EVALUATING

LANDSCAPE
PERFORMANCE
A Guidebook for Metrics and Methods Selection
2018

Landscape Architecture Foundation

 Landscape Architecture Foundation

Copyright © 2018 Landscape Architecture Foundation

https://doi.org/10.3153/gb001

This guidebook was developed by:

Jessica Canfield, PLA, Associate Professor, Kansas State University
Bo Yang, PhD, PLA, Associate Professor, University of Arizona
Heather Whitlow, Director of Programs & Communications, Landscape Architecture Foundation

Additional assistance provided by:

Tim Keane, PhD, Professor, Kansas State University
Katherine Leise, Graduate Research Assistant, Kansas State University
Chris Binder, Graduate Research Assistant, Utah State University
Megan Barnes, Program Manager, Landscape Architecture Foundation
Katharine Burgess, Program Manager, Landscape Architecture Foundation
Arianna Koudounas, Program Manager, Landscape Architecture Foundation
Renee LaGue, Intern, Landscape Architecture Foundation
Landscape Architecture Foundation Research Committee
HOW THIS GUIDEBOOK WAS DEVELOPED
Since 2010, the Landscape Architecture Foundation
(LAF) has worked with faculty-student research teams, Thank you to these LAF supporters
designers, and clients to produce over 150 case studies LAF would like to recognize the following
documenting the environmental, social, and economic organizations for their support and investment
benefits of high-performing landscape projects. These in LAF’s long-term strategic research initiatives.
Case Study Briefs and the methods used to quantify the Their financial support and leadership has
benefits are part of the online library of resources in helped to get this guidebook in your hands (or
LAF’s Landscape Performance Series. on your screen).
In an effort to make landscape performance evaluation
more accessible to broader audiences and to improve
the research rigor and replicability, LAF commissioned
a study in 2013-2014. The two-part study involved the
coding and analysis of all metrics and methods used ROY FUND
in the first 58 case studies published to the Landscape
Performance Series. The goal of the second part was
to use this information to identify a set of widely
applicable metrics and methods for each benefit
category and compile the findings into a comprehensive
guidebook. The study was completed in late 2014 with a
draft of the guidebook containing over 100 metrics in 34
benefit categories.
The final publication of this guidebook builds on and
augments the original draft contributed by Jessica
Canfield and Bo Yang in 2014. In the four years that
elapsed, a number of methods and protocols came
into wider use, new tools were released, and old
tools became obsolete. An additional 90 Landscape
Performance Series case studies were produced, which
had not been part of the original analysis, broadening
the body of performance evaluation work to include
new geographies, project typologies, and emerging
issues such, as resilience and equity.
The AvenuePark
Railroad | Sasaki
| TomAssociates, Inc.
Leader Studio
(Photo:(Photo: Craig Kuhner)
Tom Leader Studio)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Case for Landscape Performance  1 Safety 58
Approach to Evaluating Performance 3 Educational Value 60
How to Use This Guidebook 7 Noise Mitigation 62
Worksheets for Assessing Performance 8 Food Production 64
Scenic Quality & Views 66
01. ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
Transportation 68
Land Access & Equity 70
Land Efficiency & Preservation 16
Soil Creation, Preservation, & Restoration 18 03. ECONOMIC BENEFITS
Property Value 76
Water
Operations & Maintenance Savings 78
Stormwater Management 20
Construction Cost Savings 80
Water Conservation 22
Job Creation 82
Water Quality 24
Visitor Spending & Earned Income 84
Flood Protection 26
Tax Revenue 86
Water Body/Groundwater Recharge 28
Economic Development 88
Habitat
Habitat Creation, Preservation, & Restoration 30 04. ENDNOTES, SELECTED
Habitat Quality 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY, & CREDITS 92

Populations & Species Richness 34

Carbon, Energy, & Air Quality

Energy Use 36
Air Quality 38
Temperature & Urban Heat Island 40
Carbon Sequestration & Avoidance 42

Materials & Waste

Reused & Recycled Materials 44
Waste Reduction 46

02. SOCIAL BENEFITS

Recreational & Social Value 52
Cultural Preservation 54
Health & Well-Being 56
 Barangaroo Reserve | PWP Landscape Architecture
(Photo: Barangaroo Delivery Authority)

vi
THE CASE FOR LANDSCAPE PERFORMANCE
Climate change. Urbanization. Public health. Species Landscape performance is rapidly becoming a vital
extinction. Economic stability. Social isolation. Equity. way to represent and articulate the value of excellent
The great challenges of our time serve as a reminder of design and provide reliable and valid evidence to justify
the vital need to balance human and natural systems, design decisions, provide quality assurance, and inform
resources, and processes. Landscape must be an integral ongoing site management and maintenance activities.
part of any conversation about sustainability, livability, Landscape performance also supports and aligns with
or resilience because no matter how these terms are emerging built environment practices, including adaptive
defined – carbon neutrality, biodiversity, health and management, site commissioning, and performance
happiness, economic vitality – they cannot be achieved verification as a pathway for regulatory and rating system
without landscape solutions. However, often landscape compliance.
is not adequately valued in the design and development Embracing performance measures and evaluating the
process. performance of built projects can increase knowledge,
Today’s land development projects must serve multiple support innovation, and elevate the quality of designed
functions, address multiple issues, and provide multiple landscapes. By validating past research and raising new
benefits. On top of that, decision-makers, owners, questions, it also grounds and strengthens the body of
investors, and policymakers are increasingly seeking more rigorous landscape performance research being
proof that projects perform and provide return on conducted within a variety of disciplines and through
investment. Landscape performance is a way to provide multidisciplinary collaboration. Continuing to study
this evidence for landscape solutions. the connections between landscape and the health
Landscape performance can be defined as a measure of of ecosystems, people, and economies increases our
the effectiveness with which landscape solutions fulfill understanding and our collective capacity to create a
their intended purpose and contribute to sustainability. It more sustainable, just, and resilient future by using
involves assessment of progress toward environmental, landscape solutions to their fullest potential.
social, and economic goals based on measurable
outcomes. Landscape performance draws upon research
and knowledge from a wide range of disciplines including
landscape architecture, horticulture, ecology, civil
engineering, transportation planning, urban economics,
other social sciences, and public health.
Measuring and documenting the performance of
sustainable landscapes in a way that is understandable
and accessible to a wide array of decision-makers has a
multi-pronged effect:
1) It leads to more effective management and informs
incremental adjustments to improve the performance
of built landscape systems.
2) It leads to better future designs that incorporate
lessons illuminated through the performance
evaluation process.
3) It helps bridge the knowledge gap about the value of
landscape solutions in the design, development, and
policy realms. Access to evidence of proven benefits
reduces risk for investors and allows advocates to
better make their case.
1
APPROACH TO EVALUATING PERFORMANCE
Performance evaluation involves collecting and analyzing Without specific objectives, an evaluator must translate
data to answer key questions and gauge success in the project goals and design intent to determine
achieving what matters. measures that will indicate success. Project goals may be
Landscape performance evaluation is typically used to articulated by the entity who commissioned the project
measure the impact of a landscape solution designed in the Request for Proposals (RFP) or statement of work.
to provide multiple benefits. It usually focuses on the The design intent – what the designers were trying to
change resulting from a specific intervention, such as achieve with the specific layout, materials, and features
construction of a new site, renovation of an existing installed – will relate to the project goals, but may add a
space, or installation of a new feature. Projects well new dimension. For example, the main goals of a public
suited for this type of evaluation include urban parks, park may be placemaking and economic development,
green streets, schoolyard renovations, waterfront but the design may also include pollinator habitat.
redevelopments, planned communities, campuses, Evaluators should also consider other expected
greenways, and ecological restorations. Landscape outcomes or co-benefits. For example, the main goals
performance evaluation aims to quantify environmental, of a streetside bioretention project may be stormwater
social, and economic outcomes to demonstrate management and temperature reduction through
the ultimate results of a project in light of its goals shading, but the trees and plant material are also
and objectives. sequestering carbon. Unanticipated outcomes are
Performance evaluation should strive to measure another consideration, especially since the way spaces
outcomes, not outputs. In landscape projects, examples are used may not be exactly as intended. For example, a
of outputs are the number of trees planted, area of water feature designed as a visual amenity may end up
high albedo pavement, or length of protected bike lanes attracting children for water play. With landscapes, both
added. Outcomes are the impacts or achievements of use and meaning can evolve over time.
the outputs, or, essentially, the benefits they provide.
Examples of landscape performance outcomes are
amount of carbon sequestered, localized temperature Project Performance Design
improvements, or reductions in the number of Goals Objectives Intent
bike accidents.
Expected Unanticipated
Deciding What to Assess Outcomes Outcomes
It is essential to understand the overall project goals in
order to evaluate performance. Ideally, these goals have
been established and explicitly stated, but, all too often, What to Measure
goals are vague and are not documented. Therefore, it
is important for the evaluator to diligently investigate to
determine what measures are most relevant given what Metric
the design was trying to achieve.
Sometimes specific performance objectives have been
established. This happens particularly with aspects that
are regulated, such as stormwater management. Other Method
times there are very clear benchmarks, such as net zero
energy, often driven by the desire to achieve a rating Combined, the project goals, performance objectives,
system level or other sustainability criteria. Specific design intent, expected outcomes, and unanticipated
performance objectives are rarely set for social and outcomes help the evaluator determine what to
economic outcomes because they are harder to predict. assess to gauge success.

