Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

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Seismic attribute analysis of deep-water Dangerous Grounds in the South

China Sea, NW Sabah Platform region, Malaysia
Atanu Banerjee *, Ahmed Mohamed Ahmed Salim
Centre for Seismic Imaging and Hydrocarbon Prediction, Department of Geosciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Sabah Basin is a prolific hydrocarbon province in Southeast Asia and has a significant economic impact on
Deep-water Dangerous Grounds this part. Recent discoveries in the deep-water hydrocarbon prospects in the Northwest Sabah Trough prompted
Seismic attributes a comprehensive investigation of the surrounding area, e.g., Dangerous Grounds for hydrocarbon prospectivity.
Carbonate
Previous studies in the Dangerous Grounds mainly focused on the sparse 2D seismic and gravity-magnetic data
Channel
Turbidites
analysis. A systematic review of detailed depositional history has not been presented so far in the published
Sabah basin literature. To achieve this, recently acquired high-resolution 3D seismic data and well information have been
used for seismic attribute analysis to establish the structural features and depositional pattern from the Paleocene
to recent age. Two major sedimentary sequences have been evaluated from the seismic data, which include syn-
rift and post-rift sequence. The pre-rift sequence considered to be the acoustic basement is overlain by syn-rift
sequence, deposited during the Paleocene to Early Oligocene age. Spectral decomposition analysis demarcates
paleo-lows/depocenters, consist of siliciclastic sedimentary fills in grabens and half grabens with the syn-
sedimentary deformation. Geobody interpretation helps to understand the different phases of syn-sedimentary
faulting with the presence of antithetic faults in the grabens. Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene carbonate
platform and reefs has been observed on top of the pre-existing structural highs. Sweetness attributes enable to
appraise the reef structure to demarcate lithofacies boundaries. Variance and amplitude extraction maps reveal
the development of reefs on top of the carbonate platform. Amplitude extraction map reflects the Late Oligocene
to Middle Miocene channel-levee complex with the convex upward unconsolidated sand filling pattern. Sweet­
ness map helps to delineate the meandering channel boundary, channel geomorphology with ox-bow lake, point
bar, and west to east channel shifting. Carbonate and clastic dominated areas have been differentiated in the
southwest part. Slides and debris flow Mass Transport Deposits, Late Miocene turbidites have been observed
above the Middle Miocene Unconformity and evaluated based on their distinct seismic characteristics. During the
Pliocene to recent, the basin has witnessed the deposition of thick pelagic-hemipelagic sediments in the outer-
neritic to the bathyal environment in the passive margin condition.

1. Introduction better understanding of the subsurface geology, high resolution 3-D

seismic data has enhanced the subsurface imaging capability to reduce
Global exploration activities are increasing progressively into deep- the exploration risks in deep-water.
water for giant discoveries as the hydrocarbon resources in onshore Attribute analysis is a vital facet of reflection seismology for petro­
and shallow water areas are in the maturation phase. In recent years, leum exploration and finds wide application, from anomaly identifica­
large hydrocarbon discoveries have been reported from Offshore tion to feature extraction and lithology prediction. Attributes retain the
Guyana-Stabroek Block and offshore Cyprus in the Eastern Mediterra­ form of the data from which they derive so that for every point in a
nean by ExxonMobil, deep-water South Africa - Brulpadda wildcat by seismic volume or for every point on a seismic horizon, there is a cor­
Total, Davos discovery by Shell in the deep-water Gulf of Mexico. Since responding point in the derived attribute volume or map.
past decades, improvement of seismic technologies played a significant In earlier days, in this region, seismic attributes application struggled
role to recognise the deep-water settings for future exploration. For a for many years, primarily because of the lack of high-quality seismic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: atanu.ism@gmail.com (A. Banerjee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2020.103534
Received 3 June 2020; Received in revised form 16 July 2020; Accepted 6 August 2020
Available online 21 August 2020
1875-5100/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Banerjee and A.M. Ahmed Salim Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

data. Most of the data at that time were 2D and coarse crossline 3D. Also, useless attributes to produce a much smaller set of useful attributes.
the processing algorithm failed to bring out the best. Hence, the inter­ Specific attributes can then be prescribed for specific objectives. An
preter relied mostly on structural interpretation. Zero crossings and earlier seismic interpretation was performed primarily for structural
amplitude picking were often used for tracking seismic reflectors. These definition rather than reservoir or fluid prediction which is probably due
were the first application in mapping also in the mid-2000. The success to poor seismic quality, lack of algorithms and suitable application ex­
of seismic attribute analysis depends on the quality of seismic data. It is amples (Ghosh et al., 2010a). Late Turi Taner had done pioneering work
imperative that the signal/noise ratio should be excellent, and the data on trace, after his work on seismic attributes, is recognised as one of the
alias free. Later, it has been observed that the attribute analysis is most critical and widespread application in Exploration and Production
especially effective in Malaysia because seismic reflection data from industry (Ghosh et al., 2010b, 2014). The landmark of the significant
Malaysian basins are of high quality, with broad bandwidth and minimal development is fault mapping with the help of Coherence Cube
noise. Also, typical exploration targets in Malaysia, such as faulted an­ (Bahorich and Farmer, 1995), channels and thin bed analysis (Partyka
ticlines or complex channel systems, benefits significantly from attribute et al., 1999), structure and stratigraphic application (Marfurt and Cho­
analysis (Ghosh et al., 2010b). pra, 2002).
Seismic attribute analysis begins by choosing suitable attributes for The study area lies in the deep-water Dangerous Grounds (Fig. 1A) in
the objective at hand. This is facilitated by discarding duplicate and the NW Sabah Platform region, Malaysia. Hydrocarbon exploration

