is not coming it is fine, if it is coming then
once again going to this route and then you try to modify it. So, this is called as
assignable costs ok.
So, then the statistical basis for control chart is it is very important part of the corrective
action process associated with the control chart usually in the out of the control action
plans out-of-control-action plans OCAP. A very important part of the correction
corrective action process associated with control chart usually is the out-of-control-
action plan and OCAP is a flowchart or a text-based description of the sequence of
activities that must take place following the occurrence of an activated event. So, it is
like a cause and it is just what are the sequence of things to be done. So that you can get
back to your normal state that is what is out-of-control-action plan ok. When the process
goes out so, what is action plan to be taken.
The control actions are widely used for the following reasons: the control charts are
proven techniques for improving productivity, to reduce the defects, to prevent
unnecessary process adjustments, to provide diagnostic information and to provide
information about the process capability.
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The sample size and sample frequency is another interesting topic which you have to
note. In designing a control chart we must we must specify both the sample size and the
frequency of sampling. So, frequency of sampling is 1 in 50, 1 in 100. Sample size is
within that 50 how may samples you have to take. We can evaluate the decision
regarding the sample size and the sample frequency is thought the average run lengths of
the control chart.
So, if the process observation are uncorrelated then for any Shewhart control chart, ARL
can be calculated as 1 by P. P is the probability that and that any point exceeds the
control limit. This equation can be used to evaluate the performance of control chart.
This is very important. If the process observation is uncorrelated, then for any Shewhart
control chart, the ARL can be calculated easily from ARL = 1 / P where, P is the
probability of any point which crosses that limit.
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So, it is also occasionally convenient to express the performance of a control chart in

terms of its average time to signal ATS. So, ATS is nothing but ARL * h where h is in
hours.
So, there are several phases phase 1 and phase 2 of control chart application. The
standard control chart usage involves phase 1 as well as phase 2 application with two
different and distinct objectives. In phase 1, a set of process data is gathered and
analysed at all at once in a retrospective analysis ok. So, it is done. So, gathering and
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analysis is done in a retro all at once in a retrospective analysis. So, so next to the control
chart in phase 1 primarily assist operating persons in bringing the process into a state of
statistical control. So, it is gathering and analysis of the data is done in phase 1.
In phase 2 we begin we begins after we have clean set of process data gathered under
stable condition and representative of in-control process performance. In phase 2, we use
control charts to monitor the process by comparing the sample statistics for each
successive samples.
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So, application of statistical process control and quality improvement tools in
transactional and service business. The flowchart, process operation process chart and
value stream mapping are particularly useful in developing process definition and
process understanding. A flowchart is what a simple way of simple logical way of
representing a matter or a protocol in a see in a pictorial manner. In a chronological
sequence and a pictorial manner is the activity of a flowchart. Flowchart or a process
map can be constructed in sufficient detail to identify value-added versus non-value-
added work activities which is done.
So, this is the statistical base of control chart where we follow a flowchart start process d
stands for delay, process is going on. There is a decision which is may taken and then it
goes.
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So, when we talk about quality control and improvement statistical process control the
control charts are for variables and control chart for attributes are available. When the
variables are measurable it is called as we use control chart for variables. When the
control charts for attributes we always used with respect to this is whether the yes no
factor, something like if the product is working or not working something like that.
So, are used to monitor characteristics that have discrete values and can be counted for
example, a cell phone working not working one defective something like that; example
def percentage defective of number of defects on a mobile phone, number of broken eggs
in a box, etc
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So, Statistical Process Control if you put it in a flowchart you can have variable, you can
have attributes, variable you have a sample size and n = 1 you can have this; n = 2 to n =
10 you have X bar chart, n > 10; you will have S bar chart R bar chart S bar chart. So,
this is n; n = 1 we do this, n is between 2 to 10 you do this R bar chart and if it is greater
than 10 you always go for S bar chart. When you try to do attributes it is single attribute,
multiple attributes. In single attribute if it says yes it is an NP chart, if it is no it is a P
chart. The sample size constant the sample size constant if it says multiple if it says yes;
it is a C chart, if it is no means we use it as a U chart. This is very important chart very
important.
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So, here are some of the formulas which are given. So, we are trying to figure out the
upper critical and the lower critical value for X bar, upper critical and lower critical for
R so all those things. You can expect the problem by I can give you a set of data then ask
you to draw a control chart or ask you to find out some value from the control chart or
ask you to try to figure out what is the lower critical limit, upper critical limit etcetera,
etcetera.
So, I have dealt it X bar chart and R bar chart. X bar chart and R bar chart are here, X bar
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and R bar 2 to 10 and greater than 10. So, the R bar chart represents a variety in the data
and if the variety is to be greater than there is greater than there is no need to look at the
X control chart. The chart is out of control then we have to go for this combination.
So, this is an R chart. So, you can see the range R bar chart is range is given. So, you see
the upper critical lower critical this is the average.
So P chart, P chart and C chart these are all for percentage. Percentage of leaking
caulking tubes in a box of 48, percentage of broken eggs in a carton. So, these are all P
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chart. Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from a production run. So, that is
a C chart number of complaints per customer at a hotel. So, if you go back what is the
what C chart, U chart.
So, the attribute charts how are the formulas done. So, these are the formulas which are
used to find out for C chart.
And these are the formula with C chart. So, now this point is gone out of the critical
limits. So, before it goes to this point we are supposed to look back at the process and
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understand and then put it back. So, that it comes back to normal. So here what they have
done is they have pulled back the process, reset the process.
Same way for P chart, this is the upper critical limit, lower critical limit this is how they
try to calculate the sigma. So, the CL control limits can be found out by this formula.
P type again the same pull out is done and then it is come.
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The control chart for non-conformability, Nonconformities so that is defects

nonconformities are defects. A nonconforming confirming item is a unit of product that
does not satisfy one or more of the specifications of the product. So, that is
nonconformity. People always say please submit a non-conformance reports. Non-
conformance report means I have given you spec your produce something when I go
when I measured it. These are the parameters which did not stick on or which was not
seen in your part. So, it is non-conformance.
Each specific point at which the specification is not satisfied results in a defect or a
nonconformity point. In fact, you have a shaft and here are some points which where the
conformation is not happening. So, this also can be represented in a figure. If you go
back to the seven tools defect concentration diagram is that. So, here what we do is we
draw the diagram and we try to put in the diagram how many failures have happen in that
particular feature or happened or whatever has happened or will happen at that particular
feature and then you try to put the numbers.
So, just by looking at the figures I can easily find out where exactly the fault is. So,
consequently a nonconforming item will contain at least one non-conformability. As an
example suppose we are manufacturing a personal computer each unit could have one or
more very minor flaws in the cabinet finish. Since these flaws do not seriously affect the
units functioning operation it would be classified as confirming. Nonconforming if it is
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does not meet the specification. It is possible to develop a control chart for either for
either the tool number the total number of nonconformity in a unit or try to take an
average.
So, further analysis of nonconformities. Defects or nonconformity data are always more
informative than fractional nonconforming because they will usually be severe base
several different types of nonconformity. By analysing the nonconformity by type we
can often gain considerable insight about the defect. So, then we will go to the OCAP
chart; out of control action plan chart we revise the process refer it to along with the
cause and effect diagram and come out with the solution.
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So, it is used by a chart called as u chart. So, the u chart is nothing, but x / n where, x is
the total nonconformity in a sample and n is the inspection in a sample of n inspection.
So n unit inspection, this is n is number of samples along and x is the total
nonconformity in a sample.
So, you can also have a UCL and LCL for the same and try to do a chart within that.
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So, currently here it has gone out of control. So now from here what we do is we try to
pull it back, reset the process and try to have better control.
So the choice between Attributes and Variable Control Charts, this is very important.
The attributes attribute control chart has the advantage, that several quality
characteristics can be considered jointly and the unit classified as nonconforming if it
fails to meet the requirements. So, when the when you talk about variables length,
height, dimension whatever it is that is variables which can be measured. Attributes are
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yes and no go no go. So, here there can be so many reasons for it to become no go or so
many no go. So, many things are not met the conditions are not met. But still the product
is working. So, it will get through. So, so it is attribute control chart is very interesting
and it has to be chosen in such a way such that you try to get the exact information out of
it.
On the other hand if several quality characteristics are treated as variable, then each one
must be measured and either you have a separate or an R chart must be maintained on
each or some multivariate control techniques that considering all the other characteristics
with the must simultaneously be employed. So, we are trying to take R that is ok. But
when you trying to take R, you might have several reasons and if you can make all those
reasons are variables you measure it and then do it ok. So, this is the most simplistic
technique to do.
The variable control chart in contrast provides more useful information of individual
features. It does not talk about the feature; it talks about the dimension of a feature right.
The specific in the information about the process mean and availability is obtained
directly here. So, this all I have already dealt so, I do not want to go through line by line.
So, guidelines for implementing the control chart. Determine which process
characteristics to be controlled. So, before even doing this you should try to figure out
those variables where it is considered as controllable variables must only be considered.
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If you try to take an atmosphere which is temperature at Kanpur in summer 45 degrees.
A temperature at Kanpur during winter, temperature is about 4 degrees. So, temperature
is one thing which I cannot control. So, generally what happens we try to take the
characteristics of a feature or of a product whatever it is. We try to take that and it has to
be a controllable feature and there has to be a proper device to measure the deviation ok.
Determine whether the chart should be implemented in the process. Choosing the proper
type of the control chart is very important taking action to improve the process as a result
of SPC is done then start collecting the data and analysing the data through the software.
The next important topic of discussion when it comes to the statistical methods for
quality control is Design of Experiments. If I have to find out in a process what are the
what is the best optimum condition for making this product. So, then I will have to do
multiple levels of experiments and then I will come out with the data saying that here are
the best process parameters for making this particular product.
So, here what is design of experiment is? I try to design my experiments in such a way
such that I try to do lesser number of experiments, but talk more about the more about
the process and the levels of the process parameters is called as design for experiments.
It is it extremely helpful in discovering the key variables, influencing the quality
characteristics of interest in the process. It is an approach to systematically vary the
controllable input factors in a process. The major type of design for experiments is
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factorial experiments. In these factorial experiments the factors are varied together in
such a way such that all combinations factors are got.
So Acceptance Sampling: acceptance sampling is connected with inspection and testing

of a product. So, a lot of product is there; m units are sample zero defects if it is yes lot is
accepted. If it is no 100 the lot is rejected, 100 percent inspected, nonconforming units
are replaced. So, they do random pick. In the random pick everything is through 100
pieces, there are 1000 pieces the random pick. All the 1000 pieces they check if it is ok.
It is the lot is accepted. If the 1000 pieces they have some 2 pieces defective then they do
sort out has to be done then you do. So, this is acceptance sampling is connected with the
inspection and testing of a product.
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So, the quality test. So, what student is asked to do is, you will try to note down note
down an event which you do regularly ok. So, regularly for example, you wake up or you
leave to office, coming back home ok. Coming back home and then sleep. So, try to take
the data for at least 1 week you try to take the data what time you wake up, what time
you leave to office, what time you come back home, what time you sleep. One week you
try to take the data.
So, after you try to take the data so then what will happen you will have X one. So, not 1
week you take for 10 days, 1 week is too small. At least 10 days you take. So, you will
have X 1, X 2, X 3, X 4, X 5 going up to X 10. So, you try to calculate the mean and
then you also try to calculate the sigma for this data. So, then what happens you try to
plot a control chart saying that what is your upper critical level? What is your lower
critical level? What is your mean and daily at what time you wake up right?
So, if you plot this then you will try to see a naturally occurring event how does this
control chart help to improvise. So, when you try to look at this data, so suppose let us
assume that you woke up late. Why did you wake up late? Because late night; last night
you slept late. Why did you sleep very late? Because I had dinner late; why did you have
dinner late? Because I came back home from came back home late. Why did you come
back home? I have lot of work in the office. Why did you have work in the office?
Because I was just wiling around or I was talking to people when in the peak hours and
then I started working late in the evening.
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So, now if you look at it by looking at this graph you can try to you can try to backtrack
and then find out what all events happen and by asking questions you now know who is
the culprit, how have you to improvise your system so that you can try to meet the
productivity. So please try to do it for 5 different, 4 different events for 10 days. Plot it
try to calculate mean, then try to calculate sigma. Then you decide mu + or ± 2 sigma mu
± 3 sigma.
So, now you can try to tell them how consistent is your process of waking up, sleeping,
coming back home or leaving to the office.
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Product design and Management
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 21b
Quality Assurance
Welcome to the next lecture on Quality Assurance. In the last lecture, we discussed
about quality. Quality is a very interesting terminology, but is very hard for developing a
definition. People say, if it can confer to all the specifications, whatever you have given,
then we say it is a quality product.
Quality is very difficult to have direct units to measure. We always use indirect ways of
measuring, and then we try to link it with the quality. Though quality is very difficult to
measure, but it has to be measured, and without that, people will not accept your product.
For example, you can take a hotel industry, or quality of the hospitality, you might take a
pen, quality of its writing, you might take a TV, quality of the eye comfort it gives.
Quality of the sofa, quality of your pant, what you wear. And interestingly, if you buy a
jeans pant and it worth 2000 rupees and one of its parts, that is the button, which is there
on your jeans pant, button may cost one-fifth of it, or one-tenth of it or maybe even one-
hundredth of the cost of the entire jeans pant. But, if the quality of that button is bad,
then the entire pant sale dies off.
So, quality at every part, at every product is very important. And nobody is going to pay
extra money for the quality. For example, if somebody comes and says, here is a product
which worth 10 rupees, and I have made a 100 percent quality check, give me 12 rupees,
people will say, hell with you. So, if you say 2 rupees more just for quality, people are
not going to accept it. So now, it is very clear, that quality has to be integral part of your
manufacturing itself. So there has to be an assurance, which has to be generated, while
you develop or while you produce in the process.
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Contents:
 Introduction
 Process capability
 Process capability analysis using control charts
 Process capability analysis using DoE (Design of Experiments)
 Engineering Process Control (EPC) and Statistical Process Control (SPC)
 Process Monitoring and Process Regulation
 Process Control by feedback adjustment
 Combining SPC and EPC.
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So, 100 percent inspection is not possible, so we always try to do a random checking.
The statistical techniques come up in a big way to help in maintaining good quality
products.
 Statistical techniques can be helpful throughout the product cycle, including

development activities, prior to manufacturing.
 In qualifying process variability
 In analyzing this variability relative to product requirements or specifications
 In assisting development and manufacturing, in eliminating or greatly

reducing this variability.
 This general activity is called process capability analysis.
So, there are process variables involved in producing a part, and the output of the part is
Y, and input process parameters are X1, X2, X3. So, each parameter will have a range of
values, so, which value to take, such that I produce a good quality output in my product.
So, in this range, say 20-40. So, if I take 35, then what is the variation I can allow, such
that I can try to produce the required output.
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Process Capability:
 Process capability refers to the uniformity of the process.
 The variability of critical-to-quality characteristics in the process, is a measure of

uniformity of the output.
For example, let us take a process, in this process, there are machines and lot of moving
parts, there is always a variability in the process parameters. So, how uniform I can
maintain it, such that the quality of the product is consistent.
 There are two ways to think of its variability:
1. The natural or inherent variability in a critical-to-quality characteristic at a

specified time, that is instantaneous variability.
2. The variability in a critical-to-quality characteristic over time.
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Process Capability Ratios:
 Use and interpretation of Cp
(upper specifications only)
(lower specifications only)
 where USL and LSL are Upper Specification Limits and Lower Specification
Limits respectively.
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The process capability ratio of an off-centre process:
 The process capability ratio Cp does not take into account, where the process
mean is located relative to the specifications.
 Cp simply measures the spread of the specifications, relative to six sigma spread
in the process.
 This situation may be more accurately reflected by defining a new process

capability ratio, process capability ratio Cpk that takes process centering into
account.
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The normality and the process capability ratio:
 An important assumption underlying our discussion of process capability and the

ratios Cp and Cpk is that, their usual interpretation is based on normal distribution
of the process output; it follows a bell shape curve.
 If the underlying distribution is non-normal, then, the statements about expected

process fallout attributed to a particular value of Cp or Cpk ,maybe in error.
 One approach to deal with this situation is to transform the data, so that in the
new transformed metrics, the data have a normal distribution appearance.
So, what do you do is, you try to convert the skewed information into a normal
distribution, by some transformation.
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Normality and Process Capability Ratio:
 Other approaches have been considered in dealing with non-normal data.
 There have been various attempts to extend the definitions of the standard
capability indices to the case of non-normal distributions.
 So, in 1996, Luce o introduced a new index called Cpc
 Where the process target value is :
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 Histogram, probability plots, and process capability ratios, summarizes the

performance of the process.
So, they are very important to test/examine that whether the process is good and whether
the product produced from this process will meet the specifications.
 They do not necessarily display the potential capability of the process, because
they do not:
 address the issue of statistical control, or
 show systematic patterns in process output that, if eliminated, would reduce

the variability in the quality characteristics.
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 Control charts are very effective in this regard.
 The control chart should be regarded as the primary technique of process

capability analysis.
 Both attributes and variables control charts can be used in process capability
analysis.
 The R charts should be used wherever possible, because of the greater power
and better information they provide relative to the attribute charts.
 However, both p charts and c (or u) charts are useful in analyzing the process
capability.
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 A designed experiment is a systematic approach to vary the input controllable

variables in the process, and analyze the effects of these process variables on to
the output.
 Designed experiments are also useful in discovering:
 which set of process variables is influential on the output
 at what levels these variables should be held to optimize process parameters.
 One of the major uses of design of experiments, is in the isolation and estimation
of the sources of variability in the process.
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 There are two statistically based approaches for addressing this problem:
 The first of this is statistical process monitoring by control charts, or SPC

(statistical Process Control).
 The focus of SPC is on identifying assignable causes, so that they can be

removed, thereby leading to permanent process improvement or reduction in
variability.
For example, a newborn baby is to be given medicine for curing. So, if the newborn baby
is put in the free atmosphere, the temperature will keep on changing. So, what people do
is, they put the newborn baby in an incubator. What do you do in an incubator; you try to
convert all the variables which are uncontrollable into controllable variables, or into a
controllable space. And here in the incubator, we vary the temperature, we vary time, we
vary fluid input, whatever it is. What are we done is, we have converted uncontrollable
to controllable.
 The second approach is based on adjusting the process using information

about its current level or deviation from the desired target.
 This approach is called as feedback adjustment, and it is a form of

Engineering Process Control (EPC).
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 Feedback adjustment regulates the process to account for sources of variability,
that cannot be removed by the SPC approach.
So now, we are trying to compare EPC and SPC. SPC does not get a feedback
adjustment. So, EPC and SPC, if you see, engineering process control is a process
compensation, EPC is always a feedback based process compensation or regulation
scheme are widely used as stochastic control, or the feedback or feed forward control,
depending on the nature of the adjustment, it is stochastic, so random in nature.
But, whereas in SPC, binomial distribution has to be followed, it is controllable, and you
follow some charts. This approach is based on the process compensation and regulation,
in which some manipulatable process variables is adjusted, with the objective of keeping
the process output on target. SPC has a long history of success used in discrete part
manufacturing. EPC is used for continuous process. In chemical industry and process
industry, we follow EPC, whereas SPC is followed, wherever there is a discrete part
manufacturing.
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A simple adjustment scheme: Integral Control
 In this we consider a simple situation involving a process in which feedback

adjustment is appropriate and highly effective. For example, pharmaceutical
industry, shampoo producing industry, food producing industry, etc.
 The process output characteristic of interest at time period t is y t, and we wish to

keep yt as close as possible to target T.
 The process has a manipulatable variable x, and the change in x, will produce all
its effects on y, within one period, that is:
 where g is a constant which is called as process gain.
 The gain is like a regression coefficient, because it relates the magnitude of

change in x to the change in y.
 So, if no adjustment is made, the process drifts away from the target according to:
 where is called disturbance.
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The Adjustable Chart:
 When EPC or feedback adjustment is implemented, it is often called an

Automatic Process Control (APC).
 In many processes, the feedback adjustment can be made manual.
 The operating personnel routinely observes the current output deviation from the
target. Computes the amount of adjustment to be applied, and then brings x t in the
following equation to its new set point.
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Combining SPC and EPC:
 There is considerable confusion about the process adjustment versus process

monitoring.
 Process adjustment or regulation has an important role in reducing the variability.
 There are many process where some type of feedback-control scheme would be
preferable to a control chart.
 In processes where feedback control is used, there may be substantial

improvement, if control charts are also used for statistical process monitoring, ok.
In process, where feedback control is used, there may be substantial improvement
in if, control charts are also used for statistical process monitoring.
So, SPC process control charts, EPC continuous, EPC feedback monitoring, they have
found out an equation, and then they try to bring it back to the target. A combination of
these two, is really very good, which people are nowadays started working on.
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 The control charts should be applied either
 to control error (the difference between the controlled variable and the target),
or
 to the sequence of adjustments to the manipulated variable. Combination of

these two basic approaches are made possible.
 Points that lie outside the control limits of these charts would identify periods,
during which the control error are large, or during which large changes to the
manipulated variables are made.
 So, these periods would like to be good opportunities for search of assignable
causes.
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So, let us try to do an activity daily, for example getting up in the morning, and going to
bed. So, please note down your daily scheme for 10 days, note down the time, whatever,
it is 6.15, 7.20, 5.30, whatever it is. And here you can say 9 pm, you can also say eleven
11.30 pm, you can say 2 am, whatever it is.
So, you try to list down all your processes. And then you try to calculate the mean for
your process, you try to calculate the standard deviation for your process, right. So, you
will now try to understand the process of getting up in the morning, and going to bed, it
does it follow a process sequence. And how good is your Cp and your standard deviation.
So, you can try to figure out in real time, what is your process mean, what is your
process deviation, what is your Cp and what is your Cpk so that you will try to understand
the entire process, you just work on it. Then you will know, how good is your system, by
knowing this, you will try to understand, what are the process variables.
Now, you have got the mean, you have got the standard deviation, you have got the C p
for that system, you have got the Cpk for your system. Now, you try to do a correction in
your daily work, and then rerecord for the next 10 days, after you have taken some
necessary modifications in your regular routine.
For example, every day before going to bed, I used to watch a serial, so because of the
serial, I sleep at varying time. So, I stopped watching serial, so now every day, I go to
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bed at 9’o clock. So, what have you done, you have first understood the process, then
you have understood the standard deviation for the process , i.e. Cp and Cpk .
So, you have list down all the causes why your sigma is very high, and now, you have
tried to correct your process. And now you have once again recorded your mean, and
sigma, Cp and Cpk, and see whether there is any process improvement. So, you have
found out the cause, and then you have rectified the process, such that it can be
controllable.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 22
Patent (Part 1 of 2)
Welcome to the next lecture on Patenting. Patenting is now become the talk of the town.
Everybody talks about patent. So, there is a big difference between patent and
publication. So, generally what we do is we try to publish an article saying that this is
why do we publish? Because we say that this is my capability and we have found out
some of the loopholes in the state of the art. So, we try to pick one of the loophole and
then start trying to solve the problem. And say here is the better solution for the existing
problem.
And then what we do is we just publish it and then we ask the opinion from our peer
groups and based upon their opinion we try to improvise and then we try to increase the
level of understanding a problem. Here there is not much of costing involved. But
whereas when we talk about a patent, patent is more towards product oriented or process
oriented. So, here we try to patent and protect an idea and we also asset time to the rest
of the world that this is my idea and if you want to use my idea you have to financially
buy something from me. So, that I try to give you the rights to use this idea.
So, nowadays patent has become the talk of the town. And when you look for products
we always look for more of patenting. So, here in which we have put little effort in
explaining few concepts of patenting. So, we will try to have these following content.
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First we will have an introduction, then we will try to understand; what is the difference
between creativity and innovation, third we will try to understand copyright, then
different types of patents and then we will try to see patent procedure and then
specification of patent.
So creativity versus innovation; so creativity is the characteristics of a person to generate

new idea, thinks of alternative, unique solution and possibility in a unique and a different
way. So, this is creativity. Creativity is a characteristic of a person. Certain people are
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very creative for example, an artist is very creative and few artists they keep drawing
wonderful things and they are very creative. And there can be a solution and they come
up with a very creative way of understanding the problem and they give a creative
solution So, that it can be well appreciated.
So, creativity is the characteristics of a person to generate new ideas. Today idea
generation is a big thing. Think of alternatives; if I can use a pen this way why not this
way. So one once you ask the question why not this way, and then you start thinking in
that direction how to solve this problem. And when you try to look at alternatives you
always come out with something called a unique solution. By large unique solution in
manufacturing and product is not there, but when you talk about creativity characteristics
we say unique solution and the possibility in a unique under and different way.
Creativity is the ability to conceive something unpredictable original and unique. It has
original solution. It must be expressive, exciting and imaginative. It is the ability of a
person to think and generate better ideas in any given circumstances. So, if a person is
creative you all you have to do is you have to give him problems or situations where in
which he looks at the solutions and he tries to generate solutions first and then he looks
at various possible solutions and then he tries to find out the best one and come with an
answer to the problem. It is not genetic creativity is not genetic; that means, to say my
father was very great scientist and he was very creative. It is not necessary my son also
has to be the same; for example, Newton or for example, Einstein ok.
So, Thomas Alva Edison they had so many patents on their names. They are very
creative ok. So it is not genetic, but can be develop if someone keeps on learning and
comprehending things. See this is very very interesting. See I have been teaching for the
last 14 years. Every time when I try to take a course may be a repeat of a course which I
did last. So, if I want to repeat that course what I used to do is I try to throw all my old
notes out and then try to take a fresh book, read the book once again and try to make my
notes.
And when I try to make a note; it I will make sure that it does not repeat the previous
note. That is why I threw the old notes and then I will try to comprehend with real time
live examples and try to map it with my concept what I am trying to explain in the class.
So, when I start doing that so I try to become more and more creative. So, I try to
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understand a subject then when I try to comprehend I try to comprehend in a very
efficient manner. When I start doing it, creativity skill start developing. Creativity is a
brainstorming, brainstorming means it evolves and mind blogging activity in which a
person must think beyond his imagination for bringing something worthwhile. If you
come back and give a same standard solution for a problem people will say it is run on
the mill. For example, today there are lot of disruptive technologies which have got
evolved.
So, I was trying to go to Lucknow airport. When I was trying to go to Lucknow airport
by a car, this on a foggy day the car took almost 4 hours to reach the stay the airport.
Because it was all foggy, zero visibility was there. Almost like 5-meter visibility, 10-
meter visibility. Since I have to catch the flight I ask the driver insisted the driver please
keep moving. So, what we used to do is any vehicle which comes on our way or which
takes a side and goes ahead of us we used to catch that vehicle and keep following them.
So, that we can move that speed where previous vehicle moves and with an assumption
the previous vehicle does not meet with an accident.
But when I landed the airport I thought the flight will be late, but the flight took off on
that time. So, what does this say that is a disruptive technology which is ATC has been
fixed to the planes and the planes took off with zero visibility or with very minimum
visibility this technology is beyond the imagination earlier Now, what is very well
thought about in a plane why do not that technology be brought to trains and cars.
Because come December come January North India many of the trains because of this
fog run very late.
So, today we are looking at creative solutions ok. The problem is understood. There are
some standard solutions where it is used in aeroplanes can that be cut and paste by doing
some tweaking. So, that is we are looking at creative solutions. In creativity, no risk is
involved or no huge investments are needed. It can be activity on unveiling something
which can be previously hidden. All you have to do is understand the problem and try to
bring out with more and more solutions. So, this is all characteristics of creativity.
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When you talk about Innovation, innovation is something very excellent. Innovation
means I can do a cut and paste technology. Try to take technologies or try to take
solutions from different-different sectors and different-different zones and integrate it.
Try to identify a customer. That means, to say you have to have a problem. Try to
identify a customer and for that customer if you can give a solution in terms of a product
so then that is called as innovation.
Creativity need not be a financial component attached with it. But when you talk about
an innovative solution there has to be a financial component attached with it. That
means, to say there has to be a customer for and then he has to have a problem and if you
are able to give a solution to the problem then you are innovative ok. Innovative means
you should have a solution which is saleable; that is what it is.
Innovation is application and practical based process of new idea to create some value
for the business organisation, government and society as well. Innovation could be the
introduction of new technology which can be cut and paste from several zones. For
example, what is very well known to craftsmen need not be known to a doctor. What is
known very well to a doctor need not be known very well for an agriculturist. So, an
agriculturist engineer just tries to look at what are all the similar problems available in a
big domain. And then he will look for solutions for those for those problems similar
problems and then he will try to pick that idea make it customise to his customer and
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then give a solution for it.
A new product line or a segment, a new method of production and improvement in the
existing product all these things can lead to innovation. For example, in an advertisement
earlier there we choose to come that they used to give pamphlets to the customers saying
that please use the please look at the pamphlet or please read this pamphlet. People used
to just take it and throw it off in the dustbin. And later there was a kid, this goes like an
advertisement. A later the kid felt little bad and then he or she thought about why are
these people not reading. How will I make these people to read? So then what this girl or
a child start doing it? It started crushing each pamphlet and giving it to every customer.
So, moment you give a crushed thing to a customer then he opens it and reads it what is
that an innovative way of just asking the customer to look at the pamphlet.
So, all these things are innovation right. So, an existing product innovation; innovation is
closely tied up to creativity. Creativity need not be a sale idea there ok. Putting creative
ideas into action is an innovation. In initial, investment is high in innovation whereas in
creativity it is not so. It is the process of doing something new and better for the first
time which was not previously done by any or any organisation or a person. In
innovation risk is involved and it generates value ok. It can also be a be termed as a
change which can bring a new edge to the performance and a productivity of a company.
So, this is innovation.
When we talk about patenting, we always look at innovative ideas. Patenting also see
when you try to patent it is an assumption that your patent will be bought by somebody.
So, basically you are trying to solve a problem where there is a customer and the
customer will try to give money for the solution whatever you have patented. So that
means to say a patent is an innovative process right. Creativity can be there; creativity
can be there, but it has to be an innovation. Creativity in terms of arts, creativity in terms
of building which need not be sold, but innovation is to solve a problem where there are
a group of people who can give finance for it or who can purchase your ideas.
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There is another term which is very commonly is talked about is copyright. We see that
there is a music CD which is copyright. There is an artefact which is copyright. Is this
patentable or what is the difference between patent and copyright. So, this is what is
another question which comes to your mind. Copyright refers to a legal rights to the
owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms copyright is the right to copy. This
means the original creator of a product and anyone he gives authorisation to are the only
ones with the exclusive right to reproduce this work. Pretty interesting, see you have a
camera you are trying to take a photo of me. Camera is known to everybody, photo
taking skill is known to everybody.
But you try to take a photo of me which presents me very wonderful and this camera can
be owned by your institute or organisation right. The photographer can be paid salary by
an organisation. But when that photographer uses the college own camera and when he
tries to take a photo of me and he tries to present me very excellent, the copyright for that
particular photo is held by the photographer and not by me or by the organisation. If the
photographer wants he can surrender the rights to the institute saying that since you have
paid me, you are the owner for the camera. I am I oblige that I give the copyrights to the
college. For the other way round if there are very big musicians these musicians make
songs or they make BGMs. These BGMs copyright of those musicians. If you want to
reproduce the same you are supposed to get the rights from him.
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The same way if you are trying to use a photograph which is been published in some
journal papers, you are supposed to write it to the journal publisher can I please use the
photo which you have used in this particular paper. So, some journals they allow they
give the copyrights completely to the author of the paper some journals hold the rights.
So, you are supposed to ask them and then only start using. So, that is what I have said
here this means that the original creator of the product and anyone he gives authorisation.
That means to say a publisher is authorised, an organisation is authorised to are the only
ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work.
Copyright law gives creators of original material, the exclusive right to further develop
them for a given amount of time, at which point the copyright of item becomes public
domain ok. So, here it is also time bound that is what we are trying to say.
What is protected by copyright? When someone creates a product that is viewed as

original the photograph of me, the result which you have published original. And that
requires significant mental activity to create; this product becomes intellectual property
that must be protected from unauthorised duplication.
Example of unique creations include computer software you write a copyright, art,
poetry, graphic design, music lyrics, composition, novels, films, original architectural
designs, website content, etc. All these things are copyrights which is given. So if you
create a new music you can ask for a copyright and protect your music under the
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copyright. If anybody wants to use that music they will come back to you and then do it.
In fact, lot of movie names are also copyright protection is given.
For example, I list I register 25 movie names ok. Ask against me and I hold the
copyrights. If some film producer wants to use one of those names, he gives back to you
and says can I try to take the copyright for this particular movie name whatever you have
given. So, all you have to do is you have registered the movie names. So, that is also
possible that is copyright you protect it ok.
One safeguard that can be used to protect an original creation is copyright. So now it is
clear? Copyright can be given to software, art, poetry, graphical design, music lyrics,
composition, novel, drama, film, original architectural design, website content, etcetera,
etc.
So, there are different types of copyrights. One is called as Public Performing Rights, the
other one Public Performance License, and then Reproduction Rights. So, there are three
and then you have mechanical license and synchronisation license. So, there are five type
different types of copyrights.
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So, what is public performing right? The exclusive right of the copyright owner granted
by the U.S. copyright law to authorise the performance or transmission of the work in
public is called as public performing right. The public performance license is BMI issues
license on behalf of the copyright owner or his agent granting the right to perform the
work in or transmit the work to the public is called as public performance license. Please
try to understand the difference between these two public performing rights and public
performance license. So, it is to authorise the performance or transmission of the work in
public is public performing right. So, it is granting the right to perform the work in or
transmit the work to the public is called as public performance license this can be used
for music reproduction, right.
The exclusive right of the copyright owner granted by the copyright act to authorise the
reproduction of a musical work as in a record cassette or a CD; so I try to make a Hindi
song and then I try to give the rights to all vernacular languages is called as reproduction
rights.
Then Mechanical License: these are license on behalf of the copyright owner or his agent
usually to a record company, granting the record company the right to reproduce and
distribute specific composition at an agreed upon fee per unit manufactured and sold. For
example, I have designed Taj Mahal I give the rights to some xyz company and this xyz
company gives it to several producers who are producing Taj Mahal toy across the globe.
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And everything they produce per unit price they have been given some money or they
have been given some for number of parts. So, that is mechanical license; so to
reproduce and distribute a specific composition at an agreed upon fee per unit. So it is
something like royalty, per unit this is the price manufactured and sold.
What is Synchronisation License? Music publisher issues license as copyright owner or

his agent usually to a producer granting the right to synchronise the musical composition
in timed relationship with audio-visual image on film and videotapes. So, these are called
as synchronisation license. So, there are five different types of copyrights public
performing right, public performance license, reproducing right, mechanical license and
synchronisation license. So, synchronisation is timed with audio visual images.
So, when you talk about patent there are three different types of patent. So, one is called
as Utility Patent, the other one is called as Design Patent and the third one is called as
Plant Patent. So, plant patent are basically when I try to do grafting or when I try to
produce a new variety you can apply for a patent that is called as plant patent. For
example, you get today seedless grapes. You get today grapes which are red in colour.
You get watermelon which are boxed. You box in shape. You get watermelon without
seed. You get oranges without seed right. You get you get a rice which can be produced
within 90 days. You get coconut trees which can produce coconuts with the height of 3
feet. Mango trees are producing in bulk which has a height of hardly some 6 feet ok. So,
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these are plant patents. People have changed the genome or did some grafting they have
produced it. Today people have started giving on seed nano-coating and they say the size
grows of the vegetable and they say it has lot of resistance ok. So, those things are plant
patents.
Let us now look utility patents. Utility patents it is the most important type of patent. It is
granted on the functional aspect of invention. This type of patent is most sought after and
requires a lot of skill in drafting and the application and prosecuting it before a patenting
office. A functional utility of the innovation is protected. So, it is otherwise also called as
Process Patent. So, you are coming out with something how to produce that is called a
process patent.
The other one is called as Design Patent. So, here in which we do not try to bring lot of
emphasis on functional. We give it on ornamental or external appearance of this
invention. When you have a design patent you have produced a chair and then I come up
with a new idea where I change the aspect ratio of the chair; that means, to say width by
length or I put a handle something like that. Do a small change I get a patent. So, that is
called as design patent. If the design is a functional necessity, then it cannot be registered
for design patent.
For example, the aerodynamic shape of a plane cannot be registered as a design patent,
as the shape is very important for smooth functioning of the invention itself ok. So, this
is you have to understand the difference between design patent and utility patent. Utility
patent or process patent we call. Process patent is more complete. So, you are patenting
the functionality as well as shape size everything. When you talk about design patent
your functionality is not given importance, but the rest of the aspects are given more
importance. Design patent people can come with iterative steps and keep getting design
patent. Process patent you hold the major rights.
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Patents generally contains the following. So, if you see a patent document the patent has
the following thing. So, first is the title it is just like your research paper. You will have a
title of the paper, then you will try to write who are all the authors of the paper, then you
will try to write an abstract, then you will try to write an introduction where you put the
state of the art. That means to say who are all worked, how are they work, what is that
they have said and then from there you try to solve a problem and get to go to the
solution. That is how you write a paper and finally, you give the conclusion. It is almost
the same here.
Title of the invention this is this is the description of the invention by the inventor
himself. Then, Cross-reference I said in a paper you write a literature survey. If there are
there are any invention which are found to be closely related to the subject matter under
the application of the granted patent. Then what we do is we write to write the
background of the invention. This is very important part of the invention as it helps the
patent examiner to ascertain what was the prevailing problem in the state of the art which
led to the invention.
And finally, you try to write the specifications wherein which you try to write an
abstract, description, drawing and your claims. Conclusions or claims can be it is an
analogy I am giving. And patent getting a patent you cannot directly go to the patent
office. You as person, you then go to a lawyer a patenting lawyer and this lawyer goes to
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the patenting office and then there is an attorney which general who patenting office who
goes through the patent, understands the patent and then only he gives the right for the
patent. And after you have filed it, then they put it in a public domain and say that xyz
has claimed this do anybody have a confrontation over this or something like that. Then
if there is no confrontation or if there is a nobody else claimed a similar one then this
patent office will try to consider and then give a allotment number. From that day when
it has been filed and then put on the public domain ok.
The abstract is what generally describes, the description of the invention and should not
be more than 150 words. It is a unilateral statement made by the inventor in his own
words to be to set boundaries of his patent then drawings an integral part that gives the
visual description of the invention. Then description of the invention sought to be
protected in is an important prerequisite grant of patent. There is no hard and fast rule as
to what a description should contain but it should contain as much information as would
require a person skilled in prior art to make that invention as directed.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 23
Patent (Part 2 of 2)
So, what is the procedure to be followed? So, the Step 1 is you write down the invention
idea or concept. By the way you can also get an idea patent. Idea patent and some
countries are giving idea patent. Some countries they say it is a provisional patent.
Provisional patent is I have an idea I do not have finance, but I am trying to work on it.
By, but give me some time by end of the year or end of 2 years I will be able to convert
my idea into a prototype.
So, at that point of time what you apply is always a provisional patent ok. And then you
work on your idea then you try to get it or you try to create you try to completely develop
a product or prototype whatever it is about the idea and then come to the then file your
patent.
So, when you have to patent registration there are several steps. And the Step 1 is write
down the invention idea or concept with as much detail as possible first time right.
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Collect all information about your invention such as area of invention. For example,
Mechanical Engineering, description of the invention what it does. So, may be it tries to
give a relief. Relief to worker who is doing this how does it work and advantages of your
invention.
Then call lab record duly signed with date by you and respective authority. So, what they
say? If at all you are trying to think of an idea which you are trying to patent. Today
what is happening a data which is for you is also for a person sitting in China, people
sitting in Japan and people sitting in USA. So, it is always better what you do is. You
start maintaining a lab report or a lab sheet or a lab report. So, what you do is every day
when you start working you first write down your idea and then you start writing
everyday progress. At the end of the day you sign and also get an authority to signing the
bottom saying that this was done on this day.
So, if at all there are three people who are claiming that they are their ideas. All the three
have been working on the same idea and all the three are having to have a similar
solution to the problem. Then what the patent office or the attorney looks at it is. Who is
see who is senior amongst the three in terms of working and the document should be
legally signed by authority only those things they consider and then try to give it. So, that
is why we always say try to have a lab record which is duly signed by you and by your
authority or by your supervisor whatever it is.
So, here in which daily your report has to be recorded which is very important. When
you start working for your PhD or for even master thesis or for patent, you have to
maintain a lab record ok. So, then Step 2 is include all the drawings, diagrams, sketches
explaining the working of the innovation. Drawings and diagram schematic diagram is
fine. But if you can draw an Engineering drawing that is excellent. Drawings and
diagram should be designed. So as to explain the working of the invention in a better
way with visual illustrations as much as possible. They play an important role in the
patent application.
Then Step 3 is check whether the invention is patentable subject matter. All inventions
may not be patentable and interestingly if you do not patent an idea and you still use that
idea for producing a part. You have you still own the rights for that particular product.
For example, Pepsi has not patented their formula for making cold drinks. Why because
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once you make a patent you hold rights for 25 years or 30 years depending upon the
country and afterwards it becomes a public domain.
For example, additive manufacturing, rapid prototyping. So many machines 10 years

before they were costing around a crore. Today it has all come down to a few lakhs and
which were all few lakhs earlier in the rapid prototyping machines. Today have come
down to 50000. And today if from Chinese market I can get a rapid prototyping machine
a small machine desktop type for 10000 rupees. Since the patenting life is over, now it
has come to public domain. All the drawings are freely available ok.
So, if you want you can protect your idea and protect your idea and you get a patent. If
you do not want, you do not patent you keep working on your idea and you keep
producing apart. Nobody is asking going to ask you why have you not patented it. But
the only risk on you is if somebody patents it tomorrow that point of time you might
have to fight for your legal stand ok. So, check whether the invention is patentable
subject matter. So that means to say your idea whatever you say has to be clear and also
try to see whether it is worth protecting your idea. For example, if you want to protect an
idea I have come up with a screw. It is already known. It is there in the public domain.
See if you look at the screwdriver innovation, first thing was a minus head was there on a
screwdriver. Then it went to Phillips head; that means, to say plus. Then now what has
happened is that plus head at that location itself they have started putting an LED. So,
LED is very very hard material. So, you have a light exactly at the tip which is been
patented idiom for a screwdriver ok.
All inventions may be patentable as per Indian patent act. There are certain inventions
that are not patentable. So, what is not patentable are those things which is going to
really affect mankind; a bomb, a bacteria right which is going to kill manpower that is
not acceptable ok.
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Patentable search, so when you when I try to search literature. So, I would like to look at
several search engines which are available today; U.S. patent office is one. There are
several search engines available. So, you just go through that search engine and try to
find out what is the state of the art.
The next step would be finding out whether your invention meets all patentable criteria
as per Indian act. It has to be novel. The idea has to be new of its kind. Second thing the
idea has to be non-obvious to a person who is regularly using it. For example, in the
example of a screwdriver which I told see (-) was initially the screwdriver head they had.
So, the screw also had the head has (-) sign. Then in order to have better gripping it
became plus. The idea was patented. So, they call it as Philips screw or Philips screw
driver.
So then people when they had huge depth of access. So for example, in a desktop type
computer the biggest problem is you always need a torchlight attached with your
screwdriver. So, that you can exactly go at that point and do it. So, this minus then
people started magnetizing the tip that was the third step. And today they have integrated
the light to the magnetic tip and around the screwdriver length there is a LED which
glows which tries to make the point visible.
So, this idea of integrating light into a screwdriver is new, torchlight is known. A regular
person needs a torchlight to, to screw or unscrew a depth access portion it is known. So,
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but he did not think of integrating these two fellows that is non-obvious. Then it is
industrial. It has to have an industrial application, it has to be a sale idea and it has to be
enabling. It has to it has to improve some efficiency ok.
The patentable options is provided by the patenting professionals up on conducting

extensive research on forming patentable reports. Then decide whether to go ahead with
patent. Once you have decided whether your whatever inventions comes; Novelty, Non-
obvious, Industrial application and Enabling. I will tell you an interesting application
recently I was going through.
See when you see people working on very tall structure, tall structure banners. May be of
a politician or maybe of a goddess. So, what these artists do is they try to climb up the up
the banner which is around about 30 feet 60 feet high and they try to take everything
with them. For example, they try to take screws, they try to take nails, they try to take
screwdriver, they try to takes hammer everything with them.
And when they climb up they have they have to have, they have to be very cautious
because if they lose stability they fall down. So, in order to avoid instability; that means,
to say moving back and forth what they do is they try to take all the nails in their mouth;
that means, to say they stuff number of nails in their mouth and they keep climbing up
and as a when they need a nail they pull out a nail from their mouth, hit it and then keep
moving. So, this is a practice which people do it. So, there was a young kid who came
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and said why do not I make a wristband and put all these pins on the wristband and as a
when it is required he pulls it and then he takes it, an innovative idea which has not been
taught. So, that is non-obvious ok.
So if you can come up with such thing, so then that idea is worth patenting right. So,
now, after you decide yes, it is worth an idea it has fulfilled all the four criteria’s. Now
what I do I will try to go ahead with my patent. So, the patentable report and the opinion
help you to decide whether to go ahead with the patent or not. Chances are chances are
what you thought as novel might already be patented. So, that is why we try to do this
state of the art right. Hence these reports save time, effort and cost of the inventor by
helping him decide whether to go ahead or not. So that is why you do a patented search.
Then we start writing the Draft. Writing the draft of a patent is really an art. So, we have
we have professionals available for it. So you go give your idea, the professionals take
the idea and start working on it and then try to a give a solution. In case you are at a very
early stage in research and development for your invention then you can go for
provisional application. It is gives following benefits: secure filing date, 12 months of
time for file completions specification and it is low cost.
After filing provisional application, you secure the filing date which is very crucial in
patenting world. You get 12 months and that is what I said 1 year to come up with a
complete specification up on expiring this 12 month, your patent application will be
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abandoned. So, we are trying to talk about provisional application. When you complete
the required document and your research work is at a level where you can have
prototypes and experimental results to prove your inventive step you can file complete
specification patent.
So, then Publication of application; up on filing the complete specification along with
specification, along with application for a patent the application is published after 18
months of the first filing. So, an early publication request can be made along with the
prescribed fee if you if you do not wish to wait till the expiry of 18 months from the date
of filing for publication your patent application. Generally, the patent application is
published within a month form from the request of your early publication. So, here what
we do is we put it in a public domain and then we ask and then we file and then you get
it. If you want to speed up, you have to pay we have to pay more money and some
justification.
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Request for examination: the patent application is examined only after receiving the
request from the examination that is RFE. Up on receiving this request the controller
gives your patent application to the patent examiner, who examines the patent
application with different patentable criteria’s like Patentable subject matter, Novelty,
Non-obvious, Innovative step, Industrial application and Enabling.
And then he tries to the examiner gives yes a clear go ahead then you file a patent. The
examiner creates a first examination report to the patent application upon reviewing it for
for above terms. Then it is called a patent prosecution. Everything happens to patent
application before granting of the patent it before grant of the patent is generally called
as patent prosecution.
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Then respond to objections: if at all they have raise some objections then you the
examiner has raise some objections. The raised quarries will come back to the inventor
and then he has to work on it and then give solutions to it. So, majority of the patent
applicants will receive some type of objection based on the examiner report. The best
thing to do it analyse the examination report with patent professionals and create a
response to the objection raised by the examination report. This is a chance for an
inventor to communicate his novelty over the prior art found in the examination report.
The invention and the patenting agent create and sends the response to the examination.
For example, he would have said 20 queries would have been there. So, you try to make
an excel file put serial numbers say this is the quarry what is your response. You have to
make it in a very professional manner and whatever response you have made you have to
also incorporate it in your basic draft which will be resend to the examiner.
So, after all the objections are clear the communication between the controller and the
patent applicant is to ensure that all the objection raised by the patent applications are
clear. If you say 50 percent is clear 50 percent, I could not then they say sorry (Refer
Time: 15:04) you cannot patent your idea. Up on filling the patent application in order of
grant it is it is grant to the patent applicant as early as possible.
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Then the last step is there is a grant of patent. So, the patent after going through is given
a number and that number you will hold it as a patenting number for you. The grant
patent is notified in the patent journal which is published time to time. So, like your
journal publication here also they try to publish this is an article in 1 page or 2 page or
they put it in a digital one.
So, it is left in public domain saying that xyz has patented this idea and this is what is the
novelty in the idea, where which it does not reveal more in depth description about what
is what. For process patent the procedure is the same as the above, but the but the
changes are prominent in drafting patent where the research will have to be done
extensively while keeping in mind different norms that the process to be patent includes.
According to the patent law, the product and process patent can come under the same
category.
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What is advantage of owning a patent? You own the invention for a given time of 20
years. Here in which if it is one country it is 20 20 years, certain countries have 60 years,
certain countries have 30 years. Depending upon the country you go and do it. And
interestingly suppose you are an Indian, you want to apply a patent only in India you get
an Indian patent. You if you spend money you can also get an American patent for your
idea, Sri Lankan patent for your idea or European patent for your idea. But you have to
spend money, file and then move your idea in that in that area and try to protect your
idea in that countries also.
So, so each country has their own patenting loss so time, duration other things. You can
use it to build a business. Rent it to an existing business. Exclude all the other using,
selling, offering for sale and importing your invention in your country. You can
completely sell the patent to any other country. And on top of it if you want you also
have the right to say I do not want to sell my idea to this xyz company possible. One is
giving right and you can also say, I hold the right I do not want my idea to be sold to this
xyz. That time also your patent tries to give you protection.
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Here I have just put IIT Kanpur IIT Kanpur procedure for patent. So, an IPDF form is
received by the IPR association. So, first faculty works on an idea. So, he has to submit
an IPDF form and then his IPDF form is given to a committee wherein this committee is
formed by Dean or by some by some competing authority competent authority they try to
form, a Technical Evaluation Committee ok.
Before this report goes to technical evaluation committee, here we try to do a patent
search and try to do a similarity index. So, a patenting inventor gives then a similarity
search is done by the office, then it is given to a TEC report then the TEC committee
evaluates the report. And if they find, yes it is good, then it is further progressed. If it is
not good, then they stop it there and then say no it is not worth patenting.
So, here if a faculty member feels he has a wonderful idea, but he needs time. So, you
can directly go for a provisional patent and that idea can be patented right. So, so then he
can provisionally hold the idea. So, after 1 year, the patenting then this it need not go
through the committee. He just files an idea. So, then but within 1 year he has to prove
his patent. So, that point of time a TEC is appointed.
They go through it and then they say yes, then the committee reports the matter that yes
here is a wonderful idea which is to be done which is worth patenting so it is reported to
the Director. Then director approves the idea. It goes for an it goes to the attorney for
final filing. A moment it is file the attorney gives the bill. So, this bill is given back to
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the institute for processing and every year you have to you have to shell out money for
holding your patent or for servicing your patent every year, we have to pay money. And
moment you stop paying that money for your servicing of patent, then the patent, the
attorney or the patenting office will not try to protect that idea on your name So, first is
you have to pay fees for getting a patent. Then every year you have to give a
maintenance charge for this patent to protect it on your name for a stipulated time of 20
25 years.
So, after this is done so you see all the series of steps are done and then finally it goes to
the evaluations or request for the examination for the patent. So, then he gives a
response. The response are worked and then finally, your patent is granted. So, you see a
Annuity fee payment initially for 10 years. Further annuity payment is made on the basis
of commercialisation. So, here what we have done is we have say 20 years is the time
which you can hold. So, we have divided into 10 years and 10 years.
The first 10 years institute, institute pays money for servicing your patent. And the once
it has finish 10 years then we see whether it is worth for commercialisation. If it is not
worth for commercialisation the institute withdraws and this idea will no more be
protected by the patenting authority.
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Ok a task for student. So, I would give you a problem statement you can think of it to
come with solutions. So, what is that? I would like to have a tea cup which is foldable or
collapsible ok. Collapsible such that it does not occupy space while moving. The tea cup
material should withstand, withstand high temperature like whatever is a tea temperature
it has to withstand that. Then the tea cup which is which is foldable, must be leak proof
watertight. And the tea cup must have some figure or something figure or some picture
which changes when I view from varying direction and the tea cup colour should reveal
the temperature.
So, look at I have drafted all sorts of problem statements. So, what I want you guys is
look forward or think of a tea cup and try to make a tea cup, try to make a tea cup a
prototype of it. May be you can use it a paper or cotton box or a clay or plaster of Paris
try to make it. And try to integrate all these points which I have told ok. And then you
will understand now you have come up with a creative idea whether it is worth for
patenting or not.
When you are when you come up with your idea, then what you do is go to Google
search and then just type whatever tea cup, foldable tea cup or whatever it is. And see
how similar is your idea or is your idea completely different. And whatever tea cup you
generate it is a design patent. See if you can make a design patent and if you can get a
design patent out of this course I would be really happy to see a success of this course
and nothing much better than that. So, with that I come to an end of this lecture.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 23b
Creativity techniques (Part 1 of 2)
Welcome to the next lecture on Creativity techniques. Creativity is something which is