3
Metrics and Methods Performance metrics do not need to be complex.
While some benefits require sophisticated measures,
After determining what to assess, an evaluator must
others can be fairly straightforward. For example, if
investigate specific metrics and methods. In this
the goal of a university campus renovation project is to
guidebook, the term “metric” refers to a single type of
improve the image of campus and ultimately increase
data that serves as a proxy for what matters. The term
enrollment, a simple metric might be the percent of
“method” refers to a means of quantifying that metric.
survey respondents who say that the campus landscape
For example, for a project with clear flood control goals,
influenced their decision to enroll at that school.
flood control performance should be assessed and
quantified, but there are a number of ways to do this. Comparisons can be an effective way to quantify the
Potential metrics include: impact of a design intervention, such as a reduction in
water use or increase in visitor spending. In landscape
• Increase in flood storage capacity
performance evaluation, three common types of
• Decrease in number of flood events
comparisons are:
• Decrease in time an area is submerged
• Before/After – Comparing a given metric before and
• Decrease in cleanup costs after the landscape intervention. This requires baseline
Choosing the appropriate metrics and corresponding information from before the project was implemented.
methods of evaluation depends largely on time, • Conventional/Sustainable – Comparing a metric for
expertise, resources, and availability of information. the project to the same metric for a conventionally
This means that potential metrics and methods must be designed space. This requires a comparable space,
considered based on their practical usefulness as well as either actual or hypothetical.
their validity. Can scientifically sound data be collected
during the given time frame with the available personnel • Benchmark or Average – Comparing a metric for the
and equipment? Is a particular method valid and reliable project to an accepted standard or average value.
in the given circumstances? Because landscape performance is concerned with
The availability of information is usually the single biggest measuring a variety of impacts within a relatively short
factor in deciding which metrics and methods to use to period of time, its metrics and methods are imperfect.
measure success. Public data sources as well as data and Yet they can be applied in a way that is defensible and
information collected by various project stakeholders replicable to yield valuable information. As part of the
should be explored in addition to considering what assessment process, evaluators should document all of
can be collected through direct measurement. Existing their assumptions and known limitations.
datasets can range from bird counts to property tax Data Collection
assessments and crime data. Evaluators can engage
property owners and managers, members of the design Data can be classified into two types: primary and
team, government agencies, “friends of” groups, and secondary. Primary data are original data collected by
other stakeholders to determine what information the evaluator and involve various methods, such as
already exists. administering a survey, measuring air temperatures,
or taking water quality samples. Secondary data have
When choosing metrics, it is also important to consider been collected by someone other than the evaluator
the ultimate audience for the assessment results. Is it a and can include publicly available datasets. Examples
group of technical experts, a set of informed decision- include demographic data from the US Census Bureau,
makers, or the general public? The chosen metrics should energy use from utility bills, traffic counts from a local
match the expertise of the intended audience and be transportation agency, sales data from a business
meaningful to the goals and interests of that audience. improvement district, or park visitation figures from the
managing entity.

4
While evaluators should carefully consider and scrutinize
the source and collection methods of any secondary Possible Sources of Data and Information
data, the most significant information may come from
Background Information
these alternative data sources. Secondary data is not
• Project design documents, reports, and photos
necessarily less reliable than primary data, and it may
have been collected over a longer time frame or using • Environmental Impact Assessments
more complex tools than are feasible in a • Historic preservation or cultural documentation
primary analysis. Predictive Models and Calculators
Predictive methods are another source of numerical • Project studies related to wildlife,
information. These models and calculations can be used transportation, noise, etc.
to determine likely outcomes in situations when actual • Rating system submittals (LEED, SITES, etc.)
performance cannot be measured. For example, direct • Online calculators and tools
measurement of carbon sequestration by trees and Secondary Data
forests is extremely involved, but predictive models have • Public agency datasets, records, or publications
been developed to estimate this value. In landscape • Private entity records or publications
performance evaluation, predictive models and methods
• Utility and other service providers
are less desirable than actual measurements because
• Citizen science data
they do not consider all of the nuances of a particular
built landscape. However, including some predicted Primary Data
outcomes can allow for a more complete picture • On-site measurements or monitoring
of benefits than would be possible through direct • Direct observation
measurement alone. • User surveys or interviews
Scale
Unlike buildings, which are closed systems, landscapes activity or property values, and it may be impossible to
are open, complex ecosystems across the boundaries prove a true causal relationship. Nevertheless, these less
of which water, air, species, and often people flow direct measures are still important to pursue, provided
freely. Very few variables are contained entirely within that they are positioned with the appropriate limitations.
a project site, and many of a landscape’s key outcomes Similarly, a single landscape project may not achieve
are influenced by outside forces, such as economic or overarching goals like improved water quality of a
demographic shifts. waterway or increased bike ridership, but its contribution
Aspects of landscape performance, such as waste to that goal is important in the context of neighborhood-
reduction or operations and maintenance savings, are or city-scale initiatives. Careful consideration should
usually assessed at the individual site scale or for a be given to the chosen measures and the way they are
particular area of interest on the site. Other aspects, such reported in order to adequately capture impact without
as species richness or access and equity, have inputs and significantly overstating or understating the contribution
impacts that transcend site boundaries. These analyses of an individual landscape project.
may require data from the larger neighborhood, city, or
region. In any case, it is important to consider context
Timing
and the role of the site in relation to nearby facilities. Ideally, performance evaluation should be an ongoing
process with data collected at least once every 1-3 years
Any given landscape project will have both direct
to capture how performance changes over time. Certain
and indirect impacts. Landscapes may not be solely
metrics and methods, such as an analysis of water utility
responsible for outcomes such as increased physical
bills, lend themselves to annual review, while others like