Fig. 1. (A) Topographic map of the SCS (South China Sea) showing the major structural elements, basins (modified after Li et al., 2014) and the solid white line
demarcate the approximate transition zone of Continent-Ocean Boundary (COB) based on seafloor spreading anomalies of Briais et al. (1993). The study area is
defined by the yellow box. NW – Northwest, CB-Calamian Block. (B) Stratigraphic column of the Dangerous Grounds, NW Sabah Platform region. Geologic time scale
is from Ogg et al. (2016), Sea level curve from Haq et al. (1988). (C) Key stratigraphic levels shown on seismic lines are H1-Top of Acoustic basement, H2-Rift
sequence top, H3-Middle Miocene Unconformity (MMU), H4-Top of Middle Miocene, H5-Late Miocene (base of marine deposit), H6- Pliocene to Recent (base of
pelagic and hemipelagic sediments), the seabed.

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activities from major companies in the deep-water basins (Sabah Basin, rifting with high angle normal faults, followed by half grabens
Sarawak Basin) indicate prospective plays in the sandstone reservoirs controlled by listric faults, detachments and finally rotated fault blocks
associated with the syn-rift sequences, turbidites, and the Oligocene- in the hyper-extended continental crust.
Miocene reefal carbonates, similar activities not yet done in the
Dangerous Grounds region. A recent discovery of oil and gas in well 3. Materials and methods
Tepat-1 (2018) by Total in the Oligocene- Miocene Carbonate build-ups
in deep-water Sabah Basin, south of the present study area, has proved 3.1. Dataset
the hydrocarbon exploration potential of this region. Therefore, a
detailed geological study based on 3-D seismic data with enhanced For the present study, high-resolution 3D seismic data has been used;
subsurface imaging capability is required to understand the structural- it was acquired in 2015. The 3D seismic data is of Kirchhoff Anisotropic
stratigraphic features and depositional pattern in this region, which Pre-Stack Time Migration (APSTM) volume with bin spacing of 12.5 ×
will reduce the exploration risks in the study area. 12.5 m, and covers an area of 7570 sq.km. The data provided by PET­
All the previous works (Milsom et al., 1997; Vijayan et al., 2013; RONAS, the National Oil Company of Malaysia. It’s a proprietary data,
Ding et al., 2013; Franke et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2017) on the tecto­ can be used for research purpose only.
nostratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy and depositional environments Check-shot, well completion report, and biostratigraphy report have
mentioned earlier were mostly based on 2D seismic and been used for this study. Due to the confidential and sensitive nature of
gravity-magnetic data as the 3D seismic data was unavailable at the the data, a full set of well information of both the drilled wells are not
time. Previously published literature in the Dangerous Grounds pri­ available for the present study. Besides that, information gathered from
marily investigated the carbonate present in this area. In this manu­ published literature has been judiciously used to extract maximum in­
script, a systematic analysis of seismic attribute has been carried out formation for seismic attribute analysis to understand the depositional
from a high-resolution 3D seismic data along with the drilled well in­ settings of the basin-fill sediments in the Dangerous Grounds region.
formation to understand the structural-stratigraphic features and the
depositional settings of the basin-fill sediments in the Dangerous 3.2. Methods
Grounds area.
Seismic attribute analysis, including amplitude extraction, variance
2. Geological setting extraction, sweetness extraction, have been performed to understand the
depositional systems in the basin. Subsurface studies revealed that the
The regional geology of Southeast Asia is significantly a complex depositional bodies have greater horizontal dimensions with compari­
zone where multiphase tectonic activities have contributed to the son to vertical dimensions. To implement the horizontal view in seismic
complex evolutionary history of the basins of the SCS (South China Sea). interpretation, picking up geologic-time surfaces from the 3D seismic
The Dangerous Grounds lies between the oceanic crust of the SCS in the volume, so that seismic attribute maps can be analysed across these fixed
north and NW Sabah Trough in the south, as shown in Fig. 1A. The geologic time slices to predict the depositional systems (Zeng, 2006).
tectonic history of the Dangerous Grounds is strongly related to the Time slice and horizon slice surfaces represent the seismic events that
events leading to the opening of SCS (Taylor and Hayes, 1980; Hinz and are associated with different geological ages with the different deposi­
Schlüter, 1985; Kudrass et al., 1986; Hall, 1996; Madon, 1999b). Pre­ tional set-up.
vious studies have been carried out based on available geological and Stratal slice techniques (Zeng et al., 2001; Zeng, 2006) also known as
geophysical data like gravity-magnetic (Milsom et al., 1997; Vijayan proportional slicing (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Davies et al., 2007) is
et al., 2013), 2D seismic data of different vintages (Madon et al., 1999a, a methodology that divides a time-varying interval thickness into uni­
2015; Ding et al., 2013; Franke et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2017), drilled form geologic time increments that equivalent to a seismic reference
wells, dredged sample analysis (Hinz and Schlüter, 1985; Kudrass et al., event. Stratal slicing provides stratigraphic resolution, which is difficult
1986; Hutchison and Vijayan, 2010). Earlier workers (Kingston et al., to achieve through vertical section alone.