amazing; see sometimes you, I would like to just narrate an example, what happened in our
house. I have a son, who is in standard-8, so, the day he was trying to get ready for the
school. He realized that, he did not have a white shirt; which is his uniform, so the time has
come he has to leave the house for the school, then he realized the uniform is not there.
Since, the uniform is not there without uniform if he goes, he will get blasted in the school.
The other way round is he can wear a color shirt, which he has already used this card of using
color shirt in the school once or twice this academic year. So, he knows that if he does it, he
will be blasted. So, the boy went and picked a shirt, which he had, which is not his uniform,
which had two white arms, which is attached to the shirt. And the shirt had a white collar and
then the shirt in between had some embroidery things. So, quickly this boy went, and took up
the shirt and wore a sweater on top of it.
So, when you look at it from outside, it looks like he is wearing a white shirt, but maybe
because of cold, the boy is wearing a sweater, so that he can get so he is comfortable. So,
wearing this he escaped out of getting trapped in the school without his proper uniform. One
way, I do admit he has not planned properly, but the other way you look how creatively he
brought a solution to it.
So, creativity is something amazing. And many a times creativity is done, when you push
somebody to a corner and start asking him to think for a problem solution many a times. If
you look at even the safety pin, it got developed because a person was sitting there with
hunger and he was not having money to protect himself and his family. So, he went on
meddling with a wire and then he came up with a safety pin or a safety clip. So, creativity is
something which is very, very amazing. So, this lecture will be more focused towards
creativity techniques.
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So, what are we going to cover, we will have a small introduction. Then, we will have the
creative processes, then what are the different blocks of creativity, then factors conducive to
creativity and creativity techniques and creativity ability versus age. And here, you see
conducive, this is very, very important. If something has to happen, you should have a
conducive environment for that happening to go ahead; conducive.
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First let us see, the different types of creativity. So, first type is called as totally new
creativity. So, it is completely a new theme and it was never ever conceived before. So, there
is no base data for evaluating performance. And, it has a big risk for success. And I will say a
big risk for profit also. This is completely new creativity.
For example, Ola and Uber which came; it was completely new. The Amazon, when it
started, it was completely new. And then so many things like: online shopping of traditional
Indian products completely new, when it started first time. But, now slowly if one person is
there, so then the other joins; the other joins, so that is how it is going. So, this is one type of
creativity.
The next one is bigger variation in proven creativity. So, here what happens is; so the risk is
not very high. This we already knew that, there is a creativity which is been proved and a
small variation. For example, today we talk about online hotel booking, right. Then we talk
about online now people talk about online tea delivery; chai delivery ok. So, now what we
are trying to talk is can we integrate Ola and Uber service along with the chaiwala or with the
food service providing wala, so that you can try to get your food at you are table within half
an hour hot spicy; whatever it is.
So, the business of Ola is very well known, the business of tea or whatever it is known, now
we are integrating this two. So, there is a bigger variation integrating this two, for a proven
creativity, this is what it is here the risk is very low. And, the change will happen on proven
creativity; this is second variation
The third variation will be slight variation in proven creativity. And here, the other thing is
then bigger variation, it is like something which is very well known for a biologist is not
known to a mechanical engineer. So, mechanical engineer has his expertise, biologist has an
expertise, biologist expertise is whatever he develops is proved success, mechanical engineer
proved success. So, now what we do is we blend these two, and have a variation between this
and that, but you are pretty sure that there is going to be a success that is; what it is.
Then it is slight variation in the proven creativity is, ok. The online website is created, this
online website is proven very good for selling books, now selling cinemas, cinema tickets,
selling food products, selling textile products. So, these are all slight variation to the proven
creativity is the next category. So here, the all the other risk factors, you can put a table and
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then you can try to take it in the column wise, you see that no database available some more
database available big risk not, so big risk. So, you can have that variation.
And the last one is going to be proven creativity. So, proven creativity is; there is no risk at
all; ok, and the profit is high. I now, if I do some small creativity, during the time of Diwali in
the terms of textile cloths, I am sure that I will succeed. So, basically the creativity is divided
into 4 categories totally new, then it is something which is bigger variation for in proven
technology, then you can have slight variation in the proven creativity, and then you can have
proven creativity. So, these are the 4 classifications, you can have in terms of creativity.
So, now let us see, what is creativity? So, creativity can be defined as a development of an
idea that are new to an individual leading to the discovery of alternative designs, methods,
systems, processes, that will accomplish the basic function at minimum cost. If you go back,
and remember the example of my son whatever I gave it is, it fits in here. Creativity can be
defined as a development of an idea, so he had to develop an idea, that means to the he has to
wear a white shirt and go to the school.
So, development of the idea that are new to an individual leading to the discovery of an
alternative designs, he chose an alternative way of wearing the same white shirt and going to
the school. So, creativity comes there. Analysis of function by using creativity is called as the
root of value engineering; analysis of function right.
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Two general purposes to problem solving are analytical approach, the other one is creative
approach. Analytical approach is: you have a sequence ready, you have a logical sequence
ready, you just plug in values there. And then suppose for example, if I want to carry in a bag
some 10 kilos of item, and then now I want to try to use the same bag and carry 50 kilos; it is
not possible.
So, now I know where all have to be strengthen, what all has to be done, so that I can do it, so
that is called as an analytical approach. Aims of analytical approach reaches the final solution
through a standard step by step procedure, whereas creative approach, banks on the idea-
generating ability of the problem solver and his ability to embark on the best out of a number
of possible solutions is creative approach.
Analytical approach: the scheme/algorithm is known and the problem is solved. The only
thing is I change the variable, I change some parameters make the variation and try to meet
out to the new requirements. So, those are analytical approaches and then creative approach is
creating new ideas and generating it.
So, creative process as a combination and a recombination of past experience that forms a
new combination thus satisfying the need. So, let me tell you another interesting example,
when I visited Delhi, I saw a board. In that board, it was written Italian idly. So, idly is a
South Indian dish, Italian a South Indian dish could never have been travelled to Italy. And an
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Italian dish; whatever it is the Italians would have not traveled to south, so that they form a
combination.
But, what people have understood is Italians taste of pasta and other things they know, the
shopkeeper knows very well there will be an audience for it. And there were audience for a
south Indian idly. So, he blended these two and he made a huge profit, so that is creative
process. Combination and recombination of past experience, past experiences is he know
Italian food has a huge success, then South Indian food has a huge success. So, he blended
these two and came out with a new thing called as Italian South Indian idly or whatever it is;
right.
So, the steps involved in creativity is first is orientation. Orientation is the problem definition
and decision on the path to be taken is to be first decided. So, for example, if somebody
comes to me and ask, what would you like to be after 10 years? Can you plan your life for the
next 10 years, sorry I do not know. Can you as a customer, plan your life for the next 10
years? Sorry you do not know. So, if the problem definition is not very clear, then you are not
going to solve the problem, so problem definition is very, very important. Problem definition
and decision on the path to be taken is very, very important.
Next is preparation. How do you gets the information for this particular problem to be solved.
So, information gathering and facts finding is the other thing, which will help you to solve a
problem. For example, if you are looking at India, in India the biggest problem is drinking
water, come summer water is a scarcity. So, you have lot of spurious water which is getting
sold.
So, now the biggest thing is like how do I make sure that this does not happen. So, then what
I will do is, I would now look for the easiest way of killing this business is reduce the cost per
bottle or a liter of water reduce the cost to a very, very low margin like a liter is three rupees,
a liter is 2 rupees, then naturally not many spurious players will be there in the business; ok?
so because of the profit margins and the other things are less. So, there will not be many
players.
So, now what is happening is you have to collect those information, where all there is water
scarcity, where all you can sell, how all you can sell. If a bottle is used can a branding or
rebranding can it be done or can a unhygienic water or a disinfected water is it been filled.
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So, all those things, you are supposed to find out. Information gathering and facts-finding,
where all the spurious things can happen so, all these things are there.
Next is induction; a production of alternative solutions to the problem. See when you start
solving a problem ok, you have identified there is a problem and then you are trying to solve
the problem. So, when you try to solve the problem; information’s have collected, now you
put the first conceptual idea. Many experts or creative thinkers, they say: the first idea will be
your passionate idea please throw that idea out. So, the next idea what you start generating
will be little more realistic.
So, the first idea whatever comes to your mind and when you start developing it that will be a
fascinated idea that will be fully your thoughts. So, they say throw away that idea. So, for
throwing away that idea, what is the other thing they have to generate multiple solutions to
the same problem. Then, once you have 20 number of solutions, it’s like you have a you are
hungry you go to a hotel in a menu card you see lot of items. Now, what you do is you try to
decide what is your mood, then who is there with you, then you will see how much hungry
you are, what is the taste you want to have on that day, then you pick those items in your
menu card, so you order.
So, in the same way; when you try to a have alternative solutions you are supposed to pick
things and start doing it. So, analysis is sorting out and combination of information and
slowing the pace of invite illuminations are done, so that what happens you try to solve; pick
the solutions. Or you when you pick the solutions, you can also try to have in a menu card
you picks one sabji, you pick one chapathi item or whatever it is. So, you pick depending
upon the choice also you decide your menu; that is also possible.
So, sorting out and combination of information and slowing the pace to invite illuminations
are the done by analysis. Then you start doing synthesis, bring these ideas together into a
complete whole and then evaluate the ideas, so that is how you start generating ideas and all
these things are part of the creative process.
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So, let us see in the creative process. So, have four phases. So, first one is called as a
preparation phase, then you will have induction phase, then you will have analysis phase,
then you will have synthesis phase and the last one you will have the evaluation phase. If I
wanted to express it in a pictorial manner, so you should have something like a funnel and
you can divide this. And, whatever comes out will be as part of the evaluation phase, right? In
the preparation phase, what will happen, you will have this is so corresponding to this.
So, you should have more number of ideas, ideas go down, ideas go down and down, ok?
Preparation phase is a phase, where the definition of the problem and then methods used to
provide insight and direction that is in the preparation phase. Induction phase is nothing but
brain storming phase, then you have quantity and action methods used to break barriers. So,
in the induction phase, you do lot of brain storming and in the analysis phase, what you do is
you organize quality, ideas, connection methods used to strengthen bonds.
So, you try to see the connection. So, here it is basically you have developed so many ideas,
then you will try to develop these ideas and the connections you see then synthesis will be
you are trying to create unique expression to solve the problem. Then, deviation methods
used to escape default setting. And then in the evaluation phase; you judge and purge ideas
against focus, creative success, meters used to rate and rank create to work, ok. So, these are
the phases. So, preparation phase, induction phase, identify the problem, brain storm sessions,
organize your thought, synthesize your thought and evaluate your thought.
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So, these are the different phases and finally, what you get out is the in the evaluation phase.
And by the way, after the evaluation phase again, it goes to the induction phase. After solving
the problem if you have some lacunose, you go back and try to do several of the induction
phases, several of the other brainstorming sessions to solve the problem.
So, there are several blocks to creativity: one is the habitual block. Habitual block is I do not
like chemistry, whatever set and done, so good a teacher, so good a illustrative book so much
of video available, I do not like chemistry; I do not like chemistry. What is that, that is a
habitual block, right. So, and the other thing is whenever I go to temple, I always try to go via
certain other temples and then only go to the main deity temple, so that is a habitual; right, so
many things habitual is something which is very, very prone.
So, without doing certain things I will not get out of the house, fine? that is habitual block.
Whatever may be the time crisis I will do that. So, proceeding to utilize tried and truth
technique despite the fact that new and better ones are assessable, ok. Dismissal of option
arrangements which are incongruent with the habitual situation is the other thing. Absence of
uplifting standpoints, absence of decided exertion, adjustment to customize, custom and
dependency on specialty. So, all these things leads to habitual blocks. So, these are a block
which will not allow you to go towards creativity.
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So, habitual block, if you see, habitat testing identifying, find habitual user, then you try to
codify, codify is understanding commonality, habit path, and then you will have modify,
adapt user flow based on learning, so, you keep doing it. So, this is the habitat test. So, in
block of creativity habitual blocks, you have the habitat test; which is conducted. So, where
in which we do identify, we codify and then we modify and try to keep going in the circle to
find out what is the to see how to improvise your creativity.
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Perceptual block is failures to use all the sense of observation, failure to investigate the
obvious, inability to define terms and then difficulty in visualizing remote relationship,
failure to distinguish between cause and the effect. so we you when we do the fishbone
diagram, so fishbone diagram these are the cause and this is the effect. So, if we do not know
to distinguish what are the causes and what is the effect of it, so then it is very difficult.
Cultural block, desire to conform to proper patterns customs or methods so, this is a cultural
block. So, first we saw habitual block, then we saw perceptual block, then here now we are
seeing a cultural block. Over emphasis on competition or non or on cooperation. The drive to
be viable most importantly thinking and rushing to make quick decisions; this is a cultural
block. The belief that all indulgence in fantasy is a waste of time; cultural block. The drive to
be viable most importantly things and rushing to make quick decisions. Having confidence
and faith only in reasons and logic; this is a cultural block.
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So, blocks of creativity, you have cultural block, this is cultural awareness, this is cultural
skill, this is cultural encounters, this is cultural knowledge and this is cultural desire, which
falls a common, which is a common thing, which forms you see this circle, which talks about
cultural desire, ok. Then the integration of or a common area for all these things is the
process of cultural competence; which is there.
So, cultural awareness and cultural skill, these are some things which and then in a country
like India, where there is a vast multicultural existence. So, cultural skills are completely
different, cultural encounters, then cultural knowledge, why do we do this, why do we do that
festival; that is knowledge, ok. Cultural awareness is very, very important.
Because, today we talk about understanding the roots, so cultural awareness; right, cultural
skills, what are our exceptional skills, how did we come into existence, what are we supposed
to do and all those things are cultural skills. Cultural desire is an is also a new thing, which is
coming up and the last one is cultural encounter. So, these are certain cultural blocks, which
are existing today. So, if you want to get into creativity, you have to get out of all these
blocks and go towards creativity.
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Emotional block; emotional block is fear. Whenever I touch something new, it breaks.
Whenever I do something, it breaks. Whenever I try to go on a Saturday, it fails; something
like that, so it is all emotional; right. Fear of making mistakes or appearing foolish. If I do
that, I will fail. So, I have many people do not even open out their mouth, recently was doing,
I was having a get together with school students. So, these school students were all had a
language barrier, they were not, they were very finding it very difficult to come out and speak
in English.
So, what I did was I asked them which game do you like, and then they said cricket. So, then
what I did was, I played for 1 hour a cricket match on a screen, and asked the students to give
a commentary for it. So, first they start and then I told them you talk whatever you want and
you give commentary, whatever you want in whichever language you want.
So, first what I did was, I took them out of their mental barrier and emotional block, they
started opening, and then they started talking. They started giving commentary about the
match, what they see on the screen in their own vernacular language. Then, I asked them to
give in a proper sequence, in a proper manner, in their own vernacular language, on the next
day the same cricket match; what they did yesterday.
So, they were much more confident, the scene was known, so they started giving. So, it was
something like a dubbing which they did. And on the 3rd day, I said now you should talk in
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English. So, slowly they came out and they started talking in English with lot of mistakes;
grammatical mistakes. And I repeated this exercise for one week and on the 5th day and 6th
day believe me, they started speaking in English and they started giving the commentary
without any mistakes; grammatical mistakes. So, they have improved.
So, all that I did is I broke their emotional block. So, fear for making a mistake or appearing
foolish. Fear of supervisor or colleagues and subordinates distrust. Over motivation to
succeed quickly. Refusal to take any reroute in achieving an objective. Failure to dismiss
choice which are satisfactory, yet which are clearly sub idea. So, these are the emotional
blocks which you have to kill it, so that you have a creative thinking. So, when you see the
emotional block, it is like the situation selection, then you have attentional deployment, then
cognitive change and then response modular.
So, if you see their situation, attention; ok and then you have appraisal and then you have
response, so you should make sure all these things get out and you get out of the emotional
block, so that you can produce.
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So, the factor conducive for creativity is problem sensitive, being mindful that an issue exists;
that is problem sensitivity. So, when you try to solve a problem, you should be mindful that
there is a problem. If there is not a problem existing, please do not solve the problem. If
things can happen without solving the problem, then do not consider that as a problem. And if
you have a problem, be sensitive to the problem. For example, wearing a perfect dress for an
occasion. So, you should think that yes there is a problem which we have to address and there
are solutions; we have to look for solutions.
Then idea fluency, being ready to create a lot of thoughts. So, you are suppose to come with
lot of creative ideas, lot of thoughts. And suppose, you say that I have 25 ideas you lay it
down. And maybe all among the 25 ideas, 10 ideas may be foolish, but still put 4 those ideas.
So, then when you start killing those ideas, something might be interesting there we pick it up
and then take it to the main solution; whatever you have later.
Then we should have flexibility. These are some of the conducive environment, you should
have. Flexibility: open-disapproved and versatile in the way to deal with an issue, you should
always be human. So, you should always try to understand others, accept others, have no
emotions and when there is a challenge thrown on front of you on your idea, you should be in
a position to justify that idea and go towards the betterment.
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And originality, the capacity to deliver an incredible number of new and one of a kind
thought is originality should be there. Originality also induces creativity, lot of musicians
bring in originality in their music, artists bring originality. In the same way technologists also
bring in lot of new originalities in their thing.
Then constructive discontent; a disappointment with existing conditions with a disposition of

mind, which looks to enhance the conditions. This sort of individual normal inquiries are to
why and how are to be constructor. Then it is going to be observation; observation is
alertness to the environment, it should be there. And facilities to at combination, the capacity
to join and recombine data in an assorted way, it is also important.
So, these are some of the factors, which are very important, which helps to conducive in
making creativity. Problem sensitive, idea of fluency, then flexibility, originality and
constructive discontent, observational, and facility at combination are some of the factors
which are very important, which tries to bring in creativity.
These are the conducive factors, these factors will lead to creativity. So, you should have be
sensitive, you should be idea fluency, you should be flexible, you should be original, you
should have constructive discontent, so you should not feel disappointed with the existing,
you should start moving forward, then observations, then facilities at combination.
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Orientation is very important, motivation, and permissible atmosphere. So, orientation is
developed to the best possible attitude towards imagination, you should have a orientation in
solving problem. Then the next one is motivation. The summoning of the essential vital to
work towards an objective and accomplishing it is the motivation.
You do not you should have a motivation factor. If your motivation factor is lost, then your
creativity will not happen. Motivation is something very, very important, that is why if you
see in many of the colleges and schools, they have somebody called as motivators, motivators
are nothing but counselors, so they try to motivate people.
Counseling does not mean only psychological counseling, there are other counseling’s also
required. So, motivator, so motivation is one. And permissible atmosphere and environment
in which new thoughts are empowered is permissible atmosphere you have to create. So, all
these things are factors, which are conducive to creativity.
So, creative techniques, first is ground rules: generation of new ideas and their judgment
should not be simultaneous. Make an idea and immediately, you should this idea is rubbish,
drop it; no, take that idea, take it further. Put everything in the basket and then start picking
up from the basket one after the other. Maybe half of the basket when you pick up, half of the
idea is good half is bad. So, you throw half of the idea, take half of the idea and go.
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So, generation of new idea and their judgment should not be simultaneous. First collect all
the ideas put it inside a box; they should be separated by time, space, people, if possible. For
example I generate idea and I should not kill that idea. So, I generated the idea, and then give
it to the other person. So, many a times what people do is they do brainstorming session 20
people sit down, and do a brainstorming session. After the brainstorming session is over, so
they all make a notes.
The other way round is 21 percent gives 20 ideas, he records all the 20 ideas. And he gives
that all the recorded thing to the next two person and the next two person starts with a base
and then he brings in more creativity, that is also practiced. But, a single person who
generates should not kill the idea. Then, possible solutions should be generated in large
quantity, you should always look for feasible solutions. Solutions which can solve the
problem, which are close to the problem that is what we are. Possible solution should be
generated in large quantities. First multiply the ideas produced, by inspiration, by 5 or even
10. So, inspiration first multiply the ideas produced by inspiration.
Then, seek a broad spectrum attack approach, do not try to take an idea, do not try to go to
the finest point and then start killing that entire idea. Take a broad perspective, now you are
putting the first level filter on the ideas. So, try to say this idea looks to be feasible, let us take
it forward. This particular thing cannot be done. So, the entire idea is broken, so we should
not do that. So, seek a broader spectrum attack approach.
Watch for opportunities to combine and improve ideas. So, A idea, B idea, C idea, so here is
bad, here is good and here is bad. So, now take A good part, B good part, C good part, and
combine and try to have it. If you have to do this combination and if these A, B, C is
proposed by three different people, you should not have egos in accepting all the three, so
that is what watch for opportunities to combine and improve the ideas as they generate.
Consider all possible ideas, even apparently impractical things. Do not ridicule them. Never
eliminate any idea, summarily. So, this is what whatever I said, we have put here. This is the
ground rules.
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Brainstorming technique; in light of incitement of an individual’s thought brain by the

psychology of another, so this is brainstorming technique. And normal gathering comprises
of 4 to 6 individuals lounging around a table and precipitously creating thoughts intended to
tackle a particular issue.
Rules to be followed; criticism is ruled out, free-wheeling is welcome, any number of ideas is
welcome and desirable, combination and improvement are sought. So, this are the rules
which we have to follow for brainstorming, ok. So, free-wheeling is welcome, so anybody
can talk anything, you can keep moving. And you make a conducive environment sit around
and then keep discussing and start going towards it.
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So, this is brainstorming technique. So, brainstorming will have techniques should have an
idea, it should be brief, it should be creative, you can use sketching, you can use branding,
you can also use research. So, you can try to generate or you can try to use all these things
and start doing a brainstorming technique.
Step 1, define the issue. When you are meant to brainstorm something, the first thing you
need to do is to understand the definition of what you are brainstorming. Many a times people
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keep talking giving their opinion without understanding; what are they deliberating all about,
so that is what we are saying. What are what is the definition of the problem and what are we
all doing that is what we should know.
Once you come up with a definition of what you are brainstorming, makes your you confirm
your definition. So, if you wanted to try to solve a problem, so you cannot say I want to solve
this particular problem in this. Make a generic statement and then only you can have multiple
ideas flowing into the generic statement. If you are brainstorming during a consulting case
interview, confirm your definition with the interviewers.
If you are brainstorming as part of a strategy engagement, confirm your definition with your
colleagues. The majority of the candidates and the consultant, unaware of this step, jump
right to the brainstorming without carefully considering the definition of the issue. They
usually have a vague idea of what the definition is, but not much thought goes into the
defining of the issue.
For example, if I say, I want to become a rich man; very generic, very, very generic; right, so
why should I become rich? So, the question comes is I want to be happy. So, the definition
should be, I want to be happy and not that subset which says I want to be rich. See suppose
let us assume, you want to become rich, I give a solution: work for 23 hours a day, take 1
hour rest. Yes, I will work for 5 years and then have a lot of health problems, I have become
rich, but lot of health problems; it is of no use.
But, what you want in life, you want the happiness in life. So, if you write define the problem
clearly; I want to be happy, then what will happen is when you start looking for solutions,
you will say work for 8 hours, then do exercise for 3 hours, then spend with family for 2
hours, sleep 6 hours. So, now you see you will come with a solution, which will be more
workable, so that is what definition of the problem is very, very important.
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Next build a decision tree. Once you are happy with the definition of a key question, in our
example the definition of productivity, the next step is to build a decision tree, ok. Decision
tree, what is decision tree, ok. So, for used there is a start, then you have two alternative
solutions; A, B, and C, then B will lead to B 1, and B 2, this is C; C will lead to C 1, and C 2.
So, something this is a decision tree, it keeps on going, ok. If you cannot write down or
visualize a decision tree, you are not brainstorming, ok.
The key question is then split into sub questions or drivers in the logical and a methodical
way. Those sub questions are further split into drivers of sub-questions, so this is what I said.
Continue with this analysis until you can prioritize the tree drivers and move towards the
developed hypothesis. Your brainstorming analysis will usually not go further more than 4
steps, that is why in the quality tools, we have a tool which says ask 5 times; why? So, you
will understand the root cause of the problem.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 23c
Creativity techniques (Part 2 of 2)
Welcome back to the Creativity techniques lecture. This is a continuation lecture. So, what
we were trying to see is; we were trying to see all different possible techniques, which can be
used to induce creativity, so that is what our technique is. But in this all please do understand,
you should have a clear problem definition. In the clear problem definition, it includes; who
will be the customer. And if you do not solve this problem, what is this impact going to be.
For example, I would like to go from Kanpur to Delhi within 2 hours, right. So, this is what is
my desire; this is not essential, it is desire; right. So, if I say that, I want to go, so then the
alternatives I have is; I should use only the airways, road way or the railway is not possible.
So, when I say airways then I am left with only 3 options, 3 options are go by helicopter, go
by plane, whatever it is, or go Vayudoot And these 3 are no way an economical solution for
me. So, the other alternative is, can I develop an individual driving vehicle; unmanned
vehicle, which can go from here to Delhi with minimum power and cost economical.
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Now, if the solution is not there; am I going to get throttle? no, I will go to Lucknow and I
catch a flight and go that is more economical. So, now, you see if I start working and solving
this problem, then there is no solution for it and the creativity will not come very high. So,
you should always look for a problem, where; if this problem is not solved these are the
difficulties which community is going to face and the community cannot be me it can be a
group of people, it should be a group of people; right.
So, when you have that, then only you can think of alternative creative solutions. I give you
an example of my son going to school with the uniform, creative solution, it is a really
creative. Second thing there was a day when they all the class children were trying to move
from one building to the other building in between; that two buildings were almost 1
kilometre away, in between there was a small room.
So, where and which there has the students were drenched in rain, but if they could have
taken a stop by and the small building in between that could have been much better. And the
stop by building, they have has the permission to stay, they did not put for the problem
statement properly to that building owner. So, he did not permit, all the students got drenched
in rain.
So, the creative solution would have been; the teacher could have gone or a student could
have gone and talk to him these are the difficulties, if you do not allow us to have a stop by in
your building, so students will get drenched, all of them have problems, this problem, that
problem. They if that would have been stated properly, then people have look for creative
solutions. Creativity is very important and if you are not creative in solving the problem, you
will not be able to come out with solutions.
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Going back to it, we saw two techniques; brainstorming technique and the other one we saw
now: we are going to see the morphological analysis. It is organised extensively to list and
inspect numerous conceivable mixes that might be valuable in tackling an issue, that is
morphological analysis. This analysis have to do with recognising the structural aspect of
your problem and studying the relationship among them.
For example, if you have a body, if your body pains and if your hand pains, because of your
hand pain, there is your headache. So, then there is a relationship between the problem, you
have to study the relationship amongst them and try to solve the problem. In general
morphology, the problem of representing and visualising more than three-dimensional is
overcome by placing them variable in columns besides each other, their value ranges listing
them below and this is called as morphological field. So, this is another technique or analysis,
we do in creating techniques.
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Morphological analysis is a method for exploring all possible solutions in a complex problem
space. Imagine the problem is transporting an object from one place to another by way of a
powered vehicle. The significant dimensions are: the kind of vehicle, the power source and
the media, so these are three-dimensional. So, now we use this analysis; is a method of
exploring all possible solutions in a complex problem space, ok.
Thus a car kind of vehicle moving over rough surface with an internal combustion engine to
power, it is the automobile. The expectation is that, it would be possible to determine some
novel combinations to generated. For example, you can put the vehicle, you can put the
media, you can put the power. So, now, you see a relationship with that and then start solving
the problem.
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As a problem-structuring and problem-solving technique; morphological analysis was

designed for multi-dimensional, non-quantifiable problems, where casual modelling and
simulation do not function well at all, there we use this morphological analysis. Please
understand, where do we use is very important. Zwicky developed this approach to address
seemingly non-reducible complexity. Using the techniques of Cross Consistency Assessment;
CCA. The system, however does not allow the reduction, not by reducing the number of
variables involved, but by reducing the number of possible solutions through the elimination
of illogical solution, combination in a grid box.
So, please understand if you have a problem to be solved; a problem, I will write it down a
process. So, if there are 10 variables input; ok, if you have 10 input variables and here is a
solution for the problem, this is the solution, the wise man is to try to look into the effect of
individual things, ok. And please do not drop any input and then start looking for solution, it
is better you take all the inputs play significant insignificant and then try to generate ideas,
then try to find out multiple solutions to the problem, then pick up the one, which is relevant
and then sort, solving it.
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Morphological analysis, this is how we do sectors, finance sources, then you see a
relationship with the existing, academic, personnel and innovation. If you look into it, so you
see that, so we have put in the parameters, we have put in the solution space; ok, we have
looked at morphological box and then we have put an input constraints. So, these are
constraints what we work. And this is the morphological block and the we have values for it,
then we look at these values for solving.
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Morphological analysis; a problem; a problem is ‘what is ?’ is not equal to ‘what is desired ?’
please understand, ‘what is ?’ is not equal to ‘what is desire?’ An issue is a relevant aspect
that might cause a problem to occur. A dimension is a corresponding property that belong to
an issue such as technical, financial, political or ethical, these are dimensions to solve the
problem. Policy problem is a collection or document or a list or thought that consist of a
collection of problems is policy problem.
Morphological boxes you have, same way you have morphological feel and you also have
values, a value is a representation of a possible relevant condition that each issue can assume,
which will become the column header of the morphological box. So, if you look at it, if you
go back to the figure, you can look from this figure, you can understand what we are
discussing here.
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Then you have parameters, you have input constraints, solution space and real actions.
The next technique is attribute listing technique. These are two steps in the attribute listing
techniques, the first is to list all the variable characteristics of the study object, all the variable
characteristics, you have to do various characteristics. The second is to purposefully change
or alter these attributes. By the method of this, it is conceivable to unite new mixing of
quantities or traits that will satisfy some current needs in a better way, ok. For example, this
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is nothing but a cut and paste technology, which we follow towards solution: cut and paste
technology. So, the second is to purposefully change or alter this attributes; ok, you are
change their attributes and then solve it.
Attributes listing is a great technique of ensuring all possible aspects of a problem has been
examine, you are giving attributes values to it. Attribute listing is breaking the problem down
into smaller and smaller bits and see what you discover when you do.
So, it is basically you try to take a big problem, split it into several small modules and then
start listing it. So, when you talk about attributes, for example, I will draw a table. So, we
have features, we have attributes, we have ideas; ok. So, casing, this can be made out of
plastic; the ideas is: it can also be made out of metals; next is switch feature. So, it what is a
switch, it has on, off and it has also low beam. Battery; we have it is power, the idea can be
rechargeable.
This can be bulb, this can be glass, this can be a plastic and then we have weight, heavy,
light, ok. So, these are some of the attributes listing techniques, where and which you list,
split bigger problem into smaller problem. Smaller problem you have attributes, you have
ideas and then start looking for creatively slowing those problems.
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So, evaluation comparison technique. So, you have develop so many techniques, now you
have to compare these techniques and pick up the best one. This is a constrained the
inventiveness procedure for creating one of a kind variable arrangement, by framing
quantifiable correlation between the components of measurement, physical property,
mechanical property, electrical, magnetic property, cost contribution and cost consideration
and different properties, all these things are considered. And you try to compare them and
evaluate them.
A structured evaluation process is necessary in order to do. So, you have 10 parameters, you
have to evaluate them on various aspects. So, we have to do a structured evaluation.
Identifying the idea that are most likely to succeed as innovative for the company. Ensure the
complex ideas are reviewed by people with the appropriate expertise necessary to understand,
what would be the necessary to implement the idea and what might go wrong.
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So, you just go to somebody and ask, if I buy this car what will happen, what will be the
advantage I get? what will be the problem? If I take up a directorship; what are all the
advantage? what are all the disadvantage? If there is a problem; how do I solve it, if there is a
plus point; how do I enjoy it. So, something like that is all is evaluation comparison
technique. So, what you do you go to an expert talk to him and then decide what is what, and
then you take a car. So, evaluation comparison technique continuing. Enabling a middle
manager to define the idea to a senior management, stakeholder and financial officer, who
may need to grand budgetary proposals for it, you do an evaluation comparison technique.
For example, when you are trying to develop a new product and come to a market, we say
company A; these are the features of company A, these are the features of company B. And
this is my design and you will try to say my design, when you compare these features these
are all better. So, please grant me money or please grant my project. So, then people will say,
yes, it is looking to be lucrative, let us grant.
Make it possible to review a large number of ideas in a resource. Improve the ideas by
identifying potential implementation problem and preparing suitable actions to overcome
these problems. Sadly, the last aspect is often last informal idea review procedure. So, what is
it, improve the idea by identifying potential implementation problems and prepare suitable
actions to overcome these problems. For example, you will try to anticipate, when you have a
big lab. So, in a big lab where there are multiple machines there. So, you would have planned
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everything properly, but if there is a fire, what happens; everything will get burnt and it has to
dissolve.
So, the best thing will be; you plan anticipate to have a fire extinguisher here, so that you try
to have this as a safety. You anticipated a problem; you had a solution, you fix it there and
then the entire shop floor or the lab can do, these are machine 1, machine 2, machine 3,
machine 4 and machine 5, ok. So, this is what improve the idea by identifying potential
implementation problems, I prepare suitably, I appearance to over comes these problems, ok.
Buzz session technique. It is valuable to create innovative thoughts for expensive crowd
circumstances. To start with, the gathering of people is isolated into an expensive number of
gathering of six individual each. Inside each gathering, a leader and a recorder are delegated.
So, there are 6; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. So, one is a leader; one is a recorder; are delegated. They
ought to be chosen and advised before the meeting, if conceivable. Issue going to be handled
or to be declare before the meeting begins.
Utilising the gathering conceptualization, strategy, each gathering creates innovative choices.
After a time frame and a flag from the pioneer, so each gathering quits delivering thoughts
and starts assessing the thoughts and choosing the best arrangement, ok. So, once they say
time is over, then they put all the things improvise them, rank them and then see what is to be
done.
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The leader of the gathering is called upon to display the thoughts, deliverables to whatever is
left of the group onlookers. The variety of good, broadening thought issues, influences or
incredible, vast to bunch persuading, innovative showing. Attributes and quantities that will
satisfy some current needs are selected. So, what we do? So, you have multiple groups
formed, and you had a leader.
So, each leader will come and present the groups problems or solutions, he will come and
present. Now, when he comes and presents, so the others will all try to have a look, and they
will all have an opportunity of expanding their ideas and the new thoughts, broadening it, and
then they try to find out different concepts and then come towards the solution.
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So, this is a large group which we were discussing; a large group. So, this large group is split
into small teams. So, these are small teams, ok. These small teams evaluate; here you have
ideas, evaluating ideas, ok. And then, what happens, we try to join back and put all those
things into a board or something, which is new product development ideas. So, you will have
many things here and then it develops, so, this is ideas. So, these are all ideas; which are
evaluated ideas.
So, this is a buzz session technique, large group, small teams, large group; you split into
small teams, small teams you get ideas. These ideas are evaluated and then it is put on a
board and where and which you try to put: pick and paste, cut and do technologies and then
you try to put all the new ideas. When you put the ideas, you also try to put attributes to the
ideas and start working on it.
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The Crawford slip writing technique. This is another technique uniquely suited for a huge
group of onlookers. This method is a type of individual brainstorming. This procedure gives
numerous plants to an extensive variety of various issues in a single session in a brief time
frame. It is simple, powerful way to gather ideas to address issues facing your work area, ok.
So, this is what is the Crawford slip writing technique. You put all these name tags and then
you attach these tags with each other and then you try it or this can be major point, a legend
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point. And you have all the other things attached with the legend point; you can discuss, so
that is what is Crawford writing.
So, in this writing a, by writing down the ideas, everyone will have an equal chance to have
heard, which is not usually in the case of traditional meeting. Suppose if 6 people are there,
when I try to say, you should understand one thing, data, information and knowledge, ok.
Data are multiple; from that we get to have some knowledge, from that we get an
information, information to knowledge.
When we start doing this data to information, information to knowledge, it is always a

normalisation technique. So, when we do normalization, data a lot of variance in the data
points are lost, so that is what is written here. By writing down ideas, we give them piece of
paper, we tell them the problem statement, we ask everybody please put down all your
thoughts in a board. So, we will look at the board and then decide.
So, by writing down ideas, everyone will have an equal chance to be heard, which is not
usually the case in the traditional meeting. You can address both general and specific
problems with this method, making it quite versatile. It is a time-efficient way of gathering
ideas, rather than having an open brainstorm session. So, many people are introverts, they do
not even open out. On a lighter note, when a father and a son talks in the traditional Indian
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cultural way, this son does not talk to the father, the subordinate does not talk to his boss,
right.
So, if you do a brainstorming session also we will not have all the possible ideas getting out
of the group. So, this technique is proved to be more and more successful. There is a plenty
of time to review all the ideas after meeting has ended, meaning you can take a clear picture
of the thought of individuals in your organisation, sit back and play with it and start solving
it. So, this is what is the Crawford slip writing technique.
Use idea simulator at this point; when the flow on the development of thought appears to
back off, amid utilising the creative problem-solving techniques, the utilisation of idea
simulator can be presented. Setting an inventor environment, encourage calculated risk by
allowing room for failures and tolerance for honest mistakes, ok. Encourage people to talk to
each other and promote the cross pollination of ideas. Minimize competitive turf issues and
inter-functional squabbles ok. So, these are simulators. You say them hey, you tell me the
truth, I will not beat. You try to work on this idea if it is a failure I still support you; these are
all stimulators, ok.
So, nowadays what we do is including the results, what we do is we try to pick up, hand pick
people; who are experts in that area, try to take them to a hill top or try to take them to a very,
very nature beautiful place and then hope keep all the experts together for a week or for 3
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days and start discussing them. So, we give them a wonderful treatment, give them a
wonderful room, give them a wonderful room where every facility is there. So, they start
discussing and the entire ambience is a stimulator for them, ok. Today nowadays in big
institutes, in renowned institutes, the classroom is held in open air. They sit down below a
tree and then start doing it. So, they say the environment is stimulator, so the students can
learn more. So, stimulators are many, ok.
So, the using idea of stimulator is better thing. Recognising that creative people tend to differ
from most others and tolerate from the ideologies. Supporting preparatory decision-making
and employees contribution provide fast evaluation and feedback of ideas when they are
submitted. Be willing to consider partial thought out ideas and give people time to develop
the thoughts.
Many a times in a meeting what happens peoples where I am half way, so should I still
present, and then say no do not waste our time, but no it is not so. You should give them
enough time, you say please go ahead, let us see if there is any interesting thing coming up,
so that is what is the things.
And idea stimulator, I will tell you another thing; in Toyota company what they do is, they
have a policy that the employees are allowed to give ideas, which innovative ideas, are
improvising ideas inside their factory premises, also whatever good for the employees. And
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the whenever they give an idea; they get a ice cream token. So, what happens now in that
company is peoples they wanted an ice cream, so they start writing out multiple ideas and
they keep doing it.
So, they get for each idea, they drop it is a coupon and they don’t look into the idea; whether
it is good, bad, feasible, non-feasible anything, for an idea you get an ice cream. So, now
what has happened people after a period of time, they would have been exhausted with
number of ideas, number of problems. And now what will happen is they will really looks
stringently for a problem to solve. So, by this is a simulator and this gives them a possibility
of giving more solutions to the problem and improvising.
The company has got a huge benefit out of it. So, when you try to do this idea simulator, we
can have examples, we can have multiple examples. So, these are the things and we can have
solutions. These are examples and these are solutions. And these are attributes, and then you
can have this as solutions. So, all these attributes can be fixed here, and then you can have
multiple solutions to solve; whatever it is. So, it is like a tic tac toe, you tried solving it then,
then you get it. So, this is one way of doing it.
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Delphi technique; Delphi technique is, you talk to expert and then ask experts opinion and
then get the make a questionnaire, talk to him and then they start giving you creative
techniques, they give lot of ideas, so that is Delphi technique. Delphi technique sometimes; it
gets cute also. So, many a times if the expert is all are of likeminded people, all have a same
view of thought and all of them are artists.
So, they all have a similar thinking, when and then the problem might gets cured. But talking
to an expert will always give you more insight to problem. It is a method of pulling large
number of expert’s judgement through a series of increasing fined questioners. It was
originated originally in 1950 and even today it is followed, then voice of customer are ask are
when the ideas are to be generator. So, we always look at wise. It is a structured variant of
traditional expert polls and is usually used in forecasting Delphi technique is used in
forecasting; whether this business to go or not.
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So, Delphi technique involves circulating questionnaire. The administrator of the Delphi
method makes a decision based on the results in the round. Delphi method helps the group
reach consensus without influence of any strong member in the Delphi technique.
So, moving further, so this is creativity. So, if you see here, creativity ability versus age, this
is the age. When you are moving to the age of 5, you have maximum creativity; 0 to 5 you
have maximum creativity. After that the curve starts dropping a down maybe, you start
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studying in a structured way. So, all your creativity goes down drastically, ok. So, after
coming here, this might be at the age of maybe 40 or 50 or 60, so the creativity goes in the
negative side.
So, what is the creativity goes in negative side? Creativity, when it goes in the negative side,
you become judgemental, judicial. So, you become judgemental. So, judgemental means your
imagination is stop, you start critically looking and start commenting. The creativity goes
down, when you have a formal education. So, this is a time, you do not; this is why we start
our first standard class from here, grade 1 from here, ok.
Many companies, many countries shift that grade 1 to 6 years or 7 years also. So, there they
understand and they say that if we could have a unstructured way of learning things, then it is
good they try to evolve of their own. If there is a structural learning, evolution becomes little
more tougher. So, in Japan what they do is up to the age of maybe 3rd grade or 4th grade,
they do not even have examination, they learn, what is manner, they learn discipline, they
learn to respect each other, they learn to work in team. So, these are the things which they do
up to grade 3. So, you see that the creativity potential goes very high for them. The graph
may be shifted to this point.
And then, once you have a structured thing, what happens is; when you have structured thing
people start putting sense and then they say it is not feasible, because of this, this in is all
your crazy ideas are killed. In fact, there is a saying that big gurus, they keep saying that in
companies, you should have a separate time saying that crazy ideas time in a week 1 hour
each department should have crazy ideas hour. So, during that time people keep throwing all
crazy ideas and we keep noting those things maybe in that we can do, when we do cut and
paste, we get out a good solution to solve a particular problem, ok.
So, this is what is creativity, imagination, ingenuity and curiosity, keeps increasing until the
age of 4 or 5, then it start decreasing, because you get a structured education. And then once
you start working, this goes down and you start doing it. So, this is the result of creativity and
training and this is judicial. And the here you become more judgmental and your creativity is
reduced. So, this is what is the negative plane. You will have a zero plane, when you finish
your education ok. So, this is a very, very important graph, you should understand this with
respect to age how do you go about.
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So, to recap in this particular chapter, we try to cover what do you understand by creativity
and what are the two general process of solve problem-solving, what are the steps involved in
creative process? What are the main blocks of creativity, we saw what are the different
factors conducive to creativity, what are the creative techniques which help in identify and
solving the problem. Here we saw many, many, many, many techniques and at the last we
saw what is the link between the creating ability and age, so we saw that.
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So, I have a question or an assignment to add. So, you will have an assignment, again not to
be submitted assign, ok. Since I have written assignments, I will have to give you 2
assignments. So, one assignment is you will try to take a piece of paper; ok, try to take a
piece of paper and tried giving it this is to a child ok, try to take a piece of paper and tell the
child to convert, it into any 3D form. You will not give any other devices, glue not allowed;
ok, no other devices you will provide. You will give him A-4 sheet and then tell him; please
convert this A4 sheet, which is a 2D into a 3D form. This you will go give it to a child.
So, now, what will happen is, let us put 3 categories of child 0 to 5, 5 to 10 years, 10 to 15
years; ok. And then what you do is you will try to take the same A-4 sheet; a 2D A-4 sheet
ok. Now, your age group is going to be 15 to 20, 20 to 30, 30 to 40, you will try to show
them. And then ask them to convert it into a 3D form; ok, again I will not give any devices,
inside the 3D form, I will try to keep an egg and drop the egg from a height of 5 meters or
maybe. So, if you want to make it feasible, we can make it as 3 metres; second floors, 3
meters or 4 meters.
So, you will say I am giving you an A-4 sheet or you give them a A-4 card board sheet,
slightly thick; ok, cardboard sheet. And tell them that they have to converted into a form, into
a box, where which inside the box I am going to keep an egg and I am going to drop the egg
from 3 meters. The egg should not get damaged, ask him to do this. So, you will see what
amount of creativity comes.
And you also have a timeline. So, you give them both a time of 30 minutes, because nobody
has infinity time so, you do it; ok. Depending upon your age, you yourself can pick one
assignment for you and the rest to you can ask your friends to do it; ok. So, please do this
assignment. So, this is a problem where and which it has to be converted into a creative
thinking and you get a solution of it.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 23d
Frugal Innovation
Welcome, to the next lecture on Frugal Innovation.
So, frugal innovation is now the talk of the town when you are trying to talk about any of
the product designs. So, frugal is also called as sustainable innovation. So, what is
sustainable? Sustainable means we are trying to use minimum resources without
sacrificing the customer’s satisfaction. So, what is customer satisfaction? Whatever
customer intended to make or get through a product, he should not find it difficult, he
should still enjoy using the same product, but the resources which is involved in making
the product has to be as economical as possible.
So, for example, modular design which is followed in product design is part of
sustainable innovation where we talk about frugal innovation. It is a very important topic
and there is a difference between frugal and Jugaad. Frugal means where you try to
reproduce the same design same process and it has good repeatability and reliability, that
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is frugal. When you say Jugaad; Jugaadis one time solution which need not be efficient
which need not be economical, but it has temporarily given a solution where in which we
do not bother about the effect.
For example, Jugaad, the plastic bags I would say it is a Jugaad technology. People
wanted to have carry bags so, plastic came into existence. Now, everybody was happily
using plastic bags then the cost became very economical because of competitive market.
Today, the spreading of plastic is more and now we realise that it is now creating lot of
damage to mother earth. So, it is a Jugaad solution and now people realise so, plastics is
going to create a problem. So, slowly let us get away from this plastic, but frugal is a
cloth bag. You make a cloth produce your cloth bag which is reliable repeatable and
which is giving customer satisfaction so, everything. So, that is frugal.
There is several frugal successes which Indians have demonstrated which we will see in
the last phase of this lecture.
So, in the frugal innovation we will be covering introduction to frugal innovation; frugal
versus regular innovation, there is a difference between regular and frugal; reverse
diffusion process; frugal innovation, the challenge; frugal innovation value chain model
we will see; frugal innovation process and what are the traits required for a frugal
innovator and the last we will see some three examples where in India successfully
frugal innovation has been demonstrated.
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So, when we talk about frugal innovation, the study of innovation has been subjected to
various paradigmatic shifts, in the recent decade that is, from push to pull. So, what is
push and what is pull? Push is there is a technology which is recently developed and
people do not, the market does not understand whether that is needed or not. So, that the
company tries to push into the market is push. So, it is always called as technology push;
smart phone – technology push, right. So, pull, market pull; market pull is there is a
needy customer there is a needy customer who wanted a solution and a customer wants.
So, what we do is we try to move towards pull; from push to pull.
So, today when we talk about ERP system enterprise resource planning system it all
works almost on the pull system. What customer wants they forecast and they start
producing it for their requirements, from open to close, from producer to user, from
profit driven to social? So, all these things are major paradigmatic shift which is
happening in the recent market.
So, from profit driven to social. So, earlier people were thinking of making only profit.
Plastic bags – company which make plastic bags they are looking for their profit but,
they did not think of social cause. But, today there is here major shift in the companies
look out profit driven to social. So, what they say is not that they are going to sacrifice
their profit, but they are not going to give so much of weight-age to profit, but give
weight-age to social those changes in the understanding of innovation has often been
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preceded by radical transformation of the economy to the social landscape. From
economy to social landscape is what the people are thinking for and for this, frugal
innovation is important topic. In the past decade yet another shift has started was
materialize.
The definition is, as the process of frugal innovation discovers new business models,
reconfigures value chain, redesigns product to serve user who face extreme affordability
constraints, in a scalable and a sustainable manner. Extreme affordability constraint; for
example, today in medical field the hospitals are giving good cab, but the only thing is
customers are not able to be happy after this care is because their costs are exorbitant.
So, people are nowadays looking for good service, economical casting, ok.
So, it the frugal innovation discovers a new business model. So, you have to re-change
the business model whatever you had from push to pull is an business model, reconfigure
value chains, how should it be the market supply, should be used for resources which is
available in some other country or should be look for resources locally. Government of
India is now taking lot of initiatives in the construction industry, how to use the locally
available resources for construction? For example, in north east, bamboo is available can
we think of using bamboo exorbitantly instead of steel rods; we are looking forward.
So, reconfiguring the chains; redesigning products to serve user who face extreme
affordable constraints. For example, let us take a smart phone, in a smart phone today
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which is worth of 30000 rupees or 40000 rupees. The company gives an ad saying that
my smart phone is used for more than 150 to 200 apps to operate on a smart phone is
fabulous, but how many apps do we use? 10? Maybe 20. So, but you have given your
cost of 40000 and got a higher rate smart phone wherein when you can run 150 apps
whereas, your requirement was only 20 apps.
So, now, this frugal innovation says that if you want 20 apps to be operated by a product
which can which can operate 40 apps. So, the cost comes down, the resources which is
involved in developing the product comes low and the cost of the smart phone comes
low, it becomes affordable, ok. The other thing is when you talk about medical industry
what has happened is there are several successful stories in India which has been which
has been demonstrated using frugal. What happens is in medical industry the ampoule
whatever the doctor brakes, a patient might require half of the ampoule or three fourth or
quarter of an ampoule.
And, so, the when the ampoule is broken if this ampoule of medicine could be served for
two three people the cost which is involved for buying that will be divided into three or
four. So, per person cost goes low, frugal. Second thing is there are there is a great
demand of skilled doctors today or expert doctors today or specialist doctors today. If the
specialist doctor is involved for making simultaneous operation for four – five patients, if
his time is rationalized, six patients get benefited because of the sharing of the resources
a skilled doctor. So, the cost per patient also goes low; the doctor is also able to offered
his services to many patients simultaneously.
So, this is what is a frugal innovation model and what they do in this model is they train
the paramedic to such a level such that they do half of doctor job, but they try to do it
very meticulously and when they have four patients to be catered, the all the four can be
catered simultaneously. So, the benefit is given a lot. So, the turn over time per bed in the
hospital is also reduced; that means, to say they are able to they are able to cater to more
patients in a given time. So, that is a new business model. So, this is what is frugal.
In a scalable and sustainable manner, sustainability is always a problem. Today, I buy a

machine, I buy a machine, I buy a house; today, I am affordable, I have lot of money, I
have lot of energy. So, I buy a house, buy a costly car, but over a period of time I realise
the product needs regular maintenance, so, which is again expensive. So, which it is not a
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sustainable model. So, we have to buy things wherein which we could maintain and take
care that is sustainable manner.
It involves either overcoming or tapping institutional voids and resources constraints to

create more inclusive market, this is what is the definition which is given by Bhatti in
2011. It involves either overcoming or tapping institutional voids and the resources
constraints to create more inclusive market is another definition for frugal. Simply frugal
innovation provides functional solution through few resources for many who have little
means, very beautifully, very crisply define definition. So, functional solution through
few resources for many who had little means; so, you are able to give satisfaction to so
many customers in an economical way.
This is what is a very simple frugal definition.
So, performance and cost: if you see the performance and if you see the cost this the
performance is low the performance is low the cost is low heat is called as cheap
products or products which do not have repeatability, reliability and more of customer
satisfaction and people would like to go from here to here; that means, to say they would
like to have a higher performance higher performance from the same product at a higher
price. So, this leads to lot of customer satisfaction.
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But, the basic question is who will give the cost? Who will give the cost? So, people
today are looking for, can I shift the cost to low here, but still have higher performance.
So, this portion is nothing, but frugal innovation, ok.
So, this graph clearly compares frugal versus regular innovation, is that is clear. So,
higher performance and lower cost is frugal. This is what people are looking forward. It
is a huge challenge by the way; it is a very huge challenge. It is not only in product
design, it also goes into services. It also, you see in the when we buy products we also
have packaging. So, many of the packaging’s are made out of plastic. So, these plastics
are not so eco friendly. So, now, people are looking for can we make an eco friendly
solution for packaging, ok.
And, recently when I was reading through an article I saw people have started making
waste into value added products. So, they say waste is now so are resource for making
value added products. So, they take the waste convert the waste into a useful product and
they start giving it to the customers. So, let us compare and see the frugal innovation
versus standard innovation or a regular innovation.
When we compare so, these are the parameters where in which we compare these two;
environment if you say institutional voids and resource constraints are there in frugal
high quality institutions and slack resources are there in standard innovation. When we
talk about cost it is always low cost input and low cost output. So, here it is high cost
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input and high cost output, this is the comparison. So, if diffusion approach it is always
bottom up approach, it is top down approach. So, what also frugal says as see the bottom
of the triangle is very large. So, frugal always tries to attack here and standard innovation
they try to attack in this portion, standard. So, this is the bottom of the triangle, right. So,
it is always a bottom up approach when it goes for frugal, when standard it is always top
down approach.
The users are lately majority, low income, limited education. So, think of it, when people
have limited education how are you going to sell your product. I would I am always
amazed with the product called cell phone. Cell phone came into existence in the last 20
years 20 to 25 years, right. So, in the last 20 to 25 years it came into existence, nobody
was even aware of a cell phone. Today, everybody uses cell phone left and right.
For example, my son who is in eighth standard uses a cell phone, my another son who is
in third standard uses a cell phone, my wife who is a school teacher uses a cell phone,
my father in law who is not even a graduate so, he uses a cell phone, right. My milkmaid,
milkman who is completely illiterate, who does not know to read and write also uses a
smart phone. They all enjoy the app called the Whatsapp; everybody enjoys it. Nobody
has undergone a training program, look at it. Nobody has undergone a training program,
a legal training program.
If you look at it is really complex to understand how to login, how to start using a
Whatsapp, how to communicate, how to receive message, how to convert your Whatsapp
photo into an email, how to convert an email message into a pdf and then take it back to
Whatsapp, all these things are a complex thing. We all do it is involuntarily you all do it
involuntarily; that means, to say we are we are doing it without undergoing a training,
just we found out there is a necessity and the device is so user friendly. So, we are able to
move things up and down very fast. So, that is what is, talk about limited education.
Frugal innovation the smart phone is a frugal innovation by the way, it is an innovation.
It has outwit and laptops; laptops at one point of time where around about a lakh. Today
it has come down to 15000 and 18000. You have tab which competitive it is came into
competition, now tab is slowly pushed out of the market because of smart phone, smart
phone which was started initially for hello hello today hello hello has become very minor
application of the entire smart phone.
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So, look at it the user, limited education, income; my milkman who does not have an
income more than 15000 holds a phone of worth of 8000. Half of his salary he invests on
a cell phone, why? because he understood the importance of technology and the usage of
it very well. When you go to user of standard innovator, early adopters, highly high
income people and highly educated people start using it. Resources, entrepreneurs,
family business group and social movements are the resources for frugal innovation.
Entrepreneurs and large organisation come to standard innovation. The process is open
and distributed, it is always closed. For example, bigger companies hold an IPR or they
do not even file a patent, but they hold everything within them.
For example, innovation standard innovation is your Pepsi and Coke; the formula is not
known to anybody, but the products are distributed, everything is done, right. The
characteristics are primarily architecture, here it is primarily component; architecture
means if it starts from the output and goes towards the input standard. Sometimes it start
from the basic things and then goes towards an output product.
The frugal innovation versus social entrepreneurship, these two are different. The two
are not mutually exclusive and nor is one a subset of the other. Please understand the
difference, very important. There can be overlapping concerned as frugal innovation and
social enterprise commonly agree on who to who to benefit, but they differ on how this is
best achieved.
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So, frugal always talks about how do we best achieve; social enterprise is general stem
from a from a notion that the affluent particularly those in the west can promote
development using business models that are self sustaining, ok. This is social and this is
frugal.
Frugal versus quality on the contrary, it needs to be highly robust giving the extreme
environments in which the innovation functions, ok. So, frugal does not mean that it is a
poor quality, frugal means it is also good quality. Further the innovation need to be very
intuitive to use and require very little servicing. The innovation need to be very intuitive
to use.
The button should try to lead you to the usage, when it is the button should not be in such
a way such that you have to really understand what are all the functions and then start
using and require a very little servicing, that is what is frugal. You might call solution for
dummies, this is a common USP for frugal. So, without even knowing the system by
looking at the system if you can put a simple amount of logics and start moving you will
be able to solve the problems.
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So, the dimensions on which firms frugally innovate, you have these are the dimensions
one is input costs and R and D, scale up scale up quality distribution, output cost and
affordability, adaptability, performance servicing. Your model should always be
adaptable; that means to say it has to look for mass customisation. The product should
look for mass customisation. This should also be thought of when you try to develop the
product, is that clear? So, when you talk about input cost, the output cost should be
affordability.
Performance, you cannot sacrifice performance and quality, ok. High quality, poor
performance, no. High quality, high performance is required servicing is also very
important. If you follow the concept of modularity you throw away a part or you remove
certain portions; it should not be 100 percent use and throw. You should be, given your
freedom where in which you can start working on certain things and start using it. So,
frugal innovation is nothing, but simplification these are the dimensions, please keep it in
mind. Cost, scale up, quality, distribution, affordability, adaptability, performance and
servicing.
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So, reverse diffusion process; this is called as reverse diffusion process. Frugal-reverse-
cost-BOP-innovation. Frugal innovation phenomena may also be called as reverse
innovation; frugal is otherwise called as reverse innovation. If GE does not master
reverse innovation, the merging giant could destroy the company. So, this was a
statement made.
Although there are several dimensions to frugal innovations, the overarching theme is
simplification in process and outcome. So, this is what a bigger corporate company look
forward and they get it done. There can be many connotations for reverse which are
similar to frugal innovation in both process and outcome.
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So, reverse diffusion process. Reverse diffusion and globalisation; this is the top down
approach; this is the bottom up approach. Top down approach is the traditional top down
innovation diffusion always comes from here. It is costly and it goes down the bottom of
pyramid it goes like this. So, mass customer needs are triggered frugal constraint based
innovation from emerging market. So, this is what it is. I used to say give a one simple
example, providing drinking water at an affordable price maybe 3 rupees a litre from 10
– 15 rupees to 3 rupees a litre; providing a shirt, a full hand shirt for 30 rupees, possible.
There when I was young there used to be a there used to be a company where, it was the
first time it came in my hometown that company used to sell shirts at 60 rupees whereas,
that time a meter cost when I was young we used to buy it in meter go to a tailor get it
stitched. So, I buy a cloth then I go to a tailor stitch it and then I wear it I stitch it and
then wear it that cost was more than 120 to 130 rupees for a shirt, right. But, these shirts
was given for 50 rupees and 60 rupees people said no, no, no, this is more of a duplicate
cloth and this the reliabilities, poor repeatability, poor it will fade down very fast, but no
they followed frugal, that is what it is.
Bottom of the pyramid mass customer needs are triggering frugal – constraint based
innovations from emerging market. So, it went like this. So, this is a top down approach,
this is a bottom up approach. New emerging market firms bottom up innovation
diffusion starts from the lower side of the triangle and it goes to the upper side of the
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triangle. So, this is one. Then the second thing is capital enriching emerging market
giants are gobbling up western firms. So, this one is the second thing.
So, what is happening is, the capital enriching emerging market giants are gobbling up
the western firms and the third one is new emerging market MNCs with global reach are
better equipped to full fill needs to all levels of the custom consumer pyramid in different
markets. So, this is what that latest thing, which is coming up is, new emerging market
MNCs with global reach are better equipped to fulfil needs at all levels of the consumer.
So, now the big companies what they are trying to do is they are trying to give solutions
to all the three levels of the triangle. So, moving up the pyramid from emerging market
leader versus traditional moving down, so, this was traditional and this is the latest need
of the hour.
Firstly frugal or reverse innovation integrate specific needs of the bottom of the pyramid
market as a starting point and work backward to develop appropriate solution which may
be significantly different from existing solution designed to address needs of the up
market segment. Firstly, frugal or reverse innovation integrates specific needs of the
bottom of the pyramid market. First they always try to give a solution for the bottom of
the pyramid market at the starting point and work backwards to develop appropriate
solution, for them they try to develop solutions. These solutions can be completely new
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from the existing ones which maybe significantly different from the existing solution
design to address the need of the upper segment market.
So, you might in the triangle, you might have a solution for the upper segment there is a
solution already available, but when you look at the bottom segment there has a huge
mass there is a huge need. So, this can be this solution need not be brought down here,
but revise the solution and bring it to them such that they are affordable and enjoy the
product.
The context in which the innovation is seen occurring, it lies in developing market. It is a
clear adaption to the often poor logical infrastructure facilities with respect to energy
delivery system, water access, transport infrastructure and digital access. For example,
people have would like to have a comfortable car drive in the city while commuting in
the city. So, it is personalized vehicle where in which enough comfort is given in the car
and then people use the car for commuting from their house to office. Then slowly the
pollution start at the traffic jam started, people started taking long time to go.
Now, what has happened is lot of countries or developed countries developing countries
metros have started metros have started. The metros have air conditioned environment
and you have your own personalized equipments available today. So, the journey
travelling by car is cut short and the comfort is more as compared to that of the car. So,
now, people start looking for; this is a frugal solution, by the way this is a frugal solution
and the solution car is now changed for mass is metro and people enjoy this metro and
start moving here and there.
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Secondly there is a reverse process of diffusion among consumers there is a reverse