5
noise mitigation or visitor spending may be assessed environmental, social, and economic impacts. Findings
less frequently because they are not expected to change may also show that certain goals or design intent are not
much over time or because the analysis is more involved. being met. In this case, performance evaluation helps to
Continuous monitoring of many aspects of landscape raise issues and inform ideas for how a project might be
performance is becoming increasingly possible as sensor modified for better results. Many times, the process of
technologies and building automation systems evolve. performance evaluation uncovers more questions that
Optimal timing for an initial performance assessment require further analysis.
is 1-5 years after construction is complete. This allows Regardless of the results, the real value of performance
time for natural processes, site programming, and user evaluation lies in sharing the findings and results with
behaviors to stabilize, yet ensures that institutional others so that they can make better informed decisions
memory about the goals and design intent of the on future projects. Understanding the performance of
project has not been lost. Because the management, built landscapes will lead to better future designs that
maintenance, use, meaning assigned to space, and even utilize landscape solutions to their fullest potential.
the physical environment can evolve over time, it can
be problematic to try to evaluate a long-established or
historic landscape against its original design intent. Representing Findings
By definition, performance evaluation requires that there Landscape performance findings should be
are performance objectives to measure against. Because understandable and relevant for the target audience
this is often not the case with landscape projects, to be most effective. While some metrics stand on
evaluators are frequently retrofitting the process, their own, others are not as meaningful without
spending effort to determine and articulate goals context. In this case, findings can be supplemented
before they can determine what to measure and how to using the following techniques.
measure it. Report absolute and relative values
To be most effective, measurable goals must be set and • Reduces noise levels for residents by 10 decibels,
performance measurement considered throughout the which cuts the experienced sound level in half.
design process. Performance goals and objectives should
Use equivalencies
be established at the onset or in the early stages of a
project so that different design concepts and iterations • Reduces annual runoff by 2.7 million gallons,
can be modeled and tested against those goals. In order equivalent to 4 Olympic-size swimming pools.
to show change over time, baseline information must be Monetize
collected. Ideally, the project design team can propose
• Reduces energy use by 63,000 kWh and saves
a set of metrics and methods that would be most
$3,600 annually by switching to LED light fixtures.
effective in evaluating how the project performs once it
is built and operating. Data collection practices should Project out over time
be considered and a schedule established as part of a • Sequesters 1.2 million tons of carbon annually
performance evaluation plan. Above all, performance in newly-planted trees, which will increase to 16
assessment needs to be included in the scope and million tons 25 years after project completion.
budget for a project to ensure that post-occupancy
Compare to the before condition, conventional
monitoring happens.
scenario, or accepted standard
Final Considerations • Reduces average air temperatures by 1.7° F when
At its core, performance evaluation seeks to understand, compared to nearby areas that closely resemble
manage, and improve the performance of a system. The the site prior to redevelopment.
results can demonstrate the success of a project and its

6
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDEBOOK
This guidebook was developed as a primer for landscape In total, there are 33 benefit categories, each spanning
architecture practitioners, researchers, agencies, two pages that include a brief introduction to the topic,
park and land managers, instructors, students, and assessment considerations, a list of potential metrics and
others interested in assessing the performance of built methods for measuring performance, resources, and an
landscape projects. Though it may provide insight for example of a performance benefit from an actual project.
ongoing data collection, tracking, or monitoring activities Assessment Considerations covers any specialized
conducted by site managers, the guidebook presumes knowledge, equipment, or other tools that may be
that the evaluator is an outsider conducting a one-time needed, as well as logistical or practical issues.
snapshot assessment.
Potential Metrics are listed with each metric followed by
The guidebook is intended to be a starting point for one or more bullets that each describe a corresponding
the selection of metrics and methods tailored to each assessment method.
individual project and its particular goals. It is geared
toward critical and creative thinkers who seek to examine While some guidance is provided on metric and method
a project holistically and generate quantified findings applicability, it is up to the evaluator to determine the
that will be meaningful to an informed audience with full validity, appropriateness, and limitations of their
some technical knowledge. chosen assessment techniques, as the context of every
project is different.
The metrics and methods presented here can be
implemented, adapted, or used to generate new ideas To illustrate how one of the metrics and methods
to arrive at a set of metrics that can effectively gauge can be used to produce a quantified performance
whether the project has been successful in achieving benefit, an example is presented from the Landscape
what it was designed to do. This guidebook presents Performance Series Case Study Briefs. The full Case Study
possibilities, not a prescriptive list. Brief and corresponding Methods document can be
accessed at LandscapePerformance.org for additional
Four main criteria were used in selecting the metrics and information and a more in-depth description of methods,
methods: calculations, limitations, and assumptions.
• Ease of use for a nonexpert
Worksheets
• General applicability for a range of project types and
scales On the following pages, four printable worksheets
are provided for evaluators to use at the outset of a
• Measurable in a relatively short time frame with
limited budget landscape performance assessment. The first sheet
can be used to document goals, and the following
• Defensible
three sheets can be used to brainstorm potential
Guidebook Structure Environmental, Social, and Economic metrics and the
corresponding methods and datasets. These lists of
The guidebook is divided into three main sections:
potential metrics can then be narrowed down and
Environmental Benefits, Social Benefits, and Economic
refined as evaluators pursue the necessary data and
Benefits, each with various benefit categories. The
information. Many times particular lines of inquiry,
categories an evaluator chooses to pursue for a given
even ones that seem promising, do not work out due
project should depend on the project goals and design
to a lack of accessible data. The worksheets can also be
intent. (See Approach to Evaluating Performance.) A
used during the design phase of a landscape project to
cursory examination of the site or site plan can help
document key metrics and data that will be important to
narrow down the list. For example, the Food Production
collect as baseline data during the site analysis and over
category only applies if there are vegetable gardens, fruit
time to gauge the project’s success.
trees, or other agriculture on the site.

7
8
Worksheet: Determining Project Goals
Project Name:

Environmental Social Economic

Project Goals

Performance
Objectives

Design Intent

Expected Outcomes

Unanticipated
Outcomes
 Worksheet: Assessing Environmental Performance
Project Name:
Example: Saves 10 million gallons of potable water and $34,700 annually by using native plants, which require no irrigation, as compared to turf.

Type of Benefit Metric Method/Tool Data Source(s)

Water Conservation Reduction in water use associated with Compare the amount of water needed to Construction documents, planting plan,
plant selection irrigate the sustainable landscape with the information from maintenance staff, local
irrigation needs of a conventional landscape utility rate

9
10
Worksheet: Assessing Social Performance
Project Name:
Example: Improves overall workplace satisfaction, with 87% of employees reporting an improved mood, 67% feeling more able to cope with workplace-related
stress, and 53% feeling more relaxed after viewing, walking through, and spending time in the landscape.

Type of Benefit Metric Method/Tool Data Source(s)

Health & Well-Being Improvement in (1) mood, (2) workplace Conduct a user survey to determine mood Original survey data
satisfaction, and (3) quality of life improvement associated with the space as
compared to before the design intervention
 Worksheet: Assessing Economic Performance
Project Name:
Example: Contributed to an 85% increase in the total assessed value of properties within a half-block of the site from 2011 to 2013. During the same period,
gross property values for the entire city increased by only 12%.

Type of Benefit Metric Method/Tool Data Source(s)

Property Value Change in assessed value of nearby Use public records to determine the average Local government real property tax data-
properties increase in assessed value for adjacent base website
properties as compared the city as a whole

11
12
01. ENVIRONMENTAL
BENEFITS

13
 Shanghai Houtan Park | Turenscape
(Photo: Kongjian Yu)
14
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
LAND CARBON, ENERGY, & AIR QUALITY
1 Land Efficiency & Preservation 11 Energy Use
Limiting site disturbance and making use of Reducing nonrenewable energy consumption
existing infrastructure
12 Air Quality
2 Soil Creation, Preservation, & Restoration Reducing airborne pollutants
Remediating degraded soils and protecting
undisturbed soils
13 Temperature & Urban Heat Island
Reducing localized temperatures and heat island
WATER impacts

3 Stormwater Management 14 Carbon Sequestration & Avoidance

Retaining, detaining, and treating runoff on-site Capturing, storing, or preventing the release of
carbon to the atmosphere

4 Water Conservation
Reducing potable water use MATERIALS & WASTE
5 Water Quality 15 Reused & Recycled Materials
Improving physical, chemical, and biological Repurposing materials from the site or elsewhere
integrity of water

16 Waste Reduction
6 Flood Protection Reducing the need for off-site waste disposal
Reducing flood risk to developed areas

7 Water Body/Groundwater Recharge

Replenishing aquifers and surface water bodies

HABITAT
8 Habitat Creation, Preservation, & Restoration
Protecting and restoring functional ecosystems

9 Habitat Quality
Improving ecological integrity

10 Populations & Species Richness

Supporting biodiversity

15
 1 Land Efficiency & Preservation
Limiting site disturbance and making use of existing infrastructure