1983; Levell, 1987) interpreted the Sabah Basin as a fore-arc basin. Spectral decomposition provides a new, non-traditional approach to
The NW Sabah platform includes the Dangerous Grounds, the Reed seismic interpretation and attributes analysis where it transforms
Bank and the Northern Palawan. It is part of a larger continental block seismic data into the frequency domain via Discrete Fourier Transform
which rifted off southern China during the Early Oligocene to collide (DFT) (Ahmad and Rowell, 2012). The significant part of spectral
with Borneo block during the Early Miocene (Holloway, 1981). This decomposition is that it evaluates a given signal by the summation of
marked the closing of the proto-SCS/Rajang Sea (a remnant ocean basin) single, well-defined basis functions (McArdle, 2013; Santana et al.,
towards the south, subducting beneath Borneo. The orientation of the 2018). The spectral content in seismic data is influenced by the acoustic
collision has been N–S but was reorganised to the NW-SE until the Late properties in the earth, which provides significant information from
Miocene (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Briais et al., 1993; Pubellier et al., seismic analysis at different frequencies (Partyka et al., 1999). The ca­
2003) which was probably related to the oblique orientation closure or pacity to relate and inspect different frequency bands response is critical
trench pull during the subduction of the Rajang Sea (Madon, 1999b; to acquire information that otherwise is difficult to visualise on the full
Pubellier et al., 2003). broadband data. (Chopra and Marfurt, 2007).
The Dangerous Grounds area was formed as a result of the closing of This process applies a filter bank to seismic data to derive the spectral
the Rajang Sea and the opening of the SCS during the Early Eocene. Xia responses at selected frequencies. Applied to seismic data, a filter bank
and Zhou, 1993 proposed the Nasha Block-a micro continental block of produces a set of filtered responses, each of which constitutes a separate
transitional crust in the Dangerous Grounds-Reed Bank area collided frequency attribute. Methods of spectral decomposition differ chiefly in
with “Paleo-Borneo” in N–S direction before the initial opening of the the filter banks that they employ. Common filter banks are based on the
SCS. The collision caused the Paleogene, and older units are folded and Fourier transform, wavelet transform or matching pursuit decomposi­
uplifted in Sabah. Madon et al. (2013) suggested that the collisional tion. Spectral decomposition using colour blending volumes and maps
event was linked with Sabah orogeny, marked the end of seafloor are better visualised to interpret the geological features. There are three
spreading of SCS. Biostratigraphic analysis of dredged samples (Kudrass blending models like RGB, CMY(Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) and HSV (Hue,
et al., 1986) confirmed that the oldest rocks present in the Dangerous Saturation, Value) models where RGB model is mostly the preferred one
Grounds area are Late Triassic to the Jurassic age. A recent study by (Cao et al., 2015; Lisapaly and Primasty, 2018). It’s a standard process to
Peng et al. (2019) proposed that the rift-drift transition in the Dangerous combine several frequency responses in an RGB scheme-Red, Green and
Grounds results in the creation of grabens during the initial phases of Blue colours for every frequency band.

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Geobody interpretation has been carried out along with the RGB During Late Oligocene to Miocene, pinnacle reef growth has been
blending (Chaves et al., 2011). Here, geobody interpretation has been observed on top of rift sequence, H2 seismic horizon. Their seismic ap­
applied using box probe as rendering techniques with generalised pearances replicate convergent reflection pattern, moderate amplitude
spectral decomposed volumes of different frequencies to understand the and high-frequency value as reflected in the seismic section in Fig. 2. The
structural features of the study area. This rendering technique is a dy­ different stages of reef growth have been delineated as 1,2 (Fig. 2), and it
namic tool for geological/geophysical interpretation. reveals that the stages of reef growth were in between H2–H3 and
From the 3D seismic data, four major depositional features like H3–H4 seismic horizons.
carbonates, channels, MTD (Mass Transport Deposits) and turbidites Seismic attribute analysis on these reefs will help to enhance their
have been observed. In this research work, detailed depositional pat­ images to better understand the growth pattern and also the internal
terns have been analysed through seismic attribute analysis. This seismic geometry. A series of attributes have been applied in the pinnacle reefs
attribute analysis has been carried out by using Petrel software from of the southeast part of the study area. Instantaneous phase and fre­
Schlumberger. The quantitative interpretation has not been attempted quency attribute analysis yielded information about potential hetero­
due to data constraints. geneity. The bright amplitude response observed on top of the reef refers
to a high magnitude reflection strength (envelope) attribute, the high
4. Results reflectivity imitates the composite response of the high acoustic
impedance contrast of shale and carbonate. There may be some chances
A. Carbonate of hydrocarbon influx, but for this QI (Quantitative Interpretation)

Fig. 2. Dangerous Grounds carbonate pinnacle reef characterisation obtained by using seismic section and attributes as Instantaneous Frequency, Instantaneous
phase, Envelope, RMS amplitude, and Sweetness. The stages of pinnacle reef growth have been marked by 1,2. See inset location map-time structure map at the outer
boundary of the reef. H2 to H6 are seismic horizons (see details in Fig. 1B).