process of diffusion among consumers innovation is often perceived in the developed
world as technological revolutionary products tried and tested by innovators and early
adopters, ok. The innovation is often perceived in the developed world as technological
revolutionary products tried and tested by innovators and early adopters.
For example, cell phone with a torch light is an example which was not there the torch
light was not there when Nokia developed this design I was sitting in Finland it was
tested, it was proved success, but when they came to India they realise the torch light is
any necessary even to be present in the cell phone and they took it back and integrated
today. So, the innovation is often perceived in the developed world as technological
revolutionary products, ok, they accepted a cell phone, tried and tested by innovators and
early adopter.
Trendy and expensive products are accepted by the top of the pyramid first when which
then gets trickled down to the masses or early and late majority customers. Professional
groups in the highest income bracket in society that constitutes the tip of the income
pyramid acts as an early adopter and the first try-out group contributes to the innovation
monopoly rents on the innovative firms.
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So, they always try to make an innovative product and attack at the top end. For them it
is affordable and they are the people with whom they are tested, but it has to happen here
for frugal innovation.
So, when we see the process. So, innovators are 2.5 percent, early adaptors are 13.5
percent, early majority are 34 percent, late majority are 34 percent; laggards are 16
percent. So, this is a typical direction for innovation diffusion to happen and any event to
happen follows a binomial distribution.
And, when we look at the market share what happens is when it is innovator market it is
always it is 2.5 percent it is very less. So, if you see the market is here, then when we
talk about early innovators, it is here close to 25; when you talk about 30 35, it is here,
when you talk about 50, it is here. So, this is a graph which talks about market share
percentage market share percentage with respect to the developing, and if you see
typically what happens this is how the innovation gets diffused, but what frugal wants is
from here. So, laggards, late majority, they wanted to use and this is, a frugal innovation
has to happen.
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The first challenge the frugal innovation the challenges are the first challenge is that is
resource constraints, refers to the resource scarcity that prevail in the developed market.
Either the necessary resources are simply not available or people lack the means to
access them. For example, human resource is also a resource apart from materials
resource, and apart from energy resource. So, first challenge is the resource constraints
refers to the source of scarcity, that prevails in the developed country.
The second challenge refers to a variation of resource constraints that rather than being
faced at the upstream part of the value chain concerns the downstream part. With poverty
being omnipresent innovators have to realise that affordability constraint, that is lack of
purchasing power can pose yet another barrier for innovation, ok. The, this is the
variation of resource constraints that rather than being faced at the upstream of the value
chain concerned the downstream part.
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The moving beyond resource constraints addresses the institutional contacts as the third
constraint or a third challenge of innovation that exist in the emerging market. While the
features generally stifle business activities by increasing transaction cost and therefore,
represent a major hurdle for MNCs and enterprise they at some time create an ideal
context of rethinking one’s prevalent assumptions about the innovation while the features
generally stifle business activities by increasing transaction cost, transportation cost and
therefore, represent a major hurdle for MNCs and enterprises, they at at the same time
create an ideal context for rethinking once prevalent assumptions about the innovation.
So, this is a big challenge institutional context, address the institutional contexts to the
next challenge.
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When we talk about the value chain model value chain model of frugal innovation based
on contextual environment is upstream input is capital skill and labour and these are the
resource scarcities by the way these are the resource scarcities and you see upstream
inputs and downstream inputs; downstream inputs are customer with low affordability is
an is a downstream output. So, here it is upstream input is capital, skill, labour then we
have contracts, rules trust and legitimacy. These are institutional voids. These are
resource scarcity, these are institutional voids.
Contracts, rules, trust, legitimacy, distribution and supply chain for access. This in the
innovation side, this is the institutional void. So, this is a graph or this is here figure
schematic diagram or a block diagram or a schematic diagram a block diagram which
talks about the value chain model of frugal innovation capital, skill, labour, contract,
rules, trust, legitimacy, customer with lower affordability, distribution and supply chain
for access.
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The frugal innovation process starts with knowledge of the local context with various
scholars conclude that the process of frugal innovation appears to require a high level of
embedded-ness in the local context of the target of the target market. For example,
whenever we start developing a product design what we do is we do lot of cut and paste
from the data available from the websites available, we start looking at those things as
reference material and we start developing it.
Many other reference document and material are all available in the developed countries
and at few metros in India where the companies have their extension counter. If you are
staying in a remote place,ok, remote place or in particular country like developing
country like India there you might not get several of these resources which are used in
the design which is available in the design to copy and do it in your product because
those things are not available.
So, I had a good friend of mine professor Prashanth Kumar who always used to say
moment you make a design then go to the market and look at the market and make a list
of all available items which is in the market, then come back; sit on your design table
and start relooking into the design with the locally available material and improvise your
design. Why? because the cost is going to be affordable the time is not going to be
expensive. So, you do not have to have a large waiting time and the third thing is you
should understand the skill what is available with us.
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So, in the local market what is a skill. So, that is what knowledge on the local context is
very important. People think of constructing huge buildings, but if there is a scarcity for
the construction material, then you cannot construct it; it becomes too expensive. So, the
knowledge of the local context is very important understand the customer, understand the
resources and start thinking for a product.
Collaboration – today’s world in innovation; innovation is a team effort. Innovation does

not need intelligence. Innovation needs a problem solver; who can understand customer
voice and sit down with people and start developing an output for that thing,
collaboration. Collaboration with external partners throughout all phases of the
innovation process and often from various geography and industries seem to be another
crucial part of the frugal innovation process.
Collaboration with external partners; for example, you can develop a product design you
can do POC, but selling it in market, sales is not your job. So, you cannot do sales. So,
you look for a partner or you will while developing the product itself you establish some
vendors who can machine it for you, make it for you. So, subcontracting collaborate with
external partners throughout all the phases of innovate innovation process and often from
various geographies and industries seem to be another crucial part of the frugal
innovation. The reasons are manifold, but mainly related to cost reduction and
knowledge access.
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So, the purpose of external collaboration in frugal innovation process, these are costs. It
helps considerable considerably in reducing the cost of the ownership of the customer.
Knowledge – it enables access to the prior the proprietary knowledge and the crucial
technical or market known how thereby shortening the learning curve reducing the
innovation risk and ultimately increasing the quality. So, what happens today is, in
almost all the government projects today which is released by Government of India they
there is a provision of appointing consultant. So, consultant means who is who has a very
good knowledge in a very narrow field which can be picked up and used to for your
product development. So, that is what knowledge is.
Promotion, it enhances the brand image and the quality perception from the population.
For example, brand image when somebody sees like this on a shoe, they always say it is
a Nike shoe, the brand value is built in. So, they say if they see this model they say it is a
good shoe, good quality shoe. If you can try to market with those people under their
banner that is what is promotion where in which we always look for external
collaboration.
Distribution, it allows improved access to another extremely dispersed customer based.

For example, if you can make products and tie up with some of the big malls because big
supply chain or big food chain vendors then it becomes easy for you to sell your product.
So, you need to have cost collaboration, knowledge collaboration, promotional

collaboration and distribution collaboration for your frugal innovative product.
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The third thing is going to be clean slate approach. When the clean slate approach is
whenever you are trying to solve your problem do not go with preconceived solution, try
to look at the problem from a clean slate, look at it from all perspective customers
perspective and try to give a solution. Frugal suggests that the frugal innovation is to be
approach from a clean slate approach. So, it is important to note that clean slate does not
refer to stripping down of an existing product, but rather approaching innovation with an
open minded innovation starting from the scratch, ok. It is not to criticize, it is only to
start from the scratch and go solving this problem.
You using existing technologies do not try to reinvent the wheel that is what is here.
Arguing for a clean slate approach does not mean that a firm pursues frugal innovation
should discard the existing technologies extremely. You should not discard the
technology; you should only start giving solution for the customer wise product. So, that
is what is an extreme technology were talking about.
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Business model innovation: the frugal innovation often involves a creation of a new
business model as in many cases the existing approach to doing business does not fit that
descriptive character of frugal innovation. For example, online purchase; today online
purchase has come up to purchase big extend that people have start and start stopping to
go to window shopping. So, the window shopping today it is done digitally. People look
at the price, people look at comparison of the prices, people try to book it online and the
delivery of the product happens at home. If the product is damage it is taken as return, it
is reply it is new one is issued or the money is refunded.
So, these are all new business models which has completely made towards digitisation
and people start enjoying it. Ola and Uber are a new business model innovation, ok.
People are able to offered for the for the solution or for the service whatever they take
and it is a sustainable solution. The driver gets the salary, the customer pays the money
either through digital or through cash, he has a freedom and he knows what the waiting
time is, he knows the route with which the car travels, everything is known to him.
So, this is a business model in this way the frugal products and services often do not
limit to invention of a product or service itself, but also covers the diffusion and
operational aspects in context with which it functions.
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So, what are the frugal innovator traits? Building circular value network most companies
today corporate linear value chain in which the products are designed produced, sold and
consumed and end up in landfills. So, here what we talk about is circular value network.
So, for example, you buy a product. So, you try to. So, this is what it is in a very crude
faction it goes to reduce, reuse and recycle. So, what we are trying to talk about is these
two, in particular recycle. So, it was a landfill. So, so what we do is the product which
comes out goes back into the chain and keeps on moving, right.
So, crowd source solution: across sectors, businesses in the developed world now face
wicked problems that are complex and messy. Relying solely on, in house capability and
resources will not work as a strategy. So, crowd source solutions are something which is
now talked about much. So, whatever is the existing solution locally available they lead
to complex and messy solutions. So, people are saying that let us look at the solution
which is available in other place. For example, agriculture in Israel where there is not
much of water people do successful irrigation. So, that model can be copied to Indian
system, but, however, it has to be customise to Indian scenario. So, crowd solutions,
right; looking for solution available in different countries.
Simply structure, simplifying structures and empower employee. To save time and gain
agility companies must learn to flex their assets not just physically or service assets, but
also human assets. That means, to say they are the when you have to do frugal
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innovation one of the biggest resources is human resource. So, you have to train the
human resource to be flexible enough to work in different fields depending upon the
requirements coming.
The CEO must simplify organizational structures by eliminating bureaucracy. If frugal

has to happen the company has to should not have vertical structures, it should have a
horizontal structure. So, that means, to say everybody feels it is their company,
everybody feels it is their contributions, towards the welfare of the product. There is no
verticals; it is all to be has horizontal bills for the institute.
So, these institutes are very successful or companies are very successful use KPI to
incentivise and sustain frugal behaviour across the organisation. The CEO must create
simplified key performance indicator to drive frugal thinking and action at all levels. So,
giving incentive is another thing when somebody does this, key performance indicators
towards frugal. So, this includes recruitment, training, performance management and
incentive system.
Evangelize the do better with less mantra. So, this is what is again frugal. Company
should not merely communicate their bold frugal innovation goals by issuing press
release. Instead, corporate leaders must put their personal reputation on the line by
making major public announcements about these goals by restating them incessantly to
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employees, customers, innovators and partners. Do better with less is the mantra which is
used.
Then now we will see three or four examples which have been done by frugal. One
example is Mitticool. Mitticool mean it is a small refrigerator which is which is part of
for people below the poverty line; so, during summer to maintain fresh vegetables and
perishable items for a longer time.
So, Mitticool was a product which is very popular in India a traditional clay craftsman
because an expert in the field understood there is a customer wise. He started redrafting
the craft into yeah refrigerator from a pottery to a refrigerator. Prajapati, Mansukhbhai
Prajapati literally turned soil into gold. He harnessed the cooling property of clay and
created a low cost biodegradable refrigerator made out of clay called Mitticool. It
became an instant hit in his village and since then there is no look back for him. His
factory is producing other kitchenery because he knows how to convert clay into
biodegradable refrigerator.
So, he has started understanding that there is lot of need in the below the poverty line
kitchenware. So, he is other kitchenware is also made. This village entrepreneur has been
recognised and awarded by national and international organisations.
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So, he is the Prajapati and this is his products al the perishable items are kept inside. So,
he pours water on the top and the clay has a property of cooling. So, through this
property, he is able to maintain a cold environment, maintain the humidity to a large
extend and also maintain the temperature. So, he has extended the life of the perishable
goods. So, this is a frugal innovation.
The next frugal innovation is motorbike tractor. So, a tractor is very expensive.
Motorbike is the common vehicle a transport vehicle available in the villages. So, they
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have integrated the tractor the tractor the device of tractor which is used to plough the
field. So, they have in the integrated it to a bike. So, they have dismantled it, made an
adaptor, so it can be used to for both. It follows the concept of modularity.
So, Mansukhbhai motorbike turned tractor is both custom effective and fuel effective it
just takes thirty minutes it can plough an acre of land with meagre two litres of fuel this
Bullet Santi has helped to increase the productivity by cutting the cost of labour and
bullock carts. See, today machines are available for capital intensive machines are
available for big farmers, but for a small farmer who owns 1 acre and 2 acre there is a lot
of the developing agricultural implements for them. So, here is a frugal innovation which
is made and it is very successful.
So, Godrej Company came out with their innovation frugal innovation which is called as
chhotucool and chhotuwash. So, this is this is a refrigerator and this is a small washing
machine, ok. So, they came up with this Godrej. So, big companies have started
investing in frugal and they have also produced products which can be done.
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The biggest success which have had happened in India towards frugal is Jaipur legs.
Sethi, the Jaipur foot owner or as also known as Jaipur leg is a rubber made prosthetic
leg for a people with below knee amputation. So, this came up in a very big success and
today people from several underdeveloped countries come to India copy this model and
develop this idea to their take this idea to their country and Jaipur foot also hand holds
them towards the this thing and people the patients come here and they get affordable
rubber based per prosthetic legs for them.
The invention led the doctor Sethi won Magsaysay award for the community leadership
in 1981 and PadmaShri which is which is given by the Indian government in the same
here the NGO Bhagwan Mahaveer Viklang Shashwat Samiti BMVSS based in Jaipur
Rajasthan the world’s largest organisation serving disability is receiving government and
voluntary support from home and abroad to enable the disabled to stand on their own
feet.
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So, this is the Samiti which helps and this is a doctor who develop this foot and today, it
is used for servicing. People with lower amputation for them it is a god’s gift they could
they could walk they could start walking and getting better things done.
The last example is pedalling washing machine which was developed. Remya hated
washing clothes, but had no respite. She invented a washing cum exercising machine that
used pedalling rather than electricity to wash and dry clothes this is a frugal solution
which is made. So, she has taken the idea from a cycle. So, the cycle sprocket and wheel
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with the chain, she sat down there and she does exercising for a foot and parallely she
has simultaneously she has also started washing the clothes inside this bin.
So, frugal innovation is something Indians are very successful and they are looking for
an. Apart from that we have Arvind eye hospital, Hrudalaya hearts special hospital, there
are Narayana Hrudalaya. So, so many hospitals and so many companies have started
moving towards frugal innovation and India is one country which is more successful in
frugal innovation. So, I would like all the students to look forward for frugal solutions
for the existing problems.
So, to recap what is frugal innovation we saw, how is frugal different from regular
innovation we saw, what is reverse diffusion process, challenges faced in frugal
innovation, value chain model and what is it we saw, how do we pursue frugal
innovation. Then qualities in a frugal innovator – what all traits and qualities required
and some of the frugal successful frugal innovators or innovation which happened in
India we also saw very briefly.
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So, the task for the students are going to be the students are required to make or study
three case studies one is Arvind eye hospital model; model which is a very successful
frugal innovation model. There are many, but I am just taking you three cases. The next
one is Narayana heart example heart centre it is called as Narayana Hrudayalaya. So,
Narayana heart centre example this is at Bangalore and here also there is a case study
which is available there are lot of YouTube videos available, TEDx talks are available
and on top of it there is lot of pdf also available, please go through it and see how they do
the frugal innovation.
And, the last one is going to be you are going to look at lot of irrigation models where in
which frugal is now talked about, ok. So, these three examples or assignments are given
to you. You are supposed to read it and note it down. So, this helps you to further
appreciate the chapter whatever we studied on frugal innovation.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 24
Rapid Prototyping, and introduction
Good morning, welcome back to the course product design and manufacturing wherein
we are trying to learn the systematic procedure to obtain a final product from the very
basic thing from the idea generation only. So, till now what we have covered is we have
gone through basics of manufacturing, the systematic procedure for product development
and manufacturing also, value engineering quality function deployment which is a
technique to translate the customer needs into the manufacturer’s documents.
So, in this module I will cover Rapid Prototyping, which is a technique to quickly
produce the product or maybe the model. So, what is the prototype? Prototype is an early
simple or model that is used to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be
replicated or long term. This prototype can be a computer program; prototype can be a
physical product. We are more concerned with physical product here, we will try to
develop a physical model of the product which we have designed and we have made it to
pass through various stages various analysis and finally, we are ready with the CAD
model.
Now, after that we will like to have a physical product to see how does the product look
like the physical product in your hands example, to produce a prototype of this product
means to have physically this all these shapes contour then to have this pen in my hand
so, this is Rapid Prototyping.
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So, in this lecture I will try to give some introduction to Rapid Prototyping, then we will
see what is Additive Manufacturing. Rapid Prototyping is now also known as Additive
Manufacturing why it is so called? We will see Rapid Prototyping some history on this.
Topography, photo sculpture was a few techniques which were used in early nineteenth
century. So, we will see what are these things, then we will see that Rapid Prototyping is
an integral part of Concurrent Engineering. Concurrent Engineering is thinking about the
manufacturing preliminary design and the previous steps only.
Now, then we will go through the geometrical modeling techniques, these techniques are
maybe wire frame modeling, then we have surface modeling and solid modeling. Then
we will see how does the information flow in Rapid Prototyping, this is actually Rapid
Prototyping process or better to call it a Rapid Prototyping procedure.
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So, what is a Rapid Prototyping? The process of rapidly creating a system or part
representation this is known as Rapid Prototyping. Rapid Prototyping is used in a variety
of industries to describe a process for rapidly creating a system or part before the final
release. This is before the final release of product or before commercialization.
So, what manufacturing concerns are interested in, they wanted to they always would
need to test their product before making it to go to final user, they would like to check
that what is the feedback. They are first manufacture a few initial products, few early
samples they like to give it to some internal customers.
For example, I have been in hero cycles for what they do? They first produce the
bicycles the initial models and make the internal customers. The customers who are
within their factory they use the cycle for few days and they give the feedback and that is
why this Rapid Prototyping is also required. Though the cycles are not bicycles are not
produced by Rapid Prototyping, but here a Rapid Prototyping is required because, we
need to produce the product very quickly. It is said in manufacturing industry if you
snooze, you lose.
So, there needs to be some agile way some fast ways to produce a product to have the
physical form that is even sometimes workable. So, though output of this Rapid
Prototyping is a prototype or a model in our case, we are not talking about any software
prototype, but a physical model here physical model or a sample. This model is
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sometimes a working model as well, for instance if I say the physical model of a pen, the
pen model the body can be something working in which the filler can be put in.
So, in case of in certain models for example, the physical model of a car carburetor, car
carburetor needed needs to be the material has to be one that in material has to be
aluminum. So, this model can be working model or maybe if it is not working at least we
can have the field of the shape and contours of the thing.
In some cases, the working model can also be a working model if it can take a loads for
example, in case of this pen this pen outer body can be a working model because the
inner components can be put in. But, when we this is actually a stylus, if I talk about the
pen this inner refill the refill the ink cannot be created here the outer body can be a
physical prototype here. That is that is working in which this refill can be put in.
So, this prototype or model the more emphasis here is on creating something quickly and
the output is a prototype from which the further models are eventually final product to be
derived. The final product is derived from here is derived from this prototype.
In a product develop and contacts the term Rapid Prototyping was used widely to
describe technologies which created physical prototypes directly from digital data. So,
this allows users to test the product and provide feedback as well; Users of Rapid
Prototyping technology has come to realize that this term is inadequate.
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So, I will come with some other thing Additive Manufacturing. So, why do they think
that this term rapid proto time typing term is not very adequate we will see.
So, the most recent applications of technology that is the improvement in the quality of
the output from the Rapid Prototyping machines has meant that there is no there is a
much closer link to final product. For example, if I have my Rapid Prototyping product
and this is my final pen. So, it has a very close link right.
So, the users or the manufactures here think of why not to use this technique for final
manufacturing. As you know, the prototype is something that is the early product or the
initial product. The final manufacturing when is done through initially called Rapid
Prototyping process is called as Additive Manufacturing. As the additive approach is
used in Rapid Prototyping something some material is being added being deposited here
so, this is known as Additive Manufacturing here.
So, many parts are in fact, now directly manufacture in these machines so, it is not
possible for us to label the term as prototype. So, it is better to call it a product that is
Additive Manufacturing product. Now, these American society consensus standards now
use the term Additive Manufacturing. However, there still a conflict to use this term, but
it is widely accepted and even some of the journals Rapid Prototyping journal is now
known as Additive Manufacturing journal, the journal names are also renamed. The
recently formed technical committee has named this thing.
Now, next I will like to discuss how quick is Additive Manufacturing. Additively
manufacturing, the basic principle of this technology is that a model that is initially
generated using 3-dimensional computer aided design.
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We call it 3D CAD model. This can be fabricated directly fabricated directly from the
CAD model. This is the principle of Additive Manufacturing without any needs need of
process planning, there is no need of process planning here.
So, it looks like that because this time-consuming thing is missing so, this should be a
quick process. So, although this is not that simple, in it is first as it sounds here. The
Additive Manufacturing technology certainly significantly simplifies the process of
producing complex 3D objects directly from CAD data, but other manufacturing
processes require a careful, detailed analysis of the part geometry to determine things
like the order in which the features can be fabricated.
The features of a product for example: if I take the example of the pen only, pen has
various components here. It has a clip, it has a click button, it has a refill inside not the
part has various features see the contour is changing here; the contour is very much same
through this. So, this is one part, this is second part, this is third part, then the clip has to
be there, work material would it be, it has; it to be a metallic pen. In case of Additive
Manufacturing we only can have the materials for which powders or for which the liquid
material is (Refer Time: 12:27) raw material is available.
So, to decide these features is also a little complex thing. So, what tools and processes
must be required tools and processes for this one? And what are additional fixtures that
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are required additional fixtures to complete the part? So, this is a little bit fall of Additive
Manufacturing.
So, it is not that quick as it looked like that it would go directly from 3D CAD model to
fabricate directly; however, in 3D CAD model only it takes a little time, little time taking
into consideration the manufacturing process. If this manufacturing process is traditional
then CAD model can be the time could be less, if this CAD manufacturing processes
additive then did in this, within this CAD model only these things are getting into
consideration the features.
AM: Additive Manufacturing fabrication, that is the product, features. So, additive
manufacturing needs some basic dimensional details and a small amount of
understanding on how the Additive Manufacturing machine would work and the
materials that are used.
So, the key to how Additive Manufacturing works is that the parts are made by adding
material in layers. So, when example this mobile body I take an example of a mobile
body, this mobile body is to be manufactured using the Additive Manufacturing process.
So, in this case Additive Manufacturing is always done in layers and layer for layer the
thickness is finite. That layer thickness would be very finite, we have layers here, we
have a hollow space here for the screen. I am talking about the all model of the mobile
not the Smartphone’s here, but this is just the outer cover of the mobile.
So, this is made in layers so, this layer has finite thickness and the thinner the layer is the
closer is the final product to the original. That is, I will say layer thickness layer
thickness is inversely proportional to the accuracy I would say accuracy of final. Most of
the additive commercial Additive Manufacturing machines used a layer-based approach.
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So, a layer-based approach is used. It is layer by there the product is manufactured if we

talk about this pen body these layers would form my final product. This is a separate
thing, clip is made in separate layers so, so this will constitute my pen body.
So, if I talking just about prototype just the pen body that is not a workable that is not a
working model, then we can make it in one go. But if we think of to put a separate clip
and separate click here is click button here then this has to be made in parts. So, the more
comp the complex the product is the more is the number of components, more is the
number of parts that you should be made in Rapid Prototyping in Additive
Manufacturing better I would say here.
So, in this case this would be made separate, this is part 1, part 2 and part 3, this will be
made separate and will be assembled. The major ways these machines or Rapid
Prototyping processes differ is number 1; the materials that can be used, number 2 how
the layers can be created, number 3 how the layers are bonded to each other. Number 1
the material, number 2; how the layers are created and number 3 how the layers are
bonded to each other.
So, in the next lecture we will discuss various kinds of Additive Manufacturing or Rapid
Prototyping processes which are maybe common processes Stereo Lithography,
laminated process and some other processes. In this in those cases we will see that what
are the specific pros and cons of the specific processes here.
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So, these differences determine the factors like accuracy of the final product, now the
factors that are dependent is number 1 is accuracy of final product, then maybe material
properties. When we talk about material properties we can also say mechanical
properties.
Now, this kind of machine effectors the parameters that defined the machine and the kind
of the final product required. These for the determine the process parameters, that is how
quickly the product can be manufactured or how much post processing is required. The
size of the product, it determines what is the size of the machine that is required.
Cost is also one of the considerations I would say the overall cost; overall cost of
machine, then process. As we have gone through the cost components, the final cost of
the product is or we would say the factory cost is the cost of the material cost + operation
cost + labor cost + factory overhead.
So, this material cost is important here, material cost the kind of material which we are
using here. The operation cost is the cost of the process; operation cost would also
maybe include the cost of the machine. Though it is an initial investment, but the final
product which are made from these expensive machines are also sometimes costly likes
just sold at some higher price. So, then labor cost, what is the labor required. In this case
the in case of automated system the operation cost is a higher, in case of manual system
the labor cost is higher, then factory overheads are also there.
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So, this would determine by cost of the final product final cost. So, let me compare
Additive Manufacturing with traditional manufacturing here. So, this is one thing I
would put it in this rubric here in which I will call this first step is product design and
development. Then we have manufacturing here finally, we will get an end product.
Now, in case of traditional that is non Additive Manufacturing processes this design is
traditional though CAD models all those things are used here, but Additive
Manufacturing consideration not taken into account. So, this manufacturing is also
traditional. This traditional does not mean the conventional machine, the traditional may
be CNC machines, NC machines or conventional machines. Then you would have an end
product that we have that we could say product that is made from traditional processes.
Now, in case of Rapid Prototyping thing; So, what do you say? In Rapid Prototyping
what is product design and development? So, product design and development is a Rapid
process here because, we will have a prototype in our hand that would be a faster process
here.
And if I say manufacturing is traditional here, this end product here is not very much
traditional, but a better one better in a way that is brought faster to market, quick to
market. Then it is sometimes because the RND, that is the product design term
development time is lesser here, it is sometimes or most of the time I would say it is a
cheaper product. It is of not cheaper is less cost.
But, it is still limited to this traditional manufacturing processes. In case of I would say
Additive Manufacturing I would also include digital manufacturing here as well. Though
I was going to put this is in a 4 step, but I will try to now I put it in a the divided into 3
categories only 1, 2 and 3. In this case this one is Rapid and this one is Additive
Manufacturing, that is the manufacturing product is also.
This kind of products are brought very fast to market, but only the limitation is the
limitations of the Additive Manufacturing applications limitation or we would say
limited to Additive Manufacturing applications. Because, not all the products can be
manufactured using Additive Manufacturing.
Now, this is all we can compare, the traditional process both the things are traditional,
Rapid Prototyping in which only product design and development is a rapid and the
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manufacturing is the traditional and Additive Manufacturing in which both the things are
Additive.
So, in the current course we are more interested towards this thing Rapid Prototyping.
We only discuss how the Rapid Prototype is produced. So, I have just discussed Additive
Manufacturing because you will definitely come to this term when you talk about Rapid
Prototyping, people will talk to you that what is Additive Manufacturing? How does
Additive Manufacturing differ from Rapid Prototyping? These things would always
come into account whenever you are in the interviews, in the job interviews or you are in
manufacturing these things would also come into account. That is why I have discussed
this thing.
So, in the domain of this course we will just discuss the Rapid Process to produce or
initial or early sample early model here.
So, little more information on Additive Manufacturing because so, revitalizing again.
Additive Manufacturing in this the parts are made by adding materials in layer that
thinner the layer is the closer is the part to the final product that is required. The
machines most of the Additive Manufacturing machines used a layer based approach.
We will discuss various kind of processes in the next session. The factors that influence
the accuracy of the final part that are need to be turn up determined. So, we have a listed
these factors here.
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So, let us come back to the Rapid Prototyping however, I might use the term Rapid
Prototyping and Additive Manufacturing hand in hand; But, when I say Addictive
Manufacturing that would definitely mean that the whole manufacturing is being carried
out by an Additive process.
When I say Rapid Prototyping, Rapid Prototyping here is the initial product let us put
some light on the history. So, how does Rapid Prototyping evolved? So, this time Rapid
Prototyping is utilized as a part of a sort an assortment of enterprises to depict a process
for quickly making a framework or part portrayal before conclusive discharged or
commercialization.
The underlying foundations of Rapid Prototyping can be followed by 2 specific zones

typography and photo sculpture. These twos were used in early nineteenth century early
nineteenth century. So, what is typography? Typography is an arrangement of the
features arrangement of the features of an area; though the arrangement of the features
then bringing all these raised features together to have the final product.
So, a layer technique was proposed by Blanther in 1890. So, this was the first time the
Rapid Prototyping basis came into existence. So, a layered technique was proposed by
Blanther as a right on time as for making molds, for geological relief maps. Both positive
and negative 3D surfaces were to be gathered form a progression of wax plates and they
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were cut along the geographical form lines. The wax plates they were cut through to
form the geographical form lines here.
So, this strategy was additionally advanced by a certain other researcher. They portrayed
a layer producing procedure to shape throwing molds. The layer of the molds was
created from particles, covered with photopolymer pitch the photopolymer pitch was
used. So, gum was also used here that was specifically cured used utilizing light gum
was cured using light. Certain there is used, certain other researchers used the same
technique using the metallic plates.
So, idea came from here, but the metallic plates were then used to have a topography
structure here. So, these metallic (Refer Time: 32:34) magnetic plates a cutter was used
to cut these into the shape. Then certain overlay procedures were introduced like
blanking of a test press, shaping devices, forming devices. So, mechanical processes
came into existence here, mechanical manufacturing processes came into existence to
produce these plates.
So, this is a kind of a laminated plate, plate procedure will discuss the kinds of Rapid
Prototyping processes in which we will see the powder process, laminated plate process
and liquor process are the major classification of Rapid Prototyping. So, this is a kind of
a base for our laminated sheets or solid material Rapid Prototyping processes which are
even being used today.
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So, next was photo sculpture. So, this is a strategy that was proposed in again ninetieth
century for making reproduction of 3D objects. The system includes shooting the
question shooting the I would say the subject or my product at the same time with 24
cameras which was similarly divided around a room. Then these were used to utilize the
outline of each photo to cut 1 by 24th of a tube-shaped part of the protest.
So, what happened this tube is there this is divided into 24 cameras was used to produce
the shaped, then this is divided into 24 parts.
Then endeavors were made by different designers to enhance a strategy by mitigating the
manual cutting steps here. Now, further the researchers propose the utilization of
organized lighting to make shape for a protest photographically and after that utilizing
these lines to cut and manufacture the form sheets.
So, in 1950’s that is in the half of our twentieth century, Munz developed a layer
producing framework for creating the cross segments of an examine question by
specifically uncovering a straightforward photograph emulsion. The framework creates
here the layers by bringing down cylinder into a chamber and including a proper
measures for photograph emulsion and settling operator.
So, you can read the work by Munz to have more information on the photo sculpture or
this is of a figure that is taken from the reference here. So, this is a cylinder which is put
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into the chamber and the various lights technique lighting techniques were used to have
this shape of this one.
So, after 1950 here, now recent here in 1990’s and I would talk about the twentieth
century as well twenty first century as well here.
Now, the huge increment in the quantity of the financials accessible Rapid Prototyping
frame work of the 1990’s can be classified by progresses in 3D modeling, computer
aided manufacturing and computer numerical control. These are the terms which we
have been going through multiple times. So, this was all well been 1990’s.
So, the yearly development in the sales of Rapid Prototyping process was about 40 to 50
percent and in 1999 the deals development was 22 percent and it was assessed that 3.4
million sections were assembled overall utilizing Rapid Prototyping innovations. Now
this fact was brought into light by Wohlers in 2000.
So, another vital angle is that the use of Rapid Prototyping has spread to different areas
of economy. This solid and predictable development in the deals and boundless
utilization of the innovation show exceptionally hopeful prospects for Rapid Prototyping
business and it is future here. So, we can see here.
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The work of this man Wohlers in 2000 he said that the Rapid Prototyping had these
much of applications. So, maximum consumer products or it has maximum application
in consumer products, then medical and dental products, academic institutions also used
that and these were also the certain applications here.
So, next I like to discuss how Rapid Prototyping is an integral part of Concurrent
Engineering. We know that Concurrent Engineering is designing and development.
When the various steps are working simultaneously rather than conductively step by step
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procedure is not very prominent here the various steps various parts of the product
development team all work together and all the processes are going simultaneously, most
of the processes are even overlapping.
So, how Rapid Prototyping is an integral part of Concurrent Engineering? The principle
of Concurrent Engineering is that is this innovation is behind it is 3D CAD
demonstrating. The simultaneous in performing diverse plan and assembling exercises
introduces a chance to pack the general item advancement time, hereby pack I means
reduce. Also it makes the potential outcomes to be innovative by giving more
opportunity to the outline cycles here.
Simultaneous engineering’s situations have developed extensively amid the last few a
long time to incorporate 3D displaying. So, 3D displaying we have a Rapid Prototyping.
Now, 3D display turns into a focal part of the entire item or venture database. Which
implies that taking the all the things together. That is planning I would say plan, then
development, then assembly I consider development as by manufacturing as well
development and manufacturing, then assembling, then investigation. So, these all things
come together.
So, let me try to compare the general process with my Concurrent Engineering here. So,
in general process what we have? Conceptual design. What I will try to put here is how
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Concurrent Engineering is also known as time compression engineering time
compression engineering that is the overall time is reduced.
So, in general we have concept design, then detail design, then engineering analysis, then
prototyping, then tooling and production. So, I have time going through here, this is our
time. So, these are various steps here in a noncurrent engineering way.
So, what happens in Concurrent Engineering for what do have first here is 3D CAD
modeling. In 3D CAD modeling both these things conceptual design and detailed design
are working. However, these 3D CAD modeling is can be used here as well.
So, when the conceptual design is there, when the conceptual design is complete then
detailed design starts. There is a little overlap here is because when even the concept is
there in the mind of a designer that details some detail some specifications are given and
when if the concept is very clear at this point of time at this point of time there were
concept is very clear the detail design takes a fast shoot and the detailed design is
complete here. So, this is my 3D CAD modeling here.
Then is prototyping, then what we have here is virtual reality and finite element analysis
kind of a thing. So, what do we, but we can put here is Virtual Prototyping Virtual
Prototyping and Engineering Analysis; Now, Virtual Prototyping is using by CAD’s
software only to do Engineering Analysis and having the prototype on the screen only
here. So, these things go hand in hand here. So, at this point of time we are even close to
Engineering Analysis.
Next comes is Rapid Prototyping here, Rapid Prototyping. So, we can see even in
Concurrent Engineering even there is an overlap of the various steps here, but till
Engineering Analysis the time is almost same. But when we have Rapid Prototyping here
so, this overlap this prototype exiles a started even during this Engineering Analysis
only. Prototyping starts here only, right. Then after prototyping because the initial
prototype is ready here, tooling decisions can be made here and if I talk about Additive
Manufacturing here the production can also be started here, the time to production.
So, in this case that time to production was this much and in this case the time to
production is this much. So, this difference here this difference is my Time Compression.
So, that is why it is known as Time Compression Engineering.
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So, I could better put here this is my Time Compression. So, to put it into maybe 2 or 3
major steps this is Concurrent Engineering 3D CAD modeling, this is Concurrent
Engineering virtual reality and this is Concurrent Engineering Rapid Prototyping
process.
So, even if Additive Manufacturing is not here the time to production that is to time to
decide the final production that whatever manufacturing process would be there that is
reduced here. So, let me take this thing like here. So, there is no duplication and no
misconception in Rapid Prototyping. So, the item data here can be duplicated and may be
re utilized it is promptly accessible for various downstream applications.
Gatherings can be checked for obstruction and through virtual prototyping can be
practiced through scope of assignments here. The front people can be assigned job here
so, obstructions can be seen here only.
Then auxiliary and warm examinations can be performed on similar models using CAE
software, CAE applications computer aided applications here. I would share here this is
my VR and CAE. CAE is actually computed aided engineering; these applications are
also as secreting downstream producing forms.
And at last these exceptionally precise also information rich models can be taken straight
forward to the Rapid Prototyping and computer aided manufacturing applications.
Accelerating process arranging and now and again disposing of the requirements for
illustrations; As an incentive comprehension of various geometrical portrayal methods
and configurations for information trade, it is urgent for the effective usage of Rapid
Prototyping innovation here innovation is induced here.
So, I will take a break here and would come with the next part of this lecture. We will
discuss various geometrical modelling techniques and we will come go through the
general procedure of Rapid Prototyping.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 25
Rapid Prototyping Modelling
So, let us continue our previous lecture here, next I will like to discuss here is
Geometrical Modeling Techniques.
So, the demonstrating capacities of the original CAD frameworks were extremely
constrained that is the 2D applications they had limited use only. So, just essential plan
applications were accessible here and these applications were a long way from being fit
for dealing with genuine mechanical plan issue. So, mechanical final mechanical plans
could not be made out of these.
Need of CAD frameworks which had 3D demonstration capacities was there. So, the
fundamental thoughts actualized in these frameworks in 2D frameworks the fundamental
thoughts here, they were enhanced and used in the present age of 3D demonstrating
capacities. So, increments in the item multifaceted nature and the need to coordinate as
well robotize different components of outline and assembling, drove the improvement of
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these CAD frameworks; So, such models enables similar information to be utilized as a
part of various building undertakings from documentations that is drafting to designing
investigation and fast prototyping and then production.
So, there are 3 kinds major kinds of models wireframe model, surface model and solid
models.
So, what are wireframe models? Closely resembling to the 2D modeling 2D geometrical
models, the wireframe models comprise of graphical natives characterized in 3D
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dimensional space. The wireframe is the frame that is for example, this pen is there the
frame of this pen would look like made of wires so, this is wire frame modelling.
So, these models speak to 3D outlined questions with just edges and vertices. The edges
can be lines or bands. The development of substantial 3D model utilizing wireframe
procedure is thought to be as a protracted, furthermore, troublesome processes as a result
of the measure of information and summon arrangements expected to make them. Just a
little measure of process computer memory is utilized here, this helps in building
databases because wireframe models utilize very less memory. So, the information here
stored in a PC memory. So, this information can be recovered, altered and may be
refreshed.
So, the fundamental motivation behind the wire outline model is to help the making of
building documentation and furthermore in a few cases to fill in as information for
limited component investigation.
So, utilizing these models different projections of 3D protest can be made by applying
geometrical changes to the graphical natives, which were previously there. To conquer
the conceivable perplexity, edges can be covered up, dashed, or blanked. By and by, a
challenges with the elucidation of the models prompted the position where most 3D
wireframe frameworks introduced in the organization are utilized as a part of 2
dimensional modes, as it were before.
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The wireframe models do not contain surface and volume information. So, this is a major
pitfall here. All in all, wire outline displaying systems are viewed as characteristics
expansion of conventional drafting strategies only, that is from 2D to wireframe. This is
just an extension and no extensive information is available in wireframe models that can
be used directly in our computer aided manufacturing. So, this is a kind of a wireframe
model of a car body.
So, this looks like surface of the or the outer body of the car is made up of wires. So,
these models these days we can use is when you use any software like solid works Katya
NX or any like surface modeling software also so, these wireframe models are made by
itself.
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So, next is Surface Modeling, wireframe models frame the reason for the production of
surface models, because in wireframe models these wireframes are there, but we do not
have information in between what is there in this surface so, surface models were
required.
So, generally existing surface modulus required wireframe natives to create surfaces so,
these wire frame natives were required to create the surface. The client enters the vertices
and edges in wire outline models to characterize the limits of each surface. So, this
wireframe models are nothing, but the limit of my surface the upper limit, lower limit
here and these are the limits here. So, here we would have the surface. So, maybe if I say
the limit of the of the body also, the wireframe are providing this thing.
So, at this point, utilizing the entered information, surfaces are fitted to these edges.
Unique scientific strategies can be utilized to speak to surfaces, for instance freestyle
surfaces can be spoken to utilizing one of the accompanying geometrical portrayal
systems. The surface which are just freestyle here the non-geometrical curves can be
used for example, non geometrical curves are coons, Bezier curves, then B-splines
curves, then quadratic, round, hollow, may be circular and so, on.
So, this free style surfaces can be broken into these known curves.
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Surface models are more entire and less equivocal portrays than their wires outline
partners. Their geometrical databases are wealthier and give data on surface associating
model edges. This information is adequate for producing cutter ways for NC machining
and hence most of the computer aided manufacturing frameworks are in view of this
portrayal system. Lamentably, surface models characterize just the geometry articles, not
much details. Subsequently, in the event of that one edges basic to 2 surfaces this data is
not put away in the model, if one edges just an intersection of surfaces here.
This prompts that the presence of the holes between the surfaces which implies that the
surface models can not define shut volumes so, this is a drawback here. To utilize surface
models for Rapid Prototyping purposes, these holes must be evacuated, which can be
exceptionally troublesome or even incomprehensible.
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This is an example of a surface model of a car. So, the wireframe model is then the
surfaces are filled this was a wireframe model. So, these surfaces are filled so, each of
the element here is filled here.
Next comes the final thing the most significant thing in solid in a Rapid Prototyping that
is Solid Modeling. The meaning of models in solid modeling is less demanding than with
other to demonstrating strategies. Insignificant information is required and summon
arrangements are significantly more straightforward. Most solid modeling bundles
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bolster a CSG client input, CSG is Constructive Solid Geometry. The user interface here
usual is written in user interface enables the complex articles to be manufactured from an
arrangement of predefined 3D natives. These natives can be either straightforward
essential shapes, or more perplexing strong articles made by clearing 2D areas 2D areas
of wire outlying elements.
So, these essential shapes what can be this shapes? This can be planes, or a chambers,
then cones, circles etcetera a. To characterize a strong model, such natives are joined
utilizing the Boolean operations of union, convergence and distinction.
So, solid model gives an entire and unambiguous portrayal of articles, the fulfillment and
unambiguity of these models are because of the data put away in their databases. After a
section is built, the strong modular changes over the contribution to an information
structure which keeps up the geometry and topology of the equation. As opposed to both
wire edge and surface models that store just geometrical information, strong
demonstrating databases are finished and the models are anything but difficult to check.
Solid modeling has been acknowledged as a key element in the integration of design and
manufacturing. It is widespread use was made possible by the large increase in
computing power to cost ratio over last 10 years. So, this was one of the consideration,
what is the power? That is the power to cost ratio here. So, a solid modeling is now
considered the most reliable way of creating 3D models for Rapid Prototyping, in case of
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Rapid Prototyping these Rapid Prototyping machines just manipulate the data the 3D
models that are generated. This is a kind of a solid models.
So, this is a model solid model for a car. So, this is side view, this is top view and other
are the axonometric views. Axonometric views here, axonometric views maybe this
looks like a diametric view, isometric view so, this is a kind of a solid model. The
machines which are used to manufacture these 3D models manipulate the data before
manufacturing so, as they can use that.
So, 3D models even in traditional manufacturing these 3D models are converted to in

traditional these are converted to the G course traditional, it is G codes, G and M codes
that is in CNC manufacturing and Rapid Prototyping it is data manipulation.
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So, if I talk about this car, could this body outer body be made in one go? A could a
single print made this? If I say yes it can be done by certain process lies the laser
sintering process might do this thing. But if I talk about the wheels, these are different
components, this is a different component and these different parts can be made
separately and then assembled. If you just need to have the surface look, the shape look,
the shape feel, then this can be manufactured in a single go.
But if we need to see the how different parts would assembled? A how would what
would be the intrication? What were the implication in assembling the parts? Then
different parts different components are manufactured using Rapid Prototyping
techniques and they are then assembled together.
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And next is the general process for Rapid Prototyping. So, all Rapid Prototyping
frameworks have a typical data work process. The primary arranges in getting ready and
pre-handling information for mechanized creation of 3D objects as per the following
steps. So, first is having a CAD model.
So, all Rapid Prototyping parts must start from a software model that fully describes the
entire geometry, the software can be any CAD software, any CAD software I would say
this can be NX ideas (Refer Time: 15:02) solid works and so, on. And may use almost
any of the professional solid modeling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or
surface representation here.
A good 3D CAD that is computer aided design identify each point in the 3D space
whether it lies inside or outside the protest surface. That is important to in the output in
the output it is important to identify each point, it where it lies? Inside or outside the
portal surface whether; it has to be a like a kind of a negative surface or positive surface.
So, Export data is the next step once that CAD model is ready then the data is exported.
The exporting data is converting the data into STL format, STL is Stereo Lithography
format. So, this is the general format Stereo Lithography which is the accepted the most
of the CAD bundles except this one. So, this legitimate 3D display is sent out from the
CAD bundle in a nonpartisan configuration, which is as rule in general rule STL format.
Some CAD bundles permit the size of the produce record to be controlled by expanding
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or lessening the model determination, the size can be controlled; other formats can also
be this STL is Stereo Lithography.
So, there are other formats like SLC, CLI and LMI, for instance this CLI is a common
layer interface, LMI is layer manufacturing interface. So, it can be stored in these format
cells also depending upon the requirement of the machines, but most of the machines
these days support STL format.
So, next step is data validation and repair, the sent out information is an estimation of the
exact inside 3D display, that is we need to produce. Amid this guess procedure of the
model surfaces are spoken to with basic geometrical substances as triangles. So, these all
data points are brought to be made up of triangles here.
Tragically, STL models made along these lines can contain bothersome geometrical
blunders sometime, for example, gaps and covering range along surface limits. So,
consequently, the produced records must be approved before being additionally handle.
Some Rapid Prototyping bundles offer offices for show repair, programmed and
additionally manual.
These bundles incorporate programming apparatuses that assesses the STL models and
decide if any triangles are absent, if there should arise an occurrence of blunders the
holes in a models are loaded with new triangles here, new triangles for missing ones
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sometimes. We will try to take an example in the fore coming sections to see how
practically these things are done. So, then is once the data validation of repair is here.
Then is file manipulation, here manipulation means orientation and scaling now, Rapid
Prototyping frameworks assembles part along the Z axis of their STL model and
sometimes to produce the parts, to manufacture the parts the orientation has to be made
different. So, as them to say we have to see what is the support that is required, what are
the hollow surfaces and what are the positive and negative surfaces.
So, according to that orientation best orientation is set so as minimum time is consumed.
So, through reorientation of the parts with respect to the model organized frameworks,
their exactness, surface complete and construct time can be enhanced. These parts can be
scaled also to make up for expected abnormalities that may be presented by downstream
procedures. Some abnormalities might occur for example, distortion is there, then
shrinkage, then war page, then twisting. So, this data is scaled or I would even say here
or I could say here is that alliances are kept alliances are permitted for these
abnormalities or so, that these defects do not comes into play.
A few Rapid Prototyping frameworks enable a few sections to be settled in the

framework chamber so, as to be manufacture as the same time. Then next step is
supports structures generation so, if I need to manufacture for example, if I need to
manufacture a chair using the prototyping technique, we need to have this supports
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structure. One thing is first thing is orientation, could we or should we manufacture the
chair with this orientation only? Or could we rotate it rotate 90 degrees? Or keep use this
part that is the back part as our base and then manufacture, and even if you
manufacturing with this part we will have require support for example, it is I would like I
would put here side view, this is my chair, this is my leg, this is my back.
When I have rotated this one rotated this one and put it here, this is the chair and this is
my so, this is my seat, this is my back. So, even if I manufacture it in this way so, we
would need supports here. So, when we will go through the types of manufacturing
processes we will see that there are two kinds of materials that are in certain liquid
processes one is build material, second is the support material. Build material is one that
is that can bear load that will stay there, support material is done one that would be then
removed after the final product is there.
So, the product is produced in a cuboid and the non required unwanted supports are then
removed. Then is machine setup, process related parameters are entered to determine the
manufacture style and wanted framework qualities, the certain parameters for each
process we will discuss those. These parameters can be balanced in light of part
necessities and Rapid Prototyping material that is being utilized. So, a 2D slice data
generation is carried out, 2D slice means because Rapid Prototyping is layer if I talk
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about this chair manufacturing only this face this was my chair, this is my seat. So, these
are 2D slice data is generated to have different slices of my 3D model.
So, I can say I have divided into 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 layers; however, the size of the layer
starts from a few micrometers to a few millimeters only. So, the STL document here is
cut to create progressive cross-sectional layer. In each cross-segment poly lines are
utilized, poly lines are utilized to in exact the outside and inside limits of the Rapid
Prototyping models. These poly lines limits can be balanced by a specific incentive to
adjust for process mistakes. The cut information can be created, disconnected for the
whole model or online one cross section area at one amid part fabricating.
Then comes the part building, building of the part is mainly an autonomous process here.
So, the only thing that is to be done here is monitoring. So, and the machine can carry
this process without any supervision, a little monitoring of the machine is required at this
time to ensure that no errors have taken place like errors might be running out of
material, power off, power off, then maybe software glitches etcetera. Next is part
removal and post processing, once the Rapid Prototyping machine has completed the
build the parts must be removed.
Then the part removal may require interaction with machine, which may have safety
interlocks. This is to ensure for example, the that the operating temperature is sufficiently
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low and there is no actively moving parts, file part removal these things are to be taken
into consideration.
So, that is safety concerns are important here. Once removal from the machine the parts
may require an amount of additional cleaning up before they are ready for use, this is
actually post processing. Parts may be weak at this stage or they may have some
supporting features that must be removed. So, removing of supports is kind of a post
processing process, this is a time-consuming exercise or this is a manual process mostly.
And careful and experience and careful and experienced manipulation has to be carried
out here.
Now, parts may also require additional treatment before they are acceptable for use, this
is our last step. So, before bringing the part to the final user to the end user, additional
treatment might be required, it is generally required here. Now the parts are ready to be
used here, but additional treatment for example, they may require some sending, then
surface preparation, then maybe painting I could even call this priming. So, this is there
to give a to give it a required texture and finish.
So, these treatments are laborious and lengthy if the finishing requirements are very
demanding. So, this is our Rapid Prototyping process so, these were 8 steps which we
have discussed so, if I tried make a flowchart here.
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I can divide this into 5 major steps. So, first step is CAD modeling here, second step here
is export data and third step is data validation repair. I will try to bring these into one,
second step is file transfer that is file transfer to the machine.
Then the third step I would put here is machine setup, machine setup, then is
manufacturing able manufacturing (Refer Time: 30:17) build the part, then fifth one is
removal and post processing. So, this is the flow chart so, in this case this is done by our
3D CAD package, this file transfer is done by our CAD interface with the machine
interface. Then machine setup, manufacturing both these things are done by our RP
machine only and this is sometimes done by RP machine Rapid Prototyping machine or
by a I would say manually.
So, this is a Rapid Prototyping. Further when we do final manufacturing ere and if it is
also done with the additive process we can call it additive manufacturing. If it is not
additive manufacture process then again it is production here, but the feedback is taken
from here only when the prototype is ready here prototype is ready the feedback is taken
from the fifth step to the first step. But, sometimes the CAD model is all good and
feedback is given to only machine setup only.
So, this is my feedback and this is done before manufacturing. So, this was the general
procedure for Rapid Prototyping. So, we will discuss about Rapid Prototyping machines
and Rapid Prototyping technologies in the next lecture. And we also see for certain
applications of this one also we will try to take you to the Rapid Prototyping lab that is
3D manufacturing lab in or IIT Kanpur mechanical department specifically design
department here. So, we will see we will see practically how these things are done so, let
us meet in the next lecture.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 26
Rapid Prototyping Processes (Part 1 of 2)
Good morning, welcome back to the course product design and manufacturing we are in
the final weeks of this course so, I am taking rapid prototyping in this module. So, till
now about rapid prototyping I have discussed that what is rapid prototyping, why it is
rapid, what I what is a prototype, how rapid prototyping is related to additive
manufacturing, how it is related to concurrent engineering and the various kinds of
prototypes prototype shapes. Then we have discussed about a general procedure of rapid
prototyping.
Now, I will like to discuss certain processes rapid prototyping processes. So, I am Doctor
Amandeep Singh, in this lecture we will discuss rapid prototyping processes.
First, I will talk about the classification of rapid prototyping processes then we will
discuss various kinds of prototype processes involving a liquid, processes involving a
solid and processes involving discrete particles. In liquid the major or the common
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process, very a popular process is Stereo Lithography and processes involving solid
laminated solid sheets are used here. For processing involving discrete particles one of
the very popular process is SLS that is Selective Laser Sintering. Well (Refer Time:
02:10) will not keep our scope of discussion limited to these processes only, we will also
try to cover the other processes which are there in market.
So, I will start with my classification thing, rapid prototyping can be classified into 2
ways first material addition and material removal. Actually these 3 are the materials, I
would have to mention liquid, solid and discrete particles are the kinds of materials. So,
here liquid discrete particles and solid sheets these 3 kinds of materials are used and we
can see the most of the processes which are there use liquid material.
So, this liquid material is mostly the resin that solidifies after a bonding material mixed
with it or it solidifies by using UV rays or laser heat so, these are specific liquid material
processes here. Then we have processes which I have use discrete particles, in
specifically we have fusing of particles by laser, here the most popular process is
selective laser sintering. Then also we have in discrete particles joining of particles with
a binder, discrete particles are there in a powder form when these are mixed with the
binders after some times the materials get solidifies.
So, this is 3D printing and other processes are there. Then we have solid sheets, solid
sheets bonding of sheets with adhesive, we have this process LOM that is laminated
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object manufacturing. In liquid material, raw material specifically the solidification of a
liquid polymer is one classification another way is solidification of an electro set fluid,
then solidification of a molten material. Molten material solidifies just when temperature
comes down to it is melting point, in solidification of liquid polymer what we do once
we heating a material then it is cured means it solidifies, point by point processes are
there, layer by layer processes are there, the holographic processes are there.
And this in this also point by point processes are there and layer by layer processes are
there. So, what we can see here is that out of these 6 processes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 all these
6 processes include the solidification of a sap through electromagnetic radiation. Tree
develop the part utilizing point to point or layer by layer, while at the tree harden the
whole layers of surface is without the movements delay.
So, the first process I left to discuss here is Stereo Lithography, the most well-known
process among the right now accessible rapid prototyping forms is Stereo Lithographic
process. So, as we have discussed that STL format even in the rapid prototyping general
procedure it is said that convert the file to STL convert to STL, because this is the most
popular process.
So, in this process depends upon the photosensitive fluid sap because the fluid is to be
cured using some photosensitive way maybe UV light or in this case mostly UV light is
used, some other cases laser light can also be used.
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So, photosensitive fluid is required which shapes a strong polymer when presented to
bright UV light because of the retention and dissipating of the bar this response just
happens close to the surface. So, in this case this produce some pixels or better to
qualities voxels, voxels are actually 3D pixels 3 dimensional pixels. So, these voxels are
described by their even line width and vertical cure even line width and vertical cure
depth.
So, we will see how this process works.
So, it is typical Stereo Lithography machine comprises of a manufacturing stage that is