Introduction
Careful location selection and siting are fundamental parts
POTENTIAL METRICS
of sustainable design and development. Ecologically intact Area of ecologically, economically, or culturally
areas of land are critically important at both site and valuable features protected or left undisturbed
regional scales, yet they are rapidly becoming fragmented
(area or percent of total site)
and disappearing.
• Reference project documents to identify
In order to protect valuable areas that include intact
areas deemed valuable or significant. Use aerial
natural systems, functional hydrology, prime farmland,
photographs, GIS analysis, CAD software, or other
and culturally significant features, new development
tools to quantify spatial extent. Compare pre-
should be directed toward previously developed or
and post-construction condition. (See Habitat
disturbed areas and should seek to protect and preserve
Creation, Preservation, & Restoration and Cultural
undeveloped areas. Compact development that takes
Preservation.)
advantage of existing or shared infrastructure can also
minimize disturbance and improve efficiency. While Amount of disturbance confined to previously
thoughtful design and construction practices can conserve developed portions of the site
valuable systems and features, site management and
(area or percent of total disturbance)
possibly legal protections like easements are important to
the preservation of these areas for the long term. • Reference project documents to identify areas
deemed previously disturbed, such as compacted
Assessment Considerations soils, previous building foundations, walkways, or
Scale: Limiting disturbance is important for individual roadways. Use aerial photographs, GIS analysis,
sites, but it also important to consider preservation at the or other tools to quantify spatial extent. Compare
regional scale. Does the area connect to other protected pre- and post-construction conditions. This metric is
areas in the immediate vicinity or region to provide most applicable on previously developed sites.
habitat or wildlife corridors? Consider whether the extent
of preserved area is sufficient to sustain ecologically,
Area of existing topography preserved
economically, or culturally valuable processes over time. (area or percent of total site)
Methods: To quantify benefits it is important to fully • Reference site grading plan to identify areas
understand the preexisting conditions of a site (the type, where existing topography was unchanged from
extent, and significance of natural or cultural resources) pre- and post-construction conditions. This metric is
and the measures taken to protect sensitive areas. While most applicable on greenfield sites.
field observations may be necessary, the assessment can
often be conducted remotely using information from
environmental impact assessment reports, site or grading Resources
plans, aerial photos, or other project documents.
University of Montana: Wilderness Map
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
the information can be obtained from project documents University of Oxford: Local Ecological Footprinting Tool
or aerial imagery.
Timeframe: This assessment can be performed upon
project completion, but gathering information over time
can help to confirm that preserved areas
remain viable.

16
 Photo: D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Blue Hole Regional Park
Wimberley, Texas | Design Workshop, 2012

Protects 93 acres or 96% of the undisturbed Method

area of the site, which was identified as potential An in-depth species study, which was done as part of the
habitat for 19 different species recognized as design process, showed that the site served as potential
habitat for a number of species of concern. Discussions
endangered, threatened, or of concern. with the design team revealed previously disturbed areas
of the site. Site plans showed the limits of disturbance
Project Overview for new park amenities. Area takeoffs were then done in
This informal swimming hole, which had nearly been AutoCAD to quantify the total undisturbed area before
“loved to death” by overuse, was purchased along with and after construction.
the surrounding 126 acres by the City of Wimberley and
turned into a sustainable regional park. The design team Total undisturbed area after/total undisturbed area
created a plan that protected and enhanced the site’s before = % undisturbed area preserved
ecologically sensitive areas while accommodating new
recreational amenities. New development was located in
areas previously disturbed by agricultural and residential
use. Today, the park offers an enhanced swimming
hole, an extensive interpretive program, and active
recreational amenities for thousands of annual visitors.

17
 2 Soil Creation, Preservation & Restoration
Remediating degraded soils and protecting undisturbed soils

Introduction
Soils are at the heart of a balanced and stable ecosystem. POTENTIAL METRICS
Healthy soils store water and regulate its flow, cycle Increase in area of fertile or restored soils
nutrients, filter and buffer pollutants, sequester carbon, (area or percent of total site)
and sustain plant and animal life. In contrast, soils
degraded by compaction, loss of soil structure, nutrient • Identify areas of fertile or restored soils through
degradation, or contamination can cause erosion and an environmental assessment report or project
topsoil loss, reduced fertility, flooding, sedimentation in documents. Compare total area pre- and post-
streams, and challenging growing conditions for plants. construction using site plans or aerial photographs.

Preserving existing healthy soils is the easiest way to Improvement in soil health or fertility
maintain their function, given the cost and complexity • Determine increase in soil organic matter
of soil remediation or replacement. Degraded soils may content, soil microbial biomass, and/or soil
be improved through a combination of techniques, nutrients (percent of soil composition) by sending
including amendments, decompaction, aeration, and samples to be analyzed in a soils lab.
phytoremediation.
• Determine change in soil pH levels by collecting
Assessment Considerations samples and performing a soil pH test in the field or
Scale: Soil analysis is usually performed at the individual in a soils lab.
site scale or for a particular area of interest on-site. • Determine reduction in levels of soil
Methods: Soil health is determined through analysis of contaminants by sending samples to be analyzed in
physical samples. Measured values can be compared to a a soils lab.
reference soil or to values observed over time in the same Improvement in soil infiltration rate
location. Baseline data for preexisting soil may be found in (change in rate)
environmental impact assessment reports or other project
documents. Soil analysis can be performed either in a • Measure infiltration time in the field using a
laboratory or in the field. Many universities offer testing single or double ring infiltrometer.
that can reveal the physical and chemical properties
of a soil.
Difficulty: Each soil test has a particular difficulty level and Resources
set of limitations. Some must be performed by trained lab US Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS): Soil Health
technicians while others do not require special training. Assessment
Timeframe: If assessing the change in soil health over NRCS: Guidelines for Soil Quality Assessment in Conservation
time, annual or biennial monitoring should be conducted. Planning
Monitoring can also help identify deficiencies and American Society of Landscape Architects Landscape
imbalances that may develop over time. Architecture Technical Information Series: A Landscape
Performance + Metrics Primer for Landscape Architects – Soils
and Amendments (free for members)

18
 Photo: © Elizabeth Felicella
Teardrop Park
New York City, New York | Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates, 2006

Maintains healthy levels of nitrogen without the Method

addition of nitrogen fertilizer and balanced levels During implementation, a laboratory soil analysis was
of soil microorganisms through the application of conducted to assess soil fertility. Findings revealed an
imbalance of microorganism predator (nematodes,
compost tea, which encourages 30-50% greater protozoa) and prey (fungi, bacteria) populations. To
root development. mitigate the imbalance, compost tea was brewed and
added to the site to specifically supplement those
Project Overview microorganisms with low populations.
Nestled within Battery Park City, Teardrop Park offers Subsequent testing confirmed that properly balancing
adventure play and a green sanctuary for urban-dwelling the soil microbial population resulted in stable
children. Interactive fountains, natural stone for climbing, nitrogen levels.
and lush plantings create a stimulating world of intricate Findings were based on Battery Park City Parks
textures for children residing in the nearby apartment Conservancy accounts and confirmed through the 2008
buildings. The site experiences intense shade, high winds, Harvard Yard Soil Restoration Project, an 8-month, 1-acre
and temperature extremes, which influenced the park test led by Battery Park City Director of Horticulture,
program and planting design. The park includes fully Eric T. Fleisher.
organic manufactured soils and maintenance regimes
that avoid pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides.