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analysis is required. isolated, vertically stacked, demarcated as I, II, III (Fig. 4C). Their
Vertical seismic profiles of RMS (Root Mean Square) and envelope seismic characteristics reflect parallel to sub-parallel reflection config­
section show the typical seismic reflectors onlapping on the flanks of uration, poor to moderate reflection continuity, high amplitude with
these build-ups whereas sweetness section clearly demarcates the reef moderate frequency.
boundary. Sweetness attribute has been used to evaluate the prospect in The second type has been appraised as channel with cut and fill
a qualitative manner. RMS amplitude section clearly delineates the reef features, can be suggested as gullies (Stow and Mayall, 2000) where the
growth has been stopped as the increased volume of clastic sediment sediment gravity flow within this are not fully restricted by channel
influx. walls, so levee deposits are prominent (Posamentier and Walker, 2006).
In the northwest part of the study area, the carbonate platform has Their seismic characteristics reflect prominent convex upward filling
been evaluated between H2 to H4 seismic horizon. Their seismic char­ pattern (Fig. 4D and E), which suggests an effect of differential
acteristics reveal high amplitude at their tops and moderate to low compaction; it extends some distance into the sediments above. This is
amplitude internal reflections. Variance extraction map (Fig. 3A) re­ often an indicator that the channels are sand filling.
flects the structural trend of the region; amplitude extraction map re­ Amplitude extraction map has been prepared between stratal slice_1
veals the higher amplitude value of carbonate platform (Fig. 3B) and the and stratal slice_2 (Fig. 4A). Two composite sections have been drawn to
deposition has been observed on top of structural highs such as uplifted understand the depositional features. In A-B-C-D composite section
fault blocks as these areas are free from the clastic supply. Near the well- (Fig. 4B) depositional features have been clearly evaluated, between A-B
B, significant evidence of facies changes has been observed, from car­ section platform carbonates have been observed, whereas B–C and C-D
bonate to clastic, mainly clay/shale has been detected in the low-lying region channels (channel complex) are noticed and evaluated. (Fig. 4C).
areas by gravity-driven transportation. In the C-D portion vertically stacked, isolated channels with prominent
erosional base have been observed and demarcated as I, II, III. Their
B. Channel internal stacking pattern, both lateral and vertical, can vary in a short
distance. Carbonate and clastic dominated areas have been delineated
During the Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene age, the channels have by dotted lines (Fig. 4A).
been observed between H2 and H3 seismic horizons in Dangerous The X–Y composite section clearly indicates the channel-levee
Grounds area. Based on the seismic interpretation, two types of channels complex (Fig. 4D). RMS attribute study has been carried out to predict
have been identified and evaluated in the southwest part of the study the lithofacies arrangements, and three facies types have been estab­
area. The first type has been assessed in the low-lying areas where lished (Fig. 4E). The amplitude appearances indicate that the levee de­
channels have been observed with a prominent erosional base. They are posits are composed of interbedded sand-shale deposit, delineated as

Fig. 3. Carbonate platform and reef at the H3 horizon level displaying in (A) Variance extraction map and (B) Amplitude extraction map (vertical exaggeration ~5).
The variance map reflecting the NE-SW and NW-SE trending faulting. Carbonate platform and reefs were developed on top of the structural high region. The car­
bonates reflect higher amplitude values as reflecting in the amplitude extraction map. The composite line passing through wells reveals the NE-SW trending faults and
the reef build-ups on top of the carbonate platform between H2 and H4 seismic horizon. Facies changes have been demarcated in the seismic section. NE-Northeast,
SW-Southwest, NW-Northwest, SE-Southeast, H1 to the seabed are seismic horizons (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

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Fig. 4. (A) Amplitude extraction map in between stratal slice _1 and stratal slice_2 (between H2 and H3 seismic horizon) (vertical exaggeration ~5). (B) A-B-C-D
composite section reveals the presence of platform carbonate in A-B part, channels in B–C section, and channel complex in C-D part. (C) In C-D part isolated, vertically
stacked channel has been observed, marked as I, II, III, in low-lying areas with prominent erosional base. Carbonates and clastic dominated areas have been
demarcated. (D) X-Y-Z composite section reveals notable evidence of channel-levee complex with convex upward channel filling pattern and dim amplitude, indicates
sand filling. (E) RMS attribute section reflects significant evidence of three different facies types. Facies 1-amplitude evidence imitates interbedded sand-shale de­
posit; Facies 2-the confined channel in the middle with a dim spot in seismic indicates unconsolidated sand, Facies 3- channel -levee system has been draped by shale.
H1 to H6 are seismic horizons (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

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Fig. 4. (continued).