substrate which is mounted on a vat of a gum. The primary layer of the part is imaged on
the gum surface by laser. So, so in this a vat of gum is there also a UV source is there
mostly helium, cadmium or argon particle laser are used. So, this is imaged on the gum
surface the primary layer is imaged on the gum surface by the laser, this is done using a
CAD, 3D CAD base using a 3D CAD demonstrate I would say.
Now, once the shape of the layer has been filtered the stage is next brought down to the
base of the vat, this stage is actually the platform. Now, this in this case it is to be kept of
the mind that the end goal here is to coat the part all together the part is coating I would
put here coating is done all together, that is whole part coating. So, it is then raised with
the end goal that the cemented part is level with the surface and a sharp edge wipes the
sap so precisely that one-layer thickness stay over the part.
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So, when I say sap here I specifically mean the resin that is my liquid. The part is then
brought down to one-layer thickness underneath the surface and left until the point that
the fluid has settled. Now, the following layer then may be filtered.
Now, let us see the apparatus here so, this is an apparatus, here we have a laser and the
mirror system, the platform elevator is here. Now the mirror system is diverging my laser
focusing my laser to the point where it is required and the laser is the source that is that
would help to cure the resin and the platform can be elevated or may be brought down.
So, what is happening if I say this is my platform and this is the part that is to be made.
So, what happens? First, the platform is at this height and one-layer thickness one-layer
thickness is first cured. Now, in the second step the platform is brought down on this is
my I will put another color here, this blue color is my platform.
After curing the platform is brought down by one layer now, this much part is ready that
is this is this part is cured and another layer of resin is putted. Similarly, this process
continue till the whole part is fabricated here. In this case the typical layer thickness is
6000 per inch so, the access resin is removed after each step here excess resin is moved
and the part which is solidified here is then coated with another layer of resin here. So,
this is how are Stereo Lithographic process works.
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So, this has applications in producing the concept models we will take another session
regarding the applications of rapid prototyping processes. But, to broadly say the concept
models that is to know the shape, size, field of the model these models are generated of
the product that is wanted and some master patterns these are major applications. It has a
wide range of applications in medical, aerospace, automobile, aviation and multiple other
sectors.
So, next process is Liquid Thermal Polymerization. Now, what is liquid thermal
polymerization? This procedure is very much similar to Stereo Lithography aside from
that the sap that is the resin is the thermo setting and an infrared laser is utilized to make
the voxels here. So, this distinction implies that the span of the voxels might be
influenced through warmth scattering because of the laser, which can likewise cause
undesirable contortions furthermore shrinkage in the part.
So, these complexities involved here and in any case; however, these issues are not much
awful, but much controllable in comparison to those there in Stereo Lithography.
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So, this is specific liquid thermal polymerization process, in this liquid droplet us are
coming down in and their 2 nozzles here one is are object material object or main
material, another is support material. So, what happens once this object is produced
using this object material the support material is just to provide the support for example,
this part could not be constructed, this height could not be attained unless we have this
support here this much support here. After this must support only this object could be put
here.
Now, the extra material would be removed using this milling head and the particle
collector would collect the removed support material here.
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Now, next is Beam Interference Solidifications, this procedure utilizes 2 laser shafts
mounted at right edges to each other which emanate light at various frequencies to
polymerize gum in a straight forward to vat. The principal laser energizes the fluid to a
reversible metastable state and afterward the occurrence of the second pillar polymerizes
energized resin here.
The drawbacks of this processor the shadows are thrown from already solidified here is
the principle laser has already solidified the resin here. And there is an issue with the
light absorption because the intensity of the laser drops with depth. It is also difficult to
converge the laser pillars because of diffraction varieties in the gum caused by
temperature inclinations or strong areas.
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So, this is the kind of our beam interference solidification 2 lasers are at right angles, one
is the primary laser another one is the secondary laser.
Now, next is Solid Ground Curing, this framework again uses photo polymerizing
pitches and ultraviolet light. The information from the CAD model is utilized to create a
mask which is set over the resin surface here. So, the whole layer would then be able to
be heated up with an effective UV light, once the layer has been cured the extra resin is
wiped away. Now, because the whole layer be heated up with the ultraviolet light this
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implies that the gum is completely cured and no post curing is required, the gum is
completely cured here no need of post curing.
So, the laser when the laser has cured the extra resin is wiped away and any species if
there are like wild species here are then coated with or filled with wax are loaded or
filled with wax. The wax is cooled with a chill plate processed level using milling and
the wax chips are an evacuated. The new layer of pitch is connected or applied and the
procedure is rehashed.
So, in this case specifically what we have a UV lamp and this is a mask, the UV light is
passing through this mask and the only this portion from which light could pass through
this portion would solidify this only this portion would be cured and other portion would
not. Then the part slice cross section it is done another mask is put in for these successive
layers.
So, what we have here is UV lamp, the shutter that shuts on and off the UV light, the
polymer spreader here which spreads the polymer, the residual polymer cleaner, then
wax cooling plate here, the coolant exit flow. And here the milling could also be used to
remove the solidified part whichever is unwanted here. Then mask plate is being induced
here step by step, then electrical charges station is there, mask development station is
there, mask erasure station is there, wax is there, platform wax spreader is there.
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So, the basic principle is that the UV light is passing through a mask to produce this
specific shape here.
This shape is 2D slices, now next is Holographic Interference Solidification. A

holographic picture is projected into the resin in this case, this may make the whole
surface hard. In this case also the information is got through the CAD model, the CAD
display.
Now, despite the fact that there are no cuts please keep into mind, there are no cuts in
this case. The fabricate space is in general this much, but these are the machine
properties, sometimes the bigger or smaller machines can also be used, there are no
business frameworks accessible yet in this case.
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So, this is a specific kind of holographic interference solidification method. The spatial
light modulator is there and the light is passed this is the storage material object beam is
there, a reference beam is there and detector array is there.
So, there are certain other processes like Solidification of an Electroset Fluid, which is
known as Electrosetting. I will not discuss all these processes, but provide you these with
these notes, but I would like to discuss a few very popular processes.
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Solidification of molten metal is second qualification here, there are procedures which
include the liquefying and ensuring cementing of the part material of these are most of
these store the material at discrete focuses, while some produces entire layers
immediately.
So, they certain techniques for this one ballistic particle manufacture is there, then we
have multi jet modeling. Now, multi jet modelling works very much similar to our Inkjet
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printer. A most of you might have seen how does inkjet printer work so, it has certain
planes arranged in a state cluster and it does the printing.
So, this is the same way it this process produce a 3D part. Now, in multi jet modelling
machine constructs model utilizing a stage change printing yet connected in 3
measurements like on in inkjet printer here. The print had involving 300 to 400 planes
arranged in a straight cluster fabricates models in a progressive layer, every individual
stream storing an exceptionally created thermo polymer material as it were where
needed.
The layer thickness is of the order of 40 micrometers, this is the typical value. Now the
multi jet modelling had transpose forward and backward along with X axis like a line
printer. So, it just transfers the material like an Inkjet printer and the stage is moving this
stage is moving it is just transferring the material in the strain. So, on the off chance that
the part is more extensive than the multi jet head, the stage repositions where at is Y axis
may also be used here.
Now, at the point when the layer is finished the stage is then moved far from the Z axis
which starts to make the following layer the next layer here. At the point where the
manufacture is finished, the bolster structures are gotten over to complete the model.
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So, this is a kind of multi jet modelling machine in which we have this platform this is Z
axis, Z axis is only mood once the layer is complete and this is the cooling air here is
provided material is provided why this nozzle here. And steering is there to move this
one and heating is also done for heat the material to deposit it one here.
Then die is there also to let the material pass through, the liquid material is there,
solidified surfaces there, then these supports are there to support the object material here.
Then building platform completed part this is the part that is being produced here, this
material is being deposited here, the cooling air is cooling the part. The undesired portion
here is cut through a plane cutter and the material is sucked by this suction pump here.
A next is Fused Deposition Modelling, this one also comprises of a versatile head which
stores a string of liquid material onto substrate. So, please go through this as well.
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In this case what we have? We have this spool of the build material and this support
material this is support and build material. Build material is my main object and this is
just removable, the light blue color is here is removable support. So, these pools are
provided here and these extrusion noses are there that are supplying the material to my
platform here, it is my workplace. Then foam base is always there and the build platform
can move up and down here, while fabricating build platform moves down layer by
layer.
So, in this case in the nozzle head we have support material filament these are filaments,
dark blue is my build material, light blue is my support material. So, drive wheels are
there that push the materials through within the nozzle, liquefiers are there that liquefies
the material here, which is then solidified further.
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So, Three Dimensional Welding, three dimensional welding framework utilizes the bend
welding robot to store material on a stage as basic shapes. This may be then incorporated
with more complex structure.
Now, dissimilar to the general rapid prototyping forms, the models are not constructed
using CAD documents because this is 3-dimensional welding and the CAD documents
generally provides 2D slices. A model which is then converted into 2D slices after
converting it to a steel format so, this does not use this. A few issues still stay to be
explained here, since there is no input, warm develop amid fabricate can make the
models to melt and due to the fact that the layers do not shape a smooth surface the light
may hit the part. It is likewise not known whether the complex structure can be
manufactured; the orientation of each area to be fabricated or to be produced and the
requests in which the segments are to be assembled.
So, some strategy can be used here for complex structure, some strategy can be used,
some method can be used to create the robot program straightforward can be used to
have the robot, that is directly from CAD software or CAD data I would say. So, in this
way complex parts can also be manufactured here.
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So, this is a typical 3D welding equipment here, in this case this probe can move this is
robotic arm this probe can move and keep welding the material in X, Y and Z directions.
So, another method is Shape Deposition Manufacturing. So, please go through this
method as well.
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In this case what happens? The support material is provided here and layer by layer the
part material and support material is there and support material is then removed using
CNC milling that this figure very well explains how does this thing happens. So, in this
case this shape deposition is there, the shape and deposit is being done alternatively.
So, with this we are left with one session on rapid prototyping, then this model will be
complete. So, you are open to ask us any questions in this regard and let us meet in next
lecture.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 27
Rapid Prototyping Processes (Part 2 of 2)
Next is processes those involve discrete particles these processes build the part by
joining powder grains together using either a laser or a separate binding material. Now,
fusing of particles by laser is the first way, one of the very important process series
Selective Laser Sintering. A selective laser sintering uses a fine powder which is heated
with a carbon dioxide laser.
So, that the surface tension of the particle is over them and they fuse together. Now this
processes again I would like to recall this is layer by layer as the most processes work.
Then sliced STL file is used here, then in this case the powder is heated to melting point,
then solidified or it then solidifies.
In this case before the powder is sintered the entire bed is heated just below to the
melting point of material before putting the powder here. The laser is modulated such
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that only those grains which are in direct contact with the beam are affected other
powder materials other powder grains are not affected at all.
And they do not solidify. A layer is drawn to the powder bed using the laser to center the
material. The bed is then lowered and the powder feed chamber is raised so, that
covering of powder can be spread evenly over the build area. Now, this is raised by using
a counter roller using a second roller.
The sintered material forms the part whilst the un-sintered powder remains in the place
to support the structure and this is cleaned away un-sintered powder is cleaned away and
recycled once the build is complete cleaned away and recycled. This is un-sintered
powder.
Now, what happens before the powder is sintered the entire bed is heated just to below
the melting point of the material; this is done to minimize the thermal distortion and
facilitate fusion of the previous layer.
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Now, let us see the equipment for selective laser sintering we have the laser here and the
object in fabricated the scanner system helps to focus the laser, actually that cad model
provides us the database to produce the part. So, what is happening? This is the powder
material is the un-sintered powder only one layer this whatever shape is required only
one layer is solidified.
Then what happens one once is it is solidified this solid part is moved down and this
powder delivery piston is moved up and this role roller then disperse the powder here
this roller disperse the powder here, this from the second layer. And when thus for the
second layer also again the laser would solidify, here I mean would center because it
heats here and the powder would then qualify the selective powder sintering is there and
again it is after the secondary it would move down. So, layer by layer this will keep
moving down and this would keep moving up this platform.
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So, let us see a product here, this is actually a chessman that is rook which is being
manufacturing using selective laser sintering method. What happens here is this cad
model provides the data, STL file is then converted into 2D slices. Now what happens
this is first this roller is dispersing the powder, the powder is dispersed over the whole
area here. After the powder is spread here this is then solidified and step by step it is
moving down, this is the solid material, this is the solid put up solid powder. Step by step
it is moving down and once it is it is completely made this is then kept in a bath too let it
cool. After cooling this whole powder is removed by soft brushes and the final product is
obtained.
So, application of layer powder material is here, here we have powder material that is
solidified into cross section of the model, then building up building platform is being
lowered here step by step. Here the next layer of powder is applied, here the process
repeat itself until the part is complete. The laser fuses the powder is applied the platform
is lower 3 steps are being carried out like step by step. Now, loose powder is then
removed here in this step. So, this is how selective laser sintering is carried out, now this
has higher accuracy in comparison to stereo lithographic process.
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Similar to this one is Laser Engineering Net Shaping, laser engineering net shaping that
the lens process involves feeding powder through a nozzle into the part bed while
simultaneously fuse fusing it the laser. So, this is a similar process so, you can read this
one because of the time constraint I would not cover all the processes in detail, but you
can read this and you are open to ask any questions in the forum.
So, I would be happy to answer the questions, I will try my best to answer the questions
and you can even ask about various other processes which we have not covered here in
rapid prototyping and maybe in oral product design manufacturing.
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So, in this process I would just try to brief this, in this case the laser is there and the
powder material is supplied, both the things are supplied simultaneously. The powder
material is supplied and when the point specific point where the powder materials is
supplied, the laser is simultaneously sintering the material.
So, what is happening this powder material is supplied, the may laser light is sintering
this one, then this shroud gas inlet is there. The material deposition had that is having the
laser and powder material supply, then X, Y table is just moving it into 2 directions X
and Y. So, this is stable here this is nonmoving head and this is moving table or platform.
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Similarly, there are the processes like Gas Phase Deposition, in this process the atoms of
a receptive gas are disintegrated utilizing a laser to create a solid. The subsequent solid at
this point holds fast to the substrate and to shape the part. 3 major strategies for building
the part are at present being examined, one is SALD Selective Area Laser Deposition. In
this the solid segments of the decayed gas is utilized to shape the part, it is convincible to
build apart using carbon, silicon, carbide then silicon nitrides.
Then next is SALDVI; Selective Area Laser Deposition Vapor Infiltration. Now this
spreads a thin covering of the powder for each layer and then the decade solid fill in the
spaces between the grains. The next is Selective Laser Respective Sintering, in this case
the laser starts a response between the gas and the layer of the powder to frame and this
and a solid piece of silicon carbide and silicon nitride is produced; however, we need not
to go to the tail of the processes. So, just an introduction is enough.
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Now, next method is joining of the particles with a binder. Running the particles is the
binder means we provide a powder that is the build powder then a binding material when
these 2 are mixed together the part solidifies.
The very common method in the market is 3D printing, 3D printing is the process where
laser powders are applied to a substrate then selectively joined using binder spread to a
nozzle. I think most of you at least mechanical people and computer science people
might be knowing this thing so, I would go into details of this one.
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Next we will have spatial formation.
Then we have processes involving solid sheets, in this case a popular or very commonly
used process is Laminated Object Manufacturing. In this case the build material is
applied to the part from a roll and at that point the bonded to the it is bonded to the past
layers utilizing a hot roller which actuates a warmth touchy glue. The form of each layer
is cut with a laser that is deliberately balanced to infiltrate to the correct depth of one
layer. The undesirable material is then trimmed into rectangles to encourage it is later
evacuation; however, it stays set up amid the work to act as support unwanted material or
the undesirable material, here can act as the support.
The sheets of the material utilized is more extensive or it is wider than that construct area
for example, if this is the material that is to be cut the sheets would be always be wider
so, this is my width of sheet. Once the part cross segment has been cut the edges of the
sheet stay in place so, what happens.
So, once this is cut this part is cut by laser actually this is a roller here this is a roller on
which sheet is rolled on and it is being unrolled the sheet is being unrolled and the laser
is cutting this is my platform. The laser is cutting the desired shape then the set further
sheet is taken forward step by step. So, this is one step one layer, second layer, third
layer would come and this is kept the sheet width is more than the materials required; So,
as it stays here and this is being unrolled and the unwanted sheet is being rolled here.
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But, this implies that after the layer has been finished and the construct stage brought
down the role of the material can be progressed by winding this extra material onto a
movement roller here. The entire procedure would then be able to rehashed here. So, this
is a specific laminated object manufacturing apparatus here.
So, what we have is this is the roll this is actually take up roll, this is supplier role.
Supplier role is being unrolled the this is the sheet the sheet one layer of sheet is there,
the laser this is the mirror the laser that data is again provided through my CAD in a STL
format.
Now this laser is cutting this specific shape, after cutting the shape the specific shape the
platform is then lowered here and the second step of sheet this would be unrolled and
second step of sheet or second I would say layer of sheet would come up here. And layer
by layer it will keep on building this component here whatever is required. So, this is
laminated object manufacturing method.
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Similar to laminated object manufacturing we have Paper Lamination Technology; the

major difference is that the sheet here is of the paper the paper roll is used here. In rapid
prototyping terms the paper lamination technology process is fundamentally the same as
laminated object manufacturing method. The principle contrasts between these 2 is that
in the form of the material that is being utilized and the techniques utilized for cutting the
forms of the part cross-areas here, which are carbon dioxide, laser and a electronic blade,
separately.
The paper lamination technology procedure prints the cross area of the part onto a sheet
of a paper, which is then applied or connected to the work-in-advance and reinforced
utilizing a hot roller. Next, a PC driven blade, PC is a process computer driven blade is
utilized to cut the blueprint of the part and cross bring forth the waste material. This
procedure is then repeated until the part is done whole part is complete, when the
abundance material or the extra material might be peeled far or cut away from the model
which can then be fitted with an epoxy gum.
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Now, similar to this process we have Solid Foil Polymerization, solid foil
polymerization, the part is developed utilizing semi-polymerized foils. On introduction
to UV light, the foil hardens and the bond and bond the pass layer. It additionally
becomes noticeably insoluble; once the cross-section area has been lit up or it is heated
another foil can be connected.
So, in this case solid foil polymerization is being carried out. The range of foil which do
not constitute the possible part are utilized to help it amid the assemble process; Once the
part is finished the non-fortified pieces can be broken to leave the completed part, no
business to complete part. So, these are a few very prominent processes which are being
used in rapid prototyping.
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So, next we have a few applications of rapid prototyping, rapid prototyping applications
can be divided majorly into 3 sections; Number 1 engineering design number 2 analysis,
number 3 is tooling. In engineering design, we can consider some product that we need
to (Refer Time: 17:38) feature we can just design that product and produce a prototype
not designers as able to confirm the design by building the real model. We will just see a
few examples here like this one.
So, this is a drill that is the final product that is required. So, a rapid prototyping product
has given us a model for which we can have the feel of the product. We can see how the
drill bit feel when we have that in hand, how the button filled, how could we have
various like this chuck here, the drilled body we can put hand over here so, all these
things.
the next is analysis and planning, analysis and planning would mean like how many
products, how many components are required here how many components, what an
manufacturing required. Then we can have tooling, in tooling we can think of what kind
of tool, what kind of manufacturing set up all those things are required.
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So, you can see a few products here this is human skull a model of humans can achieve
the complexity of the products he had. So, many complex features over here, these are
human limbs.
So, these complex parts can be very easily manufactured using rapid prototyping or
adaptive manufacturing. So, we will see few products in the 4 I lab in IIT Kanpur.
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Now, we are here in 4 I lab IIT Kanpur and few products are displayed here on the table
which are manufactured using rapid prototyping technology.
So, what we can see in rapid prototyping let us see this first product this crank. This is a
crank that is all that is all manufactured using fuse deposition methodology, see the kind
of features it have. Also we have this cylindrical section, now this cylindrical section is
produced using rapid prototyping again. So, this can be used to see if the size of the pipe
which we were considering is that or not with we fit go fit no go fit with it fit properly or
not.
Next, we have this impeller, this is actually impeller it has so, many fins in it. You can
see the number of fins it has number of very deep features it have, it just sucks the fluid
and throws away. So, this is manufactured in one go using rapid prototyping technology
in (Refer Time: 20:32) we can do the rapid prototyping is just scanning the object using
3D scanners and producing that again.
For instance, someone loses laser or limb let me say a it loses it is right leg, so right leg
is lost we cannot have that again. What is the beauty of 3D printing you have? What is
the beauty of rapid prototyping I would say here we can scan the left leg and using
mirror command we can produce.
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So, here we have a few products like that here let me say this pen stand, this is first scan
scanners all the through it will take 1 or 2 or hours to scan this then this is manufactured.
So, this is the model. So, one can see the closeness of the product that is just being
scanned to the original product. So, this is the beauty of rapid prototyping here.
So, next what we can have is these human models. So, if there is if you need to some
human model we can just scan the face or the body of the human and produce this kind
of model.
So, what you can see this bigger model this bigger size model that is. So, this is
difference in these 2 models, this bigger size model it is harrow from inside and a small
face that is solid from inside. But, these are a few products that can be manufactured
using rapid prototyping technology. So, this is all in this week rapid prototyping.
So, we will meet in next week where we will discuss plant layout planning, conduct
warmth over, will discuss managing competitiveness disk those are few important
aspects in product drill and manufacturing. So, let us meet in next week.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 27
Laboratory Demonstration, 3D Printing (Part 1 of 3)
Good morning, welcome back to the course. In this lecture, we will take you to the lab
for the Laboratory Demonstration the lab is 4i lab in IIT Kanpur. This is an advanced
machining advanced manufacturing lab at IIT Kanpur, which is an elite facility that we
have here and like we have seen different electric prototyping techniques.
In this lab demonstration, we will just discuss the 3D printing. 3D printing using a
specific machine that is there in the lab, the name of the machine is TECH B V 30 and
our Laboratory Demonstration, the instructor is there who has made this video, and we
were in the lab we develop this video and I am trying to put my voice to demonstrate it
properly.
So, let us start this and go to the lab. So, right now we are in 4 I lab, that is the facility in
IIT Kanpur, four I, four I is are Innovation, Incubation, Implementation and Integration.
In this laboratory, we have multiple machines which are non-convention and advanced
machines, we do research and also consultancy is being carried out here.
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So, at this point of time, we like to discuss about this machine TECHB V30. We will
start with the Demonstration of the software that is used for rapid prototyping here, and
then we will set up the machine. What we will do, we will the make the whole set up,
then we will see how rapid prototyping and various features, various parameters are
taken in to account while manufacturing, this is additive manufacturing as I mentioned
earlier.
This is a three printer TECHB V30 is one of the companies in India that is making that is
manufacturing the 3D printers. So, this uses FDM Technology, FDM as we have
discussed FDM is fuse deposition machining method, there are two major kinds of
machines in the machine sections as we know now FDM and SLS FDM is fuse
deposition machining and SLA is Stereo Lithography Apparatus. I will like to put some
light, in FDM there is a big variety of colors those are available like, we can have red
yellow and white, are the major color also there are certain companies who are
manufacturing the colors based upon demand.
But in SLA, the color variety is not possible, there are certain differences in FDM and
SLA, this is, this is only FDM machine, this has two spools, two nozzles in which we can
use two colors and the multicolor of the bicolor products can be made. About FDM and
SLA, FDM machine produce products with the precision, but the precision level in SLA
is higher. Thus it has higher resolution objects are more possible to produce in SLA,
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because resin is there, the resolution is primarily determined by the optical spot size
either of the laser or the projector and that is really small in SLA.
In FDM, it is the printer, the printer resolution is a factor of the nozzle size and the
precision of the extruder movements, that extruder, we will discuss in this demonstration
as well. The precision and smoothness of the printed models is also influenced by the
other factors such as bonding force between the layers, is it lower or is it adequate, then
the weight of the upper layers that squeeze upon the lower layers the number of printing
problems like, warping, misalignment, these printing defects might be there; shrinking,
shifting of layers, all those things could be there. And, there is a difference in post
processing as well.
In general, FDM requires no or very little post processing, because the product products
are generally produced to the final shape. Only the thing is that the support that is
provided the support material or the brim or raft that we will discuss has to be removed.
In SLA post processing level is quite higher, because it is made of resin and all the extra
material that is there has to be removed and that has to be taken out from the box where
it is made.
So, there is a big difference. So, there we are more focused on FDM fused deposition
method. So, this machine, that is FDM machine, deposition method of few deposition
machining, this machine can use two kind of filaments; however, there are multiple
filaments like ABS, then PLA, it can use the ABS PLA and ABS is a acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene as we know and it is oil based plastic. It is strong study material that is
widely used these days, like Lego building blocks or Lego toys are made of this ABS to
quote as an example.
And the PLA, PLA is one of another materials, it is poly lactic acid it is made of organic
materials specifically from the cornstarch or sugarcane, it makes the material both easier
and safer to use while giving it a smoother and shinier appearance.
So, it has more aesthetically appealing products which are made of out of it. Now, this
PLA thermoplastic is also more pleasant for nose, like it smells lesser like, as the
sugarcane materials smells slightly sweet when heated opposed to the hash material
associated with ABS, when we heat ABS the smell is quite annoying in PLA this is the
not the case.
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So, this means that the printing, using these parts it friendlier for the operator. And also
PLA seems like a better overall choice, because it features far low melting points as well
the melting point of PLA is quite lower than ABS. So, I would not move into that track
now. So, let us discuss about this machine, this machine is basically using SB FDM.
Technology the raw material moves from the tube and comes up to the head, there is
nozzle around which heaters are there, and when we switch on the machine the heating
systems gets on, when we switch off the machine the heating systems gets on there are
two nozzles here, nozzle a and nozzle b you can see.
So, the temperature when you switch on the machine, the temperature rises and it goes
up to 200 to 230 degree centigrade. At this temperature the raw material kept in the form
of wire comes out near the nozzle, near the nozzle; it comes out through the nozzle. So, it
is it coming through this tube, we will show this demonstration. Now this portion is
known as head, where the nozzles are attached. So, the material is fused and comes out
from these nozzles. These are two nozzles here nozzle a and nozzle b. Why two nozzles
are there? We will just explain one nozzle is for the base material, another is for support.
So, this is a very fine orifice of the nozzle, or the orifice dia of the nozzle is 0.4 mm, 0.4
mm when all these bed area maintain the soaking temperature of the bed of 50 to 65
degree, 50 to 65 degree temperature is maintained here. The temperature it heat up a little
bit so, as if the temperature is it is actually the preparation of the table. It is heated to the
some specific temperature so that, the material that is deposited here, the temperature of
the material is about 200 degrees, this temperature is kept about 50 degree. So, that it can
stick easily. So, that it sets easily here.
So, this will have to deposit one layer upon, another during Fabrication or Manufacturing
whatever we want to fabricate here in FDM Technology the machine size is, this
machine size is 1 feet by 1 feet by 1 feet. So, in x y z directions, the envelope is 1 cubic
feet I can say, 1 cubic feet envelop is there. So, it is thus plug and play machine once, we
have a little practice on this.
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Along with the hardware, we have software here that also gets on when we switch on the
machine. This is the software when we switch on these it comes TECH B. So, TECH B
is the machines the software is switching on this TECH B software is getting on as you
can slicer 1 and slicer 2, here 2 slicers are there.
So, their CPS and controllers, which are here at the bottom surface of the machine, cps
controller for this software is here. So, the 2 nozzles, one for model and one for support,
one for model and one for support two nozzles are there. So, if any profile or any
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geometry where you find this taper is more than 45 degree, we need to provide support
like I discussed. Then the 2 nozzles will automatically activate and that will provide the
support to produce the final product, final model that we need to obtain.
So, this all feedback is given to the head with the help of software, that would be
described later on. So, precautions while we use this machine are, certain precautions,
when we try to switch on this machine, the nozzle is quite hot. So, we cannot touch the
nozzle with bare hands. Also we need to place this machine, it is general precaution. We
need to place this machine in room temperature. Air conditioners are not recommended,
because humidity or moisture would hinder the quality of the product.
And, we also need to avoid mishandling or prevent the machine from any rough
handling, and the nozzle cleaning is very important. Nozzle cleaning has to be done
before machining, but hot nozzle should not be cleaned with hand, that is very important
here. So, there are certain sharp edges in the machine as well, sharp edges like in the
nozzle head or certain the sharp edges are there. We need to be careful that we do not
touch this sharp edges and be careful in this are the safety precautions when we start the
machine. Next with this machine, we can manufacture partly sharp corners any areas,
any radius and the profiles with pocket, the profiles which are empty inside or is hollow.
And one of one known feature which machine is that, we can print to different color
models from these two nozzles, nozzle a and nozzle b if the two different colors can be
obtained like, yellow and red, different colors can be obtained and those can be produced
as well.
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So, the well this computer screen we have a software called Repetier. So, we have slicer
1 and slicer 2 here. So, if the machine is the machine is with two head, with both hands
(Refer to Time: 10:43) work. In this machine there is a single head, if the two heads are
there, the machine though both hands can work independently you know, that is single
head here; single head on the single head here, two nozzles are attached.
So, that is why only slicer one is visible here. So, the software starting on, that repetier
software is starting on, that Repetier host is a specific name of the software 6.2 is a
version, then we need to connect the software to hardware. Now, both the interfaced face
each other. When we start machining that is try to fabricate anything on 3D printing, we
have to take care of number of things like cleaning of bed, cleaning of head nozzles. And
proper cooling as well, for cooling we have to check that there are two fans, two fans are
above just above the head that should be running.
So, whenever we start the fabrication of this machine we have to take care of few things,
like proper cleaning, flatness of the bed and we cannot, just a level of the bed with 4
screws, you can see this screw, 1 2 3 and 4; 4 screws are there. So, these 4 screws are
have are loaded here using spring mechanism. So, when we fabricate the model of big
size, the height will increase, height increases. And, sometimes it will vibrate due to the
height and gapping would vary. So, that is why the spring loaded mechanism would help
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to adjust the movement in the nozzle, still you can see, there is a spring mechanism here.
So, that helps to adjust the movement.
So, in this way, we will make the leveling of the bed, also when we go whenever we go
for calibration, so, we use this screws to loosen and tighten and to make sure that the bed
is flat, it is square with the with the adjacent surface as well. So, in this software we can
deposit lay thickness in slicing from 0.1, 0.15, 8.2, the 3 levels here. Whenever we
change this parameter of the position of layer height wise, then we need maintain the gap
as well.
So, say let me say a fixed 1, 0.15 from the top of the bed to the tip of the nozzle. So, we
need to shut this gap and lock the limit switch. The limit switch is on this side, limit
switch on this side. So, we can lock the limit of the bed using this layer. So, that can
move up to the specific limit only. So, bed would go up or down as per the locking that
we make here.
Also, whenever we start depositing fabrication of raw material, we have to take care of a
few things like, what are we feeding here? Because, the raw material is in the form of
spool, it is an open spool kept at the back of the machineries there, spool will just show
you, that we need to take care of it because, when we keep this when we attach this
material in the boxes, we have to use silica and calcium and this makes it moisture free.
If a raw material that is what that I mentioned ABS or PLA, if it is moisturizes then it
obstructs the proper deposition of the job here.
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Whenever start we input the data to the machine for fabrication. After switching on the
machine you have to take care of few things or the display here. You can see this display,
because the hardware that is connected to the software and displayed to this screen or the
screen we have programmed, we start feeding the data to the hardware, we have to take
care of number of things after switching on the machine. After switching the machine,
itself gets connected to it is software.
Whenever we start we have to go to the option number 1 that is object placement, which
means that, what we need to print will place it here first, the place of placement of the
object here.
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So, when we click on when we click here few things will be highlighted few icons are
highlighted let us add object, this plus sign is add object. So, what we want to add, we
click add object here and when we click it, it opens the drive or the any location in the
computer like the cod drive where the object is kept. So, wherever we have kept the cad
model for fabrication, whatever we want to fabricate; you can just go and click there or
we can even generate some model.
So, this model known as Rubber Bhargava Veeru this model is there.
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(Refer to Slide Time: 15:46) .
So, we will click here. So, yes when we click here this job is there here on the envelop.
What is envelop? Envelop is this where we are going to manufacture this thing. So, this
is 1 cubic feet, that is 1 feet by 1 feet by 1 feet, the envelop size is this one. So, this area
is 1 feet by 1 feet, I can say that on the area of 1 feet by 1 feet or 1 square feet this object
would be manufactured, ok.
So, it is actually this is our base plate where it is manufactured or this is our envelop that
is being displayed in the software. The approximate size of this model is 4 inch by 1 inch
by 2 inch. So, whenever we start fabricating, we need to see the program, we have to
program it, either a program would be generated by machines by the software itself or
we have to manually program using g codes that we will discuss.
So, this job of, this height of the entire job, we will cut in number of slices here, number
of slices, ok. How many layers would be there that the machine would just decide? So,
we have to program in terms of slicing and the machine will deposit one slice in one
stroke and this will be deposited layer by layer. And finally, becomes a complete job.
Here in object placement, there are other icons like copy object, copy is like we can
make 1 or 2 or 3 copies like, we are making 2 copies the 3 copies are made of this object.
So, single cad model can be printed in multiple models using this command, we just
copy, ok. This is product design cad, computer aided design; yeah, this is auto
positioning. Auto positioning, what is auto positioning? So, when we need to print at the
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center, auto positioning would bring the object at exact center in the envelop. So, we
need not to drag it like, we were dragging before, we need not to drag it, ok, next one is
center object.
Auto positioning, auto positioning, it will position the object so, as the least material is
used. Center object is similar to auto positioning, in auto positioning what happens this is
auto positioning, in auto positioning what happen, it place the object, so, as to the
minimum material is used. So, as the material has to travel the minimum path and in auto
centering object would be placed at the center of the envelop exactly at the center like,
we were dragging like migh,t we have might, offset the object while dragging manually,
but this located at exactly at the center
Now, yeah this is scale object. Now, here scaling means changing the size of the object,
making it over size, under size or upscale and downscale are better words, you can say
axis made twice, ok, x direction made twice now y is made again twice, thrice we are
scaling the object. So, up scaling this one, you can see it is midpoint 5.
So, this is scaling of the object, sometimes the cad model will draw is big and we just
need to produce a prototype or just a feel model out of that, then we can just downscale it
and produce. So, this is, this is a direct provision. So, that this is direct feature in the
software for this one.
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So, next I can do here is rotate object. Sometime,s like I discussed like we have
discussed as the placement of the object or the alignment of the object in is very
important in deciding the support material that is used, what is the amount of support
material that is used.
So, to properly align the job, like in x direction, we have aligned the to 90 degrees, so it
is rotation. So, we can make the job in this position as well, like if the if we see that the
how much material will be used, lesser material will be used. So, support material that
would be consumed would be lesser, can be reduced by deciding or by selecting the
specific alignment here.
So, sometimes we have the pure flat surface. If this is flat surface it is the perfect thing,
the flat surface it will deposit properly on the flat, the flat surface is exactly perfect, but
you can see that we have an angle here. In this, we have an little angle here like, we need
to have some support here. So, for that we need to see what should be the proper
alignment so as this support is minimum.
So, we rotate and try to keep the cad, cad is this model, computer design model, we have
I will use keep on using the word cad for this model, this is cad is kept in proper
alignment. So, as to minimize the material used, the Y is kept 0, X 90, Z 90. So, if Y is
kept again 90.
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So, the height increases, what is the draw back when we increase height. When we
increase height, because it is manufacturing layer by layer, this is very important to note
if we increase the height, the total time would increase. So, the height has to be
optimized, it has to minimum you know, these many number of layers have to be
deposited. So, the total time would increase total time, we need total economy, total cost
of the product will also increase, because in product cost function the machining time is
one of it is factor.
So, this is not a very good position to manufacture here. So, we can opt to select in flat
position and we orient the job in proper place and position. So, next is view cross
section, this icon is view cross section. Sometimes, we need to see what is in the inside
portion of the job. So, when we need to see the inside of the job for example, we have
called this cad model from the customer; the customer has just made this model brought
this model for us. So, we denote we are not aware that what is the profile inside the, are
there any holes, some pockets, some counter, sink holes?
So, if the customer is not able to describe it properly; the manufacturer or the operator
has to be very careful. It is duty of the operator to be conversant with what he is going to
manufacture. Then the manufacturer has to take care of everything, we use this icon to
check it in the section view, you can see. So, blue is the upper surface, blue color is the
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upper surface, and green color is inside, what is inside. So, this is the color difference
color coding is here.
So, blue is the upper surface inside, it is a solid model, it is in hole and is not hollow
from inside; this is the inside model. So, we can just to in view cross section tab, we have
this bar position, ok, we are checking the position from here. So, major purpose of this is
to identify whether the model is solid or hollow. If, it is hollow, then we have to be
careful about the thickness, what has to be thickness of the surface?
Here, the thickness of the shell has to be according to the requirement; it has to be
according to rigidity whatever requirements we need. So, this is again is inclination;
inclination, at some angle also you can see the angle is changing, this is 0 angle, this
angle is about 90 degree here. So, this is azimuth. So, we can rotate it from the bottom
here, we can see another view point from this.
So, in this way using these three tabs, we can see each detail for instance they are a
multiple features deep features or the intricate features in this job, we can see that what is
there inside the job. So, why did the cad model have all those features? Now, this is the
actual part now. Now, the last one is very common thing, mirror object; this is mirror
object. This we can change from left to right or right to left. So now, what we identified
that the placing of the cad has to be proper, only then we can go to less level it is slicing,
ok.
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So, next tab is slicing. So, this is I can see the most important tab, because we are go on
discuss this slicing here. So, slicing with CuraEngine so, CuraEngine is the software that
is used for slicing here. So, first thing the time used in V 30 this machine, V 30 is
CuraEngine. So, it cares the quality of the product that we need to manufacture. It will
discuss everything like, thickness, wall thickness, quality, and support, then volume,
time. So, the word engine means it is the heart, word CuraEngine I just can say it is the
heart or lifeline of the software. So this, whatever we need to fabricate would be majorly
decided by this portion only.
Now, we have manager here. Manager tab, when we click the manager tab, this opens;
this window pops up. Manger is for the advanced version, this is for instance this
manager is here. This is for the advance, for instance some manufacture is there some big
manufacture is there and the need to he need to calibrate the machine, then need to go to
the advanced settings, then he can use this manger we would not use this next one is
configuration.
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When, we click the configuration, what we can see? we have this CuraEngine settings
here. So, that two tabs here filament very important here and print.
What is filament? Filament is the raw material that we are using for printing, like I
mentioned ABS or PLA that is there in the filament form, this is the raw material, this is
filament. So, this is white color ABS filament, this is rolled on spool.
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So, it can be white, it can be red, you can say red and white. So, white is the most
common color,that is used in FDM technologies nowadays. So, white and yellow
actually white and yellow are the most common colors that is used in FDM technologies.
So, this is 3D, 3 D Cura, 3D view, in Cura in the sense we have 3D view, 3D view
temperature carbon Cura, temperature carbon. We can just see when we actually do
machining. So, nozzle at the nozzle heaters are there heater supposed to heat. So, to fuse
the raw material heaters are heated. So, it the orifice it, from the orifice the material
would come and this temperature would be shown in the window.
So, in the Cura, we have these settings. So, we can talk about print or filament here. This
is print, this is filament. So, very first thing is speed and quality. Speed and quality,
speed and quality are two interrelated terms, I can say the opposite terms in the specific
machine, because if the speed is higher, the quality would be a little lower. And if the
quality has to be good, the speed cannot be very high.
So, speed and quality like it has to be optimized. So, that is why this term speed and
quality is there like, while deciding these different parameters, in speed and quality print
travel I will just discuss this, also the automatic setting is there in the software as well.
So, speed and quality are interrelated. So, we do not want our waste the material, we do
not want to lose time to because that would increase the cost, if we lose the material that
will also induce some cost.
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Next is structure. In structures, we have shell thickness, top bottom thickness, infill
overlap, infill pattern. So, we will discuss this one by one. So, let us come to speed and
quality first speed and quality. So, we have print, travel, first layer, outer parameter,
inner parameter, infill, skill infill. What are these? Let us try to discuss these one by one.
So, what we have we can have the limits here. For the any of these parameters, any of
these manufacturing parameter I can say, print this lowest speed and the fastest speed.
So, thus at slow it is kept 40. So, a purpose is that, the material that we drop here should
stick with a base plate with this. If it does not stick, then there is a complete wastage of
the material and even the path now might not be built properly.
So, the travel speed of the nozzle has to be dazed. So, it is kept slow and fast it is same
that is the fixed speed is 40 millimeters per second. For printing it is 40 and 40 for travel.
Travel means, when it is not printing, when it is not productive it is moving just ideally
from one place to another, if the speed is high it is 150 and 150. 150 means both 150
slow and 150 fast means the speed is fixed to 150 millimeters per second.
So, you can see the first layer is kept 40 and 40 and outer parameter is 20 and 20. So, this
is an important thing to discuss here. So, if the part is hollow from inside, then we have
to be very careful about the outer shell. So, it is mandatory or it is I can say, compulsory
that the outer surface becomes really smooth and shiny. And, up to the size, up to size,
up to mark and dimension of the profile should be accurate.
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So, inside filling can go fast, but outside surface that is the periphery of the jobs is to be
of high quality. So, good finish we always take care of the outer parameter speed, that is
kept lower, that is 20 and 20, 20 millimeters per second 20 millimeters per second for
slow and fast both, for feeling it is 40 and 40 again.
So, that is not very significant. So, in the same way, inner parameter is 30 and 30, inner
parameter is 30 and 30. And the infield if your job is a part is solid; if a part is solid the
infill the inner part, whatever the field in is called infill, that is 40 and 40 ok.
Another, parameter here is skin infill; skin infill is kept 30 and 40 millimeters per
second. So, this is quality and speed, this is speed and this is quality, speed is also related
to quality in one way. It has mentioned another term quality here, here in this tab.
So, what is the quality that is the quality of the layers that we are going to that we are
going to deposit here. 0.1 is very thin is very fine. So, it is highest quality, 0.15 is a little
higher and the lowest quality is 0.2. So, if the layer thickness is 0.1, the job would come
very smooth and shiny, if it is 0.2, it would be the worst among these in 0.15 is in is in
between. So, 0.2 mm means that it consumes less amount of time, but the qualities goes
down.
So, in this way, sometimes we find that our dimension here or our profile shape is
important. So, quality factor is not very important that only the profile shape is there,
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then we go we can go for (Refer to Time: 33:45) painting that is 0.2 mm can be there.
Sometimes we feel that the size and dimension as well as quality that we need to keep
has to be higher so, we can keep 0.5, 0.1 mm layer thickness.
After setting all, we go for the next thing that is called as structure, ok. Structure we have
shell thickness, it is set as 0.12 top and bottom is 1.6 mm, shell thickness is 1.2 mm top,
bottom thickness is 1.6 mm.
So, infill overlap is 15 percent. So, what is basically infill overlap, when one bead is
deposited over the other bead, it will overlap. So, it cannot if it does not overlap, it
cannot stick with the first layer.
So, the first layer would stick, the first layer will stick with the second layer, for instance
this layer thickness is 0.1, the second layer thickness is again 0.1. So, there would be
some overlap. So, this overlap, how much overlap, we need to we can keep here. So,
what will happen it will displays the nozzle, if this overlap is not here this is 0.1. And
this is point one the nozzle will touch this one and it will it might displace the nozzle it
might the part may distort.
So, some overlap should be there. So, as there has to be some gap here for the nozzle to
work in, ok, some gap at the surface has to be there. So, for that this overlap limit is
given. So, this overlap limit can be 15 percent or 20 percent. So, this is kind of an
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overlap, the second layer would not be exactly on the top of the first layer; it will be little
overlapping. In this case, yes you can just see like the fingers we are just trying to try and
demonstrate that, 50 percent of, 50 percent of overlap can be seen here, but it is 15
percent of exact overlap would be there, if we put this input in the machine.
So, this bead is deposited in this way. So, sticking to the layer would not be proper, if
this overlap is not there. And the proper overlap that the fill amount of 15 percent, then
there is an overhang angle as well here.
So, over an angle is 60 degree here. So, over an angle here will be for the machinery, for
this machinery. If, we are going to deposit, I will better say deposited print or
manufacture the job. If it is solid, there is no issue at all. If, it is a conical shape and
angle is up to 60 degree.
That 60 degree means if the angle is 60 degree like this. If it is about 60 degree, the thing
would happen it just deposit slice, slice, slice, but if angle is more than 60 degree here, it
has to have supports here like it have to have supports here to support the material. So,
this overhang angle that we can decide, ok, that we can decide overhang angle has to be
fixed, that is fixed at 60 degrees here. So, this overhang angle is 60 degrees and next
what we have here. So, we need to see that is there anything overhangs in the cad model,
in the cad model if there is an overhang is there, then we need to put this angle.
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So, if that anything is overhang, then we need to provide this support and only then we
can proceed further. So, then over an angle has to be sided. Next is extrusion. So, this is
extrusion of the filament from the spool to the nozzle. So, this is a retraction speed,
retraction speed is 40 mm millimeter per second, retraction distance is 4.5 mm, there is
basically a roller at the back of the machine, that is responsible for bringing the filament
to the nozzle.
So, that two rollers and the filament passes through them, the filament moves through
them. So, tube to go to the head. So, this retraction speed or feeding of the raw material
is 40 millimeters per second. So, as power speed was printing, whatever the speed of
printing is there that speed would be kept here ok, in the extrusion. Now, retraction
distance is 4.5 mm and number of considerations are there, but these are not very
important, because when we are going to servicing, we are go to service or overhauling
the machine, these things are set by the G code.
Because, when we go for overhauling or service of the machines, these things are set by
the manufacture or the provider themselves. Next one is G code. So, we are talking about
slicing here ok, this slicing with CuraEngine in slicer. In the slicer, first we had object
filament placement, then we have slicer second time here.
In slicer they have multiple options here, now this is G code. So, slicing is nothing, but
depositing the layers, but how to control the movement of the nozzle in the X Y or Z
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direction, that has to be taken care by a program. And, this programming system is
known as G code programming system; if we know C and C programming G codes and
M codes might be conversant.
In this programming system is known as G code and, G code and M codes are both there,
these are mostly used for C and C programming milling turning and other machinings
same code is used here in 3D turning for the movement of the head, over the bed, for
depositing the material. We will meet in the next lecture, we will discuss further about
the course.
Thank you.
827
Prof. J. Ramkumar
National Institute of Technology Jalandhar
Lecture – 27c
Laboratory demonstration: 3D printing (Part 2 of 3)
Good morning. Welcome back to the course.
In this lecture, we will take you to the lab for the Laboratory Demonstration.
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These are in a tab here that is advanced tab. Advanced tab is again used for manufactures
like combine everything combine type A and type B kinds of the materials here. Then
the second tab is filament, after print we have filament.
Here, we have the feeding speed. the filament diameter the general diameters size is
which are available in the market are 1.75 mm and 2.85 mm. This filament that we have
here that we are using to fabricate and to demonstrate it is 1.75 mm. The flow is kept 100
percent.
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So, there is a particular property of the material, the filament that is then what is length
of the filament, what is diameter, what is the flow, what is the temperature, equivalent
temperature. All these properties are there for the specific material for the specific kind
of spool that we get from the market. So, those are sometimes given with the material,
then when we purchase.
So, this is the filament. So, it is in the form of a wire ,again the diameter is 1.75 mm and
when we see this flow is 100 percent; that means, whatever input we give ,whatever
speed, it is feed input we give it will run 100 percent in that speed only. So, whatever we
are going to input. So, it will work in that according to that only.
Now, next we can talk about temperature. To what temperature it will deposit at the bed?
What would your temperature of the bed? Print temperature is 230 degrees and bed
temperature is 50 degrees. So, it is kept at least 50 degrees in general. 230 degrees is a
temperature we will discuss about this and well.
This is the one more thing that we mentioned earlier; there are 2 fans; fan 1 and fan 2
here. The 2 fans here fan 1 and 2 after fuses it becomes viscous and for the long time, it
will de shape the CAD model, if it is not properly controlled with a certain temperature.
So, after depositing, these fans are responsible for the cooling and solidification of the
layers. So, that is why it is mentioned in the software, cooling. So, minimum fan speed
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maximum fan speed; there are two fan speeds here. Minimum fan speed is kept at 50
percent, maximum fan speed is kept at 100 percent and minimum layer time is 5 seconds.
It takes 5 seconds to cool the last layer of what was deposited earlier. So, in 5 seconds till
it will take care of cooling, 5 seconds is time set in that.
This is called curing of the metal. This is called curing of the metal when we do cure.
Cura word is also derived from this curing.
So, this Cura you know, we have now the broad undertaking of all the Cura software.
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So, this is temperature curve. Temperature curve we can see the temperature or of the
output of the bed it is from 0 to 100 if we say. what is the output coming and the output
of the extruder, then in it can just show the curves when we actual do machine, when the
machine is running.
This is 3D view ,this is temperature curve and this is Cura. Now, this is in 3D view we
can zoom in and zoom out this is zoom out, this is zoom in, this is moving up and down
zooming out.
(Refer toSlide Time: 04:36)
Then isometric, then front view, isometric view and other axonometric views that we can
see here this is top view, this is front view, ok. This is now asymmetric view. So, we are
still working in this tabs slicer; we are still working in slicer only.
So, as we discussed before, the slicer is the most important tab, what I feel in this
software when we need to decide most of the parameters are decided here only. So, print
preview is just the preview and we can do manual control is when we need to control the
machine manually. When we do not trust the G-code or this not the question of trust, it is
about when we need to make some modifications according to our requirements. So, as
we can machine it in lesser time or we can induce some new features then manual
machining control, but whenever we do something manual then manual machining
control can be done.
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So, we have discussed object placement in slicer. So, we have discussed like this is a
copy command you know the placement and mirror command, rotation command; all
these commands whatever we have used for the proper alignment. Now, in slicer we
have a few things like Adhesion Type. What is the adhesion type? Adhesion type here
that is given is brim. Brim configuration, there is a part of the kind of the machine model
that is put here the adhesion type is brim.
What is adhesion type? Now, here we provide a little bit more material. Here we use a
little more area to deposit the first layer. For the very first layer, it will be bigger in size
of from the CAD model what we have whatever we have obtained and what we actually
going to print this layer the first layer would be bigger. So, but it has to be only first layer
the adhesion type is the first layer. First layer where has it is the brim or it is raft we can.
After this first layer, the second layer would follow the CAD model ok. So, we can have
2 major kinds of skirts along our model; like this is the model, the skirts along this can be
built this skirt can be brim or raft. So, this way this play very important role because this
layer, we will stick to the machine. It will stick with the machine this table top; this
hotplate, if they stick here. So, if we do not provide any extra material to the periphery of
the job may stick on the bed and we may lose some features on the base of the job.
So, if I we can use this feature only when we find that more material has to be added that
this job is necessary when more area is there. So, if we say none, it would not have any
brim or raft or it might decide brim. So, if we that if we are very much conversion that
this specific type of job would need a brim or raft, or both the kinds of skirts.
So, when should we use raft or when we use a brim what are advantages that they with
each other that in that we can say a raft would allow for better adhesion for the whole
print, as raft attaches the printing surface and the print attaches to the raft. Like if this is a
print and this is the print that we are need to produce; I need to produce this model. If
there is first layer that is throughout the base at the whole base that is raft, brim would
only at the outer periphery.
So, this brim and raft can vary we can see that whether raft is required or brim is required
depending upon the material that we are producing. So, brim does not help a lot with
layer adhesion it as it is only one layer; raft can even be more than one layers. Because
normally when we use raft, it needs a nice looking the first layer like in general like we
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are talking about the first layer already ,adhesion type, but raft can be even more than
one layer brim is only one layer always.
Rafts are primarily used with ABS material to help with whapping and bed adhesion.
They can also be used to help stabilize models with small footprints or to create its
strong foundation on which to build the upper layers of your part. The raft a lot of work
is being carried out lot of research is being is carried out in raft and brim design like to
decide how many number of years optimizations is happening in this. So, 100 of
different machines are produced to minimize because raft or brim whatever we have raft
and brim would be an extra material that is wasted at the end. So, this wastage has to be
minimum, but the quality of the product should not be compromised. So, we can decide
between two these two, ok.
About brim; what is brim? Brim as I said it is just at the outskirts of the job. So, brims
are often used to hold down the edges of your part which can prevent whapping and that
it also helps in adhesion with the bed. It is actually known to the manufacturer that the
quality of the product varies with using brim or not. So, in general brim command is
referred into that like to reduce the wastage of the material.
So, the second layer onwards would follow the CAD geometry. In this specific model,
the brim and raft is only the first layer as I mentioned before, but in certain machines raft
can be more than one layer as I mentioned. So, we have just kept as kept it as none that is
we are not getting any brim or raft here. So, whatever we do whatever we dimension we
give, it will just start manufacturing the component without depositing any other layer
here.
So, like you can also see brim none disables this function; brim as a single layer high
area around your object which can easily be cut off afterwards. Brim is required if
objects whap at the edges if the edges are more important. If the edges are more
important like this edge, this edge, this edge, edges are more brim is used.
Raft adds this is the help that is given by the software; raft adds a thick raster below the
object and a thin interface between this and the object which can be removed after
printing. This is required if you have a bumpy bed or such a small object that would not
stick well during the print. So, I think this makes it very clear.
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So, normally we do not use this feature brim or raft we were just kept anywhere, we can
use this feature only when we find that our job, whatever we are going to print is
perfectly flat at one end that is rectangular, cuboidal or cubical or at the cross section or
at the bottom of the job, then we can use this.
Now, are going to demonstrate this, but we are going to clarify you that this one thing
this is brim. So, this is brim that is taken off from the job that is prefabricated. So, this is
the model that would be developed. So, this is the pocket; this extra material is brim, this
extra material is brim ,ok. This whole material is brim.
So, this is taken off from the for the was manufactured before. So, this will stick with the
bed properly and this enlarged area. This is the first layer, this will provide a good
holding with the bed. So, we are talking about a selection brim here in the software. So,
when the nozzle head starts printing, it actually it is the actual model that we want to
print, but it will deposit a little extra material to produce.
835
This first here this is actually the brim, this is the model that we have. This is the model
that is produced. So, it will deposit the material the little more material. So, this is this
material was produced in this way this. So, this extra material is brim, also we have more
extra material here those are supports that we will just try to show you how when we
remove them.
We can remove brim by hand very easily, manually and we can get the finished final
product. If the CAD model is flat it is flat, it is ok; if it is not flat; if it had some
inclination as I said, what would happen? How would the machine take care of the
printing? It would provide some support. Now, the printing would take a place.
Now, we can see this profile that is created here. It is a mesh; this is not a solid profile.
This is just a mesh that is created because it has support some material. Now, this
support we are trying to remove this then. We are trying to remove this support, this is
the both can be removed by hand. So, this is a support material. In this case, only one
spool is used and both the model and the support materials is post spool that is where the
color is also the color of the spool is; obviously, one that is yellow only. So, it is done by
a single spool here.
So, we can even have the support material that is a little cheaper because the support
material is not the final function that we need to present that we need to provide. So, this
is the potential or the beauty of FDM technology, that if there is any inclination or any
836
pocket or any profile inside this, the machine will program on its own and deposit the
material. Again this is what we mentioned earlier the quality that is at what quality we
want to print that is 0.1 mm, 0.2 mm or 1.0, 0.15 mm support type again that selection is
there.
Now, this is printed this product is printed with the quality 0.2. So, they are fine they are
a little line. So, these are fine lines we can say fine lines or fine and course are subjective
terms, but according to this machine these are coarse lines 0.2 mm. So, if we make job is
0.1 mm; these lines would be a little finer. So, the smoothness will be better.
So, we can select as we mentioned before that 0.1, 1.0, 0.15 and 0.2 mm of quality there
are 0.2 mm per slice what is the thickness of the slice that we are selecting. So, again the
term quality is here like we said quality 0.2 we need to select the quality according to the
kind of the finish we require and also as I said the quality and speed are countering each
other. If the quality would be higher the speed would be lesser because 0.1 mm and 0.2
mm; obviously, the speed would be 50 percent of 0.2 if I use 0.1 because 50 percent of
the layer 50 percent size is been deposited at each layer at each.
The support type as I said as we said we use the word support that is if there is a any
inclination or any pocket any profile we need support the support type we can again play
in 3 modes – none, touching bed or everywhere touching bed means it would just like to
touch the bed. For instance if this material is here and this is my bed, it would just like to
touch the bed. So, touching the bed it would just apply support wherever it need to touch
the bed just touching bed.
So, which we need by higher quality we can even use this option everywhere otherwise
no support. Also you know it is given none disable support, touching bed is the most
common setting it will only create support where the support structure will touch the
beds. So, everywhere creates support, creates even on the top of the parts of the model,
even on the top even if it is not touching the bed, it will create support. So, if we see
know that our CAD model is good enough and is flat we need not to have any support
we can choose none.
So, if I am not aware or we do not have any information about that whatever the CAD
model would be from inside or it what their different intricate features so, in case of
complicated very highly complicated CAD models. The, if the face is there is no flat
837
shape or shape anywhere, then we need to set the commands to just this command just
this option to everywhere. So, we were talking about the supports type and the support
type is set to everywhere.
This is one of the jobs that are a kind of complicated. So, you can see that number their
multiple shapes here. So, in this CAD model; in this CAD model if you see, in this CAD
model we use everywhere command, because it is profiled everywhere like just not
touching the bed. For instance this is the model as I like I just said it is touching the bed,
if there is another model for instance another thing is in fractured here, this portion the
portion in between here is not touching the bed, but it would provide support here as well
because it has to produce this thing as well.
So, in case of touch bed, it will provide support here only in case of everywhere we will
provide support here as well which is the which is complicated we use the option
everywhere. Now, the software is responsible to fill the support wherever it is needed.
So, it is the art and skill both. You know in manufacturing as we know the CAD, the
Computer Aided Design there different softwares are there, but whatever the software
that is just software might be quite intelligent, but it is all the all designs come from here
it has come from the designer. So, this is the always a an art associated in designing than
besides the skill as well.
838
So, this is a, we are talking about the slicer and we were talking about the support tab
and speed. As we discussed the speed print speed as it is fixed to 40 millimeters per
second, outer parameter speed is fixed to 20 millimeters per second and infill speed is
again 40 millimeter per second; we can make it fast and slow using this tab as well. So,
again print speed is 40 millimeters per second, outer parameter speed is 20 millimeters
per second infill speed is 40 millimeters.
So, there is an as a check box here, enable cooling. So, if we enable this check box, it
activates cooling fan when while printing. This can be significantly improve the print
quality especially for the PLA in bridging and overhangs. It is specifically mentioned for
PLA. If we enable cooling the cap fans would run when we print.
So, there are two nozzles here, ok; extruder nozzle, extruder 1 and extruder 2 ok.
Extruder 1 and extruder 2 two nozzles are there. So, accordingly we have two nozzles
here; extruder 1 and extruder 2. We can put the material what is the kind of material we
have put it ABS for extruder 1 and ABS for extruder 2. So, we can just input the kind of
the material that we actually have. So, as the as we said we cannot manufacture multi
color jobs with the, this machine because we have only two nozzles capacity as two
colors can be produced.
So, we are just trying to tell you that how slicing would be taken care. So, how do we do
slicing? Slicing is just one click away. Now, this big button here Slice with CuraEngine
after making all these settings in slicer this really big fit button, the slicing is just one
click away. When we click this button slicing starts, now the slicing starts; you can see
that it has made a brim by itself ok, as it might have found it important. The machine is
quite intelligent to do this; the software is quite intelligent to decide this thing.
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So, this brim is you can see. This cure is here. Why this cure is here? This cure is for
holding. We need to hold the job and take it off. It holds the brim; hold the brim layer
and take it off ok. This scale is for the holding and the other portion this outer portion is
the brim because it has to it would like to save the edges or the make the edges proper
brim is only at the edges it had been rough, it would be along all the surface complete
surface of the job, ok.
So, this slicing now it is showing the properties. Now, it is showing estimated printing
time 5 hours 2 minutes 33 seconds. So, it is giving the data this is print view after slicer it
has to go to the next tab here that is print preview ok. In print preview, it is giving the
information that this kind of this is the time that would be taken 5 hours 2 minutes 33
seconds total layer counts would be 144, total lines would be 1455701, 145000 lines
would be drawn. And filament that would be needed would be the length of the filament
that would be needed would be 19500 mm.
So, this information is displayed here. So, in this print preview once we start click this
button print a we can show, we can say see how show travel moves, how the layers
would move. Now, these sky blue lines indicate that we will show that it will print
material in this way. We could go with the single layer also and show layer range, show
layer range ,ok. This is the first layer, how it would print? Look it is it shows, it is
showing travel moves here showing travel moves, how it will travel when we will actual
840
do will also try to show you how it moves and it is showing 3 layer range. Now, we can
just span through the window show compete code.
Now, there is a button here or not button there is a radio button here. Among these three
we can select one Show complete Code, slow Show Single Layer, Show Layer Range.
So, Single Layer we are just shown you, Show Layer Range is also shown now; Show
complete Code, this is the complete code complete; code would be like this the material
will come from this side ,ok. It will start machining, it will start producing actually
machining when I say machining in general when we think of what we think of
machining is machining is subtraction, here machining is addition material addition
happens from here this is produced.
Now, let us click Print. Before we actually do print we have to also prepare the bed,
prepare the machine and all those things the machine has to be set up properly before we
actually start because once we click this it will start printing. Now, we have made certain
settings, we have made certain inputs here and some settings are there the CAD model
everything is there we can save this to a file; using these thing save to file ,ok.
Also if we have deep information or deep knowledge about the G codes about the C and
C programming we can add or subtract or added the features using Edit G-code. XYZ
movements can be controlled using G-code programming system. So, this is G-code
editor, ok. After Print Preview we also have G-code editor here. So, we change the CAD
profile that what we need to print without printing without using the CAD model.
Now, the last tab is the last tab is manual control. The main manual control what happens
we can control the machine manually you can see X, Y direction here, X and Y direction
can be controlled manually, Z direction can be controlled manually and also this extruder
can be controlled manually. In manual control, it is very important that it starts from
beginning if this individual we are doing manual control it starts from beginning and it
ends at finishing as well.
So, like movement of the nozzle in manual control we can move the axis manually, here
we can play with a setting changings and we can change the temperature as well here.
So, before printing we also need to set a temperature, the set this is known as soaking
temperature, ok. The nozzle temperature that was kept 230 degrees, so we have to
activate.
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Now, this controls the extruder temperature typically the temperatures for PLA is from
180 to 220 degrees and for ABS it is it a little more than that. So, we are using
synchronous extruder for both printing; printing that is the actual model and for support.
So, we are activating this. So, this red cross means it is not activated. This that cross is
taken off means that line is taken off that is it activated.
Now, extruder 1 extruder it is now starting started it has now started heating might be
once we have activated the temperature 200 degrees. It will now heat up to this
temperature 200 degree temperature actual temperature we can see here when it is
heating temperature curve here, when we will open here.
So, bed temperature bed temperature is also activated now bed is also heating, it has
started heating. So, the bed temperature again for PLA the bed temperature is 55 degrees
and the fan is also switched on manually. Now, there is another way if we go to Print
button here, when we click Print all these manual controls that we have done manually
these will be activated or enabled automatically because bed has to be heated, the nozzle
has to be heated, fan has to be kept on, all the settings that we made before would be
activated when by just clicking of this button. So, this is the automated mode.
So, the use of manual control is that we can display the temperature; we can alter here
the temperatures. But, in the automated control we cannot alter once we fixed. So, we
can increase or decrease the temperature. See we are increasing the temperature of
extruder it was 200 we are increasing it to 230, ok, we increase it to 230. So, sometimes
we also play with the atmosphere temperature. In the summers the temperature room
temperature is generally here in Kanpur is from 37 to 43 in average. So, it is quite hot in
extreme summers and in winters it even come downs to 5 degrees or 6 degrees.
So, depending upon that the temperature is also set. If a temperature room temperature is
lower this temperature is also kept accordingly. It is winters here at this point of time
when we did these demonstrations. So, the temperature is kept a little high. So, because
the room temperature is quite low here so, the filament temperature is made a little
higher otherwise it what should be kept 200 degrees here.
We will meet in the next lecture. We will discuss further about the course.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
National Institutes of Technology, Jalandhar
Lecture – 27d
Laboratory demonstration: 3D printing (Part 3 of 3)
Good morning. Welcome back to the course. In this lecture, we will take you to the lab
for the Laboratory Demonstration.
Now this process is you know parking. We are parking like car parking; we are parking
like kind of homing. So, it is parking the head at the left side left corner of the machine.
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Now, after setting the g code and making all these settings we are here to prepare the bed
to prepare the bed for machining, ok. To prepare the bed and to set up all the things like
spool, filament we will induce, we will in filament through the rollers that would come
through the extruder and we will try to see that whether it comes properly or not. Before
that the heating is there heating that was done that with the commands that we gave the
heating was here the bed is getting hot or it has come close to the temperature that was
given 4 to 5 degrees; the nozzles are close to 230 degrees.
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So, the temperature is kind of trying to come to this desired input here to 230 degrees for
the nozzle, 55 degrees for the bed. It will take about 15 minutes. By the time, we can
prepare the bed. So, let us try to start the cleaning and loading and unloading of the
material.
This is the cutter that is being used to cut the filament if required. So, this is a tube,
through which the filament would form through, it provides proper paths to the filament,
ok. This tube is it a tubular filament head.
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This is spatula, this is used to clean the bed.
So, this is a distilled water with some cleansing agent here a few drops.
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So, some of the liquid cleaner is sprayed and it is cleaned with the help of spatula. So,
the whole machine header is actually glass, so we have to be careful. So, what is this
white milky material? White milky material it is nothing, but we have used fevistick that
is the adhesive material, this Fevistick.
So, we are gained applying some move Fevistick. So, it will help you lock the first layer.
As we said before, we have put our cad at the centre of the envelope. So, that is why we
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are preparing the portion that is at the centre. So, a thin coat of Fevistick is applied to the
centre.
Now, this is our head this is our and there are heaters here that are heating. The filament
the spool is coming through this tube, the white tube, the filament is coming through this
y tube ok. So, this is the head that can be moved or this is our x and y movement, ok. In z
moment that actually bed is moving up and down that movement is controlled with bed
and there are two nozzles here. The only one nozzle is active at this point of time.
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So, let us see how to load and unload the filament. So, this black portion this is a PU
connector. So, PU connector can be connected, it can be screwed in and out. So, we have
unscrewed it, ok.
So, in PU connector is according the side of a tube; PU connector is exactly there, the
tube would exactly fit into that so this support.
So, this is these are our rollers. We are taking it off we are unloading the filament now;
unloading the filament you can see.
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This is, the filament of size 1.57 mm. Now we can see that the filament a little distorted
from the tip that is, it would not enter the rollers properly.
The tip of the filament or the end of the filament is not proper. So, we are going to cut it,
they have cut it, so it is now flat at the end or screw at the end. So, this is the roller. This
would help to take the filament forward when this rotates the filament is carried forward
in this direction; upward direction.
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Now, we are entering the filament into the tube that is connected to the PU connector.
And this tube is also very much according to the diameter of the filament, 1.75 inside
diameter 1.75, plus allowance. Allowance is 0.11 0.85 mm in a dia.
Now this PU supports to, the filament supports is connected to the PU connector, ok.
Now we will see that whether it is working properly or not. Now, we will lock the PU
connecter, we have locked the PU connector there, we lock this PU connector here as,
this is PU connector is locked here.
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So, this roller that I mentioned that is responsible for feeding; this is also known as
feeder. So, we are using this pulley and feeder two rollers. One roller is pulley; another
roller is feeder.
We can see that the loading of filament is properly done. Now we can see that whether
the filament is coming through the nozzle or not, yes it is coming. Now this means the
temperature is now maintained.
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Now, we will use these two clips to hold the glass with that bed, with the table bed, ok.
So, this bed is at the temperature of 50 to 55 degree centigrade.
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So, to hold them we use these two clips we will put clips here and here. So, that it holds
gets properly over here and at the other diagonal end. So, these are the heaters for the
bed. Now we can go at the bottom of the bed; let me take camera would go at the bottom
of the bed, this is the bottom of the bed a heaters here. We can see their heat is attached
here, ok. And the base is aluminium, this bed base is aluminium, they are heaters there
and all the aluminium base over and on the top of the aluminium base we have putted
glass plate on which the actual fabrication would take place. So, it is that one clip is put
here; another clip is put on the other side.
So, everything is in it is place now the temperatures are like, we are see our filament was
coming out of the nozzle, the cell temperature is close to what we require. Close to
means, if you have put input 230 degree centigrade’s as we know that it would not be
exactly 230 degree centigrade’s all the time it might vary like 2 to 3 degrees or 5 degrees
variation, but yes that is the working temperature the temperatures are set 230 degree
centigrade’s for filament, 50 to 55 degrees for table, the loading of the material is there.
The rollers are engaged, rollers, the two rollers means the rollers one is the pulley.
Pulley and the feeder is engaged filament is coming properly the bed is prepared. We
have applied fevi stick to make sure that the material sticks there and the cleaning of the
bed is, so before a few, we will just come to manual control here.
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In manual control, so we will we are going to check manually that whether the things are
moving. Yes, we have we are checking the material is coming in, material is coming out
,you can see the material is coming out. So, we are manually checking whether the
feeder is working or not ok. So, the material is coming out, the extruder is being checked
here, for it is proper setting. Again we can see extruder is activated. In this way, we
check that everything is quite well or not.
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Now, the temperature is actually at 53, 230 degree; yes, the temperature is 230 degree.
230 degrees for the extruder 1, 53.6 degrees is for the bed, yes; that means, as I said 5
degree variation, I will have to correct myself this machine is quite precise or sensitive to
temperature. So, the temperature 53 degree was set. So, it is within 1 degree 230 it might
be 229 or 231, so within 1 degree of the resolution.
So, last thing left is, we come to print preview and we start the print. Now when we start
printing, machine will go and check everything. First it will go at check the starting
place, that at the corner. So, this is known as referencing; it is checking the height the
height of the job you can see the rotation of the z direction, is moving up, the table is
moving up, ok. So, the bed is trying to touch the nozzle top; the bed is trying to touch a
nozzle top to set this zero value.
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Again you can see the rotation the bed is moving up, in a upward direction. Because we
do not know what is the thickness of the glass plate that if you put on and also there is
there of the fevi stick as well that we have that is there. So, the bed would touch the
nozzle end to set the zero value. Now, yes, it has started the printing.
The first layer is started here now. It is now printing, it is minting. This is the brim
command that we mentioned before and brim is being fabricated before actual model.
So, this is a very first line that is being drawn by the machine. So, it is running at the
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speed. So, it is actually while brim the, it is actually the printing only, while printing the
speed of the first layer was 40 millimetres per second. It will be moving at a speed, but
this part would stick with the base again, brim would stick to the base, this is the extra
part.
Now, we can see here that how the feeder helps to feed the material, this is the feeder;
feeder is rotating, ok. This is a roller mechanism here, pulley and feeder, pulley and
feeder, is there feeder is rotating to feed the material towards the upward direction, but
this is not the part of the CAD (Refer Time: 13:50), but this is used for the deposition.
So, this is how the machining is happening, ok.
So, this is how the machining is happening. So, it will make the first layer brim that will
start manufacturing the part. For the time for the machining; if you remember was 5
hours and few minutes; it will take this much of time. So, by the time the machining
happens let us try to see the different parts different, components which are here in the
manufacturing in the 4i lab.
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Actually we have to wave for 5 hours to see the final production of the final part. You
can see the roller mechanism closely, this is used for deposition. So, it will take 5 hours
for the machining to happen. So, by the time let us try to see the different components in
4i lab which are fabricated and using the rapid prototyping and other machines as well.
Specifically for the prototyping, there are certain components. We are going to talk about
a few beautiful and important features that we talked before as well. These are produced
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using FDM technologies; that is Fuse Deposition Method. Now with 3D printing that is
this specific machine TECHB V30.
This 3D printing machine we have produced this geometric crank, ok. This is produced
with this machine. Now this kind of hollow cylindrical job can also be produced, but this
is pipe shaped with lock, but with the locking device sometimes we get very challenging
kind of jobs.
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For instance, this is a propeller, this is a propeller fan ok. So, what it does? This you can
see you can see the number of fins here, the number of very fine fins. The gap between
the fins is very less; the angle is very important here. So, this is impeller. So, it is
impeller, just sucks and throws out the fuel, so here angle is very important. So, this is a
complicated job, so its fabrication is really complicated, really tough. So, it is typical to
fabricate it with any other machining like a milling, turning or the conventional machines
always may be bit CNC, general machining.
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So, now this technology FDM helps us to work freely to produce these kinds of parts, ok.
So, and medical sciences know you know we have this foot, you know we can produce
artificial limbs. For instance left leg, right leg and we have to fabricate artificial limbs for
instance; for a particular man or lady and we are not able to copy.
If for instance someone has lost his limb if it is he has lost his left leg, but we can, we
can just scan his right leg and by using mirror command we can produce the left, leg this
can also happen. So, this is artificial foot that is produced, ok. It is actually the spectrum
for the shoe here, so there are certain other components kept here.
So, 3D painting, what we need? We need to have the scanned model sometimes or the
cad model has to be there. The cad model can be produced by someone, by the engineer
or it can be even scanned model which can be then transferred into the cad model, ok.
So, also you can see another model here. This is a beautiful feature; this impeller is a
beautiful feature you can see the angle, you can see the accuracy, really very good. So,
scanning helps in a way that you don’t put any extra efforts for cad, modelling,
designing, putting all that in the scanning helps in that.
So, this is a pen stand; this is a pen stand and the now we need to if we need to model the
same, we can scan it. We can scan it using a 3D scanning. 3D scanning means from all
the directions from the different scanners are there like different degrees of freedoms of
all the scanners are there and we have produced this similar model.
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So, the scanning took about 2 hours and the printing this printing of this model took
about 2 hours. So, within let me say 2 hours for scanning, 2 hours for scanning and 2
hours maybe, I will say 2 hours for printing. In within 24 hours, we can produce the
same product or we can copy the product. This is re-engineering; this is reengineering
like scanning and producing iron.
So, it has produced in a very fast pace within 4 hours as I said. So, that is why this
machine is also known as rapid prototyping machine. So, we can produce very rapidly
the scanning and producing, scanning and producing, that is why the term rapid
prototyping and rapid manufacturing’s comes into play.
Also a few creative items are kept. So, this is a complicated model of maybe some holy
person; this is a human skull. So, with scanning we can just scan the model and produce
it again, ok. So, scanners are highly capable to scan anything, even we can scan the live
humans and after scanning, we can produce the replica and the same scan data can be
used for printing when we scan.
So, white light scanners are there like white light scanners are used to scan the human
body. So, in general cad, we have to draw, we had to input to the machine and all those
things have to be there. The 3D scanning helps the threading now the threading mean is a
very used in engineering and mechanical background. So, in 4i lab, it is a High lab at IIT
Kanpur. We deal with this kind of unconventional manufacturing methods.
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So, FDM is quite possible in the, prototyping is very unconventional method of