19
Water

3 Stormwater Management
Retaining, detaining, and treating runoff on-site

Introduction
In a rapidly urbanizing world, stormwater runoff is a POTENTIAL METRICS
leading cause of water pollution. The goal of sustainable Annual volume and percent of total runoff retained
stormwater management is to protect and restore
functional hydrology through systems designed to
on-site (volume and percent of total)
emulate natural processes. Sustainable stormwater • Estimate for the entire site or for one or more
management practices reduce flooding, prevent erosion, BMPs using design parameters and a stormwater
improve water quality, and decrease thermal pollution. calculator like the EPA National Stormwater
They can also contribute to groundwater recharge and Calculator. This method is most applicable on
add ecological and aesthetic value. smaller projects that use BMPs to manage runoff.
Best management practices (BMPs) for stormwater Runoff retained for a design storm
include bioswales, rain gardens, green roofs, infiltration (volume and frequency/duration of storm)
planters, constructed wetlands, and permeable paving.
• Consult project documents or stormwater model
Assessment Considerations outputs, such as SWMM or HydroCAD, for total
Scale: Assessment should consider the impact of the storage volume and design storm parameters for
whole system rather than individual BMPs. While usually the site as a whole or a portion of it.
done at the site scale, some systems manage runoff from
Reduction in peak discharge/runoff rate for a
off-site. It is also important to consider downstream
effects on sewer systems and water bodies.
design storm (rate and frequency/duration of storm)
• Consult project documents or stormwater
Methods: Metrics are calculated using equations and
model outputs.
models that require various inputs, such as land cover,
soil type, local rainfall data, and design parameters for any • Use the Rational Method for small drainage areas
BMPs on the site. Stormwater management systems are of up to 200 acres with little flood storage. This
typically designed to meet local regulations for volume method considers only general land cover changes;
control and/or water quality. Since regulations vary, a it does not factor in storage provided by BMPs.
system may be designed to handle a design storm, store • Use TR-55 Method for small watersheds. This
a given amount of rainfall, reduce or maintain peak flows, method considers only general land cover changes.
or treat water to a certain level. This information can It does not factor in storage provided by BMPs.
usually be found in design documents, model outputs, or
documentation submitted to meet regulatory or rating Reduction in stormwater fees, taxes, infrastructure
system requirements. costs, or treatment costs
Difficulty: Assessment may involve obtaining local rainfall • Determine one-time and/or annual stormwater-
data, performing calculations, or using models, though related fees, taxes, or future infrastructure costs
simplified stormwater calculators reduce this burden. avoided by reducing volume of site runoff.
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon • Estimate stormwater treatment costs avoided by
project completion, although field observations and multiplying the volume retained by treatment cost
testing can provide additional insights about performance. per gallon, if available, from the local municipality.
This only applies if runoff enters a sewer and is sent
Resources to a treatment plant.
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): National
Stormwater Calculator
Center for Neighborhood Technology: The Value of Green
Infrastructure (Water)

20
 Photo: Sam Oberter/WRT
Dutch Kills Green
New York City, New York | WRT & Margie Ruddick Landscape, 2011

Prevents over 20.2 million gallons of stormwater Method

from entering the city’s combined sewer system Using the biofiltration and infiltration equation from
annually, avoiding a projected $3.4 million in the Center for Neighborhood Technology's The Value
of Green Infrastructure guide, the annual amount of
future capital costs to upgrade stormwater stormwater retained on-site was calculated. Equation
infrastructure. inputs were gathered from NOAA Online Weather
Data, area takeoffs from site plans, and from HydroCAD
Project Overview modeling software outputs.
The Dutch Kills Green project transformed the space at New York City recognizes a cost avoidance for green
the end of the Queensboro Bridge where three subway infrastructure strategies and estimates costs for
lines, two elevated routes, and congested streets constructing gray infrastructure at $0.62/gal and green
surrounded a parking lot. The twelve-lane Queensboro infrastructure at $0.45/gal. The multipliers are not
Road was realigned to accommodate bicyclists and site-specific but are based on averages for the City
pedestrians, and over 35,000 sf of land was reclaimed as of New York.
usable green space. This eight-block project uses Cost Avoidance = Cost of Grey Strategy - Cost of Green
112,000 sf of planted areas to provide stormwater Strategy
storage and infiltration.

21
 4 Water Conservation
Reducing potable water use

Introduction
Worldwide, water shortages are common due to the POTENTIAL METRICS
uneven distribution of water resources, natural variability Reduction in potable water consumption
in the water cycle, and human use. With population (volume or percent)
growth and climate change exacerbating these issues,
water conservation is increasingly important, particularly • Calculate the overall reduction in water use
in arid climates. The benefits of water conservation by using water utility bills to determine annual
practices include reducing demand on local water sources consumption. Compare this to consumption
(aquifers, rivers, lakes, etc.), financial savings, energy prior to the project or to that of a conventional
savings from reduced pumping and treatment, and landscape. This method takes into account all
generating less runoff or wastewater. elements that resulted in water savings.

Selection of plants that are native or well-adapted to • Estimate the reduction in water use associated
a site’s climate, soil conditions, exposure, and slope with plant selection by comparing the amount of
can reduce or eliminate the need for irrigation. Other water needed to irrigate the sustainable landscape
landscape-based strategies for water conservation include with the irrigation needs of a conventional
efficient irrigation systems, features that recirculate landscape. A number of resources exist to estimate
water, and systems that capture and reuse stormwater, water demand for different plant types.
greywater, or wastewater on-site. • Estimate the reduction in water use associated
with an efficient irrigation system or closed loop
Assessment Considerations water recirculating feature by using manufacturer
Scale: Landscape-based water conservation practices are information to compare water consumption of the
assessed at the individual site scale. efficient system to that of a conventional system.
Methods: Water conservation benefits are calculated Amount of water supplied by non-potable sources
from water use data or by estimating the demand
(volume or percent)
reduction from plant selection or specific systems. Water
consumption for an entire site can be obtained from water • Estimate conservation associated with rainwater
utility bills. It can be estimated for different landscape harvesting or water reuse by calculating the annual
elements like native plants or efficient irrigation using amount of water needed and comparing it to the
landscape water demand equations, system parameters, amount supplied by rainwater, greywater, and/or
or calculators. blackwater.
Difficulty: This assessment is straightforward. If Annual cost savings from reduced potable water
inadequate data exists to make comparisons, assumptions consumption
can be made about the before condition or a comparable
conventional landscape. • Convert the volume of potable water saved to a
monetary value using the local utility rate.
Timeframe: If using utility bills to make a comparison,
having at least a year of data is recommended to account
for seasonal variation. Landscapes are usually irrigated
during a 1-3 year establishment period even if they will Resources
not be regularly irrigated thereafter. Waiting until after US Environmental Protection Agency: Water Sense Water
the establishment period is recommended to confirm that Budget Tool
plants have been weaned from irrigation. US Green Building Council LEED Existing Buildings v3 (2009):
Water Efficient Landscaping
University of California: Landscape Water Requirement
Calculators

22
 Photo: Adam Barbe
Belo Center for New Media
Austin, Texas | Ten Eyck Landscape Architects, Inc., 2012

Saves an average of 464,900 gallons of Method

potable water and $2,700 annually by using The site’s advanced irrigation system is completely
air conditioning condensate and harvested digitized; each individual plant has its own emitter. This
type of system allowed for accurate data collection of
rainwater for irrigation. water usage on-site in 2013 and 2014. The amount of
water supplied by nonpotable sources was estimated
Project Overview based on subtracting city water used in gallons from
The courtyard of the Belo Center for New Media at the irrigation water used in gallons. Data from 2013 and
University of Texas at Austin features a drought-tolerant 2014 was averaged. This water savings was converted
native landscape and an innovative water system. Air to annual cost savings using municipal rates for water
conditioning condensate and harvested rainwater is in the area.
collected in four cisterns that can hold almost 30,000
gallons. During storm events, when rainwater falls onto
the roof, the first flush enters a biofiltration fountain.
When the fountain reaches capacity, a valve redirects
the stormwater to the cisterns where it is stored for use
in irrigation.

23
 5 Water Quality
Improving physical, chemical, and biological integrity of water

Introduction
Water quality is important for aquatic life, drinking water POTENTIAL METRICS
supply, agriculture, recreational activities (swimming, Improvement in aquatic habitat
fishing, boating, etc.), riparian habitat, and aesthetics.
• Use the EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocols
In addition to agricultural and industrial practices,
to evaluate habitat condition and/or fish and
urbanization is a major contributor to the degradation
macroinvertebrate indicator species in wadeable
of water quality and causes trash, waste, sediment, and
streams and rivers.
other pollutants to enter waterways.
• Conduct a study of benthic macroinvertebrates
Key land-based strategies to maintain and improve water
using a regional index of stream integrity. These
quality include restoring natural systems and processes
are often available as part of volunteer stream
along waterways, incorporating green infrastructure
monitoring efforts.
to reduce and treat runoff, and minimizing the use of
fertilizers and pesticides. Reduction in sediment load
Assessment Considerations • Measure turbidity (amount of light scattered by
Scale: Water quality may be relevant at the individual site suspended particles) of a lake, pond, or stream
scale, such as when a site encompasses a pond or lake. using a turbidity meter, Secchi Disk, or transparency
However, it is also important to consider impacts on the tube.
larger hydrologic system, particularly downstream. • Use grab samples to measure total suspended
Methods: Water quality can be measured by assessing solids in the field or in a lab.
its physical, chemical, and biological properties. An
assessment can compare before/after conditions,
Change in chemical or physical properties of interest
measure pollutant removal from a treatment train, or • Use grab samples to measure pH, temperature,
show a gradual improvement in water quality of a water dissolved oxygen, salinity, nutrients, heavy metals,
body over time. The US Environmental Protection Agency or other properties of interest.
(EPA) provides how-to resources for conducting various • Install sensors to monitor parameters like
water quality assessments. Water samples can be taken temperature, pH, conductivity (salinity), dissolved
or monitoring equipment can be installed to assess many oxygen, and dissolved ions.
chemical and physical properties. Many universities offer
water sample analysis services. Temperature and turbidity
can be assessed through field measurements. Indicator or
aquatic species can be used in biological assessments. Resources
Difficulty: Grab samples are easy to take, and water EPA: Monitoring and Assessing Water Quality
quality kits are available to test a range of parameters in EPA: Rapid Bioassessment Protocols For Use in Streams and
the field. Other tests may require specialized equipment Wadeable Rivers
or sending samples to a lab. Habitat assessments are fairly EPA: State-Specific Water Quality Standards
straightforward, but species identification can be difficult
EarthEcho International: EarthEcho Water Challenge
without prior experience.
Timeframe: This assessment requires sampling and
analysis over time. A longer sampling period will provide
more reliable results.