Facies-1. Prominent channel base has been appraised in the middle. The which indicates debris flow deposits, and their seismic characteristics
channel filling pattern reflects convex-upward effect with dim-spot, are appraised as mud prone deposits. Prominent erosional grooves are
supposed to be unconsolidated sand filling deposit, marked as Facies-2. observed. The amplitude extraction map (Fig. 6A) reveals the N–S
Finally, the draping reflection pattern with strong amplitude response trending two types of MTDs (marked by dotted lines) based on their
indicates that channel-levee system has been draped by shale deposit internal seismic characteristics. P-Q and Q-R section reveal MTDs with
and demarcated by Facies-3. little or no internal deformation compared to MTD in the R–S section
(Fig. 6B). MTD in the R–S section is mud dominated debris flow deposit.
C. Mass Transport Deposits Time slice map at 3150 ms TWT has been prepared based on RMS,
variance and envelope attribute reflecting the N–S trending mud
In the study area, MTD’s (Mass Transport Deposits) have been dominated debris flow deposit with chaotic internal reflections,
evaluated in two different stratigraphic units. The older one has been discontinuous, low amplitude features (Fig. 6C).
recognised between H3 and H4 horizon (Fig. 5A) whereas the younger From the interpretation of seismic data, two distinct types of turbi­
one has been observed above H6 stratigraphic unit (Fig. 5B), both are dite systems have been evaluated. The first phase turbidite system has
North-South (N–S) oriented. Both the MTDs are recognised as sheet-like been observed between H5 and H6 horizon, i.e. Late Miocene to Pliocene
chaotic reflections, discontinuous, low amplitude and high frequency sequence (Fig. 5) and the second phase has been evaluated above H6

Fig. 5. (A) The older unit of MTD has been evaluated between the stratigraphic sequence of H3 and H4. N–S oriented sheet-like mud prone debris flow deposit.
Turbidites have been appraised based on seismic characteristics and demarcated between H5 and H6 stratigraphic units. Prominent evidence of intrusive has been
observed on top of the rift sequence. (B) Younger unit of MTD has been observed on top of the H6 seismic sequence. H2 to H6 are seismic horizons (see the
stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

D. Turbidites

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Fig. 6. (A) Amplitude extraction map-horizon slicing 55 ms below the H4 horizon reflecting N–S oriented MTDs demarcated by dotted lines (vertical exaggera­
tion~5). (B) P-Q-R-S composite section reveals the presence of MTDs. Their internal characteristics reflect that MTDs in the P-Q, Q-R section reflects little or no
internal deformation, whereas MTD present in the R–S section, which is mud dominated debris flow. (C) Time slice map (Z = − 3150 ms) of RMS, variance, and
envelope attribute reveals the N–S oriented debris flow deposit, which is mud dominated, marked by dotted lines. Prominent evidence of pinnacle reefs is observed.
H3, H4 are seismic horizons (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

seismic horizon, i.e. Pliocene to recent times. Their seismic character­ seismic cube with ranges that hope to better capture geological features
istics reflect parallel reflection configuration, high amplitude and high (Olaniyi et al., 2019). In this study, frequencies of 20, 40 and 60 Hz has
frequency. been chosen (lower, mid and high frequencies are red, green and blue) to
Horizon slicing and time slices attribute map appraised the presence generate distinct and colour blend volumes for the investigation of the
of turbidites in the study area (Fig. 7). Siliciclastic sediments were structural and stratigraphic geometries (Marfurt and Kirlin, 2001).
transported as erosional products from the exposed structural high areas The seismic volume was thus separated into generalised spectral
and deposited as ponded turbidites or mass-transport complexes during decomposition volumes based on the above-mentioned frequencies.
sea-level low stand periods. The ‘Turbidite sheet sands’ were deposited Using the RGB/CMY mixer application, these volumes have been
above Middle Miocene Unconformity appears to be confined by topog­ manipulated and superimposed on generating bodies that matched
raphy created between the older MTD and differential compaction geological features (Saeid et al., 2018).
across the carbonate build-ups (Fig. 5A). In this paper, one representative time slice map of spectral decom­
position has been presented, which reflecting that during the Paleocene
to Early Oligocene, half grabens area filled with syn-rift sediments
4.1. Spectral decomposition - RGB blending (Fig. 8). North-South (N–S) oriented paleo-lows/depocenter is promi­
nent (Fig. 8). Normal faults are observed with the N–S and East-West (E-
In the Dangerous Grounds area, spectral decomposition has been W) orientation. E-W oriented acoustic basement has been marked. There
performed on a seismic sub-volume of 800 ms, where frequency selec­ is some possibility that sediments were transported by a short distance
tion is a trial process. The frequencies of Red, Green, Blue bands must be from the internal paleo-highs in the Dangerous Grounds. End of syn-rift
tuned and optimised to get the best RGB colour blending. It is a meth­ sedimentation has been demarcated by the H2 horizon. Carbonate
odology that tries to decompose the spectral of frequencies in the 3D