machining with 3D printing technology. We can print this kind of creative jobs like this
hollow cylinder this kind of hollow cylinder. Now the beauty of these two models is that
this model this skull is solid and this is hollow, this is hollow from inside ok. This is
lightweight in this is solid; this is quite heavy. The beauty is that we have scanned and
printed them, the interesting thing is that whatever we scan we got the components
exactly matching the features of those were scanned.
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So, there are other machines as well you know like CNC milling, CNC turning, so this is
a metal part. Now this is a ball inside a metal cage. This is not the prototyping, but we
are just mentioning a few components which are here, it was a cube. And it is machined
with milling machine, with a CNC milling machine from all the faces and a ball is left
inside. So, this is this is example of subtractive method not additive manufacturing. So, it
is subtractive manufacturing with milling. So, same kind of job, we can manufacture
with 3D printing.
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In that case, we will have a support any modern materials you know now this is
happening this first layer was brimmed. And after first layer, the other layer, the second
layer is now being manufactured. But it is preparing support; you can see it is preparing
support here because it was an angle in the component.
Now what this component is? This component is actually a key, it is to be kept in the
machine, a key that we will set it and that will lock the two different parts of the
assembly. You can see the machine moving. So, other components are here like we work
in additive manufacturing and subtractive manufacturing both in 4i lab, so in both the
modes we work.
So, let us see the other parts which are manufactured here. See all these white
components are manufactured using 3D printing, ok. All these white components are
from these 3D printing. So, let us see some other components and other models which
are manufactured.
Now, this is the model they were machining this is actually the printing on the wood that
is IIT K lobo IIT K lobo and FDM Titan Knife Set whatever it is before I have a 4i
laboratory IIT. This you know you can see the complication of the deep features in the
part, this is manufactured using the laser machine that is here.
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This printing in teak ply, and we print and cut when we assemble. So, this is a printing
and cutting of wood, this is teak ply, the 3D model is made. Now this is actually a very
old technology cut and paste cut and paste there was no 3D printing, or no advanced
machines were there. So, this was the way to develop the model.
So, we had to cut the faces and then assemble it and then fabricate it, but with the help of
FDM we can do this entire shape without putting any effort. So, it can be manufactured
directly and also with laser machine that we have, we are capable to etch and cut, as well
as, many materials like acrylic, wood, mica, teflon and so on and we can etch and cut
both the things can happen.
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Few materials can be etched only like this; this glass; this glass it is here, you can see it
is etched here. And the image is produced, we can etch any image any alphabet.
So, with this fine features and profile, the capability of machine is that it can etch and
create a groove, or channel at a micro level. So, with this, our capacity is that we can
work at micro level machining and we can go for both creative as well as engineering
aspects of job with this machine, with the laser machine, ok. The capability or the
resolution or I can say accuracy better, but accuracy is up to 40 microns.
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So, we can print on flat as well as cylindrical shaped jobs, like, when see the glass, we
have printed the 4i laboratory name and logo IIT K logo. So, with this machine with the
roller attachment facility, we can etch we can print, we can make a mark, we can groove
slot or any kind of non machining, like any kind of non contact machining can happen
using this machine.
So, in general when we say word machining the first thing that comes into the mind is
ok. There might be some to some cutting might happen, contacts would be there, scrap
would be produced tool; tool will deteriorate. But here the with laser light, it comes from
the source that is, and it is a non contact method and the light from come from the source
and it hits the work piece surface and the material burns out and sometimes it get is
evaporated. So and by means of this non contact method pitching, printing, cutting,
machining; these things take place. Now in this lab we have number of machines;
cutting, printing or like this is ok this is cutting and printing on leather.
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So, this is mica ok, on mica this printing is happening here, between then, happen on this
mica here ok; the etching on mica, then testing on teak ply.
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Again with laser and cutting also as I have done with laser in this component. Sometimes
this kind of cutting is also to be carried out on metals, ok. This is carried out with the a
machine known as abrasive water jet machining.
From with water jet cutting machine, we can cut any metal and in non metal. We can see
this is a marble and this is granite, this is granite, ok. It is a brittle material to cut; this is a
Chinese dragon shape, it is cut with abrasive water jet machining. So, this is aluminium
and we cut it from rack, like this is a rag gearing, this is rag gear actually.
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So, there is one more job of brass; this profile is called as aerodynamic profile. So, our
students at IIT Kanpur of working on this high pressure air, this specific component is
used to there. So, this kind of job also is carried out with the subtractive method of
machining only, with milling machine.
So, this is 3D printed, but it part that is the outer covering of any shape ok, outer shell
covering. So, this is manufactured using vacuum forming machine; this is not with 3D
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printing. This is one more machine that is able to produce the outer shape covering. So, it
has a specific feature in that so this is vacuum forming machine.
So, with the help of vacuum forming, we can form the sheet of any shape as per our part
or a die board, according to that, ok. We can make a hollow geometry as well as 4i lab,
we support mechanical as well as electronics here; so in electronics we have a number of
machines to fabricate and to manufacture PCBs.
This is printed circuit board. You can see this is the raw PCB, these are the tracks. We
have asked a material from the yellow surface area where yellow area here. This is this
brown one is copper bead here.
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And then we have the chemical coating also to make it green coated at all and the copper
tracks are there. And to prevent it from oxidation, we use green coating and green liquid
is here to make it free from oxidation that is, green coating is happening.
So, this printing of white here, this printing of white material here; this is called as tin
coating. To print some alphabets some numeric’s like it is showing the circuit diagram
here to clear the IC numbers at all to be put on. So, we can put what kind of soldering
has to be, you know, product has to be soldered.
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So, all those symbols for transistors symbol for , input output, then printing the kind of
all the things, that we will taken care within the white colour that is called as tin. So, here
we help the students to or the industries those come here, to in mechanical as when in
mechatronics, mechanical plus electronics.
So to help our students to develop their own prototypes, their own setups and
experiments machineries. So B. Tech project students also we support and we give
classes people are training to the people who come here for the faculty development
programs. We provide hands on skill towards students and the guests who come here for
learning and support to fabricate their job. So, especially support people from industries
and all those things are here.
So, what we can see here is the machine is running we can see the simulation of the
machine as well as the actual machine is running here. So, the stimulus is happening, you
will see the material is being deposited here. So, all these layers that you can see as mesh
here, these are supports.
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These supports would make the material to deposit over it. So, when the machine, it has
not completed on this side now it has made one line here. So, it would not waste time to
restart the machining from this point, when it has done it has machining here means
adding material. So, when the material is added over, here it will restart from this point
only and keep depositing the material here. So, this is total 144 layers would be made to
manufacture the part where that we have designed and estimated time here is 4 hour 32
minutes that is the total time there is left here.
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So, it has been an hour that we have manufactured this product. So, I can pick this
products from here, I will just pick it up.
So, this part this support I am removing. So, the brim part is there on the machine only.
So, this is the final product that we have manufactured. So, we can see here that on this
support that complete material deposit is not, it is only the mesh. So, as the minimum
material is deposited that can support the main material, that is the main filler material
that is we used here. So, here as we are using single spool the same material is being
used as support and main material.
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So, these supports you can see this was the final component that was desired here final
feature of my component here and this is the support that is removal, so it is hollow from
inside. So, this is the product that we have manufactured in our demonstration in rapid
prototyping or we also call it additive inspection here. So, this is TECHB V30 machine
fused deposition method machine.
Again we are talking about, this is 3D printing machine like we have multiple additive
manufacturing or rapid manufacturing or rapid prototyping technologies like steel
lithography, digital light processing, stereo lithography and fused deposition method are
the major ones. Then also we have laser methods like selective laser sintering, selective
laser melting, electron beam melting, then laminated manufacturing like laminate object
manufacturing, all those methods are there.
This is a theory printing machine out of the types of the 3D, 3D printing machines. This
use Cartesian coordinates there are certain types of FDM machines. It is specifically 3D
printing fused deposition machining methods that use different kinds of coordinates. The
Cartesian, Cartesian uses the x y z this is the Cartesian method. Other methods or other
kinds of machines are delta FDM printers.
The printers use 6s axis 3D printer which are based upon delta technologies machines,
operate with they also played with Cartesian technology. But there is more freedom in
that then the polar machine is there, polar machine, the polar 3D printers in the in that the
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positioning is no determined by x y and z coordinates, but by an angle like the polar
coordinate system.
So, another with 3D printing machine can be with the robotic arm different robotic arms
can come and keep printing at one point. So, they are with the four kinds; Cartesian,
delta then polar and robotic arms. So, this is Cartesian FDM machine. We have gone
through a demonstration of this machine in the 4i lab and I hope you have enjoyed the
demonstration and please come up with the questions anyway.
Because this was produced in three or four phases, we made the setup we had produced,
we the recorded the video in the lab when then we had tried to see that video and then I
have put my voice over here. So, there might be some mismatching, so pardon for that,
please come up with the questions wherever you think that things are not clear. And we
will meet in the next lecture; we will discuss further about the course.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 28
Plant Layout Planning (Part 1 of 2)
Good morning, welcome back to the course Product Design and Manufacturing. So,
herein we are discussing how to design a product? How to develop a product? And how
to manufacture a product starting from the very basic idea to have the final prototype and
then testing and further we will also discuss, how to market the product? What is the how
to manage the competitiveness market competitiveness benchmarking and these things
and in this specific lecture I am trying to focus on the plant layout planning.
Plant layout is an important factor in product manufacturing; because the cost of the
product is very much dependent upon the time cost is proportional to the time that is
taken by that product to get manufactured.
So, this time is very important factor in a factory, in a factory material handling is there
the product has certain complex characteristics certain products are very complex certain
products are simple to manufacture. So, there needs to be some specific arrangement of
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the equipments and tools and the movement of workers, material handling. So, that the
product time is minimum and the cost is also very much optimal.
So, I will try to cover an introduction to plant layout. So, why plant layout study is
important, then we will discuss certain factors those affect the plant layout. Then the
types of plant layout, and we will see the advantages, and disadvantages of all these
process layout, product layout, fixed position layout, combination layout, cellular layout,
and some other miscellaneous layouts.
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So, how do we define a plant layout plant layout is the most effective physical
arrangement either existing or in plans of industrial facilities industrial facilities. So, it
has to be most effective how it can be most effective we will see. Now it is arrangement
of machines and equipment and it considers certain all the MS of management there are
5 Ms in management, 5 Ms of management are 5 Ms of management are money, men,
materials, machines, and methods.
So, the plant layout is an arrangement of machines or the processing equipments and
service departments to achieve the greatest coordination between the 4 Ms these 4 Ms.
So, as we could have lesser investment lesser money is used here. So, these 4 Ms are
more of focus in plant layout study.
So, layout problems are fundamental to every type of organization or enterprise and all
kind of undertakings the adequacy of layout effects the efficiency of sub subsequent
operations, the layout study is an engineering study used to analyze different physical
configuration of a manufacturing plant here. By physical configuration I mean the plant
setup for example, this is the area where my factor is to be set I need to divide into 2
certain sections, I need to see where we have the entry where we have the exit and we
need to put certain machines in here.
So, this is a kind of a layout. Now these are the fixed equipment, then we have material
handling the workers would keep moving between these machines. So, this one unit is
called unit process or a unit manufacturing process. So, these are physical configurations
unit process, material handling equipment, then consumable tools, also I can put workers
here. So, these are all physical configurations.
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Now, next is why do we need a plant layout study? Many situations give rise to the
problem of plant layout 2 plants having similar operations may not have identical layout
here. For example, both of the plants are producing similar kind of product, but the
layout might be different and because the nature of the process and management caliber
how well is management able to take the decision about the plant layout here is also a
factor here.
So, the plant layout study is necessary, because of following factors there are design
changes sometimes in the product and because of the design changes, sometimes some
new equipment a new tool some new tool or new process is to be added or some obsolete
better to use not obsolete or not in use process is might also be there. Then sometimes
the enterprise thinks of expansion every company every industry as we seen in the
physical world is trying to expand.
A automobile industry is trying to expand the competitiveness in the market is too high
these days a product segment for a software a if I say, the life of a software is not more
than 6 months for the mobiles that is lifespan of the mobile phone a new segment of the
mobile phone or a new class of the mobile phone would get obsolete or a would get
outdated because of the new products coming in the market in maybe 6 months.
So, there are now numerous competitors China is coming into play is a taking the market
share very fast. So, new products are there and enterprises are trying to expand. So, a
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plant layout has to be made in such a way that the expansion is also possible, if there is
some layout will discuss about the layout for example, this is u kind of layout, it could be
expanded or we could be able to put some more machines in there. So, this is one of the
factors here, then there is variation in the size of the departments sometimes the
department size varies.
For example, in recent years the R and D is taking place very fast in automobile
manufacturing in mobile manufacturing and I would rather say in almost all the products
R and D department is playing very big role. So, that is why the variation of the size of
the department R and D department would become bigger R and D department. And if
some new product is to be added into the line that might also need the change in the plant
layout some new department is to be added sometimes and even we if a new plant is to
be set up the plant layout has to be studied.
So, next I like to discuss a few factors that influence the plant layout, the major factors
those influence the plant layout are processing time of the product, product physical
characteristics intricacy of the product, production volume of the product.
So, what is processing time? It is actually the material handling time, material handling
time. So, when I say a processing time or a product manufacturing time, if this is the
time span. If I divided into wave spars this is setup, this is actual operation, and this is
dispatch and here we have the receiving from the previous unit. Now here setup and
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operation are the attributes of my unit process for example, if there is a milling machine
or if I put it is there is the lathe machine setup would be made here or operation or a
processing would be done here only and this receiving and delivering out is done by
material handling systems.
These are done by material handling systems. So, this is very much dependent upon this
time material handling time is very much dependent upon the kind of plant layout that
design of our plant. So, it has a significant proportion of total time of manufacturing and
any reduction in handling time of the product may result in great productivity
improvement. So, that is why processing time is one of the important factor that
influence the plant layout.
Product physical characteristics, but physical product characteristics I would say weight
of the product, volume of the product, hereby volume I do not mean the production
volume, volume means the physical size of the product. And the mobility of the product,
that how well a how what is the ease of the product movement could we move the
product of the does it have to be made in a fixed position.
So, if the per final product is quite heavy or difficult to handle involving costly material
handling equipment and a large amount of labor important consideration will be to
amount the product minimum possible, to give minimum movement to the product.
For example, in aircraft manufacturing we will use fixed position layout, the product
handing the product, moving the aircraft through a conveyor line would be very much
expensive and even the space that is required would be very large the movement energy
that would be consumed in moving the conveyor belt would be very high, for in that case
the mobility of the product suggests that it has to be fixed position layout here.
Now, next is the intricacy of the product. Now if the product is made of very large
number of components, then large number of people may be implied for the handling the
movement of these parts, from shop to shop or from machine to machine, or one
assembly point to another, then the product layout has to be accordingly by intricacy I
would means large number of sub-assemblies or components.
So, in this case I can say in automobile manufacturing. The car manufacturing is being
carried out on conveyor belts and the, it has large number of parts involved the large
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labor is involving there, the labor what do they do? Their labor is there in fixed position,
they just do their job for example, one guy is doing just fixing this side mirrors he will
keep on fixing the side mirrors and do the same things on the same side. If he is putting
the right side mirror on he also putting the right side may be lid or maybe the wheel
cover kind of things on into my automobile.
Next is production volume of the product. The production volume here I mean the
quantity of the product. The extent to which process tends towards mass production, that
is mass production. If it is volume is very high it will be mass production, but the volume
is low we can call it batch production. Now with the use of automatic machines in
industry for adopting mass production system of manufacturing the volume of
production will increase, in view of high production output larger percentage of manual
labor would be engaged in transporting the output unless the layout is good.
So, in this case mass production to reduce labor or human movement the layout has to be
designed accordingly what layout can be used for this we will see in the forthcoming
slides of this lecture.
Now, let us come to the types of plant layout. According to the type of industry and rate
of production, different types of layouts can be selected from the following number one
is process or functional layout, number 2 is product or line layout, number 3 is fixed
position layout, then we have combination of these 2 process and product it is known as
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combination layout, then we have cellular layout that has also certain advantages we will
see here, then some other kinds of miscellaneous layout we will see.
So, let us come to the process or functional layout. First process layout are discovered
essentially in workshops, firms that deliver altered, low volume items, that may require
distinctive preparing necessities an arrangement of operations. By low volume items if I
say low volume as just I just mentioned; that means, it is a batch production.
So, what is process layout it means the similar kind of processes are arranged in one
section of a factory the similar kind of operations are carried out in one section for
example, one section can do all the lathe of one section can have all the mate machines
and other section can have all the milling machines, and the certain other section can
have all the drilling machines and finally, grinding machines and inspection final one
section would be of inspection.
In this case the product it is a certain sequence of operations the product with that is to be
carried out on a product. What is has to be done for example; the first operation is
milling, second is drilling, third is grinding, and then is inspection. So, what happens this
milling operation would be carried out in the milling section only we will see the kind of
layout here?
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So, this is a material that is receiving by warehouse. So, there we have only drilling
presses, here we have punch presses, here we have lathes, here we have grinders, here we
have finished goods, here we have inspection, here we have shipping warehouse.
So, let me say in place of milling let me say punch. First, I receive my product here in
case of the specific batch, which I have this I am trying to put here I will say punching.
So, my product would first be received here, then second operation is drilling, third
operation here is grinding, fourth operation is inspection and the final shipping. So, this
red arrow path is for my one product here. For another batch I could have this is case 1, I
can either have second product or product 2 I would say in that case let me say I have
first process has drilling, second process has punching, third process has some turning or
some step turning, that is lathe operation is required lathe machine is required here, then
grinding and inspection.
So, in this case it will follow a different path. Once this batch is over the second batch
would come into play and letting follows this path. From the receiving end we will first
receive the parts to the drilling presses section and this will go to punching, then step
turning would be carried on all lathe machines then grinding, then inspection and again
and then final shipment.
So, this is my green path shows second batch here. What do you think? If we have mass
production, is it good to have this kind of layout would this be beneficial or if we have
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some very big equipment very big product I would say manufacturing of a ship,
manufacturing of aircraft, could we move in this way could we move that no.
So, this kind of layout is not fit for mass production. Now, process layouts are office
arrangements in which operations of a comparative sort of or capacity are assembled
together. In that capacity once in a while are alluded utilitarian formats once in a while
only. So, here the objective is to process products or give benefits that include an
assortment of handling prerequisites that is higher requirements here, the example would
be a machine shop.
As we have seen this is an example of a machine shop here. So, a machine shop has
could have various other machines like we have punch press, drill press, lathe, grinders,
finish good, inspection, shipping where we keep that is the warehouse only we cannot
have hydraulic presses, we can have CNC machines NC section CNC section and certain
similar kind of sections here.
Now, along these line offices that are designed by a singular capacity or procedures have
a process format, this kind of format gives the firm the flexibility expected to deal with
an assortment of routes and process requirements. Administrations that use process
layout incorporate for example, other than the mesh manufacturing in clinics, in banks,
you would say the in banks cash receiving section is there manager is on one side, and
inquiries in other side all these sections are divided. In clinics also we have the different
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labs set into different sections, we have all the laboratory testing into one section only
that is the testing area only.
On one section we have OPD on one section we have surgery. So, that is the way these
systems are designed. So, similarly when we go to an auto repair shop or in libraries also
the books are arranged according to the sections here ok. I can even put the institutes or
universities, you have mechanical department chemical department all engineering
departments have different sections and in that is a kind of an institute is a kind of a
systems or system of systems.
So, here the full system is an institute the smaller systems are it is department it is
respective departments and it is smaller system even has certain subsystems included.
So, subsystems are in mechanical engineering department, we have design department,
we have manufacturing department, we have thermal department, we have solid
mechanics thing and all those are divided accordingly. So, improving process layout
involves minimization of transportation that is I am again putting material in handling
minimization.
So, how this could be done to have minimum distance between the frequent moving and
this; obviously, lead to lesser time. So, in this case because the distance is minimum the
time is less the transportation cost would be less, specifically transportation or process or
functional layout here we have put a functional word as well here as we have a very
well-known now in value engineering concept what is function. So, this is one function
drilling this is a second function punching, third function is turning here, fourth function
is grinding, fifth function is just finishing the goods, this is another function.
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So, it is divided accordingly to the function groups. Now there are certain advantages of
process layout number one is flexibility, flexibility is because it is a batch production.
So, any product most of the product can be put into this. So, as I have just discussed in
why plants layout studies required the variation in size of department in product design
changes or some new product is to be added this process layout offers best flexibility,
because we will see in product layout or a line layout that putting even one machine into
the line would demand for relocation of all other machines.
So, it the flexibility is very higher, then is the cost in some cases a general-purpose
equipment might be less expensive to buy and less exorbitant and simpler to maintain,
this is in comparison to the special purpose equipment the special purpose equipment is
used generally for mass production. For example, general purpose equipments are these
only the lathe milling, drilling, grinding, all these machines and for the special purpose
machine is one machine is known as bolt maker.
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It will just take the round road as it is input it will first form the rod into a hexagonal
shape after passing it to certain passes and after that it will cut that rod so, this rod which
is now a transform into a hexagonal bar.
Now, this bar would be cut according to the size of the bolt required, then the machining
would be carried out turning would be carried out and after turning the threading would
be carried out the mechanical people would more appreciate this process.
So, these are known as special purpose equipment now next advantage is motivation.
Here, the motivation is the worker motivation. To work here the workers in this kind of
design, this kind of real design will presumably have the capacity to play out and the
assortment of assignments to on numerous machines.
So, the boredom is absent. So, they because they have they would have to keep on
moving the monotonous kind of job is not absent here, this monotonous job or
monotonous nature of job is not present here. So, this brings some interest into work.
Next is system protection, since there various machines accessible, process layouts does
not exhibit much equipment failure, because even if one machine fails here in this for
example, I have here 5 number of beam processes and if one is not working other 4 can
do the purpose.
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There are certain disadvantages also associated with process layout number one is
availability, the hardware huge rates in process layout are often as possible low machines
user is dependent upon a variety of output requirement. So, hereby availability I could
even say the capacity utilization. For example, at certain point of time we have 10
batches or 10 kind of production line and some at some other point of time we have only
2 batches, in this case the capacity utilization would be low in this case the factor would
be running out of capacity here sometimes.
So, the capacity utilization is a factor here, next is cost in the event that batch processing
is utilized in process inventory expenses could be high and setups are more frequent in
process inventory here what we have for example, a drill presses taking 50 seconds for
processing for doing one job. Now this one is taking for example, 100 and 50 seconds.
So, what is happening 100 – 150 ; 50 100 seconds is the waiting time for one yard job
here and here will we have stacking here will we have to locate a buffer to store.
So, in process inventory here is high and inventory carrying cost when we talk about E or
Q, that is economic order quantity we have 2 factors here, 2 major factors here inventory
carrying cost or also it is known as holding cost and this set up cost that is making an
order.
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So, in this case the inventory carrying cost is high. In this case setups are more frequent
this setup is not the order setup of inventory not this setup this setup is the machine setup
2 for example, in a single lathe if I am doing or if I am trying to do step tending first.
Then next process I on a second job I have to do taper turning, I have to then fix the job
and then do setting of my tool post accordingly that the taper cutting is carried out. So,
that setup is very much frequent here that it also involves some time. So, material
handling is slower and more wasteful here, the span of supervision is small because of
occupation complexities routing setup and so on. These complexities these occupations
all are carried out, moreover in the sort of design bookkeeping stock control and buying
for the most of the part are exceedingly included.
So, this is all a control this is all managements work. Next is perplexity always showing
signs of change plans and routing make rearranging of process necessities more
troublesome. So, that is why some complexity comes into play. So, next is product or
line layout it is also known as flow line.
Product layouts are found in flow shops, that is monotonous get together and process or
ceaseless stream ventures in a product layout asset are organized consecutively in view
of the directing of items hereby assets I mean the machines or equipment.
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So, flow shops produce high volume, high standardized products, high standardized
products. So, these are the processes here are monotonous or repetitive. So, in principle
this consecutive layout enables the whole procedure to be laid out in a straight line,
which now and again might be completely devoted to the creation of just a single item or
item form.
So, in one line this is also known as flow line the machines are set according to the
requirement of the product for example, this is product 1. So, this is operation 1,
operation 2, operation 3, whatever would be the sequence of operation for this product
this arrangement would be made.
What we can see here is because it is made according to the product this product would
be manufactured fast, that time material handling would be less in comparison to the
process layout, but this is good only if mass production is carried out with only if the
product one is having very large quantity to be manufactured large quantity. Because you
see these machines 5 machines are dedicated to only 1 product.
So, it has to be done wisely the stream of line would be then able to be subdivided with
the goal that work and gear are used easily all through the operation.
So, here work and gear mean the workers and equipment or machines now there are 2
kinds of lines that are utilized as a part of item formats paced and unpaced.
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So, what is there in paced lines the product is attached product is fixed to the conveyor
belt the product is fixed here. And the machines or the workers who have whoever has to
carry this operation would do it is operation, whenever the product is flowing in this
path. So, this can utilize the type of transport that moves yield along at a persistent rate
with a goal that workers can perform operations on the item as it passes by.
For longer working circumstances the worker may need to stroll close to a work as it
moves until that point he or she is done. So, what happens the as the work is fixed here
we cannot take off this product from the conveyor belt. So, what if some operation has to
be done here that is to be done by worker one only, if their worker one has to do this
operation he has to move here or stroll here to do this operation with worker 5 and then
again come back to it is position.
So, then he can stroll back to his own position own workstation to start dealing with
another part here oh this is paced flow line.
Next is unpaced line in an Unpaced line; the laborers develop lines between workstations
to permit variable workplace. So, what happens in unpaced line the product is not fixed
on a conveyor it is not fixed, when I use word product here by product I would say my
work or my work piece it is not the end product here would have end product or final
product.
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So, what is happening here he can take off this piece he can take off this work piece and
take it to another line to do this operation he can take it off. So, this kind of line does not
function admirably with an expensive, cumbersome, items in light of the fact that an
excess of storage room might be required, which in this case some storage might be
required here storage, it is hard to adjust an outrageous assortment of yield rates without
critical sit out of gear time.
Now, there is a method known as line balancing or assembly line balancing that can be
utilized to gather the individual assignments performed into the workstation. So, that
there will be a sensible adjust of work among the workstations.
So, what is actually a line balancing line balancing is the assignment of tasks, it is
assignment of tasks to workstations in a way that all workstations have approximately
equal time requirements. Assignment of tasks to workstations, to ensure that all
workstations have equal or similar or close time requirements what will this do this will
reduce the ideal time of the machines. So, this is line balancing.
So, line balancing the product layout efficiency is frequently improved using line
balancing this minimize the amount of time that some work stations are idle. So, this
minimize time, better to say minimize idle time. So, this idle time is due to the work
pieces which are waiting on parts from an upstream process and to avoid building up an
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inventory queue in front of downstream process the line balancing is done in product
layer this is the kind of a product.
Layout here the raw material is coming in we have one process turning, drilling, milling,
then grinding, boring, rimming, inspection and packaging.
And the product one is out and the second process is second product is the raw material
is coming in certain processes are being carried out casting, grinding, turning, drilling,
milling, printing, inspection packaging, and then product 2 is out again recalling this is
mass production or higher volume production.
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So, say certain advantages of product or line layout the yield or the output the product
layouts can create vast volumes of items the yield is too high. The cost the unit cost is
low because of the high volume, unit cost is the cost of the product work specializes
brings about condensed preparing time and cost preparing time is reduced because there
are less setups less frequent setups in here I will put it here.
Less frequent setups and more extensive traverse of supervision likewise diminishes
work costs, extensive supervision is carried out by the worker here. Now bookkeeping or
accounting purchasing and inventory control are all standard, because of mass
production since routing is all settled here less supervision is required. Then is
availability, there is a high level of work and hardware usage the capacity utilization is
high here disadvantages.
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The inspiration or motivation, because of monotonous kind of job nature the frameworks
characteristic framework is the layout characteristic division of work can bring about
dull or bore rendered occupations that can end up being very distressing. So, some
fatigue can come in this case I am not talking about physical fatigue that is different
mental fatigue. So, for this, certain breaks, that is when we talk about the work study and
we talk about the method study, when we talk about the efficiency of the worker it is the
skill worker is compared with a standard worker and certain breaks are given in between
for example, if there is a 8 hour work shift certain breaks after every 3 hours or every 2.5
hours is given.
So, that is why the fatigue can be reduced next is adaptability product layouts are
inflexible and cannot work without much of a stretch react to required system changes,
particularly changes in item or process plan as I have discussed before also if I need to
put one more machine and additional process, additional process here. What I have to
do? I have to shift all these machine forward to provide a space for another process here.
So, this flexibility is lesser here.
So, this is also disadvantage here then system assurance the framework or the product or
line layout is in danger from the equipment breakdown or hardware breakdown or non-
attendance. Non-attendance means absent of the workers and downtime, because of
preventive maintenance, preventive maintenance whenever because this is a kind of a
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series connection if one equipment fails this fails employees work is halted, whole
process is halted. To make sure that the need of corrective maintenance of breakdown
maintenance is not there, preventive maintenance is carried out, but that also consume
time preventive maintenance carried out for preventive maintenance this machine has to
spare sometime for maintenance as well and that or during that time operation would not
be carried out.
So, next is fixed position layout let me take a break here and in the second part of this
lecture I will discuss the fixed position layout then we will discuss (Refer Time: 46:13)
combination layout combination layout is the combination of process and product layout,
where is it beneficial we will see. And why do we need combination layout, then is
cellular layout cellular layout is very prominent very widely used in industry these days.
We will see about what is group technologies, what is flexible manufacturing system
certain introduction to this one? So, let us meet back in the next part of this lecture.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 29
Plant Layout Planning (Part 2 of 2)
So in the next part of the lecture, I will try to discuss certain other kinds of layouts fixed
position layout, combination layouts, cellular layouts and certain other miscellaneous
layouts and let us start from fixed position layout.
Fixed position layout can be proper or can be good for an item or a product that is too
substantial or too overwhelming to move. That is the mobility is zero close to zero. So,
for administrations, different reasons could be there to manage the fixed position. For
example, a hospital operating room where doctors, nurses, medical equipment are
brought to the patient. So, the here patient is our work. A patient is a work, these are the
skilled and semi-skilled lib workers here. And these are tools and equipment which are
brought to the patient here.
So, other fixed position layout case maybe incorporates development. Here why by
development I would say infrastructure; like shipbuilding, flying machine, aviation,
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cultivating, penetrating for oil, home repair, robotized auto washes. And in this
infrastructure, I could say the dams, buildings, then some power plant etcetera. Like
keeping in mind, the end goal to make this work, required assets must be portable with
the goal that they can be taken to the activity on the spot execution. Here assets are my
tools. Tools must be portable which can be taken to the product here that is to be
manufactured.
So, this is a typical example of a fixed position layout. In this, they are trying to
manufacture. They are trying to produce this body of the ship here. You can see this
fuselage this is not actually this is the open body, not fuselage. This they are putting
these sheets over here. So, these are the workers. So, this is our equipment. So, this is the
equipment. This is also another equipment and this is our product here.
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(
So, fixed position layout also has certain advantages. For example, motivation. It
promotes pride and quality because a single individual can complete the whole job. And
this brings him some happiness or pride. Then minimal material movement is here. By
the material moment I would say the product movement is minimum. However,
sometimes the heavy machines, sometimes for example, in this ship manufacturing some
heavy welding machine has to be brought up. This is actually a wooden here.
So, in case of aircraft, it is aircraft made of either Composites or Duralumin is used to

make the aircraft body or fuselage. So, this is what Aircraft. So, this duralumin
sometimes it is fixed with using some Fasteners or Rivets or it might be Welded.
So, this equipment has to be portable the welding equipment here. It is not portable this
material movement would be complex. Otherwise, the product movement is very less
here, is minimal or maybe zero in these cases. So, minimum product minimum material
movement is here. Highly flexible things are here can accommodate changes in a
product, design, product mix and production volume because the product is fixed. There
is no need to move. There are only this these arrangements could be these workers can
take the subassemblies or components wherever they need to put it.
So, if some changes are made, for example, there are some seeds which are fixed here
now the position is changed to the other place. So, this flexibility is very much high here.
This is very much possible here.
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(
A disadvantage is a Space. For most of the fixed position layout, the work zone might be
crowded with a little storage room is as accessible. We can see here in this example as
well we have a little crowd here. This is crowded. This portion is crowded. So, this
additionally can cause material handling issues, this thing then organization. In most of
the cases, heavy administrative work there for fixed position layout. Administrative work
is planning what would be the layout of tools and equipment.
For example, these benches are kept here that this layout where the benches are to be
would be kept, where the worker would stand. This is a platform where worker standing
here to fix. These all this it is also part of our layout planning. So, this also is important
here. So, administrative work here is heavy to plan the layout. The span of control can be
narrow and coordination difficult. So, this is the case here.
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(
So, next is Combination Layout. So, some circumstances required a blend of three
primary formats three primary types of layouts. These blends are normally called
combination or hybrid layouts. Hybrid layout means using Process plus Product layout
altogether. For example, one firm can utilize a process layout for the majority of its
purposes along with an assembly line in one area.
For example, it is using a process layout. This is Process1, Process2, better I would put
here. This is Milling, Grinding, this is an entry here. This is lathe and also it is using an
assembly line here. One product is being carried out on the conveyor and worker 1,
worker 2, worker 3 is here. So, this is a Process Layout. This is a Product or Line Layout.
Another example can be a firm may use a fixed position layout design for the assembly
of its last item. For example, at the end, he is using a fixed position layout for this
assembly of the last item. However, use assembly lines to create segments. For example,
in this case only from this process layout or from these lines this is our final section here
and here it is he is using a assemble. I would put assembly and here he is using a fixed
position layout.
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(
So, this is an example here of combination layout. So, these are processed layouts. So,
this is process 1, process 2, process 3, process 4 and process 5. And in this side, it is line
layout in this direction. Two units of process 1 are doing some processing and then
delivering the workpiece 2 process two. Here obviously, process 2 would have smaller
processing times. So, that is only that only then line balancing would happen well.
So, similarly, the process 2 is giving workpiece is 2, process 3. And this is the kind of a
line system. This is another kind of line system. Though say there are two lines flow line
1 flow line 1 and flow line 2. So, this is a kind of a combination layout here.
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(
Next is Cellular Layout. In certain circumstances, cellular manufacturing is carried out.