24
 Photo: Eric Piasecki
The Dell at the University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia | Biohabitats of Maryland & Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects, 2004

Reduces sediment and nutrient loading Method

downstream. Reduces total suspended solids by A student research team installed monitoring systems
30-92%, phosphate by 23-100%, and nitrate by at nine locations in The Dell and measured water quality
and quantity by establishing base flow conditions and
50-89% according to water sample data. examining conditions during and directly following
storms. The team measured temperature, pH, nitrate,
Project Overview nitrite, iron, phosphates, oxygen, alkalinity, conductivity,
This 11-acre project daylighted and restored 1,200 linear turbidity, and flow.
feet of a buried stream and transformed unused land into Samples were collected during and after storm events
a state-of-the-art stormwater pond and forebay system. through a combination of automatic samplers and grab
This system manages runoff from up to a 2-year storm samples. For each sample, turbidity was measured using
event, reduces and delays peak flows, and improves an Oakton T-100 Portable Turbidimeter. Depending on
water quality. The park also reintroduces wildlife the turbidity data, the team decided which samples to
habitat, provides multiple recreational opportunities, analyze for phosphate, nitrate, and nitrite using
serves as a memorable entrance to the university for a CHEMetrics V-2000 Photometer. Concentrations
visitors, and functions as a demonstration landscape for were compared from upstream and downstream
students and faculty. sampling points.

25
 6 Flood Protection
Reducing flood risk to developed areas

Introduction
Floods can have devastating consequences, such as loss POTENTIAL METRICS
of life, property and infrastructure damage, and economic Reduction in frequency of localized flooding
disruption. Reducing flood risk to developed areas is
• Assess historical records and compare the
critical to health, safety, and the reduction of cleanup and
previous occurrence interval to the projected
disaster recovery costs.
occurrence interval from hydrologic model outputs.
At the site scale, flooding can be prevented or reduced
through effective stormwater management. Along Increase in flood storage capacity (volume)
streams and rivers, techniques include earthwork, • Consult project documents or hydrologic model
floodplain restoration, channel reconstruction, sediment outputs, such as SWMM or HydroCAD, for total
removal, and creation of detention areas to slow flows. storage volume and design storm modeled.
Assessment Considerations • Estimate the storage volume for one or more
Scale: Riverine flooding is best assessed at the watershed best management practices (floodplains, wetlands,
scale. Local flooding may be measurable at the individual bioretention) using design parameters.
site scale, depending on magnitude of flooding and size of
the site.
Increase in the conveyance capacity of a stream or
river channel (flow rate)
Methods: Metrics are based on predictive modeling
related to flood frequency, storage capacity, and flow. • Consult project documents or hydrologic model
Most depend on the availability of data prior to the outputs, such as SWMM or HydroCAD. This is
design intervention in order to make comparisons. Flood most applicable when channel capacity had been
frequency or recurrence interval and the stage or depth of diminished due to sedimentation and/or erosion.
flood inundation must be known to quantify a reduction Reduction in peak discharge at an outlet point
in flood risk. The US Federal Emergency Management
(flow rate or stage + size/duration of storm event)
Agency (FEMA) maintains flood maps and a list of current
nationally accepted hydrologic models. • Measure discharge using stream gauges. This
is most applicable when techniques to increase
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
storage have been added upstream or to the
the information can be obtained from project documents.
drainage area.
The metrics involve performing calculations or obtaining
outputs from complex models. • Consult hydrologic model outputs or calculate
discharge for a design storm based on channel
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
hydraulics and the continuity equation.
project completion. Monitoring performance over time,
even anecdotally, can help to confirm that the project is Reduction in costs associated with reduced flood
achieving the desired level of flood protection. risk
Resources • Estimate future cost avoidance by comparing
FEMA: Flood Map Service Center historical flood frequency to expected flood
frequency and recovery costs.
FEMA: Hydrologic Models Meeting the Minimum Requirement
of National Flood Insurance Program • Estimate savings based on lower flood insurance
US Geological Survey: Surface-Water Data for the Nation premiums.

The Ohio State University: Determining Discharge of a Stream • Compare property values or use the hedonic
pricing method to estimate the change in real
estate value associated with reduced flood risk.

26
 Photo: Google, Landsat/Copernicus
Napa River Flood Protection
Napa, California | MIG, 1998-2012

Expanded capacity of the river channel through Method

the City of Napa from 30,000 cfs to 43,000 cfs to The river channel in downtown Napa was widened.
accommodate 100-year floods. The post-project flood capacity of 43,000 cubic feet
per second (cfs) was provided by the Napa County
Flood Control and Water Conservation District. The
Project Overview previous flood capacity of 30,000 cfs was sourced from
Between 1862 and 2013, 22 major floods occurred in a preliminary analysis that was done in 1996 to develop
the Napa Valley. In the 1990s, a coalition of more than the flood management plan.
30 organizations and 400 individuals worked together
to develop a strategy that combined ecology and
engineering to protect the City of Napa while restoring
the ecological health of the Napa River. This project
restored 1,011 acres of floodplain, wetlands, and riparian
habitat through terracing and the breaching of old
dikes and levees along 3.5 miles of river. To increase the
capacity of the channel to contain a 100-year flood in the
downtown Napa section of the river, 1,700 ft of floodwall
were constructed and nearly 120 acres of terracing were
excavated and seeded with native grasses and trees.

27
 7 Water Body/Groundwater Recharge
Replenishing aquifers and surface water bodies

Introduction
44% of the US population depends on groundwater POTENTIAL METRICS
for its drinking supply,¹ and 63% of public water supply Area of recharge zone or shallow water table that is
withdrawals are from surface water sources.² Water is protected (area or percent of total recharge area)
also withdrawn for agricultural and industrial uses. These
interdependent water resources are replenished by • Reference project documents to identify recharge
precipitation, but the conveyance systems and zone. Use aerial photographs, GIS analysis, or other
impervious surfaces associated with urbanization alter tools to quantify spatial extent. Compare pre- and
the natural recharge process. As a result, many areas post-construction conditions.
experience groundwater depletion, soil salinization, and
saltwater intrusion.
Increase in or maintenance of water level of a
wetland, lake, pond, river, or stream (depth)
Groundwater recharge can be enhanced by increasing
pervious surface area or directing stormwater, greywater, • Monitor water levels using a depth gauge, stream
or treated wastewater into the ground. Protection of a gauges, or a submersible level sensor.
known recharge zone is also important for groundwater
Increase in level of underground water table (depth)
replenishment. Similar techniques can be used to
supplement or maintain levels of surface water bodies, • Monitor groundwater levels in a well with an
such as wetlands, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams. electric sounding device, such as a coaxial water
level meter or flat-tape water level meter. This
Assessment Considerations method is applicable only if a well exists on the site.
Scale: Many factors affect water levels, making it difficult
to attribute changes to the project site alone. The pre-
and post-construction conditions, context, and design Resources
intent should be carefully considered to determine if
these metrics are applicable. US Department of Agriculture: Groundwater Recharge
US Geological Survey (USGS): Groundwater Levels for the
Methods: Surface and groundwater levels can be
Nation
monitored over time to observe trends. Data must be
Oregon Water Resources Department: How to Measure the
correlated with precipitation records. Monitoring water
Water Level in a Well
levels in a range of locations will lead to more accurate
assessments. Several types of equipment can be used
for monitoring. Choice will depend on desired level of
accuracy, ease of measurement, access, and any water
quality concerns. Many universities and extension
programs have equipment available for loan.
Difficulty: Equipment to measure water levels ranges from
simple staff or float gauges that must be read manually to
automated systems that take continuous measurements.
Monitoring groundwater is only possible if there is a well.
Timeframe: Water levels are best assessed through
frequent monitoring over long periods of time due to
seasonal fluctuations of weather and precipitation.