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Fig. 7. (A) Amplitude extraction map - horizon slicing 20 ms above the H5 horizon (vertical exaggeration~5) reveals the presence of turbidites marked by dotted
lines. (B) D-E-F composite section reflects prominent evidence of turbidites and pinnacle reef. (C) Time slice map (Z = − 3100 ms) of RMS, variance and envelope
attribute reveals the NW-SE trending turbidites. H5, H6 are seismic horizons (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

platform has been observed on top of the H2 horizon. blocks are observed in the rift sequence.
Seismic sections from the significant depocenters reveal that the
4.2. Geobody interpretation strata deposited in the major half grabens are dipping towards a master
fault which was active during deposition. Most of the syn-rift normal
Geobody with box probe rendering technique is a powerful attribute faults are planar as it is evident from seismic data except for a few which
analysis tool to characterise the subsurface features. In the study area, are present in large half grabens that appears to be listric in nature and
the generalised spectral decomposed volume of 20, 40,60 Hz has been sole out at depth (Thies et al., 2006).
used and analyse them to understand the syn-rift faulting in the south­
west part of the study area. During the Paleogene, the rifting has resulted 5. Discussions
in the development of several NE-SW trending half grabens (Fig. 9).
Numerous extensional faults, half grabens and rotated fault blocks The Dangerous Grounds area is situated in the southern part of the
are observed in the Dangerous Grounds area, is the result of SCS endured South China Sea, which remains underexplored compared to Sarawak,
extension. Due to deformation at the late phase of rifting, rotated fault NW Sabah shelf-slope region. Geological setting of the study area is

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Fig. 8. Spectral decomposition-RGB blending time slices map at 3500 ms reflects E-W trending acoustic basement. Half grabens (Paleocene to Early Oligocene age)
are observed. The Oligocene- Miocene carbonate platform is on top of the rift sequence.

directly related to SCS opening. During the Paleocene to Early Oligocene seismic sections.
age, the area has witnessed rifting effect which has resulted in the Instantaneous phase and frequency attribute delineate potential
development of series of normal faults of N–S and E-W trending (Fig. 9) heterogeneity. Ghosh et al. (2014) suggested that these attributes also
and it is correlated with the seafloor spreading of SCS. The N–S trending clearly demarcate the lithofacies boundaries. Envelope attribute repli­
major depocenters have been observed (Fig. 8). Significant evidence of cates the acoustic impedance contrast between shale and reef, typical
grabens and half grabens are observed in seismic sections (Fig. 1C) and onlapping on the flanks have been witnessed by RMS attributes and reef
the presence of antithetic faults inside the graben. Based on seismic boundaries have been delineated by sweetness attributes (Fig. 2).
characteristics and internal geometry, the syn-rift sequence, i.e. between Platform carbonates have been observed in the NW part of the study
H1 and H2 seismic horizon, has been differentiated into three units as area. Variance attribute map clearly depicts the structural trends of the
Unit-I, Unit-II, Unit-III which clearly demarcates the effects of syn- NW part of the Dangerous Grounds (Fig. 3A). Reefs growth has been
sedimentary deformations (Ding et al., 2013) (Fig. 1C). observed on top of the platform carbonates. Amplitude extraction map
In the northern part of the study area, the Middle Eocene intrusive imitates the distribution of carbonate platform has higher amplitude
has been observed within the syn-rift sequence whether, in the southern value (Fig. 3B). Prominent evidence of facies changes has been observed
part, the Early Miocene intrusive has been detected on top of the rift near Well-B, Burgess et al., 2013 suggested that clastic generally
sequence (Sun et al., 2020 and references therein) (Figs. 1C and 5). In accommodated in the low -lying areas by gravity-driven transportation.
this region, the syn-rift sediments are considered to be an exploration Composite section reflects that syn-rift faults are also active in the
target. post-rift section. Both the wells have been drilled in the uplifted faulted
The SCS basins have witnessed the prolific tropical and sub-tropical block region, Well-B has been drilled in a faulted zone as observed in the
carbonate deposition in the Miocene Zhujiang Formation in the Pearl variance map and also in the composite section. It is expected that after
River Mouth Basin, the Miocene Xisha carbonate platform, the Miocene the MMU event, there is some compressional effect as it is observed up to
Triton and Phanh Rang carbonate platform in offshore South Vietnam, the seabed in the Well-B region (Fig. 3).
the Oligo-Miocene Nido carbonate platforms in West Palawan Basin, the The Oligocene-Middle Miocene carbonate build-ups in the
Central Luconia offshore Sarawak and Miocene platform carbonates and Dangerous Grounds were drowned by the eustatic sea-level rise as the
reefs of the Dangerous Grounds and Reed Bank area (Epting, 1980; reef-building organisms could not keep pace with the rising sea level.
Wilson, 2002; Sattler et al., 2009; Vijayan et al., 2013; Ding et al., 2013, This phenomenon has also been observed in Central Luconia Province of
2014; Franke et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2017). Sarawak where demise and burial of carbonate reefs occurred due to
These depositions of carbonates are controlled by tectonic subsi­ rapid thermal subsidence and high influx of siliciclastic sediments in the
dence, fluctuation of bathymetry, environment factors and terrigenous basin (Vahrenkamp, 1998; Hutchison, 2010).
sediment input from the hinterland (Schlager and Camber, 1986; In the present scenario, hydrocarbon exploration activity progres­
Schlager, 1989; Qing Sun and Esteban, 1994; Wilson, 2002; Yubo et al., sively increasing in the South China Sea region, so exploration com­
2011; Ding et al., 2014; Chang et al., 2017). panies have acquired geological and geophysical data to understand the
In the study area, carbonates are more extensive during Oligocene depositional history of the carbonates. In this region, the Oligocene-
-Middle Miocene as the subsidence rate was low, which facilitates the Miocene carbonate reef is considered as a significant exploration target.
growth of reefs and expansion of carbonate platforms in the basin. The Late Oligocene-Middle Miocene channels have been observed in
Different stages of reef growth have been significantly observed in the southwest part of the study area. Isolated, vertically stacked