Cellular manufacturing is a kind of a design where machines are assembled by the
procedure necessities or the process necessities for an arrangement of comparable or part
families comparable items. They require comparative handling.
These gathering, these collections or these families are known as cells. Subsequently, a
cellular layout is a factory room design arranged to help cellular manufacturing. What is
cellular manufacturing? Cellular manufacturing is a process of manufacturing, in which a
subsection or just in time or lean manufacturing group technology is there. Cellular
manufacturing in this JIT or lean manufacturing tools is used.
So, processes are grouped into cells utilizing a method known as Group Technology.
Group technology includes the recognizing the parts with comparative outlines, well the
similar parts can be grouped. For example, the group can be made according to their size,
according to their shape, according to the kind of processing that is required; this is most
important here, then the kind of a practice that is required.
So the parts or components are grouped in this way. For instance, we can group the parts
that require drilling. All the parts that are that are round into one group. For example,
there is one component that is round and they need two holes here. There is another
component that is round. So, if the disk is there it needs four holes here.
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So, these another, for example, this kind of component is where it also needs a large
amount of drilling in it. So, these can be grouped into one. This is Group 1. Similarly,
other components with those need reptilian air machining. This component does not need
any hole to be drilled. Another component of the similar kind, let me say V block these
can be grouped together. So, this is Group 2.
So, in the cellular layout, the laborers in the cellular layout are broadly educated. Broadly
educated by means they are multi-skilled, a broadly doesn't mean less educated, but
multi-skilled. Multi-skilled across or across sections or I would say they are crosstrained.
They are cross-trained or multi-skilled so that, they can work on all the hardware or
equipment inside the cell. And assume liability of its assume the responsibility.
Once in a while, the cells freed into an assembly line that produces an end product. The
cells can also feed into an assembly line. So, in some cases, a cell is framed by
committing certain equipment to the generation of a group of parts without really moving
the equipment to the physical cell. So, these are known as Virtual or nominal cells. So,
what are virtual cells? No cells are made physical, but some machine or some equipment
from the processes. In the case of process layout some equipment is dedicated for this
cell only.
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So, whatever refer to the one for section 1 and say, for example, there is a equipment in
the drilling section, another equipment in there in the milling section. This one machine
in the drilling section and two machines in milling sections are dedicated to this group
only, this cell only. So, this would be a virtual cell not physically arranged into a single
space. But the movement of the material would be high, but they are arranged though
they are dedicated I would say. So, this is known as virtual cells, also they are called
Nominal Cells.
Now in the case of virtual cells, the factory stays away from the workload of revamping
its present design. Because whenever the cellular manufacturing requirement is there, the
rearrangement of equipment is required sometimes. So, in the case of virtual cells
rearrangement is not required only the thing as a material handling would be a little high
and revamping is not there. So, in the case of virtual cells there is no revamping and in
case of physical cells, the revamping is high.
So, a computer variant of cellular manufacturing is known as a flexible manufacturing

system. In a flexible manufacturing system a computer, a process computer controls the
exchange of parts to the different workstations, empowering makers to accomplish a
portion of the advantages of the product layout while keeping up that adaptability of the
flexibility of small batch production. So, what is FMS? What is a flexible manufacturing
system? I will just put some more light into this.
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Let us first see what is this cellular layout? So, in this case, this is one cell. The part is
CUT, MILL, BEND, EDM, PIERCE, then EDM, LATHE, GRINDER, HONE. This is
kind of a U cell. There are certain cell shapes. So, in U kind of pattern of the cell what is
there, the input and output are on the same side. So, this is made when receiving and
shipping is to be brought to the same side. So, U patterns are also preferred in just in time
layout, GIT layouts.
So, workers are generally placed in the center here. Workers are generally placed here of
U layout. So, these are workers; worker 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. I have put so many workers
here, but in time situation then there would be not more than one more than two workers
or more than two or three workers you do working here. The other kind of patterns is
also there. It is a straight line pattern. In a straight line pattern, what is there? The cell is
just straight. The straight line pattern is generally used when the product is produced in
large quantities.
So, this is known as straight line production. This is for mass production. Though this is
a cell, it has the properties of process layout: U, then a straight line, then also another
kind of pattern is S kind of layout. In S kind of pattern, they are used for long assembly
processes that are to be fit in the small area. See the long length is put in this small area.
It is not in one line. And also when the receiving and the shipping are on the opposite
side. The same side, this is the opposite side. In this case, the receiving and shipping,
receiving and shipping is on the opposite side, 180 degrees opposite here. So, this is S
kind of layout. The combination of U and S layout is a W kind of pattern. So, there is.
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So, here we can see in W we also have kind of S here, this S is here. So, this is also used
when in a small space large line is to be fit in, but receiving and shipping is required on
the same side in this in the opposite side. So, this is W kind of pattern here. So, in
cellular layout, every cell contains a group of machines which are dedicated to the
production of parts families. One of the problems is to identify the part families here, that
is the group technology or to group the part families. And these are also called as group
technology layouts obvious.
And I would have put some light on Flexible Manufacturing System here as well. So, in a
flexible manufacturing system, the automated machine cells are there. And these are
consisting of this is one cell and if we have a material handling system, for example,
there is a material handling system there is a robot here who is picking up material from
here and taking it to the second part. There is another a robot here who is picking up a
material and taking here.
This may be a robot or this may be a conveyor in between conveyor belt. And these are
all controlled by a computer system. It has a connection with a computer system. This is
a flexible manufacturing system. These all systems are interconnected with a computer
system or computer system or you can even say within automated material handling
system, material handling system.
So, what would have here in a typical flexible manufacturing system? This is one cell.
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We would have a number of cells here: U, S, W, U straight, whatever is a requirement. If
I put U and W here it would probably would in this direction. So, these are different cells
and there is a material handling system here. There is a material handling system here
between these which is controlled by a computer. And these machines are machines
which are there are CNC machines.
In one cell there are CNC machines and these machines can also be connected to this
automated system. So, as material handling, machining, processing. setup is all
synchronized by the computer.
So, next is some advantages of the cellular manufacturing system. The cost in a cellular
manufacturing system. Cellular manufacturing system accommodates speedier or quick
preparing time. That is setup time, less material handling and less work in progress
inventory and less set up time. So, this all would reduce the cost. Then next is
Adaptability or flexibility I would say. Cellular manufacturing system takes into account
the creation of small cluster or small groups, which gives some level of expanded
flexibility. This viewpoint is significantly improved with FMS flexible manufacturing
system.
Then is motivation for the workers here. Since workers are multi-skilled here, they are
cross-trained and are educated to run each machine in the cell, fatigue is less. Likewise,
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since laborers are in charge of their cell yield, more self-rule or more job belongingness
is there.
Next, I would like to take certain considerations for this selection of the layout. One of
the methods is Pareto’s rule. Pareto has a 20-80 rule. He says 20 percent of the items
contribute to the 80 percent of the cost and 80 percent of the items contribute to the 20
percent of the cost. That is there are some, very for example in the automobile. There if I
these are these are 20 percent is a number of items.
The number of the item is 20 percent. For example, the body of the automobile, the
major interiors. Then part count is very less, but the cost is high. And 80 percent of the
cost is of these things only. And there are small components which are of very high
quantity. For example, nuts and bolts, screws, some small rivets, some rubbers, some
gaskets. So, these that quantity is very high, but the cost is very less.
So, in that case, this quantity 20 percent of the quantity would have 80 percent cost and
80 percent of the quantities having a 20 percent cost. So, this is Pareto’s principle. I
would like to compare it with a recent news which I had from BBC maybe a year back;
that top 1 percent rich people of the world have wealth equivalent to the other 99. percent
So, there this rule comes to 99 1. 1 percent of the population has their wealth value
equivalent to the other 99 percent.
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So, this also holds good in case of product. We have P Q chart. As I took the example of
a car, I will put the same thing here. This is Quantity on this side and this is Product. So,
if I say nuts and bolts, screws, washer’s etcetera and here I have the car wheels, car
doors, seats. So, how many wheels we have 5. How many doors we have maybe 4. How
many seats we have 1 single back seat and 2 front seats in a simple B-class car; 3 seats,
3, 4, 5. And how many nuts and bolts we have maybe a few hundred, I put 1000 here. So
this chart would like this one.
So, here we would have these many numbers of components. So, a general rule is there
that for more number of components what do you suggest? Which kind of layout would
you suggest for these high quantity products, high quantity components. I think you are
making a right guess. We will have a product layout here and here because the number of
products is less, we will have a process layout. Please mind it I am not talking about the
car manufacturing, car assembly here. Car assembly is mostly done in a line. The car is
kept on the gear or is overhand in the material in handling equipment and the workers are
just assembling this thing.
I am talking about the manufacturing of these components, these subs and components of
subassemblies or the parts of the car. So, in between the product and process layout, we
have combination layout. This is known as the P Q chart. So, this is a general rule to
decide which kind of layout should one use.
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So there is certain kind of layout. For example, warehouse layout, retail layout, office
layout. Warehouse or still a storage layout, a retailer like your departmental store, your
medicine shop. Then office layout means the kind of buildings and the kind of the
arrangement of the cabins for various employees in the office. Now with warehouse
layouts, the order frequency is a key factor. In warehouse layout, if the order frequency is
too high, for example, you might have seen a wine shop; a shop with a wide bench.
There would be that the queue is the number of customers to line up; with that is the
frequency is too high.
In there certain of the shops in which the bench is not provided the frequency is not very
high here. Here frequency is the arrival of the customer. Or in small retail establishments,
the layout design is very simple, unlike manufacturing concerns. It must take into
account the presence of customers and accompanying opportunities to the to influences
the sales and customer attitudes. So, in retail design, you must be knowing that the
display of the product is very important.
So, they had they generally display the product. They make display cabins or display
showcases to display most of their product varieties. So, in those cases, it is important to
have layout accordingly. So, office layouts must be configured. So, that the physical
transfer of the information that is paperwork is optimized. So, in office layout, the
communications can also be enhanced by having low rise partitions, low raise partitions.
So, that the communication could be good and maybe glass walls.
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So, this is a typical Warehouse Layout. So, we have storage Deep Storage Zone here,
where deep storage is there. There is a Case Pickup here, then Active Pickups Zone here,
Receiving Zone is here. The customers are lining up here. And Partial Reserved Zone,
then we have Reserved Zone. See partial reserved, reserved, deep they are going into
depth in this way. Then staging and docking all these things. So, this is a kind of a typical
warehouse layout.
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So, with all this information and after reading the notes, I have a task for you people. So
you select an area; select some area like you select a Repair shop or when you go to buy
something you select a Warehouse and try to deliver into the layout which whatever is
there and think of some improvement. Could you provide some cells? Could you suggest
some combination here? Could you suggest some relocation of the equipment or
relocation of the storage desks there?
So, one of the production room is there in our homes only. That is the kitchen. In the
kitchen the food is being processed, the storage of the raw material is there, the
dishwasher is used to wash the stale utensils. You try to see is everything there all good
or could you suggest some improvement? So, select some warehouse or some kind of
manufacturing facility if you have some access or maybe in your institute library and try
to look.
So, the steps here would first try to identify the layout. That which type of layout is there,
Then see for improvements. Then use take a paper and a pencil, draw the layout.
That will give you a better feel of the layout and then see for improvements. Then draw a
new layout. So this was all in the product or the plant layout study here.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 29b
Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 1of 3)
Good morning welcome back to the course, I am Dr. Amandeep Singh and I will take the
Plant Simulation Tecnomatix in this lecture. So, we have discussed about the plant, we have
discussed about the simulation, we have discussed about the product design and
manufacturing aspects.
So, in this lecture I will just touch what is the kind of the simulation that we do in
designing a plant, and how the material is being carried from one point to another, all those
things what kind of stimulation we can do there.
So, before moving ahead I will just like to give the contents here, The contents would
follow like this first I will discuss what is PLM? PLM is product life cycle management,
then I will just go to my plant simulation software, which is plant simulation 10, that is
Tecnomatix .
Then we will just discuss the software, another software Arena is similar to this one, but
plant simulation or the PLM software that we have here in IIT Kanpur that we have is
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the Siemens PLM version. So, this is the kind of a very advanced version arena has had an
extensive use in research and in few application in industry.
but this plant simulation, If we talk about the software, gets two major functions one thing is
specifically simulation software, one thing is the functionality, what is the function that
software is able to do. So, how intelligent is our software to design the system.
Second thing is the Aesthetics or appearance in this case in the plant simulation software, I
will show you that the three dimensional movements can also be seen, the aesthetics are
suspended in this case. So, we can see the workers checking the material, we can see the
movement of the materials all that animation kind of thing is there. So, that is the kind of
an I can say, is an add-on, but the capability of the software to simulate using different
distribution using, even we can have energy simulator to minimize the energy used in
the plant.
or also we can we actually calculate the throughput or the total output that is of a day or
of a month and in during the day or during the month what is the total cost that is
incurred to cost of operating. The cost of processing all those things can be done.
So, let me move forward, so what is product life cycle management? Product life cycle
management is the system of strategic processes which have employed to reduce the cost
of getting a product to market . It is the system of strategic processes, I would say.
You know these days we need to extend the duration of the profitable years of the
product because the product, if we talk about the product life cycle, product life cycle is
something like this not from marketing perspective, I will talk from the development
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perspective product life cycle is if I say, this is my profit. So, this is I would say rupees,
and this is plus rupees and this is minus rupees.
So, if I divide it into stages when I am planning and I am manufacturing, then I am
building the product, then I am trying to provide after sales support. So, this is not the
marketing kind of product life cycle that I am doing, marketing kind of product life cycle
is just like this - first we have introduction, then we have growth then we have maturity
then we have decline and also some decay could happen. So, this is marketing
perspective.
So, I am talking from the product development perspective, from the very design, when we
design a product, we are talking of the product design and the simulation in the systems.
So, when we design the product during design itself, the development perspective is
taken into account.
So, in product life cycle management, in the present day this is known as this kind of
curve which I am going to draw this is the curve like this it was something like this.
Initially what happens when we are planning this is the planning stage, second is the
manufacturing stage, then we have the manufacturing can be extract then we have
before manufacturing ok, I will put manufacturing at third point before manufacturing
we have development. Development of the complete plan or development of the maybe
prototype of the product.
So, after manufacturing the product is sent to the market then we have after sales support.
So, what happens, We need to minimize this and maximize this you know this curve that is
this is my 0 value that is below the 0 line this is kind of a loss . So, this is I can say here
the milestone this is the launch of the product.
I can have breakeven point here because that investment that is made is covered here
so, this is breakeven. So, this is the peak profit that we have reached and the product data
is here.
So, what is the life cycle of a product? For instance you purchase a new mobile like
Samsung note 9 is there in the market where does note 8 go, where does note 7 go ? I had
been using note 2 since last year. So, where does that go, that has completely retired. The
new version of the product has come. So, the life cycle of a product, of one specific
segment in case of this electronics or maybe mobile is about an year or maybe it as even
reduced contracted than an year, it is about 6 month 9 month.So, this is finally, the time of
the product happens.
So, if we use PLM or product life cycle management software, what happens this is
reduced this is reduced and this is maximized. You know, this peak is I would better say
peak is pertained earlier than the normal design.
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Then product launch could happen even before breakeven is achieved before. So, this is
the kind of a profit or rather kind of a contraction in the time that happens using the
software because when we are doing the simulation, you know it is better to fail a
simulation than to fail a factory, it is a very common course that is said. So, when we
do simulation when we design the product, we can do the kind of testing. So, if I am
talking about the product, if we do planning here the product.
If I need to design this mouse, I need to have this specifications or I can just scan this
mouse and get the point cloud and then the triangular mesh and those are the these
are the mechanical come to get to do some analysis that whether the strength of the
material, which kind of material would I use all those things can be done in a software.
So, in that simulation happened. So, that is a kind of a mechanical simulation. So, we can
even call you out of the term computational fluid dynamics, that is the kind of a
mechanical simulation then, certain multiple modules are available for manufacturing the
market, but because we are talking more about the product design and manufacturing and
we are not to talking about the system design here.
So, I will focus more on Tecnomatix that is the manufacturing, the development or
specifically the manufacturing part.
So, about this curve this is here we have speed to market that speed to market; that that it
has reached the market before then productivity is boost you know the slope of this
curve is higher this curve the slope is higher over the slope is greater. So, there is a boost in
productivity there is an increase in revenue because peak is here right.
then we have at the standard return the retirement period is now we get retirement at a later
stage.
So, this is what product life cycle management, if we actually do the product life cycle
management life cycle means not only designing the product, managing the overall out of
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the complete life of the product from the very idea generation when you have an idea to
produce a product to the final retirement of the product, retirement means; when the
product would just kind of Obsolete and new product would takes its place.
So, about the software I would say, we have in PLM Siemen software see we have this
four states this part is done by NX. NX is a kind of a CAD software . It is CAD and CAE,
CAD is computer aided design, CAE is computer aided engineering computer aided
design is just design like I said I will design this mouse this specific product. If I need to
have the specification this specific curve I need to draw and I can design that is Computer
Aided Design.
Then I can do certain analysis, certain testing on this which are the critical parts and
what will be the life of this plastic portion, I am not talking about internal body, I am
just talking about the cover of the mouse here that is computer aided engineering. So,
this is NX software to use, we would more focus on the development and manufacturing
that is done using Tecnomatix , but this is again Tecnomatix . This we will use the plant
simulation 10 software.
When we have designed the product and we know what are the processes which is this
product has to follow, for instance, this is the product with different components if I
dismantle it this cover, this roller, the base, the, t h e r e a r e certain nuts and this is
the cover the bottom, the sallies and external component.
So, I have different components which are to be manufactured. So, for this I need to have
plastic manufacturing machines like, maybe, moulding machines or extrusion injection,
injection moulding can happen all those things, extrusion is not required like we need to
have the machines.Now, how to setup those machines in a plant or in a factory, that is
known as plant layout, that I love to discuss here. So, this is Tecnomatix before moving
forward. This is Tecnomatix and the final support that is done by team center . So, this
Software, major three versions. One is NX, Second is Tecnomatix and Third is team
centre.This complete version we can call it as an ERP an Enterprise Resource
Planning.
So, this enterprise resource planning, team centre is more focused on ERP, but yes we
can say that complete enterprise resource planning can happen and we can even simulate
the simulation happens more in NX and Tecnomatix and in team centre what happens,
Whatever we have manufactured the cost which have incurred for manufacturing and if
we need to change something because you know this is planning. And the planning and
the actual production there is a difference, when that difference happens during actual
manufacturing when we actually doing the manufacturing, the data is all stored in our
different formats, those are used by the team centre version of the software the data is
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stored in different formats.
So, that can be used, those formats which are available in team centre and team centre, we
can just modify the data according to the actual which, is happening do not the
schedule the actual manufacturing. So, then the simulation can be run again sometimes
like to see whether what we have planned or we achieving that or not. So, what is the
variations you know you know some variation would always be there and those things
it has an extensive application. Arena is a kind of a software which was just confine to
the plant simulation only, but this PLM Siemens PLM I am talking about Siemens
PLM software . So, this can walk in all these domains.
Now, I will move to the software which is the Siemens PLM software which is in the
SSOL lab. SSOL is Smart Systems and Operations Lab, which is there in IME
department, Industrial and Management Engineering department at IIT Kanpur. So, the
software is installed in the systems in the lab only we have Server in the lab only. We
cannot have the software this, but I am using that software using remote access on this
computer.
So, I will just open.
So, remote access connection is already made. So, this is my computer which is there in the
lab.
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And, I will open my software. I will go to all programs and I have Tecnomatix here and in
Tecnomatix I have plant simulation.
And, I will open the software, ok. So, this kind of window appears when we just open the
software. These are certain programs which I have just worked on. So, the recent programs
are there. So, this is the start page; so I can open or I can create a new model from here.
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So, I have a menu bar here. In menu bar also I can open the new file I can open the existing
file that we have. So, in also we have another this tab here we have these icons for opening.
So, I will just create a new model when I click to new model the new model is trying to
open.
Yes, ok. Now, it has basic objects here the basic objects which are there. This would be
enough to discuss in this lecture; we have a limited scope and time here.
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So, basic objects whatever it is selected, I will just say yes to them however there are
multiple models that we can select here, we can select certainly.
So, there is big library and I can select the 3D or this you know this is A.G.V, Automatic
Guided Vehicles and 3 dimensional conveyer, 3 dimensional robots, conveyers all those
things, but I will stick to the basic selection whatever it is the wall selection, apply so, the
model is opened.
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So, this is the model frame. So, this is my work place where I will work .
This is the work space I would say this is the work space where I will work and this is
the grid you can say, the distance between any two points here the horizontal or vertical
distance is 1 meter. I can just switch off and on the grid from this icon, this pattern here , it
hides or shows the grid.
So, this is my class library I am just clicking it to bring my icons here . So, these are the
components, before actually starting the model I would like to show you what is the, I
would say the potential of the software.
So, I have one example here. This is the car body manufacturing in 3-dimensional; car body
manufacturing, ok. So, this is an example in which whole factory is build in this software
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and also the general motors had built one of is its new plants, using the software and they
have reported that, 50 percent of the savings were there in the development part, because
they developed, they tried to simulate the movement of the objects and the time and all
those things and what actually they were trying to do in manufacturing, they are able to see
that in the software, like the animation ok
So, this is my Event Controller. So, I like to show you how the manufacturing happens.
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You know, this is, you can see this is actually moving very fast, like control this speed
you know workers are moving in very fast this is the fastest speed. So, I can control this
speed using event controller, let me stop it and let me say the speed is real time, into maybe
5 times or may be real time into 10 times apply, ok, then play. Now the car is coming
here, it is then taken by the overh u n g conveyor ok. So, the workers are standing here.
You can see workers are doing, they are trying to fix may be tires or you know tires the
wheels here or the side mirror. So, the car is completing manufacture, only the accessories
are just put on the cars and those are then sent. So, these different workers those are
working in different stations, this is the workplace, I will just show the objects when I
will come to the actual practice on the software.
This is the work place work tool, where the workers could stand when they are not
working and this is the workplace for the worker ok and worker just picking it from some
point, these purple pillars that you see watching this purple pillars that you can see, these
are this purple pillar and this purple pillar. So, these are the workstations where worker
actually this space at the bottom, this is the work place where the workers working and
some other processing is also happening. So, cars are just, this is my entry point this is
my entry point this is my entry point and here it is getting return and this is my exit
point. So, this is the factory ok.
I can show you some other examples.
So, this is the two dimensional version of that two dimensional versions the workers are
working here you can see ok. So, the car is going out and for some other part for may be
inspection it is going. So, I will just close this model and I will come to my start page again
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view from view come to start page. So, this is how we can see or I can just pick let me open
this model, ok.
This is one of the models, which we have used, the Experiment Controller, ok. So, you can
see if I run the model, it has run for 8 hours in the fastest position, it has run because I had
put the n time for 8 hours model has to run and I can see that throughput here.
Open; it is a drain
The final drain here, I can see the throughput here; What is the throughput? What is the
total number of components those are manufactured in a day? This is throughput per day,
if you see here this is throughput per day 534 pcs and throughput per hour just 22.25 pcs.
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Based from the input that we have given to the specific processes, what are the input in
the processes? That I will discuss, it is the setup time, processing time then the availability,
is it available for the complete time or is it available for 95 percent or 90 percent time
then we have a distribution, we have a specific process for instance, it is a manual
process and we d o n o t do not have much data, we have only 2-3 data points which
are previously available. So, we can pick may be triangular distribution, if it is an
automated process I can pick normal distribution with a very less variation because the
process is automated based upon the inputs that we give the software we try to
simulate and give us a throughput ok.
So, any software, when we say the software is here, there is a very common codes at study
it is GIGO, Garbage In Garbage Out. Software’s can just help us to bring our overall
ideas into one place and we can simulate the computation that we sometimes try to do
one page those can be done here. And this is the softwares are able to show, the animations
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in a very elegant way. But, if the input is not proper, input has to come from the systems
manager, from the person who is trying to work on it. So, if the input is not proper, output
would obviously, be affected, the more errors would come ok.
So, this is I just showed you how to see the throughput. So, let me close this one as well
and try to make a model for you, yo u people and I will let you know how the model
is made. So, I would like to stop here and thank you for being in the course. So, we will
meet next time.
Thankyou
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 29c
Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 2 of 3)
Welcome to the course
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 We first go to the Start page in View Tab and select create new model.
This is the model that I will be trying to generate .

 I will just open the Class Library and then open the Material Flow. There are
certain objects here such as Connector, Event Controller, Frame, Interface
e t c e t e r a , all these objects are present here. These objects have specific
meaning, for instance, this is Model Frame, Frame I can say a kind of a room,
one room in a factory. One room in a factory means factory in which one kind of
specific process is happening and I can move to another frame to another room
using
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Interface.
 I will try to first tell you what are these objects, Frame as I said you create your
simulation models in a frame. We create a simulation model then frame it as one
frame, and it is located in the Folder Models in the Class Library. Generally frame
is located here(in models) and also other additional models, it is actually the
primary location of an object, but it has been kept here for sometime because, if we
need to add a new frame we can add it from the Material Flow which is the most
used Class Library.
The frames are for the grouping of objects to build a radically structured models by
inserting any of the built in objects or any object that we can design because, we can
design our own objects in the software as well by writing the code.
Whenever we use frame with Connectors, or Plant Simulation, it opens the dialogue
Select Interface, Interface means from which frame to which other frame you want to
work in, Interface is kind of a room, I will just put the source here. Source is to
produce the part of the sequence which we specify in a sequence table. Source is a
starting point or the Entry Gate, Entry point from where the parcel is coming. If the
parcel coming in, it has to go out so that is the Drain. Source and Drain has to be there
whenever we design any layout.Similar to source we have Drain, the Drain has a
single processing station, it moves the mobile units. Mobile units from installation
after setting up and after processing , it moves it away. where does it take it? we can
put an interface here and take it to the other room.
One important object here is a Single Process. What is single process? Single
processing unit receives and processes a single mobile unit, it is known as MU
(mobile unit). So, a single process is one process, in the cellular layout, different
operating for processing units over there. Tool processing units can be called as Single
Processes.
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If I right click it and open it, this new window is the single process. I can change the
name of the single process; let me say the single process may be Milling, processing
time is also there. We can select any of the distribution like the Probability
Distributions, Frequency Distribution based upon certain past data that a specific flow
follows, with a specific kind of a process follows. The constant mean we will take as 1
minute. The constant format is as such, it is Days, Hours, Months, S econds and
Microseconds Processing time is 1 minute the default time. If I pick a distribution
Uniform Distribution which is also known as Rectangular Distribution,
It will ask us to put it in this formats; Stream, Start and Stop. Let me first pick any
Processing time, Setup time, Recovery time and Cycle time, these times can be put
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Then also we have the availability.
Availability of this process is 95% that is for the 5% of the time it would fail
because in actual conditions for 100% of the time, the things are not available, for the
5% of time it might fail, we can change the availability depending upon the process we
are working on. For instance it is an Automated machine, Automated machine can be
available for the 99% of the time. And if it is some manual operation where Humans are
involved; for instance, it is a Counter, at the Entry Counter where the person is there,
person has to take some time off.
Or it has to take some time such as he takes tea while working or something like
conversation between people. So we can say that during Actual situation the
availability of the person is not 100%, but for the 90% of the time it can be available
so we can vary this as well. Let me kept it default to 95 only and I will just try to run a
simple model. We can have anything, any process or any object on model frame . If
we need to find the flow, which flow does it follow? Whether it is a straight line u, s,
whatever the flow it has to follow it has to be connected using a Connector. The very
first object here is Connector. So, Connector is used to connect ‘n’ object to the other
objects. I have connected source to a single process and direction arrows showing the
flow ok.
Now, an important point here is Event Controller. whenever we need to model

something we need Event controller. So, I can add Event Controller here from the tab.
Event Controller, what does it do?
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when your modeling needs require it, you can select settings for controlling the
simulation run on the tab.
And this event controller for instance, i n the settings we can select ,when would the
process end.
If we do not use event controller, the process would go for infinite time. Let me try to
just put another source here or note another single process here. Let me consider there
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are 2-3 processes.
I will use connector to connect them, these are now connected, If I now run this using my
Event Controller by using Play Button. Play button for the Start or Resetting the simulation,
fast forward is also there, if I run this, it is running at the fastest speed and can check time
on top of it . it is in 200-300 and many more days, these many hours. It is running at the
fastest speed. If I stop it here, it has run for 566 days based upon the constant
processing time, it was 1 minute for single process 1. And for single process 2 it is 1
minute, for single process 3 again it is 1 minute
I can see my throughput here in the Type Statistics tab. It has produced 1440 pieces
throughput per hour is also given. Throughput complete for 566 days, it has produced
816350 these many number of pieces, there is a big flaw in this flow line, we have just
connected, one thing is we have placed the Drain and Process 1 at almost same
position. By counting the number of dots, we can calculate distance between objects . It
is kept at about 3 meters away from this.
When we put the machines in a workshop, there is a Span(space), for instance in your
laboratory when people are sitting, in an office there is span. One cabin and another
cabin there is a space designated for that cabin, minimum space this comes under
Ergonomics. You know if we talk about plant layout, this is called as Work Study.
What is the minimum space that has to be kept? In case of manufacturing, this space,
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the distance between 2 machines not considering the width of the machine, is generally
kept from 0.8 meter even more than that.
So, that the workers can move in between. This is the space in between the machines. I
have just kept it that random. Now, it is not taking any time for the material to travel,
travel from the single process 0 to single process 1. I will name them, call it process
milling, so this is my single process. I can pick drilling for second process and grinding
for third process.
what is it doing? It is trying to move from milling to drilling in no time. The time
taken in between, here the time taken by this connector is 0, again the time taken by
second connector is 0 and correct method to do this is to use some material handling
system, you know there are certain material handling systems here. We have Turn
Table, Line , is kind of conveyer, then we have a Pick and Place Robot. I will try to use
them and teach you that how do we use them. I will just pick line which is a conveyer
and put it on milling machine.
We can shorten the distance, but we have to make sure that this is connected. Line is
connected to process 1, but not connected to process 2 . It can be deleted by just
selecting it and pressing delete button, this connector is deleted. We again connect
them. Now, if I right click on line icon on model window and open, I can see length of
the line is 1 meter and the speed is 1 meter again. What is this speed?
Now, if I right click here and open I can see the length of the line is 1 meter. Length
of the line is 1 meter that is and the speed is 1 meter again. What is this speed I will just
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let you know; if I put another line here, line is my conveyor ok. I will take this
connector off first this connector, I am taking off, delete, yes, put another line here. This
is connected by itself. I will extend this line or I can specifically put the length. Let
me say the length of the conveyor is 4.5 meters. The grid is on, because the grid is on it
will just snap, it will just snap at the specific point, if the grid is taken off now, I can
move it at any point but we are keeping the grid on to just to see this. It will take my
mobile units; the units which we you can see here, the entities. This entity is a mobile
unit that is 1 unit is being moved from 1 point to another. This mobile unit is moved in a
speed that is mentioned on my Line (on my conveyor).
The speed is 1 m/s. If I try to see this at a lower speed using event controller. Let me
say I like to just see that how a simulation running at 1 m/s or I can just do this in real
time, I will put a real time into 10 times. Then apply back now enter real time into 10
times. So, in place of 1 minute it is taking 6 seconds because 6 seconds, it has
moved at a speed of 1 m/s into 10 times, it has moved at a 10
m/s. The capacity of the line is only one piece here. If the Capacity is put negative,
means not more than one piece. I can put the capacity as may be this line can carry two
pieces and distance between the mobile units. Mobile unit can be just kept like as
shown, I can put the distance as 1 meter again, Apply, then back, and again run , you
can see 2 pieces can come on this line. So, this is the capabilities of the software,
if the processing is happening. The green colour here means, you can see the dots,
here this is yellow dot, this is green dot.Green colour means processing is happening
and Yellow colour means it is being blocked. Block means that the successive
process is doing something, successive conveyor is completely filled and the
predecessor that is our source here. Or the Entry line 1, is blocked because, the
successor is waiting, successor is completely full filled and it cannot transmit material
from its own point to the forward process. If this capacity is 2 now. I can just click
restart button , remove this Line. And I add another line, because I have to change all
the dimensions, I will just try to pick the default values which are there and connected
using a connector.In the event controller, in the settings, I can put the End time t o
i n d i c a t e when would my process end here. The format is first 0 is days, second 0 is
hours, then minutes, then seconds. So, I can put in an 8 hour a day, it should be 08:00:00.
Now, my simulation would end at an 8 hour a day, if I put apply.
Here.
Now, let us run, it is running, capacity is one, it is running at the speed that is
mentioned here. Real time into 50,
Speed=real time*50
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you can see in the real time into 50, it is running or let me try to run it in the fastest pace.
If I need to see it in a fastest way, I will just apply. So, let me start, it ran for 8 hours
at the fastest speed.I can now see the throughput here.
. Open,
Total Pieces=1431
Total throughput is= 477
Throughput per hour is= 59 and
Throughput per day= 1431
For per day it is considering 24 hours in a day. I can see all these throughput and I can
even see the reports, I can see various charts as well like at for how much percentage of
time the process is blocked, for how much percent of time for the complete 8 hour day,
for how much time my process is plot or waiting or actually processing.
Or for how much time the failure has happened a n d in which process because you
know failure is 95 % , at some point of time failure could also happen. All these things
can be seen. For that I need to use Resources and also we have not placed anything
between Drilling and Grinding.
There is no material handling system between drilling and grinding. I would put Pick
and Place Robot,
Now Pick and Place Robot would just pick the material from the predecessor, that is
drilling in this case and put it to the successor that is grinding.
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How does this work?
Let us reduce the speed first so that we would be apple to understand the simulation. The
processing is happening, it will now Pick and Place; we can see its working operation in
simualtion.
For pick and place robot also, we have this speed control feature; entry-exit
What are the angles? We can also consider the Angles between drilling and grinding
also various Times and Failures.
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The failure is 99% and MTTR is Mean Time To Repair, This topic is of Reliability
engineering. In Reliability Engineering, we have Mean Time to failure, Mean Time
between Failure and Mean Time to Repair, if failure happens , it stops, it takes about 1
minute to repair that. So, these attributes we can select.
I will keep it default only beacause it is still running, it runs for 18 minutes and 28
seconds , this is Pick and Place Robot. Let me put this on grid.
Sometime, We can use some resources like the worker and the Broker is there; who was
trying to distribute the work to the workers. Workplace is there, Footpath , Work Pool
is there. The information specifically has to be defined sometimes, then generator. Let
me first try to show you a simple flow line under the User Interface, I have a chart, I
will put a report and a chart on model frame screen.
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User interface means, its anything that the user could see after the process has run for
one time. I have a chart here and I try to just drag my processes-Milling, Drilling
over the chart. Now when I run my process it will show this chart.
You can see this chart it is of different colours, c o l o u r s are there for Working,
Setting up, Waiting, Blocked, Failed, Stopped, Paused, Unplanned ; all these times are
there. So, when I run it ,for the 8 hour day.Based upon the time which are put the
process, milling. Milling is working for about more than 95% of time and for the rest
of time it is just blocked because the next process , drilling or the next conveyor or
Line, the Line which was kind of a conveyor, which transforms a material from one
point to another point on other machine. that is trying to block milling, 5% is also
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block in drilling, but grinding is not blocked, it is waiting for the material to come. It
these are working,I can see the exact time; The graph, which is just showing this
calibrated graph on right hand side. I can see the exact time using these processes by
right clicking and then open.
If i open the milling process. Now I can just see the statistics in this process I can see
that for 95% of time machine is working and this block for that about 5% which is
95.5% working and 4.5% block, which is represented in this graph as well. Let me try to
change the failure rate of milling
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Failures, it is working and available for the 100% of time so I will just change this.
It is written, that is why none of the failures happened, I a m changing it to 80

percent. So, 80% of time it is available and for 20% of time, it might fail. Let me
apply the changes and again run for 8hours in a day.
What is the statistics?
You know for the 20% of the time, this process has failed, you can see the red
colour here. You know, had the failure not been there it was working for about 95
percent of time but now 20 % is the failure.
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I t worked completely for 80% of the time and in the previous process, it was blocked
but now actually this drilling process is blocked for 5%, because grinding process was not
able to receive that and it is waiting, t his grey colour is waiting because it is not
receiving anything from the predecessor that is from the milling and drilling is not
receiving anything from milling. I can see the statistics here.
You know how much % it is working for, you can see the graph as well here. It is
working for 76.60% of time and waiting for 19.34% of time and it is blocked for about
4.06% of time.
This is how we can use Information Flow and also various kind of material flow, how the
simulation can happen.
This is just one flow line, I have just picked 3 processes only. This was a very you can say
trivial example, but in actual processing , we can use the simulation even we can use
simulation experiment.
We have done Connector, Event Controller, Frame, Interface, Source, Drain, Single
Process is done.
Parallel process(PP), if I put Parallel Process and right click and open, Parallel Process
is when we have exactly same machines.
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For instance we have 4 drilling machines of same make, which is having same
processing time and same setup time and we need not put the 4 machines in parallel
specifically 4 single process is in parallel. We can pick one parallel process because other
parameters are same, the attributes of this specific process is same. I can pick one
parallel process and put there ,it is shown in the form of a matrix here; this is X
dimension and Y dimension .
Here, 2*2=4 machines and the times are exactly same, processing time through all the 4
machine is constant i.e., 1 minute. It is the matrix, actually if I put 3 in first, it would
not make it 5. We can make it 6 machine as 3*2 , it will make a matrix 3 into 2, 6
machines. What if I need to have the odd number of machines?
For instance we need to have 3 machines, to have 3 machines, what I will do I will put it
3*1=3.
Now, we will understand Parallel Process by an example. For instance; there is one
process that is being blocked for 40% of the time; that means, the next process is
taking more time for its processing. It is taking an extended time so the other
machine has to wait.
what we can do? We can put it by the technical Aspects Management aspects. If we can
put another machine or we can double the capacity of the successive machine.
It was waiting for the 40% of the time, if we put 2 machines here as a successive
point. Now this 40% of time will get reduced to 0, because now the processing is
doubled here. In that case we can think of putting Parallel Processes. Now what will
happen, when there is a waiting, when there is a blocking, we can think of adding new
machines, we can think of then taking the few machines off and if there is a lot of
waiting times, sometime we can even think of doing some other processes like, I said
in
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case of the process layout,we have a specific set of machines in one section and other set
of machines in different section.
Example:
If we see the overall machines time and we see in the specific ,this section for the 30%
of time; there is a blockage or for waiting, I would say for the 30 percent of there is
a waiting. And we must consider that since 30% of time it is waiting. We can give them
some other job, which is the kind of a process layout, it would be kind of a batch
production and job production.
In case of Batch Production another batch could enter so that there is no idle time but
minimum idle time is there. The machines are completely working for the full
capacity if possible. So, we can do this things in simulation before actually doing them
in the Scheduling, then routing, all those things, that we will learn in the production
planning and control that can all be done using the simulation. So, this was just an
example of I have just picked a parallel process ,I will just delete it. So, assembly is that
when we have 2 lines, for instance this is 1 line, I can just pick it directly. I have
selected everything control+C and control+V(copy and paste) . Now if they are 2 flow
lines as shown, I am deleting the drain, suppose I am manufacturing nuts and bolts
and I need to assemble them. Nuts are manufactured in flow line 1 and bolts are
manufactured in flow line 2 , now we are assembling them. We can use assembly in this
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case so, I can pick assembly and put it here, ok let me take this off assembly. We use
connector to connect them.
Now, it is run for the 8 hour day and 2 processes, 2 units are being manufactured.
First one is flow line 1 and lower one is flow line 2 and these are being assembled here.
Similar to assembly we have Dismantle Section, Dismantle section is when something
is manufactured or parts coming from drain . We have to dismantle that, for instance; a
set of screws come from the source which are just screwed on some component and
we have to dismantle them and then we have to use them for some other purpose.
So, that we can dismantle.
This is Assembly and Dismantle, I have just showed 2 flow lines here, but we can
have multiple flow lines where different material coming for maybe 10 flow lines and
those are being assembled. Like in the car body manufacturing example that we saw
they were trying to assemble or they were actually trying to put the mirror on the side
mirror, and the they were trying to tighten the nuts of the wheels; so those processing
was being done so, this is dismantle section.
Next is pick and place, pick and place is a kind of a Robot, it picks and place from one
place. So, it picks a part up at one station and places on to another station. So, next is
store, a store ,stores the MU’s, they are Mobile Units. You can define the size of the
store by specifying its X and Y dimension. Like how many pieces, for instance this is
the store in between. We can also add the Buffer in between for instance there is a
big blockage of the materials in one side we can add a buffer in between. If it does not
have the product, process does not have to wai,t it can put a buffer having capacity let
me say 100 pieces in a day. So, whenever the next process is free to pick a piece from
here, it can pick the piece from the buffer so that buffer can be used here. So, just after
store, we can place buffer. Store is kind of a long time storage. This is the capacity
3*3=9 pieces can be stored here. I can just change the capacity to the number which is
actually required in the process, w e c a n delete this store.
what is place buffer? This command place buffer, place buffer lines a several
processing units of the same kind one after the other. The processing units are
connected and the mobile units have to be processed at each station thus they cannot
pass each other. So, a mobile unit may only leave the place buffer after it has reach the
processing station with the highest number.
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To model a buffer with the great capacity that requires high performance, we can use
buffer.So, place buffer is a smaller thing , big buffer is a buffer placed between 2
plant component that certain purposes. It temporarily hold parts when the following
components fail, when the successor is not able to receive the component. So, it passes
the path, the second function it does is an important function, it passes the path on,
when the preceding components stop working, it slows down dimensions of a
buffer with a large enough capacity for covering all failures is to complete,
decoupling of the plant and the other attributes as well. Next is sorter; sorter as the name
suggest, a sorter arranges the Mobile Unit by sorting the criteria we define.
We can define the criteria for instance if I am having the nut and bolt assembly. Then nut
we manufacture and bolt we manufacture and on 1 bolt I am trying to assemble 2 nuts
on it, So, what sorter can do is , it can pick 1 nut where from the bolt line, it can pick 1
bolt or it can sort it to the different lines. So, a sorter we have to define a criteria it can
do that. So, line is a kind of a conveyor, to draw this straight line with active drawing
colour. Then it is Angular Converter;
So, you can say Entry length, Exit length, Entry speed, Exit speed. It is of 90 degree
for instance if we need to have the kind of a U type of layout. U type of layout would
be like this. We need to have turn, we can use this Angular Converter, it will convert
from one line to the cross size. You know this direction is 90 degree here. So, angular
converter move the parts to its successor within the flow of measurements like, it
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moves the part on to the first length of angular
converter.
When the booking point length has reached the entrance. then angular converter,the
part drives along the Entry length, Entry speed, Exit point all those things we can
control. I just showed attributes of this specific object. The next is Convertor. Now
what is convertor? Convertors intended for modeling, material handling equipment
when the part moves onto convertor it either passes straight through the conveying
direction. Or it is lifted on to a laterally moving transport level, by lifting mechanism
and then conveyer laterally to the left or laterally to the right.
Angular convertor was just one thing, it is just convert direction from one direction
like 90 degree. A convertor can decide(we pick) whether to go straight or whether to
change a direction so it can work in that end. Turn Tables here for modeling, a
rotating platform. It is rotating platform which turns a part around and moves on to the
several connecting material, similar to turn table we can have turn plate.
I will just try to put a turn table here, I will delete this pick and place Robot and try to
put a turn table here, now how does this turn table work? I need to put the connector
I need to put the connector here. It is now moving at some speed that is defined now
processing would happen. Now turntable would take it from one place and turn it to the
other place.
Now, what happens sometimes we have to swap the work pieces, this work piece on
this side, other workpiece on opposite side. It just pick the pieces from this point and
then swap them. Similar to turntable we can have turn plate, we can just put one piece
on each direction in turntable, it is a single direction turntable that is being shown in
the screen. In Turn plate we can have one plate or we can have multiple work pieces
put on the origin. It is like kind of a rotating dining table that we have, we put the
dishes over there and we can rotate it, we can pick whatever we want to pick.
Next is track so, track can be used to model a part of a transport line with or without
automated Routing, on which the transporter moves, the part for example, you replace
both the Automated Aided Vehicle System and f o r the model we can use this track.
So, the distance which the transporter has to travel on the track is defined by tracks
length. The tracks length can be defined then the transporter Mobile unit length can be
defined, the speed can be defined. So, the maximum capacity unit track is defined by
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its length and the lengths on the individual transporter moving on it can also be defined
that is the track that is 3 meters long, accepts 3 transporters of 1 meter each.
So, we can have certain kinds of track, such as the turned track or two lane track. One
lane track is one which with only one direction, in two lane track ,it can go in one
direction and come back from the other side(direction). It is kind of a two way road
like we have two way track can be put in, then flow control.
What is flow control? Flow control allows the model common strategies for
splitting up and for bringing together the flow of materials. It is important to note that
the flow control does not possess the mobile units. It only distributes them among the
objects that it’s succeeded in the sequence stations. Flow control is like it does not store
any Mobile Unit, flow control is for instance I am having a central O here and O kind
of layout and there certain lines here .
So, flow control can do, it can just control at different positions, It can just control the
flow whatever line, this is my ‘ O’ ,there are lines external to this.if we use flow control
it can control flow by providing to differernt external lines.
after that We have cycle. So, I just cannot show you the actual demonstration for
all the objects here.
I am just giving you important objects information, I will come to resources here.
Resource is actually work place if we need to work with the workers we need to put
the work place, For instance in place of this line, I can use workers to transfer the
material from process milling to process drilling. So, where the worker has to work
would be the work place.
If some worker simulation has to be induced some work is there , that is we have
just taking the processing time. The machine is automated it is taking 1 minute
processing time, we are just considering it here. If the worker has to work here and the
, Still the worker capacity, the ideal worker time and the normal worker time those things
are to be considered, then this workplace is to be put there, between the workplace, we
need to put footpath, you can see the footpath from Class Library and I am picking
footpath from Class Library and putting it on the Model Frame. Workers have to travel
through this footpath, to model with worker, we need.
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to have a Broker, who would distribute the work to the workers, then we need to have
Exporter as well. So, we can work with the workers as well.
Some important points method, card file, stack file. This is the information flow all
the information will flow through , we can define the attributes here and see how all the
information could flow. Some of the information flow object would be method like
variable, variable is when we can work on the source code, I can if I am saying that
we can make our own objects, if we can understand the code; so there we can add a
variable. In variable we can declare a local variable anywhere within the source code.
then we can start to declare our own variable with the keyword, let me say the one of
the variable sum is known as may be integer or track 1, track 2, we can name them
anything we like. Then we have table file, table file is a list of list with two or more
columns, it is a kind of a table like normal table we have. So, we can access the
individual cells by employing their index that is by their positions, for instance, the cell
number 3 -1, cell number 3- 2 , these can be accessed.
Then we have card file, card file is the list with one column providing random access
to the contents of the individual cells using the position i.e., row number, or imagine the
card file, as a file card box. Next we have User Interface, in user interface we can have
comment, we can put some comments. We can h a v e Chart, Report , when we run
the computer simulation we can publish the report of the simulation as well. In report
we can publish the complete report, in the complete report we can have the list of these
diefferent machines.
If I just show my comments here the machines-milling, milling1 all the chart that are
the same, those can be put in there. The time for which the machines were working,
those can be seen in the report, these things can be produced. These mobile units are
there, mobile units are the units which were being used as an entity.
This mean this yellow pieces, there are entity. So, similar to entity we have a
container. Container has a capacity, for instance from the conveyor we are not taking one
mobile unit; if conveyor is taking a container which is containing a few mobile units or
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few entities actually. Entity is shown as a block, a kind of box. The entity can be the
car that we have just saw in the car body simulation model. Transporter is there
so, in place of container the transporter, sometime the conveyor is fixed . The
transporter is kind of a small trolley.
Small trolley which has some capacity, in this we can just put the pieces and take
them along. So, then we have Tools here, Tools are Bottleneck analyser, some
bottleneck analyser like we have just visualized, the bottleneck in the charts, in the
example that we have just seen here. But bottleneck analyser is also that will show
this is the primary bottle neck and this is another bottleneck.
Then experiment manager; so, I will pick one of these bottleneck. I will pick experiment
manager, I will try to explain you certain simulation
So, these are the some of the tools which are used in this software, there are some of the
objects.
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So, now I will try to pick some examples and try to explain you how do we use
certain tools. These tools are just to design the process. The material flow tool is just
to design the layout.
Then
important
tools
resources
have just tell
you
resources
are just the
workers or exporter broker which are used.
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The information flow, how do we use the information?
then the tool, Experiment manager, what does experiment manager do? It can
simulate the specific process, the various box plots or we can have the
simulation and the depth of simulation, those things all could be done .So, I will
have to stop here and thank you for being in the course. So, we will meet next time.
Thank you.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 29d
Software demonstration: Plant Simulation (Part 3 of 3)
Welcome to the course.
We would be talking about the distributions.
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I like to talk about the Distributions, I have just opened this milling process,the
processing time for the process is 1 minute. If I took Uniform Distribution, Uniform
Distribution is also known as Rectangular Distribution. So, in Uniform Distribution we
have a start and a stop, we have the minimum and the maximum value and we also
know that the value would lie between these two values and we do not have much
information. So, Uniform Distribution and Triangular Distribution and Beta
Distribution, these are sometimes known as the lack of information or lack of
knowledge Distributions, because we do not have much past knowledge, we just have
two or three or five or a very few number of observations. And we do not know what
a distribution would it follow, we have just a minimum value and maximum value, we
do not know what is happening in between so we just pick this rectangular Distribution.
We know that the Rectangular Distribution just have ‘a’ value and ‘b’ value that is
all. So, it is showing if we have to put it in this order- stream, start and stop. So I will
just put start and stop and the minimum time is t a k e n 2 minutes and the
maximum time is 3 minutes . So, here I have just put start and stop and have not put
any stream, What is stream?
If we know about random numbers stream is the seed of the random numbers.
when we talk about the simulation; What is simulation?
In Simulation we are trying to imitate the reality and what is representing the reality
what is representing our actual real objects or subjects. it is the random numbers, the
numbers which you are working on.
So, from where does our random number starts from the specific, so that is stream.
 For an instance if there are two processes, I put the same stream here, same
stream means the random number will start from the same seed and the
successive random number would be same, for instance if I put the seed value 2
in one process and seed value 2 in another process then the ninth random
number that is selected in first process and ninth random number selected in
second process, they both would be same because the seed is same so the
successive random number would be same. It is recommended to pick a
random seed or rather at least a different seed for different processes to have the
good simulation process.
If we do not put any stream value here, the software would pick a stream value by
itself. I am not picking any entering any stream value, I have just selected Uniform
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Distribution. We know that the minimum time would be 2, 2 is too small, let me say the
time varies from 2 minutes 50 seconds to 3 minutes, we know that first one is
minimum and the second is the maximum.
 First I will talk about Triangular Distribution;
Triangular Distribution is the sum of two Uniform Distributions. Two Uniform

Distributions are present there, Uniform Distributions means this just have the
smallest value and the largest value and we do not know what would happen.
But in Triangle Distribution we have three values.