28
College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, University of Arizona | Ten Eyck Landscape Architects
(Photo: Bill Timmerman)
29
Habitat

8 Habitat Creation, Preservation, & Restoration

Protecting and restoring functional ecosystems

Introduction
Habitat is an environment or ecosystem that effectively POTENTIAL METRICS
supports the survival and reproduction of a given Area of critical habitat created, protected, or
population. Due to widespread human development, restored for species of interest
the habitats of many species are becoming increasingly
(area or percent of total site)
fragmented and may not support historical populations.
The term “critical habitat” refers to areas believed • Reference project documents for areas of
essential for the conservation of threatened or critical habitat identified on the site. Use aerial
endangered species. Habitats for insect pollinators, photographs, GIS analysis, or other tools to
such as bees and butterflies, are especially important as quantify spatial extent.
there is evidence of worldwide declines that could have
significant impacts on agriculture and ecosystems. Increase in continuous habitat area (area)
Sustainable site design should protect known areas of • Reference project documents to identify areas
critical habitat and may seek to create or restore habitat of habitat reconnected through the removal of
by adding necessary physical and biological features. physical barriers like roadways or culverts. Use GIS
Patch size and connectivity are important considerations analysis or other tools to quantify spatial extent.
to facilitate wildlife movement and other ecological flows.
Increase in habitat area for pollinators (area)
Assessment Considerations • Determine the plant species considered to be
Scale: Habitat creation is typically assessed at the site habitat for beneficial pollinators or other species
scale. It is important to understand the needs of target of interest within the site’s ecoregion. Reference
species and how the site relates to nearby critical habitat project documents and plant lists to identify
and larger corridors. pollinator habitat areas on the project site. Use
aerial photographs, GIS analysis, or other tools to
Methods: Metrics rely on previous documentation of
quantify spatial extent.
habitat type and extent by ecologists, biologists, or other
experts. This information can be found in environmental
impact assessment reports, site plans, and other project
documents. When possible, field observations should Resources
be used to confirm that habitat areas are functioning US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS): Critical Habitat Mapper
as planned, especially in cases of habitat creation or
restoration. Collaboration with local wildlife experts may FWS: Find Endangered Species
be beneficial. Xerces Society: Pollinator-Friendly Plant Lists
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
adequate project documents and plant lists are available.
If field observations are used, species identification can be
difficult without prior experience.
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
project completion. However, for habitat creation or
restoration, waiting 1-2 years is recommended to verify
that plants and other systems have established as
intended. Observing the site over time will help identify
changes in habitat structure or function.

30
 Photo: D. A. Horchner/Design Workshop
High Desert Community
Albuquerque, New Mexico | Design Workshop, 2030 (anticipated completion)

Increased critical bird-breeding habitat for Method

two endangered species, the peregrine falcon One design goal was to replant double the amount of the
and the gray vireo, by 3.7 acres and replaced original juniper prairie ecotype vegetation that was lost
in development. This ecotype provides breeding habitat
an additional 3.7 acres of habitat lost in for the peregrine falcon and the gray vireo.
development. In order to determine how many acres this would
require, the designers digitized the area of juniper
Project Overview prairie ecotype and identified how much of it would be
This greenfield development in Albuquerque, New lost to construction and infrastructure development.
Mexico honors the low-impact design practices of water They then used the vegetative volume index of juniper
conservation, wildlife habitat restoration, material prairie ecotype vegetation provided by environmental
recycling, and cultural endowment. The development consultants to calculate the volume of vegetation lost. To
minimizes construction disturbance by cutting roads double the volume, the design replanted double the area
into the hillside instead of mass grading and by using a using the same volume index. This is the area of critical
native plant palette for all public areas, rights-of-way, and habitat restored for the species of interest.
private areas outside of building envelopes. This project The areas were confirmed by doing area takeoffs of
changed water conservation and landscape planting project construction documents using AutoCAD.
ordinances at city and state levels.

31
 9 Habitat Quality
Improving ecological integrity

Introduction
Habitat comprises four components: food, water, cover, POTENTIAL METRICS
and space. The quality of these components affects the Increase in ecological integrity as measured by an
well-being of individual species as well as the overall established rating system
ecological integrity of an ecosystem. High-quality habitats
(change in index value)
provide the necessary physical and biological features
to maximize chances at survival and reproduction for a • Use the Floristic Quality Assessment (FQA)
species. A habitat high in quality will generally support to determine an overall score for the site or
greater biodiversity, which, in turn, can help keep the designated habitat area. A list of observed plant
surrounding ecosystem in a natural balance. species is needed. There are various regional
versions of this method. This method is limited to
In designed landscapes, plant species selection and
regions that have developed plant coefficient lists,
organization play a key role in creating or restoring
although lists can sometimes be adapted to other
habitat. The creation of cover and nesting sites, such as
regions with limitations.
gravel pockets or submerged logs, may also be important
depending on the target species. • Use the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Rapid Bioassessment Protocols to conduct a
Assessment Considerations habitat assessment and report the total score. This
Scale: Habitat quality can be assessed at the individual method applies to wadeable streams and rivers.
site scale; however, habitats transcend property • Use the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)
boundaries and can be affected by outside activities. Habitat Evaluation Procedures. This method is
Methods: To assess habitat quality for a specific species, useful for projects with a stated objective to
the habitat attributes for that particular species should optimize wildlife numbers for particular species. It
be studied, possibly requiring consultation with a requires detailed information on plant species and
wildlife expert. To assess habitat quality more generally, cover types. Time and budget constraints may limit
an ecological integrity index can reveal how well an the use of this method.
ecosystem is supporting and maintaining natural balance.
Various rating indices have been developed for this.
Several assign a coefficient to each plant species and
require a list of all known plant species on-site.
Resources
Openlands: Universal FQA Calculator
Difficulty: Fieldwork is likely necessary. Plant index values
can be calculated based on lists of plants installed, but US Natural Resources Conservation Service: Sampling
Vegetation Attributes
actual field inventories are preferable to account for
survival, succession, and invasive species colonization. EPA: Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and
Wadeable Rivers
Depending on the site size and the assessor’s plant
identification skills, consultants or experts may be needed. FWS: Habitat Evaluation Procedures
Timeframe: This assessment requires evaluation of
habitat before and after construction. If fieldwork will be
conducted, waiting until after the 1-3 year establishment
period for newly-installed plants is preferable. Conducting
the assessment annually can help identify trends and
management issues.

32
 Photo: Bill Cramer
Avalon Park and Preserve
Stony Brook, New York | Andropogon, 2001

Increased the ecological integrity of plant Method

communities by more than doubling Avalon’s The Plant Stewardship Index (PSI), a regional Floristic
Plant Stewardship Index to achieve a score of 54, Quality Assessment, was used to evaluate the ecological
integrity of the native plant communities on the site. The
reflecting a high diversity of native plants and PSI is specific to the Piedmont region.
sustained removal of invasive species. A list of plant species was compiled for the site, both
pre- and post-restoration. The coefficient of conservatism
Project Overview (CC) was looked up for each species. The Total Mean C
This highly disturbed former residential site was designed was calculated by totaling the CCs and dividing this sum
as a 7-acre memorial and 76-acre preserve with a series by the total number of plant species within the assessed
of natural gardens that reflect the character of the native area. Finally, the Total Mean C was multiplied by the square
northern Long Island landscape, including a rich lowland root of the total number of native plants to get the Plant
swamp, beech forest, and wildflower meadow. The full- Stewardship Index value.
scale, scientifically accurate restoration of a wide variety The PSI values pre-restoration (24.18) and post-
of individual, local plant communities was achieved restoration (54.05) were compared.
through close cooperation with a native plant ecologist
and other scientists. A strong long-term management
program prevents the site from being taken over by
weeds in this highly urbanized region.