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A. Banerjee and A.M. Ahmed Salim Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

Fig. 9. Geobody interpretation box probe at the H1 level (vertical exaggeration ~ 5) reflecting the syn-rift faulting with a significant presence of horst-graben
structure in the southwest part of the study area. Two phases of major faulting are prominent, the 1st phase is N–S trending, whereas the 2nd phase is E-W
trending. Antithetic faults are observed in the graben. H1 is the seismic horizon (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

channels with prominent erosional base have been evaluated in the low- sand and shale (Fig. 10C, D, E).
lying area (Fig. 4). Channel-levee features are prominent. The internal MTDs play a significant role in the stratigraphic section of deep-
features of the channels reflect convex upward nature. Amplitude study water settings in terms of depositional products and their distribu­
reveals the presence of three different types of facies. Over-bank deposit tions. MTDs are generated and emplaced by gravity-controlled processes
with bright amplitude seismic features designates interbedded sand- (except turbidites) resulting in deposits like slump, slide, debris flow.
shale deposition, whereas the shale has been shaded the channel- Shi-guo et al., 1999 mentioned that slumping, debris flow and turbidites
overbank system. Evidence of dim-spot has been observed in the mid­ deposition took place in the South China Sea. Two distinct types of Mass
dle of the channel, which clearly reflects the presence of unconsolidated Transport Deposits (MTD’s) have been observed above the Middle
sand deposit. The carbonate and clastic dominated areas have been Miocene Unconformity. The older unit is towards the southeast part
demarcated with the help of amplitude extraction map and composite within the Middle Miocene to the base of Late Miocene (Fig. 5A), and the
section (Fig. 4). Majority of the channels have been noticed below MMU. younger unit reflects within the Pliocene to recent times in the northeast
Sweetness plays a vital role to understand the channel geometry and part of the study area (Fig. 5B). Amplitude extraction map and com­
internal facies distribution in the Dangerous Grounds region. At places, posite section reveal two different types of MTDs, such as little or no
shifting of meandering loops with time has been observed in the internal deformation, i.e. slides (Posamentier and Martinsen, 2011) and
sweetness extraction map ((Fig. 10A). U shaped ox-bow lake with debris flow (Fig. 6A). Time slice map (Fig. 6C) reflects the presence of
prominent cut-off point has been noticed (Fig. 10a and b). Significant mud dominated debris flow deposit. The significant presence of
evidence of meander beds with higher amplitude facies within them can erosional groves (Fig. 5A) indicates the presence of large cohesive
be evaluated as a point bar deposit (Li et al., 2017). It may be considered sediment blocks were within the base of the flow for a long time
that these may be the result of continuous channel migration. High (Banerjee et al., 2019).
sweetness value has been appraised as sand deposit, whereas the low The relative sea-level change plays a significant role in turbidite
sweetness area can be assessed as deposition of finer clastic including deposition, mainly in the outer shelf and upper slope region (Pos­
shale (Fig. 10). Sweetness extraction map also reveals the progressive amentier and Walker, 2006). Turbidite system indicates the depositional
shifting of channels with time from west-east and possible distribution of package of graded sand, silt, mud beds are usually associated with

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A. Banerjee and A.M. Ahmed Salim Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

Fig. 10. (A) Sweetness extraction map - 75 ms above the H2 horizon reveals the prominent existence of meandering channel geomorphology with ox-bow lake and
point bars. Lateral channel shifting resulting meander loop migration is also observed. The dotted line has demarcated the channel boundary. Lithological variation,
like a sand-shale deposition, is appraised. (B) 3D schematic diagram reflecting the internal channel geometry. (C) Channel on top of rift section-H2 horizon,
prominent evidence of fault has been noticed inside the channel section. (D) Sweetness extraction map- 20 ms above the H2 horizon and (E) Sweetness extraction
map - 75 ms above the H2 horizon reflecting inside channel geometry, sand-shale distribution. The dotted line in Fig. 10D is reflecting the conduit for sand, and also it
is observed in the overbank. A-B-C and D-E-F are reflecting the point where the 3D map is cutting the seismic section (3D map vertical exaggeration ~ 5). H2 is the
seismic horizon (see the stratigraphic column in Fig. 1B for details).