1. The smallest value
2. The largest value and,
3. T h e value that is in between, but repeating for the maximum number of times. It
is repeating from maximum number of times that is the value is Mode.
What is mode?. like mean and median, mode is there. mean is the central value
median, mean is the average of the values, median is the central location value, mode
is the value that has the maximum frequency.
Here we can put, if I pick the triangle Distribution it shows stream c ,a, b here a is the
smallest value, b is the largest value and c is the mode, the value that is repeating for
maximum number of times. When it is repeating I am talking about the past data in
the past data, I have 5 or 6 observations, I know the minimum value a n d t h e
maximum value, but there is one value which is trying to repeat maximum number
of times , I can pick the Triangular Distribution.
Based upon the past data if I have a lot of observations in the past, I can pick normal
Distribution, If that fits good here. In normal Distribution, its asking for the parameters,
In normal Distribution statistic, it asking for stream, now it is asking for µ and σ. µ
is the mean or average a n d σ is the standard deviation.
Also it is calling for the Lower Bound and Upper Bound; Lower Bound is the
minimum value and the Upper Bound is the maximum value within which our
Distribution would lie. W e should have the knowledge of the Distribution as the
softwares are GIGO Garbage In Garbage Out. If you put the right distribution and
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you have the right numbers then we are having the results of the simulation very
close to the realistic conditions. This is the work of a systems engineer to design it in a
proper way.
If I change this time you can see, I do not select apply, because it is showing you know
if I do not put it in a proper way this is stream µ, σ, I am showing the value of
stream it is just fit. I was showing the value that is 250 and 3 the value of mean
was smaller than σ , that is why it is showing the negative value, it would not accept
any other format than is required.So, let me pick just constant time here and it was just
to make to understand properly it was 1 minute, I will apply this.
Let me see if I run it for 8 hour a day and try to see the throughput. It is 1167, per
hour is 48 and total throughput is 3894 and 8 hours a day.
 Now, if I change the processing times, let me change this processing time also to
2 minutes, in actual conditions we cannot change the processing time, with the
processing that it has to take it would take. The milling ,if it has to take 2
minutes unless we change the tools or we change the machine or we have the
CNC machine or have advanced machine we cannot, but work on more on the
processing times.
The processing times are fixed in the plant simulation or in the manufacturing
simulation, here we can think of working on the bottlenecks. The processing times
are fixed, we can think of designing the layout in a way that material flow is minimum
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and that the total time taken is minimum total time taken would be minimum that means,
the total throughput would be the larger.
 if I change this time and now I increase the time to 2 minutes and then I run the
process and let me try to see the throughput here you can see the throughput was
larger before. It has reduced now because the processing time is increased it is
582 pieces per day and 194 pieces in 8 hours a day.
Also we can have the setup time as well, for instance if a workpiece is to be
manufactured it will take 2 minutes for processing and 1 minute for setup,1 minute for
setup means for instance some milling is happening, In milling process what do we do
we just rotate the tool and remove the material. It is removing the material for one
workpiece this is a 2 minute process and after 2 minutes the machine stops, this
workpiece is taken off and a new workpiece is brought in here that is the raw one and
it will start process on this raw one workpiece now this setup takes 1 minutes here. So,
this is setup time, this is processing time. If I induce setup time as well and apply.
Let us see what happens to my throughput now only in 1 line, I have put some setup
time. So, the throughput is further reduced, here it was 197 pieces so it is 194 pieces
now because the setup time is there now another 1 minute is being taken. So, total time
taken in the milling process in the line 1 is 3 minutes now , this was a brief introduction
about the software the major or the main objects that we can use.
I have some examples for you to show you different layout and also the experiment
manager we will use. We will try to see the simulation that we can do in the
software. So, this is continuous material flow, I will select two lane track here so
traffic circle or segment table traffic circle, pick and open the model.
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 So, this is the model it is already running, I will just run the model you can see this
is the trolley that can pick material
thus this is source part some processing is being done here, I can see what is the time of
the processing here the time is constant that is 1 minute. You can see it is happening, I
will make it little faster, control panel and then run, this trolley is running, trolley is
continuously running through the tracks, this is actually about 20 times faster. The
processing is happening it is happen for the 9 minutes but it is not stopping, what is the
setting because there is no end time thus it will continue for the infinite a m o u n t o f
time, this is a kind of a just a cell, an ‘ o’ cell, now cancel and stop.
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The segment table open model, this is just showing a track, all the track is built
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So, let me pick user interface dynamic statistics display panel or chart open.
In this model we can see the chart what is setting there is that it has no end time, I will
put the end time here 0 8 :0 0: 0 0 apply ok, it will try to run this model, so it has a run
for 1 day. Entity buffer is there, entity machine is there.
So, we can see the charts here.
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So, for only one machine it is showing the chart that this is something unplanned blue
colour is unplanned then we have blocked(yellow), then we do not have any failure
here we
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have this waiting time for the about 30-37 percent of time it has been working. So, this is
another example, then tools and optimization, the important part is Experiment
Manager, I will just pick the buffer line optimization, this is line comparison open
model.
In this model
we have three
lines and it is
given here
that this now.
In this line
the
throughput
with no
failure, this is
throughput with failure, throughput with failure and buffers. So, there is a buffer kept
in between, if I enlarge it, this is buffer ok this is another buffer. So, I have kept buffers
in between this is throughput we need to see the throughput with no failure, in another
line is throughput we have put some failure rates here.
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If I see the failure it has 90 percent failure, 90 percent availability, it is 10 percent
failure. In this case there is no failure in the first case there is no failure.
Let me try to run this model yes this model has run for 8 hours a day. For no failure the
pieces in a day work for 477 with failure it is 347, but because failure is there we have
put the buffers in between that can store some of the material so it is about 417, also it is
giving the percentage of the maximum throughput, the maximum throughput is
477,it is with failure we have 72 percent but with buffers it is 7 percent of the
throughput of the maximum value.
Then I can pick some interface o k I can pick the File Interface, open model then
in the source, I can see Broker and animation. So, shift calendar worker, I will show
you a worker introduction model.
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This is the worker introduction model, in this case you can see the workers are just
introduced into machine and if we run this. Let me try to make its little slower, apply now
run,
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you can see the workers were running, two workers, one worker is working here and
second worker is here.
I can see the number of workers here in the work pool, in work pool, controls, entrance
plant.
I can see the number of workers are two here and work pool is there and the broker is
there, broker is trying to distribute the work to different workers. This is one of the
example then let me come to the major simulation thing, that is the experiment
manager, tool and optimization experiment manager.
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This is one of the models we have experiment manager this experiment manager can show
the simulation
If I run this model for let me open this experiment manager for instance definition and
evaluation
In definition we have defined the output value output value of the workstation
portion, start fail portion, it is working and failed. So, what output do we need and
what inputs do we have input is the root delivery and mean time to repair.
If I run this model also I can define the experiments that is for number of 100
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number of parts mean time to repair is this much 5, 10, 15 then 5, 10, 15 this is for 100
parts, this is for 200 parts again. So, these number of experiments would run if I run this
experiment manager ,let me try to run, it has run for 8 hours Now, seeing the results.
It has shown the results at mean time to failure if it is kept 5, so it is working for this
much number of time, it is failed for this much number of time. For this simulation of a 100
,this is for 200 parts, so it has taken eight experiments so I can see the report as well here
In the report it is telling that there are number of experiment in experiment one,
this happened in experiment two, this happened this is the total failure this is both
blocked time then grey colour is waiting time, all these things it is telling in the report.
In experiments what is it taken? It has taken different random numbers in experiment
number one, different numbers are random numbers are taken, experiment number
two different numbers are taken. What is experiment number one it was given here
output values are here in this result, experiment number one is 100 parts with mean
time to repair as 5 minutes. Experiment number two is 100 parts with mean time to
repair as 10 minutes.
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So, it is showing these experiments here. We can have all different kinds of designs.
then rule we have not defined any rule based setting can also be done. This is like if
we go to the detail of the simulation these things are possible.
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Now layout optimization, factory optimization factory layout is there this is a factory
and we have made different kind of connections here. Layout optimization can be done
where to keep what machine then what would be the overall, what would there
maximum throughput if we do that. So, this can these models can be also we can through
these things to find the optimization here.
Another model I can pick here is from continues material flow, two lane track distance
control, sensors; sensors are like if we need to for instance if we need to
accelerate at some point or we need to put breaks or we need to put the correct decision
light and like we open this model.
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This is an break and accelerate model. I have defined the method, if I try to run this model.
first let me see the event simulator but just to see whether how it runs you can see this is
break after break it will just slowdown after accelerate, it accelerate this is speed in
this speed. A t this point break would apply, it will accelerate now the break would
apply, it will take a turn accelerate, it will accelerate from this point.
This is a kind of a entity, this car here we had just one kind of a entity
There is another entity which is in the form of car, the name is auto sorter. This
was by sensor in continuous material flow they have many models in this. I will just
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pick randomly something some tools and optimization. I can pick experiment manager,
then I will try to explain a experiment manager in more detail, Let me pick something
with transfer station. I have a demonstration model here.
Transfer station is one cell , this ‘o’ is 1 cell, this is another track here two way track .
Transfer station, it will just transfer the material from this cell to this track let me try to
see the event simulator, here you can see the trolley or the container came here. The
container is coming, some machining is happening at this Parallel Process .
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Let us first see what are the process parameters here
this is a Parallel Process in which 2*2=4 processes are there and the times is again the
default time t h a t i s 1 minute . from this source it comes in transfer station, there we
need not connect transfer station, when we see a transfer station.
It will transfer into load, it will just load the process it is connected, connect path
from the parallel process we just need to put the name.
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It will pick the part from parallel process then it will target or the transport the parts to
line, there is no connector required in between we need to just mention the
predecessor and the successor process. sensor position is this one, all these so we
can select load, unload, reload, move so it is loading the parts. All these attributes
availability is 100 percent we can select this, I would not change anything and let me
try to run the simulation. So, these containers are running, some processing is
happening here. It will take 1 minute, so transfer station will transfer the part to this
container. So, this container is coming here and at this transfer station it is
connecting the part from this line 1,2,3 to a track, if I see its properties it forms a line
to a track, the name of this track is track only.
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here is another transfer station, a source transporter as well in which source is there that is
trying to transport material from some other frame or some other user interfaces, it is
trying to do that. This is one of the objects that can be used, so this is say transfer station.
After applying there are certain examples which are available for us to see how these things
happen.
I will just open start page again a n d try to open this factory simulation that we had
made earlier.
So, this is a factory simulation in which these processes are there this is the process if
I put the names this is the single process one and single process two, single process
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three and the workers are working, here the time for the workers are put. The speed
of the worker which is defined by International Labour Organisation is 80 meters per
second and the times for different machines are taken in such a way that if it is an
automated Machine.
The time is actually noted while doing live experiments, so live experiments were
conducted. This is single process, here it is milling. I have not changed the name. So,
this is milling, its time is kept constant here and this time is 1 minute and 10
seconds like that is about 70 second it takes to do the machining then setup time is
about 26 seconds. So, for this machine, these are actual times which are taken from
the experiments as live experiments were conducted.
So, these are the time for second machine, about 2 minutes that is 1 minute 55 seconds,
59 seconds for the processing and for setup it takes 33 seconds, these are all taken
constant here.
This run for 8 hour a day and also in an experiment manager we have defined the
output values, output values are the one which are working and failed and throughput of
line 1 and throughput of line 2 we need to see, like we can just see throughput here in
the previous way we did. We can just see the throughput of this run that we have done,
it is 534 pieces per day and 178 pieces in 8 hour a day but if I run my simulation using
my experiment manager.
I have defined 25 experiments here, and the processing time is taken actually 59 seconds
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and this 70 seconds is calculated using random number table or using some random
Distribution, Normal Random Distribution may be. So, we have selected a random times
those random times are put here 70 seconds was the mean and this is the real random
times. It has 69, 70,71 so these are the random times, setup times are also random.
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These times are putting times for milling processing and setup, drilling processing and
drilling setup, grinding processing and setup then after grinding, we have inspection. We
have these machines here, milling machine, drilling, grinding, inspection one.This is
throughput to line 1.Then workers their places, worker footpath all those things are
defined in the model we made. This is an hypothesized factory.
So, defining observations per experiments, so there are 25 experiments which are
conducted using random numbers and per experiments 50 application would be taken
that is 50 times one experiment would repeat. The box plot can be made for this 50
experiments, that is one observation, one observation means 50 experiment, the second
observation is another 50 experiments. So, Total number of experiments that happen is
25 into 50.
 Total number of experiments=25
 Number of applications per experiments=50
 Box plot for 50 experiments=1 observation
 Total number of experiments=25*50
=1250
So, 25 experiments are made and 50 observations per experiment. Input variables are all
the times of processes such as milling, drilling, grinding, processing and setup times,
inspection one and in the second line we have a Modern Manufacturing Machine which
is Micro wire EDM (Electric Discharge Machining). So, This is a modern
manufacturing machine ,so in this case all setup time is put, so these three machines
inspection two is there so the 2 lines with which you can see are the two flow lines.
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First flow line is the conventional machines milling, drilling, grinding and Second flow
line is our modern manufacturing, source micro wire EDM then inspection and drain. So,
we can see the both throughputs used after connecting these experiments.
So, output values are all defined we need to see throughput 1, throughput 2 and also
we need to see the working and the failed percentages.
Let us start the simulation, current experiment is one if you see, third experiment is
running fourth is running now, fifth is running. Fourth, fifth, sixth experiment. 50
observation for all the 25 experiments 50 observation would run. So, you can see the
time 8 hours, 8 hours, 8 hours, it is running the multiple runs here, this is how the
simulation is conducted using the experiment manager.
This is the exactly the simulation is used for ,you know actually 6000 experiments are
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conducted.
So, it has generated a report total running time for the simulation is 36 seconds. In 36
seconds it has run 1250 experiment, 1250 is 25 into 50.
so this is my report saying ok this is the simulation, this is the final which that we are
getting here this is simulation experiment , whenever if we like to see.
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It has shown that single process one-station one and single process one, it is showing
that these are the time for which it is working, this is the time for it is blocked, this is
showing these things experiment number two also showing same things.
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So, it is showing the statistics here so mean value, standard deviation, minimum and
maximum for experiment one and for all the experiments
So, this is the P and T test we will do not move to that these are the tests those are
conducted and this is table for that
It shows time such as failed time, working time and also it will show the throughput
because we asked for a throughput. So, this is the throughput for the 25 experiments so
this is the throughput for the 50 observations in experiment number one. Experiment
number one means 50 observations that 25 experiments for each experiment there are 50
observations.
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So, experiment number one has 50 observations, these 50 observations have this
mean
177.4, these 50 observations have this standard deviation, it has this minimum value
and this maximum value, left and right bound is also given.
So, for all these 25 experiment it is taken the overall mean also throughput of line 1,
throughput of line 2.
Let’s see the values of Experiments.
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Let me try to see the plots of these.
So, these are the output values of interest.
So, if you see these, this is each experiment and 50 observations are given, this is
for the throughput 2 you can see now we have a box plot here. So, now, what does
this show? This for instance, this is my experiment number 5, this vertical line in
experiment number 5 shows that there are 50 observations.
And this is box plot this is my median and you can see there is whisker and the third
quartile is quite lower and we do not have the first quartile, first quartile is kind
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of coinciding with my quartile two. So, the upper whisker is very smaller, so it is from
the box plot for each of the experiments. We can see the very small variation here in
experiment number 11, in experiment number 16 you cansee again there is a big
variation on the lower side. You can also see the overall variability is very high, It is
there because it is the behavior of the micro EDM.
Number one, In Micro EDM process we do not know the kind of experiment which
we did,we did not know that what time it would take, some time it took may be 50
,sometime it took 10 m i n u t e s , 15 minutes, 20 minutes, variability was there in the
overall process that is why this big variability is there.
Number two is that the throughput is very small actually the final throughput is
obtained, the average throughput was 14 pieces hence throughput is very small. So,
with this small throughput it is showing very high variation like in a day we can see
that we even have about 9 pieces in a day, here we have about 15 pieces in a day . So,
the total throughput is very small so that is why this is much high variability is there.
So, for throughput line 1, so this I have obtained the chart put for the throughput of
line 2. So, here you can say in the throughput for line 2 the variability is less, the two
reasons for this are, number one the processing times were in control because the
machines were CNC machines when we connected the live of experiments. However, the
processing time for the inspection was little variable because inspection was done
manually but overall because of they were three automated machines. So, the variability
is lesser than that we observe in our line 2.
Second reason is the overall average is 178 which is a big number and like bigger
number then that very small number 14. So, the throughput variability is lesser
however, in individual processes because the simulation is trying to re imitate the
realistic situation. So, in realistic situation we can have the outlier, we can sometime
have the very long time or a very lesser time then it should be normal.
So, this for instance in experiment number 5 you can see again the whisker is falling
down, it all depends upon the random numbers and if I tell you the time were kept
constant, but the seeds were all different. So, depending upon different seeds for
these different experiments and the observations were also very different these
different box plots are obtained .
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So, we can infer that the variability is lesser in this and we can keep varying the
number of workers.
The number of workers those who are employed were 4 you know 1, 2, 3 workers
in line 1, 1 worker in line 2 , we can also think of employing 5 workers that is 4
worker in line 1.
If we employ another worker we can do cost analysis, what is the wage of that
worker and what is the overall throughput, what is the increase in the throughput.
If the increase in the throughput is lesser than the profit that we obtained from the
increased throughput by employing the fourth worker is lesser than the wage that
has to be paid to the worker. So, we can just take of the decision we can just deny
this decision.
So, the certain experiment that we can do certain simulation that we can do I
think, I should stop here, we have discussed enough about the Tecnomatix software
for an amateur, this is a good start like you have an introduction to how the
software work. And h o w is simulation is conducted in the software, then what are
this types of layout and we can even optimise the layout using these softwares. And
just certain you know I have told you this is a great capability of this specific
software, but yes we can keep on using this, we can try to simulate the factory we
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can make a big factory and this is just a manufacturing process in manufacturing
systems.
We can also think of taking after this manufacturing system, this is developed. The
systems or the actually report that we have got we can take that report, the team
centre to finally, support when actually things happen. So, we can just put, this is the
schedule or the plan, what is the variation of the actual things which are happening in
a first few runs; when we actually run this kind of setup. So, we can test those as well
using these software tools, so I will have to stop here and thank you for being in
the course so we will meet next time.
Thankyou
.
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture - 30
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (Part 1 of 2)
The topic of discussion is going to be Computer Integrated Manufacturing because of the

innovation or invention of this computer life has become very easy. Today we enjoy
digital world, we digitize the document; the document when it is digital
 it is easy to store,
 it is easy to retrieve,
 it is easy to edit.
So, it is all happening because of computer. So, once the computer start getting
integrated into manufacturing then there was or there is a revolutionary change which is
happening in the manufacturing segment or sector. So, this discussion is more focus
towards computer integrated manufacturing.
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We will see introduction to CIMs, then
 Elements of your production system,
 Automated manufacturing system,
 Automation strategies,
 Metrics in production system,
 Advanced automation functions and
 Finally, the integration of CAD and CAM together
which leads to CIM. So, we will see all these topics, this is very-very relevant and it is
the need of the, our topic for the youngsters to understand and start using computers
more in manufacturing.
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 The definition for CIMs is referred to the technology tool or method used to
improve entirely the design and manufacturing process and increase productivity
to help people and machines to communicate.
So, this is the definition which is given. So, it is the technology tool or method used to
improve entirely the design and manufacturing process, when you talk about design
today there is a difference between design and drafting.
 Drafting is only to draw whatever you have physically you just draw on a piece
of paper and you can also do it virtually that is drafting, what is there I look at it
and then I mess up the dimensions and draw, what I have in mind I draw. So,
these are drafting;
 Designing means there has to be a calculation involved, there has to be an

optimization involved, there has to be an iteration involved. So, we try to take for
example, you decide to use a nut and a bolt in an assembly.
So, first you have to decide what size m1, m2, m3, m4, which one to choose and how do
you fasten. So, for that we have to do the design and today what is happening is the
software whatever are available today gives you a wonderful support for designing and
in the same way when you try to draw a part and then leave the option to the computer
itself, it uses artificial intelligence, it uses expert system, it uses genetic algorithm and
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looking at the component, looking at the tolerance, it is now suggesting the list of all
processes which are to be involved in making it. It is not only the process it is also the
sequence of process, it is also saying this in the manufacturing process. So, that is getting
completely redefined, computer has to have the data and then you will use artificial
intelligence, decision table, decision tree to store all the data and then start making it for
the real time use.
So, the method used to improve entirely the design manufacturing process and increase
productivity. So, the life cycle, the designing cycle time is reduced drastically when you
start using computer and help people machines to communicate in a standard fashion and
in a best fashion. This is the process of automating various functions in manufacturing
company like business, engineering, production. Business is the customer and outside
world, engineering is the design whatever happens and manufacturing is a production by
integrating the work through a computer network under common database. So, you have
a common database where in which business people are attached, engineering are
attached and production are attached.
CIMs is a critical element in the competitive strategy of global manufacturing firms

because
 it lowers the cost,
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 improves delivery time and
 improves the quality.
So, moment as the company starts using CIM. So, the cost is reduced because you do not
have to do several iterations. Now today you do optimization of design, you do
simulation, understand the part, iterate the part and even the first part what you
manufacture will be the original part live part which is used for application.
So, when we start using it when CIMs environment are used, the cost goes down, the
delivery time is also more and more. for example, every project when we start we talk
about milestones and along with the milestones, we also try to talk about the time frame.
So, now, you are able to talk more about the delivery ,the time frames where in which
the project is executed and when will you meet out the output and it also tries to talk
about improved quality which is their in the product. CIM is an integration of total
manufacturing enterprise through the use of integrated systems and data communication.
So, what it is clearly stating is you have a computer, you have several systems and now
you should understand all the systems must have a common language to talk, first of all
it is integration and the next one is talking. First one is to integrate, integrate can be on
off that is all, but once you start talking that is a dialogue then it means to say you are
receiving, you are taking the data, you are understanding the data, giving back what was
the query raised. So, if this happens so that is what is CIMs. So, a use of integrated
systems and data communication coupled with new managerial philosophies that
improve the organizational and the personal efficiency, that is CIMs.
You have a CNC machine, the CNC machine has a time or a timer. So, this timer is
clocked for the amount of time the machine is used machine usage. So, everyday you can
try to find out what is the efficiency of utilization, if you know the percentage of
utilization then if it is low or high we can start loading this machine or trying to train the
operator or trying to modernize or make some attachment such that the productivity of
the CNC machine can go high as well as the personal involved his efficiency also can be
calculated.
So, if you understand where the problem is then you can try to solve the problem. So, to
understand the problem, moment it becomes computerized, you are able to track most of
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the events which are happening. So, that is what it is told up to improve organizational
and personal efficiency, organizational is earlier we used to talk about man-machine. So,
one man-one machine. So, now, what is happening one man-two machine, now people
since they know how to optimize the time and other things. So, a single man is used to
operate three machines. Now you see there is an organizational change and then there is
a personal efficiency also recorded and improved. if you want to do all these things you
have to have a CIMs environment.
CIMs has a wide scope including CAD. So, when some company says we are a CIMs
based company or our company follows CIMs environment then; that means, to say they
have computer aided design, there is a difference between design and drafting. So,
design is more of optimization and simulation, next is Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAM, computer aided manufacturing, the third one is computer aided process planning.
So, if you look at a part and then please see it is a small offset I have given here. So, it
starts from here and it goes.
So, what is a part? Let us not worry about it but I have given an offset. So, now, this part
has to be fabricated. So, moment you draw and then you say the Ra is nothing is
roundabout 0.1 micron. So, now, the challenges by looking at the drawing then the
computer itself goes back and it iterates and it finds out which process to be used or it
gives you a guidance, which process to be used so that the process planner can quickly
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take, it may be he has to iterate it little bit, but at least the starting solution is given to
him so that he can start working on it.
Here the component is offset so, when you use lathe machine you have to be careful. So,
these details will be given by the process plan for this to establish you should have a
standard database. So, that standard database should look at features, first it has to
recognize features and then each feature has to be linked to the process and it should
have the data and by and large people try to use decision table to store the data. Next one
is computer numerically control, machine tools CNC is also part of CIMs when there is a
single server, a single server and you have more CNC machines attached.
 So, then it is called as direct numerical control machines because if you have a
complex job and the program runs for 10000 lines, there are parts in turbine
blades in aerospace industry, turbine blades machining of a turbine blades
including machining of a very small nozzle or very small parts where in which
there are 1000 lines, 10000 lines program.
So, all the program cannot be stored in the memory of the CNC machine. So, what they
are do is they try to couple up segment and segment of the program and it is executed
and it is transferred back to the main server. So, when we start doing it is called as direct
numerical control machines and today people have gone one step ahead and they say that
if any of the machines are free and then what they do is they try to find out what is the
capability of the machine, the program from the server is dump on to the CNC machine
which has the capability of producing a part. So, the program is dumped and then the
machine utility is increased, for that they also try to use direct numerical control machine
tools. It is only one computer assisted or computer attached numerical control machine in
direct is several of the CNC machines are attached to a server and you start using it.
The next one is flexible manufacturing system, it can be called as machining system or it
can to be more generic, it can be called as manufacturing system, manufacturing system.
And then we have ASRS which is the Automated Storage and Retrieval System, people
have realized the need to go for 3D space instead of 2D space. So, if you look at a
medical shop, if you look at the mall. So, the they utilize a 3D space look at a library if
the library all the books have to be stored and kept in a place if it is only 2D it occupies
lot of space.
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So, 3D is now talked about. automatic store when you moment start using 3D and there
are lot of racks in it then comes the system of automatic storage and retrieval system.
Then moment you have this automatic storage and retrieval system, then once the item is
retrieved it has to be moved to the required space for that automated guided vehicles are
also used today they are AGVs. So, AGVs are basically used to transport material from
one location to the another location, it can be loading station, unloading station, CNC
machine it can be a central store, ware house.
So, it is a automatic machine, driverless machine which is operated with or by a

computer control in a central location or by a server. So, AGVs are also thought of, when
somebody says I am using the CIMs environment it is also understood that they are using
automated guided vehicles and the last the robots are used for some of the operations and
for example, like hazardous operations painting, welding, heat treatment, nuclear, a dirty
environment ,the our robots are used and it can also be used for automatic system. So, it
can be used for storing and retrieving.
So, let us see what is the expansion for CIMs. So, the CIMs C, I will divide this into
three parts I and M.
What does C represents?
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 C is for Computer which does it is an enable, enabling tool, next one it is it helps
in information flow, the next one is it helps in information management.
 I stands for Integration or integrator. So, it tries to do integration versus interface,

both it does and then it helps in sharing of information this integration and it also
has sharing of functionality.
 M stands for Manufacturing. So, manufacturing is production control. Then it is

production scheduling then it is process design.
These are some of the functions and it is product design and then it is manufacturing
enterprise. This is what CIMs is all about, a computer is an enabling tool which is used to
enable, to its an enabling tool which is used for connecting, then integration has two
things one is interfacing and integration they are different interface and integration are
different then sharing of information ,sharing of functionality that is all part of
integration and manufacturing this production control production schedule because today
we talk about lean manufacturing. So, where this place a very-very important role.
Sample of CIM subsystem, CIM sub it can have a design. So, design you can have
several subsystems of design. So, because in design as I told you can be for optimization
can be for simulation, can be for animation whatever it is. So, so many things are
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involved in the design state then you can have sales. So, you can have several
subsystems.
So, CIMs itself has a design as a subsystem, then design can have several subsystems,
sales can have several subsystems production can have and manufacturing also can
have . Several subsystems these are all several subsystems which are part of a CIMs
which is a bigger environment.
So, what is a production system triad? So, it is nothing, but market, then design and
production engineering. So, it is a connection between this and this and then market and
production engineering design and this and this. So, all of them come and meet at a point
called which is manufacturing . So, this is at site which is used and this is designed. So,
market and production engineering after all these things integrated to produce one thing
called as manufacturing.
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When you look at the driving force for CIMs, there are several driving forces if you look
at it traditional manufacturing it is here. So, it has labor factor supply factor and demand
factor. So, there are three factors. So, one is
 demand factor,
 supply factor and
 labor factor;
labor factor has labor boredom and dissatisfaction then if he is dissatisfied thus the
responsibility and motivation is very low,
it is a relatively high wage rates of unskilled labor worker. So, then it requires for these
labors to be substituted by machines and computer for human labor, when you look at
supply factors, geographically spread of production. So, supply coming from various
place increasing the cost, increasing the inventory and imperative for higher quality of
products with fewer defects.
So, these are the driving force for supply factor, then here joining of technology
operation in one working station or computerized control will lead to a demand for
computer integrated flexible manufacturing. In the same way when you talk about
demand factors it can go like satisfaction of primary needs, quality price differentiation
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and then specific feature of goods. So, this leads to more variety of basic goods, demand
differentiator quality and price differentiator, demand differentiator and shorter life cycle
for goods this helps you to go for return from mass to batch production. So, all these
things are the driving force for CIMs.
When you look at the production strategy classification
 relative to customer lead time, thus low customer lead time,
 relative to manufacturing lead time and
 manufacturing lead time and customer lead time must be match.
The strategy classification can be relative to customer lead time, customer understanding,
the customer converting it then once the customer voice is understood, you have placed
an order then comes the manufacturing lead time then it will be manufacturing lead time
and customer lead time must match. So; that means, to say if you promise that you will
deliver it within 30 minutes, you should be able to deliver the product in 30 minutes.
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When you look at the production strategy , are generally classified into four. So, we have
at back of our mind production strategy used to match customer and manufacturing lead
time. So, we have to do this, otherwise we will be losing the product in the market. So,
we should make sure the customer lead time and manufacturing lead time is the same,
you promise you deliver. So, if you have to do that then your product should have
several strategies.
So, here are the basic four strategies which are used which is called as
 Engineer to order,
 Make to order,
 Assemble to order and
 Make to stock
we will see one after the other. So, when you talk about
engineer to order. Engineer to order is so you have all the knowledge with you and
moment there is a customer requirement, you try to take the customer requirement-tweak
the knowledge little bit to meet out to the customer requirement;
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make to order :make to order is again a customer wants and everything. So, engineer to
order is you know all the strategies, but you have not exactly build a same product which
could be delivered.
Make to order is to a large extent, what happens is you have everything optimized and
kept ready. So, moment there is a customer who comes and he says please make it you
start making it that is called as make to order.
Engineer to order: if you meet a blacksmith and tell him that I want to make a wheel
for the horse cart if you say. So, he knows the skill, he knows the skill he draws the
drawing in the in the floor and then he gets your engineering approval for the drawing in
the floor, floor means on the ground and then he starts making it that is engineer to order.
You give the money he goes to the market buys the raw material, buys this, buys that
looking into your doing looking into your requirements, he customizes it. Make to order
is almost all the designs are ready portion, all he has to do is he gets the money, he pulls
the design executes.
Engineer to order he has to still customize it ,make to order is I need a car. So, then I
know the tire has to be there, this has to be there that has to be there, small optimization
has to be done and then you start making. So, this is make to order assemble to order is
pizza. So, pizza what happens the, you know the ingredient, you know all the ingredients
are kept ready it has to be just to process and it has to be delivered, more of modularity.
So, that is assemble to order.
Make to stock: is you make things and keep it ready for example, samosa in the tea shop
it is made to stock. So, it is kept that so you go pick it up. Assemble to order is
everything is there ready with you, but moment you pay money they start doing it for
example, any fast food restaurant moves under the concept of assemble to order. Every
ingredient is ready, they have to just process it deliver it all food chains follow this .
Now you have to decide which category your product falls, if you say make to order. So,
you do not have anything readymade with you, but you have the all skill sets ready with
you, machines ready with you and then you get the money and start doing a part. This is
modularity and then and of course, if you see all these things follow modularity; engineer
to order is it is like a flat building.
1009
Fot house building, I go to architect and I say I have money, I have plan I want a house
like this then architect understanding, your voice he starts building, as he starts drafting
or constructing a model and then he will try to get back to you and say look at it is it fine
for you then it goes back and for titrations finalize and then do it. So, that is engineer to
order. It takes more time it takes lesser as compared to the previous one then it takes in
days and a last one you go pick it up and come. So, you have to decide your product
which strategy you follow
So, when we talk about computer integrated manufacturing, it is a production system,

which has facilities and which has manufacturing support system , then facilities are of
two. So, one is called as manufacturing system the other one is called as factory layout,
then this has product design, then it has manufacturing planning, then it is manufacture
control and the last one is going to be business function . So, if you look at it all these
things are computerization and manufacturing system is more of automation and
computer and automation are also controlled.
This is a typical manufacturing system or a production system which is involved, when

we talk about computer integrated manufacturing facilities and manufacturing support
system. So, they have manufacturing system which can be automated, factory layout,
product design, manufacturing, planning, manufacturing control and business functions
1010
are part of it so you can get computerized . So, computerization plays a very important
role in all these four factors. So, you get to know the result.
 what are facilities? Facilities include the factory, production machine, tooling,
material handling equipment, inspection equipment and computer systems that
control the manufacturing operation are called as facilities in the manufacturing
scenario.
Manufacturing systems, logically grouping of equipments and workers in the factory is

manufacturing system. production line and standalone machines. when we talk about
production lines it is called more of assembly line. So, you can have U type, you can
have straight, you can have a circle, you can have L type. So, these are all different
production lines and which is more focus towards assembly .
This is manufacturing systems, when we talk about layout the way the equipments is
physically arranged in the factory is called as a layout. Layout is very important because
layout tries to make sure that the part does not move randomly inside a factory. So,
arranging of machines, arranging of operators is very important.
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There are three categories in terms of human participation in the process performed by
manufacturing system,
 It can be manual work system,
 It can be worker machine system,
 It can be automated system.
 It is manual, semi-automatic, automatic
In manual work system a worker performing one or more tasks without the aid of
powered tool, but sometimes using hand tool is called as manual work system .
Fitting assembly or sometimes using hammer the blacksmith, he uses whatever he does
is manual work system worker and machine system is drilling, you have a workpiece,
you have automated machine. So, you use automated machine you have a workpiece, it
is held in a fixture and then a worker start using it.
It is worker machine system, a worker operates the power equipment .automated system
the part goes there the part is fixed in a fixture and then the drilling machine is
automated, the loading happens automatic, unloading happens automatic, machining also
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happens automatic then that is called as automated system, a process performed by
machine without direct participation of human being is called as automated system.
The manufacturing system is categorized into three which is manual, semi-automatic and
automatic. So, semi-automatic is otherwise called as worker machine system.
When you look at manufacturing support systems, the manufacturing support system
involves a sequence of activities that consists of four functions, business function. What
is falling under business function? Sales, marketing, order, order entry, cost, accounting,
customer, billing. All these things are business functions when we talk about product
design it is research and development, design engineering and prototype shop all are part
of product design. When we talk about manufacturing planning its process planning,
production planning, MRP materials or Manufacturing Resource Planning, today it is
also called as Enterprise Resource Planning ERP a higher version of MRP then capacity
planning.
Example: Capacity planning is whether I can take the order and whether I can put,
suppose if somebody comes and says I have to make 1000 samosas in next 3 hours. So, I
have only 1 tawa and I have only 1 burner. So, first thing which flash you should flash in
my mind is I cannot make 1000 samosas with 1 burner. So, quickly what I have to do, I
have to add multiple burners. So, then what I will do, I know burners to be added, but I
do not know how many to be added, then now I will start calculating the cycle time for
1013
making for making 1 samosa what will be the time. And then the 1 samosa does not
matter here because it is going to be an array of samosas has to be done.
You will make ten samosas and drop it into the oil and the cycle time start from what
time you start dropping into the oil and what is the frying time. So, it is a batch
production . So, if you know what has happened you have added number of burners and
you have to do find out, what is the, how many number of burners to be added. So, you
will try to calculate the cycle time divided by 1000 and then you will say this much time
it takes. So, my burner has to operate for so, many hours and I cannot do it. So, I need.
So, many burners and then finally, you start. So, that is nothing, but capacity planning .
Then manufacturing control, shop floor control, inventory control and quality control:
So, here capacity planning, I talked about a term called as cycle time and then I know the
production required. So, for example, 1000 samosas in 3 hours so, then I know 1 burner
can produce 100 samosas in an hour by calculation I do. So, I need 10 burners so, that
calculation, that is capacity planning .
The sequence of information process activities in manufacturing firm it goes like this,
order to produce, then business function whatever we studied then product design comes
into existence, manufacturing planning comes then manufacturing control comes.
1014
This is manufacturing planning and manufacturing control keep negotiating with a
factory operation and moment the factory operation, they know the machine, they know
the manpower, they know everything and then what they do is once it is accepted then
they start the machine, they start material to come inside the factory and start working on
it. And finally, what they produced to meet out the customer requirement, whatever order
is been placed. So, inside this there is a term called as Work In Progress which is called
as WIP but the raw material has entered into the factory and it has started getting into
function, but it has not left the factory to the customer.
Those internally or holding the pieces inside the factory without delivering it to the
customer is called as WIP, all companies we will try to have as minimum WIP as
possible because whatever comes into the factory if it gets out only they get the money
out, otherwise the money is getting locked and it builds up inventory at several places.
So, WIP is one thing which happens inside the factory environment.
There are two categories of automation in production system one is called as
 Automation of manufacturing system in the factory.
 Computerization of the manufacturing support system.
these two are the two categories of automation in production system, the two categories
overlap because the manufacturing support system are connected to the factory
1015
manufacturing system. So, manufacturing support system is a overlap, it overlap between
the factory manufacturing system.
Let us take some of the examples for automated manufacturing system. example first is
automated machine tool. So, here it is loading, unloading on a CNC machine , transfer
line which is a car assembly, assembly in car industry-auto industry or it can have sub
industry also, automated assembly system. Today you see a lot of hotels they make an
automated assembly system , or food packets . So, there it is talked about.
Then industrial robot that performs operation and assembly operations, this is used in car
industry for welding, or automated in manufacturing system. So, automated material
handling and storage system to integrate manufacturing corporation, this happens in
hazardous environment, hazardous environment as well as in a place where the
automation has to happen in a bulk, bulk and fast they use it. For example, pcb assembly
comes in automated assembly line, automatic inspection systems for quality control,
today what is happening the again if you go back to food industry the apples are getting
packaged.
By looking at the apple they try to figure out rotten and un ripened apples are noted and
then immediately it is pulled out of the assembly line and it is thrown. So, those are some
of the examples of automated systems which are existing today.
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There are three types of automated manufacturing system one is called as
 Fixed automation,
 Programmable automation and
 Flexible automation.
In fixed automation the input and the output is to a large extent fixed, there is a small
variation for example, the length can vary, diameter can vary, nut producing industry, a
nail producing industry, a bolt producing industry the diameters can change, but a bolt
making machine will produce only bolt, steel rods extrusion machine will produce only
steel for example, packaging industry if it is has to make small sachet packets, the based
upon the volume the length and the and the volume can change.
So, those things are called as fixed automation, when we talk about programmable
automation CNC machines are programmable automations. So, where in which by
changing the program a small amount of flexibility or more amount of flexibility can be
introduced as compared to that of the fixed automation. So, here we use more of
mechanical automation, In programmable automation,we start using computer is assisted
to some extent and we start using, flexible automation is giving a huge flexibility. For
example, if you are running a hotel and if you have a kitchen, it the man is highly skilled
and based upon the order whatever he it comes into he has a set of utensils, he starts
1017
making with to the customer requirement, everything and customizing it the here it is
more of skilled based . So, these two can be unskilled or semi-skilled.
So, when we talk about fixed automation, the manufacturing system in which the
sequence of processing operation is fixed by the equipment configuration .it is suited for
high volume production , it has a very high initial investment cost, its production rate is
very high it is relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety.
So, when you look at it suppose if you look at, variety and automation so automation
means or let me change it to volume. So, volume is very high, variety is very low. So,
this is fixed then comes programmable and then comes flexibility . So, here the volume
is very high that is what we have said very high volume, very high investment.
So, I can also say that very high investment so, it is also costly, but they are produced so
much so per-piece price falls down. So, it is always good for mass production.
1018
Next to programmable, the manufacturing system designed with the capability to change
the sequence of operation to accommodate different product configuration is called as
programmable automation. So, in the fixed the say stations. So, there are several stations
each station has a fixed job and every time it does the same and the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4 is
also fixed ,when you talk about programmable, there is a small flexibility given. So, it
can skip or it can do anything to make the outputs.
So, programmable automation, a manufacturing system design with the capability to

change the sequence of operation to accommodate different production configuration is
programmable automation. So, the typical features are high investment in general
purpose equipments, low production rate than fixed automation, flexibility to deal with
variation and change in the product configuration. So, it is more of modularity and most
suitable for batch production, physical setup and part programming must be changed
between jobs.
1019
When we talked about flexible automation and extension of programmable automation in

which the system is capable of changing over from one job to the next with no loss of
time between the job is called as flexible automation.
we talk about the term called as SMED which is nothing, but Single Minute Exchange of
Dies , in metal forming industry that punch and die assembly takes a hell a lot of time if
you want to set a punch and die assembly put all the things it might take several shifts.
So, what people are come out with the new concept is, they say you while the machine is
running at the outside keep getting things ready so that moment the production is over
you just swap and push that new die inside and start your production.
what is an extension of programmable automation in which the system is capable of

changing over from one job to the next without loss of time is flexible automation, high
investment for customer engineering system, continuous production of variable mixes of
production, medium production rate and flexibility to deal with soft product variety. So,
these are all the advantages and disadvantages of various production systems as I have
already drawn.
1020
Let me make it with more clarity. So, here you have programmable automation, then we
have flexible automation and last we have fixed automation . So, here is product variety
and here is product quantity or volume.
The computerized manufacturing support system, objectives of automating the

manufacturing support system are to reduce the manual and clerical efforts in product
design, manufacturing planning and control and the business functions.
1021
So, that is the need, then integrates computer aided design and manufacturing in CAD
CAM. So, that is what is CIMs; CIMs include CAD, CAM and the business functions of
the firm. So, all these things are the objective of automating the manufacturing support
system.
when you look at it, when you talk about CAD, it is computer aided automated assisted.
So, CAM is also same, A can be used for computer aided manufacturing, computer
automated manufacturing, computer assisted manufacturing ,then you see C is nothing,
but the computer. And this is the design, development and drafting so this is what is D
represents for and M represents for manufacturing, management and marketing it has to
be marketing . So, so this is what is the computerized manufacturing support system all
about.
1022
When we talk about manual labor in production system, where does the manpower go in
modern manufacturing at two places, you should know the manual labor in factory
operation and labor in manufacturing support systems, at these two places today we still
need manpower. These are the two places manpower used in factory automation ,loading
and unloading may be and then manufacturing support system, understanding the
customers voice, converting it into engineering specs, putting into the system. So, that is
again we need a skilled manpower for this usage.
1023
So, manual labor in production system, the long term trend is towards greater use of
automated system to substitute for manual labor, this is the long term achievement that is
why in India also we are talking about highly skilling people so, that they can be flexible
to shift jobs very fast and they are quality conscious and they produce what customer
wants.
In long term what will happen is we will have more of automated systems, we need
operators to make, to maintained this automated systems and the manpower will be
substituted towards that rather than doing simple jobs. When is manual labor justified?
When the countries have very low labor rates it is justified to have manual when
automation cannot be justified. For example, if the operation is too flexible you cannot
automate so then you still need a manual.
(Refer Time: 46:45).
The task is technologically too difficult to automate, we still go for manual shorter
product life time, we would go for manual labor if the product if the life cycle of the
product is too short for example, seasonal based, we go for manual. It is only for one
season then we go for it, customized product requirements human flexibility and then to
cope up with ups and downs in demands, to reduce risk of new product failures. So, all
these things even today pushes us to have a go for manual labor and we justify using
manual labor in these places.
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The product designer who brings creativity to the design desk, there we need a manual
labor manufacturing engineer who designs the production equipment and tooling we
need a manual labor.
Planning the production methods and routing. So, there we need a manual labor,
maintenance we need a manual labor, programming and computer operation yes for
writing algorithms we need yes, engineering project work we need and plant
management we need labors. So, these are all the places where labors are required in real
time even today in manufacturing support system.
what are the strategies to go for automation? You should have strategies so to go for
automation, these strategies are specialization of operation, combine into operations we
always go for automation. Simultaneously we go for automation, integration of operation
,you want to do we go for automation, increasing flexibility we go for automation then
improved material handling and storage, online inspection, process control and
optimization, plant operation control.
So, all these places are the different strategies for automation. These are the 9 strategies
for automation.
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Automation of new products, there are several phases, the first phase is the manual
production, single station, manned cell working independently with this is a first phase of
automation of our new product.
Then automated production single station automated cells operating independently, as

the demand grows and automation can be justified, in phase 3 automating the entire
production where multiple stage machines with serial operations and automatic transfer
of working units between stations are done. So, if at upfront, you cannot think of going
for automation, first what you are supposed to do is you have to do a trial run of the
entire sequence of operation in producing a part or a product. So, you will do it
manually, moment you do manually, you understand what are the difficulties and what
are the cycle times involved for individual events for producing the entire part, moment
you know that you will also see what are all the different directions in which the part has
to be oriented for doing the operation.
All these things you have to understand, moment you understand then we try to know
see, what are all individual events which can be combined in producing the part. So,
moment we start understanding what all can be combined, then what we do is we try to
do the sequence of operation in multiple ways to see, then what do you do is we start
looking for what should be the cycle time, maximum you can give in this particular
station to produce the output, by knowing that then what do we do is we start choosing
1026
the drives. And then we try to automate only a single station, we start producing, first we
do it manual then we do auto, then we try to do single station automation. And ones that
is successful then we start integrating several of these individual stations to meet out the
company’s overall requirement.
So, that is complete integration automation. what is discussed here first we do manual
then we do automatic then we try to do integration several of the automated device.
These are the phases by which a automation can be thought of in developing new
products.
1027
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 31
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (Part 2 of 2)
Welcome to the course Product Design and Manufacturing.
Topic of discussion is technological categories of production system. Here we will have

manufacturing operations and then we will have manufacturing systems, manufacturing
support group, you will be able to distinguish what we are talking about manufacturing
support system.
Here you will have two more system.
 Material handling.
 Automation control technologies.
Here you will have a talking with this dialog between manufacturing operations and the
supporting system. And then you will have dialogue between the manufacturing systems
1028
and the support system then you will have a link from here where in which we have not
touched a new topic called as quality control.
Here manufacturing support group, manufacturing systems and manufacturing

operations, quality control systems and you have handling and identification. So, I can
divide this into 2 levels, this is called as
 The factory level.
 The enterprise level.
So, these are the technological categories of production system.
In manufacturing operation, we will try to see manufacturing industries and products, we

will study about manufacturing operations, production facilities, product and production
relationship , this is a part of manufacturing operations.
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When we talk about industry the industry is divided into
 Primary industries.
 Secondary industry and
 Tertiary industries.
o Primary industries are industries in which there is cultivation or exploitation of

natural resources, is falling under primary industries.
o The secondary industries are manufacturing, power generation and construction

industries are secondary industries in which the output of the primary is
converted into a useful product.
o Tertiary industries are those industries which are predominantly focused on

service sector.
So, you have to identify which industry you fall in and accordingly you have to look
forward for automation, in service industry, you have banking, education, government,
legal service, retail trades and transportation.
1030
When we talk about manufacturing operations there are certain basic activities that must
be carried out in a factory, to convert a raw material into a finished product.
For discrete part products,
1. The processing and assembly operations are part of operations carried out.
2. Material handling.
3. Inspection and testing.
4. Coordination and control.
So, these are very important for discrete part manufacturing and in all of our discussions
we are more focused towards discrete product manufacturing. The manufacturing
operation is nothing, but basic activities that must be carried out, convert in a factory to
convert raw material into a finished product.
1031
When we look at the time spent in a typical metal machining factory, it is pretty
interesting and it is also an eye opener for us. So, if you take this as 100 percent, time on
machine, the job spends this much time on the machine and the rest of the time it is used
for moving and handling a job inside a factory.
what is this? This is around about 95 percent and 5 percent is used for machining. Now,
interestingly this 5 percent is also divided into 30 percent and 70 percent .30 percent of
the time is cutting and the rest of the time is loading, positioning and inspection etc.
This is time on machine. The time spent in a typical metal machining factory, 5 percent
of the time only the objects spends in machining, out of this 5 percent again 30 percent,
means 1.5 percent of the total 100 percent of the time is spent by a part for metal cutting.
Why CNC? Because, automation will reduce this moving and handling, automation can
reduce this loading and unloading. So, this is a tradeoff. Even today people buy CNC
machine, because it gets into a freedom of flexibility in machine, in machining to
produce quality output. This is interesting, because we want a quality product and the
complex geometry, for complex parts we go for CNC machines. At one point of time
where people thought of Geneva mechanism has to be made by CNC machines. Today
people have started making the same using template machining and they do it on a
conventional machine.
1032
there are lot of changes which are happening. Even in the automobile, in the hard
automation new machines are coming up so, that it can be used for making complex jobs.
When we talk about material handling and storage it is
 Material transport. So, vehicles such as forklifts, AGVs and monorails are used,
conveyors and hoists and cranes are used for material transport within the factory,
 Storage and retrieval system is also there. So, here we talk about 3 dimensional
space, so, it is basically an array is made and start dumping parts wherever you
want.
 Automatic Identification and Data Capturing, AIDC it is more of barcode, RFID

and other techniques.
Bar code is very common today when you buy any product you see a barcode, by reading
the barcode it is able to recognize the product name and when you read the barcode, the
system finds out which day it was produced and what time it was produced everything is
there in the barcode.
1033
RFID are used for checking whether it is present absence and slightly for other purposes
also. There are 2 types of RFID; one is passive RFID, another one is active RFID.
Today, passive RFIDs are exhaustively used for checking whether the item is presence or
absence or it is getting moved out of a particular area or not.
The inspection and testing: inspection is something in which the product is getting
validated, examination of the product and its components to determine whether they
conform to the design specifications.
 Inspection of variables and
 Inspection of attributes
are possible, in inspection of variables, you try to measure the dimensions, inspection of
attributes are defective, non-defective etc. Testing is nothing, but observing the product.
During actual operation or under conditions that might occur during operation is called
as testing. Inspection and testing are different, the examination of the product and its
components to determine, whether they conform to the design specification is inspection.
Observing the product during the actual product operation or under condition that might
occur during operation is called testing.
1034
Coordination and control: regulation of the individual processing and the assembly
operations. This is part of coordination.
 Process control and
 Quality control.
The management of plant level activities are production planning and control and quality
control. So, coordination and control is also the another thing.
1035
Processing and assembly, material handling, inspection and testing and coordination and
control, these are the varying manufacturing operations which are conducted in a
factory.
When we talk about production facility; a manufacturing company attempts to organize

its facilities in the most efficient way to serve particular mission of a mic of the plant.
Certain types of plants are recognized as the most appropriate way to organize for a
given type of manufacturing. The most appropriate type depends on type of products
made, production quantity and product variety. The most appropriate type depends on
the facility.
The number of units of a given part or a product produced annually by the plant leads to
the production quantity. These are numbers which are tentative in nature. So, the lower
production can be even 1 to 10, here they say 1 to 100 units, it depends on the product,
when we talk about medium it is 100 to 10,000, higher production is anything about
10,000 to million. These are the categories generally people try to do while talking about
production quantity, by looking at the production quantity, the layout of the factory is
changed, the machine purchase is changed, hard automation-soft automation is look
forward and everything comes into. So, production quantity plays a very important role
even in understanding the plant layout.
1036
The product variety refers to the number of different products or part design or types
produced in a plant. Inverse relationship between production quantity and product
variety is established in the factory automation. The product variety is more complicated
than a number, hard product variety and soft product variety are 2 different classification.
 The product differ greatly are called as hard product variety,
 Small difference between the product is called as soft product variety.
for example, number of pizzas what you buy falls under soft product variety, for garlic
bread if you compare it falls under hard product variety, completely different.
when you compare amongst the pizzas- vegetarian, non-vegetarian, small, big, large, soft
product variety is there. Small difference between the products, many common
components in an assembly is used, few common components in an assembly used for
hard production variety. Depending upon this, they try to dictate the life cycle, or product
life cycle. If there is a hard product variety then it takes lot of time for establishing the
assembly line or the machines, when it is soft with some small variations can be done.
1037
There are 2 types of manufacturing metrics and economic, the 2 aspects are
 Production performance metrics and
 Manufacturing cost.
Production performance metrics: talks about cycle time, how do you calculate the
cycle time? For example, if in a shift there are 480 minutes of working and if it has to
produce 1000 items. So, the cycle time is nothing, but 480 minutes by 1000 and this is
1038
the cycle time. The production rate is Rp, the availability is A, production capacity is P
C; utilization is U, Manufacturing Lead Time is MLT, Work In Progress is WIP.
when we talk about the cycle time for a production operation it is
Tc= cycle time for a production operation.
To= the processing time
Th=handling time
Tth= tool handling time to change the tool
Hence Tc=To+Th+Tth
1039
For a batch production, job shop production, high quantity and flow line, how the
production rate differs.
Tb=Tsu+QTc
Where the average production time per work unit Tp is nothing, but Tb by Q.
Tp= Tb / Q
Tsu =is the setting time;
Q =is the number of quantities.
Tc=cycle time.
So, the average production time per u to per work unit T p is equal to Tb divided by Q;
Production rate Rp is nothing, but 1 by Tp is production rate,
Rp=1/ Tp
when you try to take a job shop production Q is the quantity which is 1.
then Tp becomes Tsu plus Tc , for a higher quantity production Rp is nothing, but Rc=60
by Tp.
1040
Rp=Rc =60/Tp
Since Tsu by Q is tending to 0 for a higher production.
Tsu/Q0
So, where the cycle time is very less, for a flow line production; flow line production
means assembly line, where Tc is equal to Tr plus M times To,
Tc= Tr+ M To
To is the maximum processing time
Tr is the rate in which it travels
Rc is nothing, but 60 divided by Tc
Rc=60/Tc
we are able to get it. So, this how we get the production rate.
So, if we want to find out the availability of the machine, availability of the machine is
nothing, but A, A is the proportion uptime of the equipment; that means, to say available
time for machining is called as the availability. So, A can be defined as MTBF that is
1041
Mean Time Between Failures minus MTTR Mean Time to Repair divided by MTBF. So,
that gives you the availability ok, mean time between failures, mean time to repair.
A=
what is MTTR? MTTR is nothing, but mean time between failures and MTBF is nothing,
but mean time to repair. And here is the breakdown and here is the repair completed and
this is equipment in operation.
we are trying to teach you or explain to you what is the availability, MTTR, breakdown
repair mean time between failures and MTBF is mean time to repair.
1042
Production capacity: production capacity is defined as the maximum rate of output that
a production facility is able to produce under a given set of operating conditions. When
referring to a plant or a factory, the term plant capacity is used, production capacity or
plant capacity is the same. Assumed operating conditions refer to
 Number of shifts per day.
 Number of hours per shift. So, number of shifts per day maximum can be 3,
number of hours per shift can be 8,
 Employment levels is the other variable.
we always try to calculate the plant capacity.
1043
The simplest way of calculating the plant capacity is quantity production in which there
are n production machines in a plant and they all produce the same part or product So,
each machine produces at a rate of Rp. So, PC plant capacity is n products are produced
in Hpc into Rp. What is Hpc? Number of hours in the period during which used to measure
the plant capacity ,hours per period, with this we are trying to calculate the plant
capacity.
PC= n Hpc Rp
1044
How to adjust the plant capacity? They can be adjusted in two ways one is
 Over a short term period,
 Intermediate or a long term period.
By increase or decrease in the number of workers the plant capacity can be adjusted,
increase or decrease the number of shifts it can be done, increase or decrease the number
of hours per shift which is also done.
Over a intermediate or a long term, increase the number of machines n , the capacity can
be increased or decreased, the increased production rate Rp by method improvement or
by processing technology, changing/automating the machine, the p can be increased. So,
these are long term solutions, these are short term solutions, utilization availability is
different, utilization is different, utilization is defined as the proportion of time that a
productivity resource is used relative to the time available under the definition of plant
capacity.
o Utilization is defined as the proportion of time that a productivity resource, a

machine is used relative to the time available under the definition of plant
capacity. For example, if the machine is used 60 percent of your shift time, so
which is 8 hours.
you can calculate 60 percent for 8 hours, it should be approximately 5 hours, 5 point
something hours is the time you operate the machine out of 8 hours, rest of the time
machine is idle, or tool setting.
This is nothing, but the utilization chart. In many of the heavy industries, the utilization
is less than 10 percent, but here what happens because the job is very rare and it is very
complex. So, machine utilization is not bothered about, because the complex part feature,
the quality which is produced and the reliability which is produced matters here.
1045
what is manufacturing lead time? It is defined as the total time required to process a
given part or a product through the plant, including any time for delay, material handling,
queues before the machines, etc.
MLT = no(Tsu+QTc+Tno)
MLT =Manufacturing lead time
no,=number of operations.
Tsu =is the setting time
Q = is number of batches
Tc =is the cycle time per part
Tno =is the non-operation time,
There are a set of operations, the order is released produce that part. So, the part gets into
the first machine and it keeps undergoing all the operation and it gets out by the time it is
getting out that a customer could capture it that is called as the manufacturing lead
1046
What is WIP? WIP is defined as the quantity of part or products currently located in the
factory that either are being processed or are between processing operation is called
WIP = Rpph (MLT)
Rpph = hourly plant production rate, which is pieces per hour and MLT is the
manufacturing lead time. WIP has to be as low as possible, lead time has to be as low as
possible. the plant capacity has to be close to 100 percent. So, these are all the idealistic
case people would like to have.
1047
Automation is a technology by which your process or a procedure is accomplished
without human intervention or assistance that is called as automation. There are 3
elements of an automated system;
 Power.
 Program.
 Control.
control is actuation system, program of instruction is what is to be done, power is to

accomplish the process and operation in automation.
The power for the process is to drive the process itself, to load and unload the work unit,
to transport between operations is the powers job. Power for automation is control unit,
power to actuate and data acquisition and information processing.
1048
When we talk about program of instructions in automation, it is a set of commands that

specify the sequence of steps, in the work cycle and the details of each step is given that
is program instruction. For example, in an NC part program every line is called as a
block. During each step there are one or more activities involved changes in one or more
process parameter. Example temperature setting of furnace is an instruction. So, if it
crosses 60 degrees, switch off. So, axis position in the positioning system is also a
program instruction, motor on off is a program instruction.
1049
Controls, there are two types of control
 Open-loop control
 Closed-loop control.
o Open loop control is where it is very simple and less expensive. Here, the risk
that the actuator will not have the intended effect
o when we have an open loop system, when we say move the actuator is moving
and the work piece is moving. So, it is assumed that whatever move is given your
actuation moves and the work piece moves, but there can be a way torques are
very high. There is lot of resistance for the work piece to rotate or move. So, then
there is a slip happening in the signal then there is a need to have a feedback. So,
those systems are called as closed loop systems.
o Closed loop systems are a system in which the output variable is compared with
an input variable and any difference between the two is used to drive the output
into agreement with the input. So, that is called as closed loop control system
As the input parameter we have controller, actuator, processor. If, there is no feedback it
is called as a open loop system, if there is a feedback, it is called as a closed loop system.
1050
Feedback is given and every time it is compared, the error signal is given and the process
is operated.
The control system can also be used for positioning. So, here is a system in which the
position is controlled .Here is a feedback control system which is used in a CNC
machine, the values are given, the controller gives the value to the motor and the motor
actuates, there is a coupling.
from the coupling you can see a leadscrew rotating. This leadscrew will rotate and there
is a nut which moves the table in the left direction. if there is lot of load here while
machining then there is a slip which is happening, then what was intended to move by
the work piece, by the table is not moved because there is a slip happening; so, that will
be recorded by using an optical encoder, this encoder gives the signal and the error is
checked here and then correspondingly it is controlled and the motor is moved.
This is a position system with feedback control, a one axis position control system
consisting of a leadscrew by a DC servomotor and using an optical encoder as a
feedback. If, you have an open loop system the motor becomes a stepper motor.
1051
When to use an open loop system,
 when the action performed by the control is simple
 when the actuation function is very reliable
 when area of the reaction force opposing the actuation are very small.
If the conditions do not apply then a closed loop system will be used
1052
What are the advanced functions in automation? One is safety monitoring is there and
maintenance and repair diagnostics, and the error detection and recovery are some of the
advanced automation functions which are given today.
Safety monitoring: we use sensors to track systems operation and identify conditions
that are unsafe or potentially unsafe, this is safety monitoring, reason for safety
monitoring is to protect a worker or equipment, if there is a dangerous thing or if the
machine is running and if you open the door the machine will stop. Otherwise, there is a
possibility the hand can be put in and there might be any accident. The possible response
to hazard is complete stoppage of the system, sound an alarm, reduce operating system
of the process take corrective actions to recover from the safety violations.
these are the responsible for hazardous environment, safety monitoring is there in the
banks we used to have a burglar alarm. So, that is also safety monitoring that is part of
automation.
1053
When we talk about maintenance and repair,
 The status monitoring,
 Failure diagnostics and
 Recommendation for repair procedure,
these are falling under advanced automation functions. Status monitoring monitors and
records status of a key sensor and parameter during the system operation. For example, if
the filter in the automobile is choked then, it monitors what is the amount of fresh air it
can come and then it quickly says that there is a lot of reduction. So, immediately the
status monitoring signal is raised and you try to do some necessary actions.
Failure diagnostics invoke when the malfunction occurs for example, I was recently
traveling in an auto one day, there was a sensor which was fixed to the auto tyres, when
there is a pressure difference or when there is a misbalance in the vehicle, immediately
the alarm is raised and the auto is shut down, the fuel to the engine is shut down and the
auto stops, that is failure diagnostics. The moment there is a jerk or vibration or a
pressure difference leak then immediately, invoke when a malfunction occurs purpose is
analyzed recorded value. So, the cause of malfunction can be identified immediately.
1054
Recommendation of repair procedure: provides recommendation. So, once you
diagnosed and then you give a recommendation. For example, if that sensor particularly
fails, then immediately it says please check the following items
As soon as the higher end car enters inside a garage or service centre, the service
engineer come and connect his laptop in EMU of the engine. And then he tries to collect
all the data and when he collects all the data the status is monitored, it is reported that
these are the sensors which are malfunctioning. These are the failures which has
happened and it also says please do this to replace and this is how the procedure is for
replaced. So, that is recommendation for repair procedure.
The error detection and recovery: error detection function uses these systems , sensor
to determine whether deviation or a malfunction has occurred. Correctly interpret the
sensor signals and classify the error that is error detection and function. Error recovery
and possible strategies make adjustment at the end of the work cycle that is error
recovery and possible strategies. Make adjustment during the current working cycle
itself, stop the process to invoke corrective actions and stop the process and can call for
help, these are some of the error recovery possible strategies. In Error detection and the
error recovery there are two important things which are followed today.
1055
The levels of automation: there are five levels of automation, automation can happen at
device level, it can happen at machine level, it can happen at cell level, it can happen at
plant level and it can happen at enterprise level, these are the 5 levels. Enterprise level is
the highest level where corporate information is used, plant level, the factory and
production systems are used. what is a cell? A cell is a closed area in which we have
dissimilar machines, which can cater to the need of producing outputs in a range.
These machines are dissimilar machines, In factory you will have several cells. So, if
one machine fails and one cell fails, then only that cell is effected, but rest is not
effected. Within their cell, they try to have a manufacturing system automation.
Here you will have a man or your Robot. This robot will try to man the machines
properly. For example, CNC machines and device is an actuator sensor and the other
hardware components inside a machine you have drives, you have actuators.
So, those are the lowest level of automation, machine is the next, the cell is the third
several of this put together forms a plant and several of this plant put together forms an
enterprise. So, these are the various levels of automation. There is lot of data to be
handled here, there is less data to be handled, less data in the sense dynamic data, time
based data.
1056
The flow of data happens here, corporate information system is enterprise, production
system is plant, manufacturing system group of machines is cell, individual machines is
machine level, devices, sensor, actuators and other hardwares
These are the 5 levels of automation, lower one is device level, higher one is enterprise
level. The amount of data handle is very high here as compared to this because they have
time based data.
1057
The CAD and CAM working together: a modern CAD/CAM program is necessary for
using either manufacturing CAM or engineering software program CAE. As both system
require a model in order to perform either analysis or manufacturing, we try to integrate
these two, CAE is nothing, but Computer Aided Engineering, requires the geometric
model to determine the integrated nodal network to use for the analysis.
CAM requires a part geometry; a CAM software cannot exist without a CAD software.
So, a CAD/CAM requires a part geometry to determine a machine tool route and cut,
both require cad, but CAD can be used as a standalone system for engineering virtual
modeling. CAD is the backbone for CAM or CAE, CAE and CAM can be interchanged
and is required for the functional to function properly.
Each software are powerful tools for engineers and machinist that make daily job
function easier and more effective, using them correctly would provide them optimum
benefits for the individuals and better utilization for the company, computer aided
engineering.
The computer aided engineering, the following parameters are typically used in a
mechanical engineering for CAE simulation- pressure, time, component interactions and
applied force. So, pressure, time and temperature are 3 major parameters which involves
1058
in manufacturing. we try to have interaction between the parts that is what is talked about
in interaction.
if you look at the interaction of various computer aided technologies, this is the overall
ellipse you have and you can see here PLM, Product Life Cycle Management. This is
CAD whatever is there, inside CAD you have conceptual design, product layout, you
have detailed component modeling, assembly modeling, you have analysis, engineering,
drawing and tool. So, when you talk about tool it comes under CAM when you talk
about analysis, it goes to CAE.
So, coordinate measuring machine, computer aided quality, manufacturing resource

planning, computer aided process planning, computer aided manufacturing and
inspection. if you see here conceiving, designing, developing and manufacturing. So,
your CAD is a overlap which comes in all the area and you try to get conceived, design,
development and manufacture.
1059
when you look at CAD-CAM integration, strategic planning, production planning, then
calculations of material and then you will have production systems, this is how a product
is done, market strategy planning is here, which needs for simulation and which needs to
look at results of simulation, calculate the material requirement and load.
When we talk about production planning, it is more of performance, cost capacity,

planning technical data and require for estimates. So, here you will have designed
methods and CAD-CAM.
So, a CAD-CAM integration integrates marketing strategy, customer order, proposals,

design, quality performance and finally, you produce the output. So, the entire thing goes
around a single database. The single database makes a big change in the CAD-CAM
integration, if you have data of different-different machines and if these machines could
not talk to each other then the data becomes a problem and the integration becomes a
bigger problem.
1060
computer aided design: computer aided design and drafting is use of computer
technology for design and design documentation. The biggest advantage of design is for
design optimization on top of it documentation. CAD software replaces manual drafting
with an automated process.
Computer-aided design is the use of computer systems to aid in the creation,

modification, analysis, optimization of design. CAD software is used to increase the
productivity of the designer, improve the quality of the design, improve communication
through documentation and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD may be used to
design curves and figures into 2 dimensional space and 3 dimensional space.
1061
when we talk about computer aided design, conceiving the need or the idea research and
concept development, then in the design you do drafting, modeling of model design in
which we use part libraries and we do analysis. Part libraries are already existing library
functions in the CAD system in which you automatically pull out and add it to your
drawing and start using it.
And all these part functions, part library functions, these parts will have a standard
CAM; that means, to say a standard processing sequence. So, this is CAD then analysis,
you will also have assembly and then drafting. In the model of design you will have
engineering drawing, tool design, planning and presentation all these things are attached
to that model design.
Tool design, planning and engineering drawing is given to manufacturing, presentation is

given to marketing. So, this is how your computer aided design process works, these are
the main subdivisions conceiving, designing, validating and manufacturing.
1062
In computer aided design there are 2-D drawing, then basic 3-D drawing, then you have
sculptured surfaces, then you have solid models and engineering analysis. 2-D
wireframe, sculpture that is surface modeling, solid modeling and engineering analysis;
We use surface modeling if we want to see along the surface, what is the drag.
you can use surface modeling if you are least bothered about the volume, when you want
to do analysis cycle or torsional analysis or load analysis, volume is very important so,
we use solid modeling.
1063
this is a 2-D model in CAD software as shown in figure, you can just draw and
thereviews are not given, by looking at it you do not know what is the thickness you do
not know whether it is a sheet or a block you start using it, this is nothing, but a 2-D
drawing. In order to have an interpretation of the 2-D drawing, we try to give multiple
views by looking at different views the author or the customer can find out what is this
part.
This is a 3-D model, CAD software product. You can see these are the parts or the sub-
assemblies whatever it is, but here you do not get to see the dimensions, you do not get
to see the assembly inside the part. So, these are 3 D model in CAD software’s which
tries to give us the overall impression, but you do not get much of dimensional and
assembly informations.
1064
Some applications of CAD are,
 it is used in automobile,
 it is used in shipbuilding industry,
 it is used in aerospace industry,
 it is used in architectural industry,
 it is used for prosthetics development,
 it is used for animation of special effect movies, advertisement and technical

manuals and digital content creation,
1065
CAM is a software and computer control machinery to automate a manufacturing

process. Based on the definition you need 3 components for CAD software, machinery
and post processing. Software tries to tell the machine how to work on the product,
machinery processes the raw material into finished product; post processing converts the
tool part into a language machine understanding.
CAD to CAM process without CAM there is no CAD, the CAD focuses on design of a
product CAM focuses on how it is to be made. You can design the most elegant part in
1066
your CAD tool, but if you cannot effectively make it with a CAM system then you are
better off kicking rocks.
Which means to say you are not getting anything without CAM, there is no CAD,
CAD focuses on design, CAM focuses on how to make it. The start of every engineering
process begins with the world of CAD. So, engineer starts with 2-D or 3-D to make the
output, the world of CAD any design is called a model and the contains a set of physical
properties that will be used by CAM.
The part was created now, the geometry details were given. Now the tool part simulation
is what we are talking about the post processing; post processing that converts the tool
part into a language machine can be understood.
There is a cutter which is trying to create creative parts.
1067
In computer aided manufacturing, when a design is complete in CAD, it can be loaded

into cam, it is traditionally done by exporting a CAD file into your CAM software and
importing it into a CAM software. And then using an integrated software both CAD and
CAM exists in the same world. Once your CAD model is imported into a CAM the
software starts preparing the model for machining and the machining is controlled which
converts into the raw material to finished product.
1068
The CAM software prepares a model for machining by working through a several actions
including checking if the model has any geometrical error, creating a tool part of the
model, setting any required machine parameters and configuring listing, when the CAM
system will decide the best orientation for a part to maximize the efficiency.
Checking the model, creating the tool path, setting of parameters, configuring nesting,
what is nesting? If you have a flat and you want to make several holes and pierce and
remove material. The geometry you should keep such that you will get the best out of it
is called as nesting.
computer aided manufacturing CAM, once the model is prepared for machining all the
information set into the machine to physically produce the part is done by CAM. So,
after the CAM has given it a clearance then we focus on producing the physical part,
because the part is done, the tool part geometry is done and then we try to take this CAM
and then start producing it. However, we cannot just give a machine a bunch of
instructions in English; we need to speak the machine language. To do this we convert
all the machine information into G-codes as far as CNC machine is concerned. This is
the set of instruction that controls the machine action including speed, feed rate and
coolant etc.
1069
 we saw what are the world class order winning criterias?
 What is CIM?
 What are the basic types of automated manufacturing systems?
 What are the automation principles and strategies?
 How the industries are classified?
 How do you understand by operating cycle production rate availability?
 How do you adjust plant capacity?
 What are the different levels of automation?
 What do you understand by CAD and CAM?.
1070
STUDENT’S ACTIVITY
Take a part where it has 5 features in it. Draw CAD model, convert CAD model into
CAM model, and generate the machine codes for the part. Second , you are supposed to
try to use wireframe model and develop a 3-D part, try to interpret the part So, these 2
are the assignments.
Neutral files are the files which converts the CAD drawing into a CAM understanding
thing. And in CAM you talk about process parameters, process parameters for machining
along with tool path
1071
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Lecture – 32
Reverse Engineering
Welcome to the lecture of Reverse Engineering.
The topic itself is very interesting, you are trying to do engineering in a reverse fashion.
what does it mean? in engineering terms we start from a point and go to a line then go to
an edge and then to a surface to develop a product. In reverse engineering, you have a
product and you go back to the final destination of getting a point. In today’s world,
there is lot of discussion going on whether it is legal whether it is good or bad, but
reverse engineering is has become an essential thing to be followed.
If you want to understand the state of the art of a product, for a process, for a design then
you have to do reverse engineering and when you do reverse engineering it should be
used for professional growth. Once you do reverse engineering of the product, you will
find what are all the flaws in the product? you would look for improvisation from the
standard part whatever was available to you. For example, in QFD, Quality Function
1072
Deployment, what we do is we try to see the state of the art by looking at several state of
the arts and then we try to fix our specification and move towards our specification.
Reverse engineering is part and parcel of product development, if you do not do reverse
engineering you will not understand where are you placed amongst your competitors.
The content in this lecture is going to be reverse engineering, its definition, importance,
applications, processes and 3D scanning, hardware and its introduction and reverse
engineering hardware which is of contact, not contact and destructive type.
1073
What is definition for reverse engineering? the reverse engineering is a process of

obtaining a geometric CAD model from 3D points, acquired by scanning/digitizing
existing parts/product. For example You look at a product and try to take a photo of the
product or you try to replace that image/photo which was taken through the light now
through a laser.
You try to get points of data also called as a point cloud of data and from that you try to
reconstruct a CAD model and this CAD model can be used for analysis and further
development, the process of obtaining a geometric CAD model from 3D points acquired
by scanning/digitizing of an existing part.
1074
Why is it important? Because we cannot start from a very beginning to develop a new
product every time that means, to say we cannot re-invent the wheel, whatever is already
existing pull it up and start developing on top of that towards your customization of your
problem for a customer. So, every time we can’t start from new either we use what is
available within our reach or a technology or we try to see what other products are
available, understand the technology and try to take that into our product and develop it.
We need to optimize the resource available in our hands and reduce the production time.
This is very important aspect, reverse engineering plays an important role in reducing the
product life cycle time. So, keeping in view of the customers requirement in such cases
reverse engineering is an efficient approach to significantly reduce the product
development cycle, it is not ethical to just copy and paste the products, What you do is
you try to get the data and try to improvise the data towards your customer’s requirement
by applying customization. Like in design of impeller people try to take a reverse
engineering of it
What it does is, you use a laser to hit, then tries it to reflect data. This laser have a
recorder, the laser hits it reflects the record and you start getting the data in the x-y-z
plane.
1075
Is reverse engineering legal? It is also often lawful to reverse engineer a product or

process as long as it is obtained legitimately. If the product is patented it does not
necessarily need to be reverse engineered as patents require a public disclosure of
invention. It should be mentioned that just because a piece of product is patented that
does not mean the entire thing is patented, there maybe parts that remained undisclosed.
The fundamental use of reverse engineering is to get the feel of the product in terms of
dimensional accuracy and performance, this helps in improvisation and then to determine
the flaw in the product. You have a product which is excellent, but try to improvise it
and try to determine what is missing in it and customize it towards your product.
1076
The justification of RE: the fundamental use of RE is to get the feel of the product in
terms of dimensional accuracy this will help in improvising and to determine the flaws in
the product.
In other words reverse engineering process is itself is not concerned with creating a copy
or changing the artifact in some way, it is only an analysis in order to deduce design
features from the products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedure
involved in their original production. Even when the product reverse engineered is that
of the competitor the goal may not be to copy them, but to perform competitor analysis.
1077
What are are all the processes which are involved in reverse engineering? So, reverse
engineering processes; first what you have is you have an object, this objects can be
small, it can be large for example, it can be an artifact, car, rocket, temple, a statue. It can
be as big as a car, rocket, temple, mosques, statues whatever it is.
The object can be small, the object can be large. We take that object then we try to scan
the object, during scanning we try to take the data points.
Then we try to section the object into several planes and in each section we would try to
look for x-y-z data in that plane. So, once I get that x-y-z data in one plane then I can
start using it for reconstructing. So, scanning is something which is the next major step
the scanning can be done by two ways it can be done by contact methods, it can be done
by non-contact methods, contact methods means I can touch and try to record the data in
the x, y, z plane. Second thing is I need not touch, I use a laser reflection of the object
from there I try to take data points. hence scanning can be done contact it can be done
non-contact.
Then we try to take all the data of x, y, z point in 3D and from this you can also try to get
a plane data, it will try to collect all the data. So, it is called as point cloud data, it
collects all the point cloud data and then it tries to bridge whatever data we get here, it
need not and it will not be perfect. So, you have to use several algorithms to remove the
imperfections in the point cloud data, that is basically signal to noise ratio, you apply
1078
some filters remove, those noises and then you try to work on particular patches and
when you try to work on this particular patch. You can remove it and then you can try to
reconstruct a CAD model.
From a CAD model, moment a CAD model is created you can try to go for CNC
machine, you can go for inspection, you can also go for rapid prototyping. So, the CAD
gives you lead in manufacturing. If you look at it, it is a physical model, a transformation
of a physical model then you try to digitize the physical model, then you develop a CAD,
update a model of CAD then you develop a model and then this is brought back to the
physical model.
It is a cycle which goes around,
Digitizing of an object: that means, to say data capturing is a very important step and
this scanning of data and digitizing, scanning and then bridging of the data is very
important and lot of mathematics is involved and interestingly if you see today you have
many mobile phones which has two cameras.
The logic for these two cameras is to get the depth information more clearly as in a
plane. The difference in time is used here for trying to get more realistic data, the
scanning technique and the scanning accuracy dictates the next process of point cloud
data and from the point cloud data, you try to develop a CAD data, this portion of
converting point cloud into CAD data even today a most sought after area, there are few
experts only who can work on this area of converting this point cloud data into a CAD
data because it needs lot of expertise. The second thing is processing of measured data,
then creation of CAD model then at last is prototyping.
Why do you want to do prototyping? You want to reduce product life cycle time.
1079
In the figure there is a wooden pattern which is made and we do the scanning, it can be
contact or non-contact and when you get a point cloud of data then you see that there is
lot of error in the point cloud of data, and then these errors are removed and what you get
is a 3D data. You can directly send it to a CNC machine or you can directly send it to a
RP machine so that you try to get the same product manufactured. Depending upon the
time and the accuracy you spend here, the output will be very close to the input whatever
it is.
1080
There are two types of scanning, one is called as contact type the other one is called as
non-contact type, in contact type we always use a Coordinate Measuring Machine. This
coordinate measuring machine is very slow in nature and if you have a very soft material
something like a latex, rubber, tissue. All these things when you touch, they are
elastically deformed hence the data you get from them may not be correct, do not go
varyingly and the error will be submicron errors are it is not in millimeters.
In coordinate measuring machine, we touch its probe on the workpiece and we get
coordinate points x, y and z points. So, that’s why it is called a coordinate measuring
machine, in non-contact type we can use laser or optics and CCD sensor to capture the
data. This is a typical atomic force microscope working principle image.
There is a probe, at the back side of the probe you put a reflecting material. So, the laser
hits at the back side of the probe. The moment probe moves up and down, this laser also
goes up and down and this is directed by a photodiode, this photodiode tries to move in
left and right direction and it will try to give the voltage.
Feedback electronics is used to improve the voltage into linear displacement So, again
here what you can get is a point data. From a point you convert it to a line and several of
these lines convert together to make a surface, to say with this technique you can get 1D,
2D and 3D. This is a surface data, shiny surfaces and surface parallel to the light axis
cannot be scanned accurately ,this is the limitation of this process however, this can be
overcome by several techniques
1081
In a 3D scanning process, for an ideal 3D scanning process the scanning procedure has
been divided into acquisition of data, alignment of data, mesh generation, post
processing and simplification. These are the five steps which are involved in 3D
scanning process. Suppose if it is not aligned in one particular plane, it is misaligned. So,
alignment can be a problem.
Acquisition: acquisition is the first fundamental step in which the acquired image is
created in the software as a set of points. These points define a 3D representation of the
1082
part of the body that has been framed and hit by the light pattern generated by the
projection. For this reason it is advised to proceed with the acquisition of your wide part
of the object first, postponing the acquisition of deatails and missing parts in a following
moment. Once a rough 3D construction has been obtained, the scanning can be
improvised by adding more views that corresponds to some missing part.
For example, we can make a 3D image of an object by looking at it from different

viewing angles or directions.
Alignment: alignment is a work phase where it is possible to bring to the same reference
system, the range images (acquired previously), for example if I have an object placed in
a plane and suppose if the object is slightly deviated then there would be an error.
Whatever data you acquire and then you try to project it on the plane, the plane will have
some error, it is always better to remove this error in the plane in the first position and
then start acquiring data or you try to calibrate your camera first, understand the error in
the camera and then start working on the image. Alignment is the work phase where it is
possible to bring to the same reference system, the range image acquired previously, the
alignment can be done manual, the alignment can be done global. So, the process is
manually helped by the identification of three corresponding points between the two
acquisition taken into account.
1083
There is manual alignment and global alignment, manual alignment that work with the
identification of three corresponding points another alignment tool called as global
alignment is also available, it is advised to run this command after having manual
alignment of all the range images, this way the alignment of each acquisition is
optimized with respect to each other.
Once you made the point data, the point data is assembled and you try to do a mesh
generation, once a sufficient number of range images have been acquired and aligned, in
order to create a 3D model as a complete as possible the next step is to triangulate the
mesh.
The mesh generation converts a set of 3D points, a range image to a data constituted by a
set of triangles. Earlier you had data points, now these data points are connected into
mesh, into triangles, the mesh is the first useful data that can be elaborated and the
exported in the available format. The point cloud data is converted into a mesh data, then
this mesh data is exported for other use.
1084
Then comes the post processing: post processing is every population that involves the
enhancement and finishing of the mesh.
So, the mesh whatever you do are nothing but facets, these facets are always having
sharp edges, sharp edges. So, in order to remove the sharp edges and make it smooth; so
we always try to enhance and finish the mesh, it is possible to prepare a complete and a
flawless 3D model ready for export, these operations should be chosen depending on the
results to be acquired and that can affect more or less a 3D model. Make manifolds: this
involves solving the possible topological issues that can be attributed to the presence of a
triangle edge shared by more than two facets is called manifolds.
Deduction and prepare: so, what happens is deduction means you might have a triangle,
you might have another triangle like this or you might have a triangle like this which
pierces into the other triangle. So, now, these things are called as defects and repair. So,
you detect the defects and then you repair the intersection, solving some possible
topological issues attribute to the triangles that intersect other triangles of a mesh
surface. Fill holes: detection and all these things, if you start working on CAD, if you
read through course you will see that there is something called as Euler’s formula. So, in
Euler’s formula what it does is it checks for overhanging, it checks for number of holes
and then it tries to validate an object.
1085
Post processing is trying to validate the object, the meshes can be hanging here and there,
but if it has to be completed and form a solid then you have to do all these things,
detection and fixing of missing parts on the mesh surface, filling holes. It automatically
fills the missing data with a surface correspondence to the triangle that propagates the
nearby shape and the texture information.
The last thing is simplification: under this process, are gathered all steps made on the
mesh that tends to simplify the data.
 Reduction of the noise and Mesh decimation.
Reduction of a number of mesh triangles because each mesh is going to operate, it is

going to eat away a lot of space. So, maintaining so much of meshes means it is going to
have a huge set of data in the server. Storing and editing becomes a problem, in order to
generalize and reduce the number of data points, this operation can be done forcing a
tolerance that guarantee that the decimated 3D model does not differ more than the value
for a original model, it is done in order to have a more manageable file.
When we talk about CAD, we talk about three things, one is simplicity that how easier it
is to store and how easy to edit. The simplification is more towards that simple to store,
simple to handle, easy to store, and easy to edit, simple to handle means, it does not
occupy a huge space.
1086
Reverse engineering hardware and software: when we talk about reverse engineering
hardware and software, RE hardware is used for the RE data acquisition. There are three
major technologies for RE data acquisition one is
 Contact.
 Non-contact.
 Destructive.
Generally we do not prefer destructive because it is very costly affair. We may damage
or we can lose the part, output of the RE data acquired are 2D cross sectional image and
point cloud that defines the geometry of a object.
RE software transforms the RE data produced by RE hardware into a 3D geometry, the

RE data processed chain can be one of the two types of 3D data, it can be a polygon data
or it can be curves. If you have points and if you want to connect the points through a
line and if you can define a line point, if you know to define a point, if you know to
define a line, if you know to define a curve, then rest all is a piece meal of whatever you
have. Polygon models are commonly used in rapid prototyping, laser milling, 3D
graphing, simulation and animation.
1087
When we talk about hardware, there are four different types of hardwares. one is called
as the laser tracer in this system where and which it can swing around this plane and this
can swing around this and the height can be adjusted. The next one is a total station.
it is basically used by civil engineers to check the to check the distance, next is digital
photogrammetry. It is taking a digital image and then converting a digital image to get
data and the last one is a portable CMM.
In this portable CMM, it is interesting to know that all the data references are given with
respect to this plane and if this plane is not aligned then all the data you get in x, y, z
plane is that data with a small error. That’s’s why the alignment is very important,
portable CMM is another thing, where in which you can take the CMM go to any place,
put it in any surface make that surface as a flat and then you try to calibrate your CMM
data points and then you start measuring. The encoders over there try to take all the error,
calibrate it and then start taking measurements.
1088
contact type used sensing devices with mechanical arm, CMM and CNC machine to
digitize a surface.
Even a CNC machine can be used to digitize a surface very easily. For example a steel or
a metal then you have a workpiece as metal. You try to make a connection between these
two, and when it comes closer it touches, the resistance goes to infinity and from there
you can start noting down the x, y, z data points, this fellow can move step by step and it
can move in x, y, z plane hence a CNC machine can be used as a coordinate measuring
machine. The point to point sensing with touch trigger probe installed on a CMM or an
articulated mechanical arm.
The CMM provides the more accurate data, measured data compared to articulated arm,
because CMM has a frame where in which the frame is standard, articulated arm is also
there. So, the reference plane is a challenge, but due to lack of number of degrees it
cannot be used for digitizing complex surfaces. Analogous sensing with scanning probe
installed on CMM or CNC machine.
Scanning probes: the scanning probe provides a continuous deflection output that can
be combined with a machine position to derive the location of the surface. Scanning
probe means a probe without touching keeps scribing on the surface, the scanning
tunneling microscope, scanning probe are called as SPMs. In this comes your scanning
tunneling microscope, atomic force microscope, when you talk about in nanoscale and
1089
microscale, if you want to measure the features, contact measurements is not possible
that means if the diameter is too large, lasers are not possible, light is not possible. So,
there we use contact with scanning probe microscopes.
Point processing: importing the point cloud data, reducing the noise of the data, you
have to reduce the noise and increase the signal. You have amplifiers, you have
electronic filters. Reduce the number of points, these tasks are performed using a range
of predefined filters, multiple scans are sometimes needed to ensure all the acquired
points are scanned. So, you scribe it two three times to make sure all the data points are
got .A wide range of commercial softwares are available today, the output is clean
merged point cloud data set is the most convenient format.
1090
This is a point to point(P2P) sensing system, this is CNC-CMM system, the probe
touches and is not electrified. It is only a physical touch you try to measure and it is a
trigger probe the other one is also the same, it (P2P) has a frame in which the arm is
used, here(in CNC/CMM) arm is not used, a gantry is used. So, the geometry is different
the structure is different, but the data whatever you get is a point data.
There are different types of probes, a star probe, long lengthy probe, a slender probe.
1091
These are all probes which are attached to the CMM and you get the data. here is Roland
which is a machine where in which it is used to scan and then mill . for example, you can
put a surface which you want to scan, it scans the surface and then it executes the milling
operation in a single machine. So, scanning and milling machine used Roland active
piezo sensor for 3D scanning. Scanning can happen here and then the data is taken to it
and then data is executed, this is nothing but an mdf, which is a which is a wood based
material.
The accuracy of contact measurement, is highly accurate, it is low cost, ability to

measure deep slots -you wanted to do high aspect ratio holes then contact measurement
is the only way, insensitivity to colour or transparency is removed from here.
1092
The next one is non-contact type method, here we use a 2D cross section image or a
point cloud are captured, projecting an energy source like light, sound or magnetic field.
But predominantly what we working on is using light, but there are acoustic based
sensors which are available for measuring the surface. Some magnetic field on the
object, then either the transmitted or the reflected image is absorbed and the geometric
data is calculated by triangulation method, height is known, distance is known.
this is triangulation method next is time of flight where you have an object the X-ray is
thrown from here the X-ray is collected here. So, this is throw and catch.
wave interference interferometer, here we try to create an interference pattern and we try
that pattern to strike the surface and the reflection is taken and countered and several
other image processing algorithms are used. The classification of non-contact RE
hardware are based on the sensor technology or data acquisition technology.
1093
Non-contact methods: can be on reflective or it can be on transmitive. CT and MRI are

also non-contact techniques in which we try to get the data, in reflective type again you
can have non optical or optical.
 In non-optical, you can have microwave, microwave radar which is used in

defense application, you can also use sonar which is used in the ships.
 In the optical way you can have two classifications, one is called as active, the
other one is called as passive
In passive you can have shape from shading, then you can have shape from stereo, you
can have shape from focus, you can have shape from motion. When we talk about active
we can talk about triangulation ,we talk about structured light, we talk about Moire effect
we can have time of flight and we can have laser, coherent laser.
These are the classifications of hardware devices used in RE, this tries to talk about the
complete gamut of things which are available.
1094
What is the advantage of non-contact type?, no physical contact, fast digitization of

sustainable volume, good accuracy and resolution for common applications, ability to
detect colour can be done, ability to scan highly detailed objects where mechanical touch
is not possible, all these places we go for non-contact type coordinate measuring
machine or non-contact techniques.
1095
The technique which is used in optical, most common is triangulation, most laser
scanners use first straightforward geometric triangulation to determine the surface
coordinates of an object.
Triangulation is a method that employs location and angle between the light source and
the photosensitive device that is nothing, but a CCD to calculate coordinates. There are
two variants of triangulation schemes using CCM that is charge coupled device cameras,
single and double CCD cameras in single camera system a device transmits a light spot
on to the object at a defined angle. A CCD camera detects the position of the reflected
point on the surface.
In a double camera system, two CCD cameras are used, latest mobile phones use the
light projector is not involved in any measurement function and may consist of a moving
light source or line, moving strip patterns or static patterns.
This is triangulation, you can see laser coming out of this, trying to hit the object and
then it tries to reflect back and here is a charge coupled device which is nothing, but a
CCD camera. So, this is the range with which the object moves and this is the reference
distance and these are the target surfaces, this is a laser, this is an object or this is a
device inside which a laser diode is there and a CCD is there.
1096
So, from figure a the high energy light source is focused on and projected at a pre
specified angle onto the surface, the photo device senses the reflection from the
illumination point of surface, the fixed base length is L. Finally, if you look at it you get
through the formula of this where is at the geometric triangulation from the known angle
the focal length of the camera is F. the image coordination of the illuminated point is P,
the fixed length is L, the illustration point Pi with respect to the camera coordinates
coordinate system is given:
1097
The next one is structured light, the structured light pattern is projected at a known angle
on the surface of interest and an image of the resulting pattern reflected by the structure
is captured. The image is then analyzed to calculate the coordinates of the data points on
surface, the light pattern can be a single point, a sheet of light or a strip of light in a
complex manner the most commonly used pattern is a sheet of light that is generated by
fanning out of a light beam. So, then we try to get the x y z data.
1098
the data is acquired very fast, colour texture information is available, structured light
does not use a laser. So, the maintenance is slightly economical.
These are the different types of structured light, a single light strip then multiple light
dots, multiple parallel light strips, geometric light grids. These are projected and then the
details are collected.
You can see a DLP structure, light pattern is generated, the light goes from here and then
DLP is generated, then the object distorts the light pattern, the object distorts the light
1099
pattern and then the camera on, the sensor detects the light and then the image processing
and the triangulation algorithm determines the 3D structure of the object. This is how a
structured light works for non-contact scanning.
Moiré fringe patterns or interferometer used for dimensional inspection and flats and
deformation patterns, we use Moire fringe patterns, We use Michelson’s interferometer,
which is used to measure the angular displacements that’s what they are structured like
pattern, are projected on a surface to produce a shadow Moire effect.
The light contour produced by Moire effect are captured in a image and analyze to
determine the distance between the lines, the distance is proportional to the height of the
surface at the point of interest. The Moire fringe technique accurately results for a 3D
reconstruction and in gives you good results.
1100
This is a typical Moire fringe pattern. A Moire fringe pattern form a two sets of line
which is angled at 5 degrees, this is a concentric circle pattern which is made. You keeps
growing and when you try to take the image of it from the image you can try to correlate
and try to find out the 3D object.
We will next see the destructive methods, destructive method is useful for small and
complex objects, with which both internal and external features can be scanned.
1101
we are trying to take an object, section the object and start doing CNC milling which
exposes 2D cross section images which are then gathered by a CCD camera, then the
scanning software automatically converts the digital bitmap image to the edge detection
image and forms a part the model is remodeled and you get from slice by slice
information.
Here are the examples of 3D data application, environmental data, GIS, air quality, water
quality is taken for 3D data, building data, manufacturing data and medical data all these
things use 3D data application.
 Raw data components, there are raw data, texture, 2D image, spatial n
dimensional image in terms of time and sensor data. So, you also have derived
data, modeled data, technical data and you have bookmark data.
1102
Here is some of the data which is already available, traditional texture information, non
static information, 2D data, 3D data and multiple dimensional data, all these mixed data
are available and they are used as part of reverse engineering.
To recap what we saw in this particular lecturer is,
 What is reverse engineering? Importance, process?
 What are the different types of scanners?
1103
 What do you mean by point processing?
 What is geometrical model generation?
 What is the role of hardware and software?
 What do you mean by contact measurement?
 What do you mean by noncontact measurement or scanning?
STUDENT’S ACTIVITY
The task for the students is going to be, watch YouTube for development of 3D scanners.
here what they do is they use a laptop camera for reverse engineering. What do they do?
They take a camera and then they try to keep an object, then they try to keep the object in
a frame and in that frame, they try to have reference points, these are reference points.
This is the object, they try to calibrate with respect to the reference points and then they
try to go to the objects, scan the image of the object and try to get the data.
Watch that video and try to develop same technique, use tennis ball as the object and try
to do reverse engineering and get the data.
1104
Product Design & Manufacturing
Prof. J. Ramkumar
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering
Lecture - 30
Managing Competitiveness
Welcome to lecture number 30. So, in this lecture we will be focusing towards Managing
Competitiveness. So, today what has happened is when you try to develop a product you
should be very careful we should look at who are all going to be our competitors around?
Who is going to be your customer? And what is the next step competitor will take? So, if
he takes this step how am I going to tackle?
So, all these things have to be considered and then what we do is we try to develop a
product. So, here in this lecture we will see some of the concepts of managing
competitiveness.
So, here the Content of this lecture is going to be Benchmarking. So, benchmarking is
pretty interesting. So, it is like how do I evaluate myself? So, I have to evaluate by
myself with respect to a standard. See I might say I am a great teacher. I am a wonderful
product or I have developed a wonderful product. But when I compare it to the standard
1105
then I know there am I? Am I a head of the standard or less than the standard? If and if I
am less than the standard, so I have to improve. So, what is that? That is called as bench
marking.
So, the next one is Outsourcing. Today the world is moving towards the concept of
outsourcing. So, what people say rather than manufacturing inside your factory let us try
to outsource the manufacturing outside and let us start doing assembly. In fact, the
certain companies have gone one step ahead and then they say from, from the raw
material to final finished product to packaging everything is done outsourcing.
They put a quality manager, there who assess the quality of the product coming out and
then the company just puts it is stamp and sends it out. So, outsourcing is one thing
which is coming up in a big manner because outsourcing we will try to reduce the cost
on the company.
Then Mass customization is a very interesting concept which we are talking today. So, a
mass customization will try to help in selling products. Today when you try to buy a car
or when you try to buy a pen or when you try to buy a shirt we always look for
customizing that shirt for yourself. So, you might be fat, you might be thin. So, many a
times what happens when even buy a shoe your huge size will be 6 and a half.
So, you will have a 6 size shoe or you will have a 7 size shoe. Your foot is in between
these two guys. So, either you buy a large shoe or you buy a smaller shoe. When you buy
a smaller shoe it is going to hamper your body profile. When you buy a loose shoe it is
going to slip, it cannot allow you to run.
So, if you see many of the things are not customized, but still we are happy with it. So,
but now people have become little more aware and people talk about customization.
1106
When we talk about benchmarking, benchmarking is the way to go backstage and watch
another company’s performance from the wings, where all stage tricks and hurried
realignments are visible. So, what is our performance level? How do we do it? What are
the other performance level? Others performance level? How do they get their done
things done? So, first you try to understand where are you? Then you try to understand
where the others are? What are they doing? Then what you do is, we try to creatively
adapt. And then what you do is we look forward for breakthrough performance.
So, I in a class I always try to rank myself with respect to the topper. So, then I know
what is my capability in the class. When I try to talk about a product like a computer, the
best computer is x. I will see I have developed computer. If that fellow can solve so
much of problems in the fraction of a second, how much can I do?
So, that is how you try to rate yourself and then you try to go back to your design desk,
sit down and start correcting the design or the performance whatever it is and comeback
compete it with them, put some creativity. Then what you come out is a breakthrough
performance. So, benchmarking is the way to go backstage and watch another
company’s performance from their wings. Where, all stage tricks and hurried
realignments are visible.
1107
There are different types of benchmarking. One is called as Internal Benchmarking; the
other one is called as External Benchmarking. So, internal is you try to do within
yourself, within your factory you try to do is internal benchmarking. External
benchmarking is you try to compare yourself with respect to the other company or
competitors.
In fact, if you go back and remember your quality function deployment we had a
exclusive matrix, where in which we say what are the technical requirements? What are
the competitors giving solution to the requirements? So, these are external requirements.
Further distilled as Process Benchmarking, Performance Benchmarking and Strategic
Benchmarking; These are the three different types of benchmarking which every
company does to make their product successful.
1108
What is process benchmarking? Process benchmarking demonstrates of how top

performing companies accomplish the specific process. If somebody can do a job within
2 minutes and if I take 10 minutes, it is always good for me to go and understand how
did that person do the job within 2 minutes? Or if so once maybe I have wasted certain
things or I did not have lot of data to accomplish the process. So, then one ago I come
back standardize a procedure, then ask the input which has come to the process in a
standardized fashion. And I also might improve my efficiency in getting the same job
done in 2 minutes.
So, that is what this demonstration of how top performing companies understand them
stage by stage. Do a micro event analysis. So, understand every stage. If somebody does
move his left hand from 10 centimetre top 2 centimetre, he moves at an angle of 8
degrees. So, please note down that. And then when you come back and sit down you will
see yes that makes a sense or if a fixture is to be established, please establish a fixture so
that you can improve your efficiency.
Such benchmarking is gathering by a research, survey, interview and site visits. By

identifying how others perform the same functional task or objective people gain insight
and idea they may not otherwise achieved. For example, if you want to start a hotel
business, you just have to go to another hotel in the nearby village or in the nearby town,
understand its business model, understand his kitchen, understand the skill level of the
1109
cooks, chefs; whatever are there. And then you come back and start doing it in your in
your hotel. You will see a success. So, that is what this process benchmarking. Such
information, affirms and supports decision making by executives.
The next one is performance metrics or performance benchmarking. So, the performance
matrix gives number standard against which a client own processes are compared. So,
these matrices are usually determined via a detailed and a careful analysis survey or the
interview. So, you try to put a value to you and then you say how much percentage are
you up or down. Clients can then identify performance gaps, prioritize action items and
then conduct follow-on studies to determine the methods of improvement.
So, I know my competitor is here. I am here my competitor is A. I am this is myself. I try

to understand what all he does in respect to process and then I also try to understand with
respect to performance. And then what do I do is I step back, try to implement in my
system and then start doing it. Recently what we did was, we were any paper which was
moving inside my institute used to take 6 to 8 working days for me to get back the
document whatever I submit for, for signing in the administration.
So, the institute saw every paper is taking 6 days and 8 days. They had a statistical data.
Then what they did was they, they reorganized the complete structure. They made a
process map and then they also saw the flow of the paper to several desks. Then they
understood how much time that explained in each desk. And today what has happened as
1110
we have come to the level of complete automation. So, we start and then we get the
signed the paper from the administration in the evening itself. So, within 8 hours now we
are able to get our document back signed or a response on the letter.
So, what has happened is we went to other institutes, we went to several corporate
worlds, understood how do they do; Then had several rounds of brainstorming session.
We have to figure out is a digital signature good enough? Is a physical signature
required? What verification happens? What data he needs? And then finally, we came
out with this improvised system. So, what we did was we did benchmarking.
So, performance metrics is also something like that. So, performance metrics gives
numerical standards against which the clients own process can be compared.
So, for example, if that is 100 we try to get 60. So now, we try to improve. The next one
is strategic benchmarking; Identification of the fundamental lessons and winning
strategies that have enabled a high performance companies to be successful in their
marketplace. So, understanding strategies; many a times what happens when you conduct
the meeting also, the meeting will have got several agendas like maybe 10 agendas, 20
agendas.
So, people watch generally they do there are two types of strategies; one strategy is
people take up the toughest agenda and start discussing. And then they say if we spend
1111
more time rest of the decisions can be taken very fast. So, that is one strategy to do. The
other strategy is put all the easy things in the first go and lastly take up a long strategy or
a tough decision to be taken, agenda and then we let us deliberate.
So, both strategies are there. So, many companies follow the first strategy and some
companies follow the second strategy; So, you as a as a competitor has to look at which
strategy to be used for your company or your product development and then choose it.
The strategic benchmarking examines how company compete and is ideal for
corporations with a long-term perspective. So, strategy is one such thing. And strategy is
many people when they start introducing a product into the market, they try to give the
first full year in a very low price, maybe in the throw away price. Once they capture the
market then, they slowly start increasing the cost of the commodity. So, that is one
strategy.
The other strategy is if people said that you produce in bulk, flood the market with your
product. And then when you do that, so you reduce since you have produced in bulk you
go at a very economical price and hit at the market. Then you also get popularized. So,
that is a strategy. So, strategic benchmarking examines how company compete and it is
idle for cooperation with the long-term perspectives.
1112
So, what are the Essence for benchmarking. The essence of benchmarking is continuous
improvement. No product is developed ideal. So, what happens is every product you
develop there has to be a scope for improvement and there is a scope for improvement
ok. So, continuous improvement process is the bottom line.
Changes one thing which is very common which happens and continuous improvement
in product has to be done so that you can sustain in the market. So, the essence of
benchmarking is a continuous process for comparing a company. So, a strategy, a
product, a process has to be compared at regular intervals and try to reset the button fine
tune your process and look forward for the better product; With those the world leaders
and the best in the class organizations. Main purpose is to learn how the achieved
excellence and the set out to match and even surpass them.
So, you should not say he is doing fine. So, I should do like him. No. You have to now
start working on trying to beat him and go ahead of him. See if he is here and you are
here, you try to move to this portion and stand here. Then you are you are only just in the
same way where your competitor is.
So, what you are supposed to do? When you do benchmarking you do with your
competitor and then you are level should be higher than what your competitor is. So, that
is what we are saying. Main purpose is to learn how they achieved excellence and then
setting out to match. Then even surpass it and go to a higher standard. So that is why the
benchmarking is done. The justification lies partly in the question: Why reinvent the
wheel if I can learn from someone who has already done it.
So, many a times when we do experiments we always tell it, why do you reinvent the
wheel. If my, if somebody comes and says the surface is hot, so why do you go touch it
and feel and rehydrate and say yes it is hot. So, if it is hot what strategic measures he has
taken, please you also do it. Or do something much better than them. So, that you protect
yourself from the heat.
However, benchmarking is not a panacea that can replace all other quality efforts or
management processes. So, benchmarking is one of the process in product development.
So, it cannot replace all the quality efforts or the management processes which you are
doing.
1113
So, when you look at the processes of benchmarking: so organization that benchmark
adapts the process to best fit their own needs and culture. Number of steps in the process
may vary from organization to organization. The following are the 6 steps which
contains the core technique. First what to benchmark, understand the current
performance, plan, study others, learn from data, use findings.
So, first what is to be benchmark you have to know for example, if you are making a
wonderful shirt. In the shirt if button is the only person who fails frequently because of
that your product is not sold properly.
Then you start looking at companies which produces the button best or companies which
produces shirt where the buttons do not fail at all. So, you must see what is to be
benchmarked. Then you try to understand your current performance. So, 1 in every 10
buttons break or my button shatters when we put in washing machine.
So, you understand your current performance. Then you plan what is to be done. Then
look at the others who are around you and study how what are they done. Maybe the
bottom is ok; the stitching is not talking your case. Others do a proper stitching maybe.
So, please look into at them, learn from the data. So, you have learnt others. You make
an observation sheet, write down all the sheets and then what have you done is, you have
generated data.
1114
Now, from the data you converted into an information and then a knowledge and then
you write out what is your findings. And once you know your findings start
implementing in your product such that you can succeed. So, these are the 6 steps
containing core techniques for benchmarking.
There are three levels in benchmarking: one is internal benchmarking, competitive

benchmarking and benchmarking outside the industries. So, within an industry I told you
internal benchmarking is within an industry within an organization within a classroom
right; so, internal benchmarking.
So, you consider the next person who uses whatever it is your customer ok. Next is
competitive or strategic business look at industries and competitors and when you bench
mark outside the industry you can also do benchmarking with others.
1115
So, what are the benefits? So, there will be a cultural change in your organization. There
will be performance enhancement in your organization. So, there will be human resource
development in your organization. So, these are the three big benefits of benchmarking.
So, benchmarking allows organization to set realistic, rigorous, new performance target
and this process helps in convinced people of the credibility of these targets. So, here
benchmarking allows the organization to set realistic data, realistic target, rigorous and
new performance targets. So, the company culture has to be change. [FL] culture has
been changed. In the today India is going towards professionalism.
So, this happened because of lot of technology got intertwined in our day to day life. So,
today digital technology has become part and parcel of our life. Let it be economics, let it
be the booking tickets, let be let it be transferring of data, transferring of information,
everything has become digital. There is a cultural change which has happened.
Performance improvement: benchmarking allows the organization to define a specific

gap in performance and to select the process to improvement. So, these gaps provide
objectives and action plans for improvement at all levels of organization and promote
improved performance for individuals and group participation. So, the performance
improvement is that provides the objective and the action plan for improvement, at all
levels of your organization it does not happen again the top level or the bottom level at
1116
all levels. And you promote improved performance for individuals as well as group
participants.
So, what happens is generally suppose you are making a product, Products A ok. So, you
take 20 minutes in producing this product. So, naturally in an hour you produce 3 and
then in 8 hours approximately you will produce 24. So, putting all these critic allowance,
then lunch break allowance and other things you might be set a target of please produce
20 parts in a shift. Suppose in case you produce 28 parts.
Now what has happened? You are supposed to produce 20. Because of your skill,
because of your capabilities you are producing 28 parts instead of 20. So, you have
produced 8 parts more. So, now there has to be an incentive given to you saying that you
have produced eights; so, that is what we are talking about here. So, instead of 20 you
produce 28. So, you have produced 8 more. So, you we have to say that your
performance is high so you will get an incentive of more salary. In the same way if there
is a product B has to be produced by three people, four people product B.
So, then what happens? So, again let us assume it takes 20 minutes and now, you have to
produce 20 parts in a shift. So, you have produced 28 from the group. So, now you see
here that 8 parts are produced more and now you see because of this group participation
you have produced 8 more. So, you have shown an enhancement in your performance.
You would have rewrite and change the tool, put a fixture, then or material handling you
have enhanced something like that so you have ensured.
Now, you have to be given that the incentive. So, that is what we are trying to say for
improvement at all levels of the organisation, I will perform and promote improved
performance for individuals as well as groups participants is the big benefit of
benchmarking.
1117
The next one is human resource. So, human resource is the existing people will be send
for training. The employer begins to see a gap between what they are doing and what
best in that class is doing. For example, earlier many of the bank accounting was done
manually. Today everything has become digital.
So, now when they go for a training program they look at those see the advantages
whatever it is because of this digital. So, then they have been taught, they have now
improved. So, when you do this benchmarking only you can do that. Closing the gap
point out the need of the personnel to be trained to learn techniques of problem solving
and process improvement happens because of human resource in benchmarking.
1118
The next discussion is going to be an Outsourcing. In business outsourcing is an

agreement in which one company contracts out a part of their existing internal activities
to the other company. For example, you can have a part time ca, you can have a part time
machinist, you can have a part time teacher, you can have a part time librarian. So, I
cannot manage it.
So, what I have done is I have given my job to another person or to a or a group of
person. I can also have outsource my mess, I can outsource my canteen. So, here
basically I cannot run the business. So, I have given it to somebody who can run it on my
behalf ok? So, it is internal activity to it. It involves the contract out of a business
process; example payroll processing, claim processing, operational and non-core
functions like manufacturing, facility management, call centre support to other parties.
So, outsourcing is another thing because it works out to be economical.
1119
Different outsourcing categories: most freelancer or outsourcing provider will fall into
one of the following categories, in regard to the service that they are provided to the
clients. So, some will even offer several bound customer service, Outbound
Telemarketing, Web Design and Development, SEO and Online Marketing, Back Office
or Administrative Support, Virtual Assistant Service, Accounting and HR Management,
Marketing and Sales Support.
So, these are some of the things which happens in an industry and we are now trying to
look at first outsourcing. Why is this all talked about in product development courses?
Because I told you there are seven steps in seven steps in product development.
So, the first three steps are more focused towards Designing. So, customer voice and
then you try to work on engineering solutions that conceptual thing. You choose the best
one and then you try to work on engineering solutions. Afterwards the next four is more
towards manufacturing. So, manufacturing we talk about process, layout then it will be
sales and marketing and the last step is going to be how do I recycle? So, if you look at it
the outsourcing comes in these two. Why because finally, when I sum up all these things
this becomes as cost to product or cost to customer.
So, all these strategies of outsourcing also plays a very important role today. What is
happening is companies have a strategy that they just called the two hours before the
1120
product is to be delivered, the caller is sub assembly fellow, he delivers it to the spot.
They do an assembly of the entire product and then they give it to the customer.
So, different outsourcing categories: one is simply put outsourcing will give away some
of your business tasks that can easily be managed by an independent entity making life
easier for a business owner; Most of the time as well as being able to pass on these tasks
to someone more experienced than yourself. So, that is also outsourcing.
For example, I used to outsource my kitchen to my wife, so she does wonderful cooking.
So, she is more experienced than me that is why it is and she does it in a much faster
time, quicker time and in a tastier manner. So, you will also save money, against hiring
someone locally to do the same job.
1121
So, when you look at outsourcing you see a workflow. Your outsourcing option will be
in house. Then you will go to infrastructure outsourcing; reduce the number of internal
technology infrastructure. Then full outsourcing; reduce efforts and resources.
You from in house you can go for full outsourcing, from in house you can go for
infrastructural outsourcing. Then you can also do operational outsourcing; expand office
without hiring additional staff. So, you can also do this. So, you have several outsourcing
options which are there today and this is how our workflow happens in the outsourcing
model.
1122
The three outsourcing MYTH: outsourcing technology is expensive it is a myth. Going

to third party will mean lower quality it is again a myth. If my data is off site, I will lose
control over it is also a myth. So, these are three myths which you should kill. Because
you should you can make it more legally and you can legally accountable for this
outsourcing companies.
Today, there are wonderful legal teams on legal documents which tries to put everything
black and white. So, it is not expensive, it is not low quality and it is also not loose
control over the data. So, these three are mix.
1123
The last point of discussion is going to be mass customization. Mass customization is I

would like to customize my product to my expectation. For example, I buy a pen for 10
rupees in the market. So, the pen whatever I buy, maybe my neighbour also comes and
buys the same pen at 10 rupees from the market.
So, we both are sitting besides each other in a classroom. So, I keep my pen on my desk
and he also keeps. Now we do not know whose pen is who what? So, then the immediate
thing what we get out of it as we tried to engrave on our names on the pen. So, what have
you done? You have customize the pen to your requirement ok.
So, mass customization is a process of delivering wide market goods and services that
are modified to satisfy a specific customer need. Mass customization is a marketing and
a manufacturing technique that combines the flexibility and personalization of a custom-
made product with the low unit cost associated with the mass production. So, mass
production means low cost. Now you do mass customization for low cost ok. I try to buy
a cloth and stitch my shirt customized shirt for yourself ok.
Mass customization products may also be referred to as made to order or built to order.
For example, when you try to go to an architect and tell your idea that, I want my house
to be like this that is mass customization. So, here it can be made to order or built to
order, so build. So, you try to tell the architect that this is how my building. So, it is built
1124
order. Made to order is you go to a carpenter and say please make that the furniture to
according to my taste ok.
So, there are several approaches to mass customization, there are four basic approaches
to mass customization depending on customization of the product itself or it is
representation. So, you have no change, change it is a product ok. You have no change,
change, representation, transparent customization, collaborative customization, cosmetic
customization and adaptive customization.
So, when there is no change in the product and if you want to do customization that is
called as Adaptive customization; so, transparent customization, collaborative
customization and cosmetic customization cosmetic your superficial customization.
1125
So, what is collaborative customization the collaborative customization customizer talks

to the client to help them recognize what they need, to recognize factors that will fulfil
those needs and to create customized product following those guidelines. Where is
collaborative? Collaborative is here extreme end.
So, collaborative customizer talks to the client to help them recognize what they need.
Many a times we do not know what to ask so, that is what is what they need to recognize
factors that will fulfil those needs and create customized product following those
guidelines is collaborative customization.
What is adaptive customization? Where is adapt to customization? Adaptive

customization is here so where there is no change, product. Businesses that follow the
approach of adaptive customization offer one standard product to the customer along
with a few customization options.
So, what it does is it gives you a standard. For example, I go to the market and buy a
mixer, kitchen mixer. So, he gives you a machine which is standard and then he gives
you three or four different types of jars where in which it can customize to your need.
Each jar is like 1.5 litres, 1 litre, 0.3 litres and maybe a juicer. So, he gives four jars.
So, these are the options to customize to your requirement. This approach makes sure
that the product is designed in a manner that it can be customized by the end client with
1126
absolute ease. Ok this is adaptive customization we have seen collaborative is they come
and tell you what you want and how do you fulfil your wants by the requirements and
then they will try to give you try to suggest the company that this is our product has to be
done guidelines. Adaptive is only to have a one standard and gives them give attachment
so that they can be happy.
So, you can see mass customization. Mass customization before and today it is one way
customers. So, it is mass customization, is mass production. So, today what has
happened? After mass customization you have customers and it is an interactive dialogue
between the customer and the factory.
So, the earlier it was mass, mass, production so, company produces, they will just dump
it to the customer, the customer will buy. Today what has happened after mass
customization the company starts interacting with the customer and then they try to do.
So, this is what is a difference between; mass customization and mass production.
1127
Next going to cosmetic: Cosmetic Customization advertise, a standard product

differently to different groups of clients. This approach works well when clients use the
same product but want them to be presented differently. For example, you are trying to
sell a scooter. So, you try to look at age group of 15 to 25, then 25 to 35, 35 to 45 and
then you try to put for male separately, female separately.
Then what you do is, you try to make the advertisements in such a manner such that it
caters to exactly to their needs. So, that is what is talk about advertise, a standard product
differently to different groups of people. When the same model is shown to a college
going kid, so they said you can it has a sleet colour for a female and for a male what they
say they say it has a power ok.
So, and then when they show at an age group of 50 males, so they say it is safer. Women
they say you can wear a sari and drive the scooter. So, a same product has been
advertised different differently such that it tries to tell us talk about customization. This
approach works very well when the clients use the same product, but want them to be
presented differently. So, transparent: where is this coming customization. So, this
customization comes here where there is representation change, but the product does not
change.
And the last one is going to be a transparent customization. Transparent customization

deals with providing customized product to individual clients without telling them that
1128
the product are exclusively produced for them. So, this approach is there is a change in
the product, the representation is not changed. So, here what does it mean is you are
trying to produce a product for a customer, but without telling the customer that we have
produced it and then just give it to him to enjoy the product and then you see that
customization.
So, transparent customization deals with providing customized product to individual

clients without telling them that the products are exclusively produced for you. Moment
you start using the product you feel so happy that it is done for you. This approach works
in the case where the customer does not want to repeat what he; she is needs incessantly
or when the client needs are predictable or obvious.
So, only here it can be used. Mass customization is the talk of the town. When you make
a product today please keep in mind you do must customize the product to your
requirement. So that means, to say your product should have standards and that should
be small add ones such that, it tries to meet the requirement of the customer and you can
do mass customization.
So, advantage and disadvantages: so, the mass customization. The customer participation
is more, the customer are more pleased, strongly relation between the company and the
customer, elimination of scrap quantities are happening in a big way. Disadvantage: It
requires a very high flexibility in the production technology it is easy to say, but you are
1129
machine whatever you are doing has to have very much flexibility. The difficulty in
achieving the efficiency, the requirements of strong direct to customer logic system, then
it is high warehouse cost. All these things are there because if you do not get a customer
you have to put it in a warehouse and wait for the customer to come.
So, with this I come to an end to this lecture and to this course. Thank you very much for
joining this course. I am sure by going through this course material you will now try to
have a holistic view about product, development and manufacturing. So, you will see
how to develop a product, how to manufacture a product such that you keep your
customer happy.
Thank you.
1130

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INDEX

S. No Topic Page No.

19 Material Selection (part 2 of 2) 335

20 Manufacturing Process Selection (part 1 of 2) 353

28 Quality Control 576

29 Quality Assurance 605

31 Patent (Part 2 of 2) 638

32 Creativity techniques (Part 1 of 2) 653

40 Laboratory demonstration: 3D printing (Part 2 of 3) 828

Slide Time: 00:30)

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So, a new method of technical knowledge developed rapidly by a scientific discovery.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:56)

Slide Time: 17:44)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:12)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:15)

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Next important terminology is logistics today there is a concept or a challenge which is

(Refer Slide Time: 38:06)

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Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:14)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:54)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:27)

2 is manufacturing capacity 3, is manufacturing production, 4 is interchangeability, 5 is

(Refer Slide Time: 06:08)

So, it is to invest capital in a manufacturing facility is capital circulation. So, it is

(Refer Slide Time: 08:33)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:52)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:29)

So, manufacturing capability of a manufacturing unit is the limitation of the physical

(Refer Slide Time: 14:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 30:03)

So, technology curve is an evolutionary process and it follows a S curve. The S

So, improvement in technology is this rapid growth. So, this is improvement in

(Refer Slide Time: 33:13)

(Refer Slide Time: 35:19)

Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:24)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:05)

(Refer Slide Time: 05:42)

DFM concept is much more than just manufacturing, it is an effect to collaboration of

(Refer Slide Time: 09:23)

(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)

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Thank you very much.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:23)

(Refer Slide Time: 11:08)