channel levee complex. In the Sabah region, hydrocarbon discoveries (Wang et al., 2000; Shipboard Scientific Party, 2000). The analysis of
have been reported from Middle Miocene to Early Pliocene turbidite fan samples reveals that the well has been pierced through claystone,
systems. sandstone, highly calcareous nano fossils ooze of Late Miocene to recent
In the study area, two distinct types of turbidites have been observed stratigraphic succession and reflecting the bathyal environment of
which reflect parallel reflection configuration, high amplitude and high deposition (Wang et al., 2000; Hutchison, 2010; Ding et al., 2013).
frequency. During the Late Miocene age, the older turbidite unit During the Late Miocene to Early Pliocene, the basin witnessed the
deposited (Fig. 5) and the younger unit deposited during the Pliocene to deposition of thin layers sediment with shingled reflection patterns
recent. Amplitude extraction and time slice map (Fig. 7) reveal their (Fig. 5A) having a moderate amplitude and high-frequency seismic
presence in the study area. characteristics. Later stage, during the Pliocene to recent, the area
ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) site 1143, NW part of the Dangerous became a passive margin where a thick pile of pelagic-hemipelagic
Grounds, has been reported several thin layers of Miocene turbidites sediments (Fig. 5A) have been deposited. Their seismic characteristics

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A. Banerjee and A.M. Ahmed Salim Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

Fig. 10. (continued).

can be explained as a parallel layer with moderate to high continuous variance and amplitude extraction map signifies the growth of reefs on
reflections with moderate amplitude and high frequency. This sequence top of carbonate platform indicate the relative fall of sea level, and they
is considered to be deposited in the deep-water outer-neritic to bathyal may be considered as important exploration targets. Sweetness attribute
depositional settings (Hutchison et al., 2010; Ding et al., 2013). analysis helps to identify and evaluate the Late Oligocene-Middle
Isolated carbonate reefs are continuing to grow on the structural Miocene meandering-channel with evidence of ox-bow lake, point bar
highs or the volcanic seamounts until the present day, as observed in the geometry, and sand distribution can also be counted as an important
eastern part of the study area. Seabed top has been identified by a exploration target. Mass Transport Deposits of Middle to Late Miocene
positive reflection event, and present-day water depth ranges from 1000 and turbidites of Late Miocene to recent have been appraised based on
to 2000m. Variance extraction map (Fig. 11) reveals the presence of “V” their seismic characteristics, revealed the transportation of sediments
shaped submarine canyon and the sediments are flowing from the south- from north to south, locally due to tectonic disturbance, the sediments
north direction. Prominent evidence of slope channel has also been have been redistributed and resulted slumping and turbidites. Deposi­
observed (Fig. 11). tion of pelagic-hemipelagic sediments of the Pliocene to recent age have
been observed throughout the study area revealed outer neritic to the
6. Conclusions bathyal depositional environment under passive margin condition.
Variance extraction map reflects the prominent evidence of submarine
The study documented broad, but systematic, analysis of the seismic canyon and the slope channels in the present-day seabed, and sediments
attributes of relatively unexplored deep-water Dangerous Grounds in the supplied from south to north direction. The excellent quality of seismic
South China Sea, NW Sabah Platform region, Malaysia. The geology of data from offshore Malaysia, combined with the wide variety of
this region reveals a complicated tectonic set-up. Geobody interpreta­ Malaysian exploration targets are amenable to seismic attribute anal­
tion and spectral decomposition revealed prominent evidence of the ysis. This scientific work will help to understand the structural-
Paleocene to Early Oligocene rifting created half grabens and antithetic stratigraphic features, basin-fill sediments in this area. It will help to
faults, which indicate tectonic events directly related to the opening of mitigate the exploration risk in the frontier region. Synthesis of this
the SCS. Sandstone deposited in these half grabens is one of the signif­ research work will guide to analyse the subsurface geometry, deposi­
icant exploration targets. The Oligocene-Middle Miocene carbonate tional pattern in the unexplored deep-water basins in the world to
platform and reefs have been observed on top of the paleo highs, achieve the new exploration targets.

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A. Banerjee and A.M. Ahmed Salim Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 83 (2020) 103534

Fig. 11. Variance extraction map - 50 ms below the seabed (vertical exaggeration ~ 5) reflecting present-day seabed geomorphology. Prominent submarine canyon
cut is observed, yellow dotted line reveals the sediment transportation direction. A-B-C-D-E composite section discloses the submarine canyon with “V” shaped valley.
Slope channels are also observed. It acts as the main conduit of sediment input to the canyon cut. The same canyon cut with a change in width detected near B (width
~ 1.25 km, depth ~165m) and near D (width ~ 4 km, depth ~ 450m) marked as the white arrow in the composite section.

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