33
10 Populations & Species Richness
Supporting biodiversity

Introduction
Biodiversity is critical for keeping ecosystems healthy POTENTIAL METRICS
and balanced. Diverse landscapes are more resilient to Increase in species richness for a taxon of interest
drought, disease, pests, pollution, and other factors. (number or percent change)
Species richness, the number of different species present
in an ecological community or landscape, is often used as • Use data from field observations to calculate
an indicator of biodiversity. Abundance, the number of the change in the number of observed species
representative individuals of a species on a particular site, over time. This may be done for a kingdom (such
indicates the availability and quality of habitat for that as plants), class (such as birds), order (such as
species. Habitat loss and degradation are the main causes primates), or other taxonomic group.
of declines in biodiversity and species populations. • Use eBird to find data on local bird sightings. A
Sustainable design that preserves, restores, enhances, citizen science tool, this global online database
or creates habitat can have a positive impact on species allows local birders to collect observations on
richness and/or populations of a given species. the presence and abundance of bird species and
submit their data.
Assessment Considerations
Increase in abundance of a species of interest
Scale: Species and population counts can be conducted
(number or percent change)
at the site scale, although both plant and animal
communities can be affected by off-site activities. • Use data from field observations to calculate
the change in the number of a species over
Methods: Metrics require fieldwork or previous
time. Abundance can be measured by number of
documentation of species or population counts by
individuals observed, species presence, density,
experts. Data from site staff or citizen scientists may
frequency, or biomass. Species of interest should
be used if they are deemed reasonably reliable. For
be threatened, vulnerable, or indicator species.
fieldwork, choice of assessment technique will depend
on the species being assessed, type of habitat, time and
labor constraints, and level of expertise. The transect is a
commonly used sampling method for estimating species Resources
richness or abundance, particularly for plants, birds,
Cornell Lab of Ornithology: eBird
or terrestrial vertebrates. Pitfall traps may be used to
collect and observe arthropods. The US Fish and Wildlife University of Idaho: Point Intercept Sampling Techniques
Service and many states offer guidelines and protocols for University of Hawai'i: Measuring Abundance, Transects and
conducting field surveys for a variety of species. Quadrats
Difficulty: Fieldwork is likely necessary, depending on US Bureau of Land Management: Measuring and Monitoring
Plant Populations
existing data. Collaborating with local experts, such as
wildlife biologists, ornithologists, or entomologists is
recommended.
Timeframe: This assessment requires data on populations
or species richness before and after construction.
Seasonal variation is an important consideration. Most
ecological surveys are carried out over extended periods
of time with sampling taking place at regular intervals.

34
 Photo: User BlueCanoe/Wikimedia Commons/CC-BY-SA-3.0
Magnuson Park
Seattle, Washington | The Berger Partnership, 2012

Increased the Pacific chorus frog larvae Method

population by 255% and increased the number The changes in both the population of Pacific chorus
of observed species of dragonfly and damselfly frog larvae and the number of species of dragonfly and
damselfly were calculated using counts documented in
from 18 to 21 between 2010 and 2011. the Magnuson Monitoring Reports from year 1 (2010)
and year 2 (2011). Larvae were counted in the rice
Project Overview paddies and ponds on a single day in the spring. The
The Magnuson Park Wetlands and Active Recreation presence of dragonflies and damselflies in the park from
project replaced 12 acres of impervious concrete with May to October each year was observed and recorded by
high-performance wetlands and new sports fields. an expert.
The native Pacific chorus frog was selected as a target
species, providing a framework for the entire design.
Exacting grading created rice paddies that provide habitat
for the Pacific chorus frog while limiting colonization of
the paddies by the invasive bullfrog. The species-specific
design helped improve overall biodiversity within a park
that meshes ecological and human needs.

35
Carbon, Energy, & Air Quality

11 Energy Use
Reducing nonrenewable energy consumption

Introduction
In the US and worldwide, over 80% of energy POTENTIAL METRICS
consumption is supplied by fossil fuels.³ Reducing energy Reduction in annual energy use
use or using renewable energy can lower or eliminate (kWh/year or percent)
emissions, reduce costs, and contribute to broader energy
portfolio or greenhouse gas emission goals. Reducing • Calculate the overall reduction in energy use by
fossil fuel consumption can also have positive impacts on using utility bills to determine annual consumption.
local air quality and public health. Compare it to consumption prior to the project or
to that of a conventional site. This metric takes into
Site and landscape elements play a role in reducing energy account all elements that result in energy savings.
use. Shade trees, green walls, and green roofs can shade
and insulate buildings, thereby reducing the heating and • Estimate the reduction in energy use associated
cooling load. Energy efficient lighting, fixtures, and other with a green roof by using a green roof energy
systems require less energy to operate than conventional calculator like the GreenSave Calculator. Compare
systems. Photovoltaic cells, which are increasingly energy use of the installed system to that of a
integrated into building materials, and wind turbines can conventional roof.
generate renewable energy on-site. • Estimate the reduction in energy use associated
with efficient lighting or other landscape elements
Assessment Considerations by using manufacturer information to compare
Scale: Energy use is typically assessed for an individual energy consumption of the efficient system to that
site or portion of a site. of a conventional system.
Methods: Metrics in this category rely on comparisons
Amount of or reduction in annual energy use due to
to baseline energy use or to that of conventional
development. Actual energy use can be obtained from
renewable sources (kWh/year or percent)
utility bills, or it can be estimated for different landscape • Estimate the reduction in nonrenewable
elements using equations, system parameters, or energy use associated with on-site generation
calculators. If a site generates energy through renewable by calculating the amount of energy needed and
sources, system performance information can be used to comparing it to the amount produced by solar
estimate the reduction in nonrenewable energy use. panels, wind turbines, or other renewable sources.
Difficulty: This assessment is straightforward. If Annual cost savings from reduced energy use
inadequate data exists to make comparisons, assumptions Convert the amount of energy saved to a monetary
can be made about the before condition or a comparable value using the local utility rate. Reduction in
conventional site. energy use can also be converted into carbon
Timeframe: If using utility bills to make a comparison, avoided. (See Carbon Sequestration & Avoidance.)
having at least a year of data is recommended to account
for seasonal variation.

Resources
US Energy Information Administration: Average Retail Price of
Electricity
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities: GreenSave Calculator (members
only)

36
 Photo: Jamie Fogle/Design Workshop
Cherry Creek North Improvements and Fillmore Plaza
Denver, Colorado | Design Workshop, 2011

Reduces annual energy consumption for outdoor Method

lighting by 223,000 kWh, saving $12,700 in Power consumption data from 2008 to 2011 was sourced
energy costs each year. from the lighting consultant’s power consumption
spreadsheet. 2008 usage and cost was subtracted from
2011 usage and cost.
Project Overview
Additionally, LED bulbs have a much longer lifespan,
The 16-block Cherry Creek North retail district was
usually greater than 50,000 hours, which is at least
originally designed to be Denver’s premier outdoor
four times that of conventional outdoor lighting. As a
shopping area, but it suffered a slow decline over the
result, the district does not have to replace bulbs as
years. Fillmore Plaza, in the heart of the district, was
often, which in turn reduces maintenance and off-site
redesigned with a new streetscape that strengthens the
storage costs. These costs total approximately $1,000
retail environment, preserves the district’s history and
per year according to the Cherry Creek North Business
character, improves identity, beautifies the area, provides
Improvement District.
new lighting, improves signage, and creates spaces for
shoppers to relax and linger. The redesigned Fillmore
Plaza is now a vibrant hybrid street closed off to traffic
during planned pedestrian-focused events.

37
12 Air Quality
Reducing airborne pollutants

Introduction
Ambient air quality has a significant impact on human POTENTIAL METRICS
and environmental health. Emissions from industry, Amount of air pollutants removed by woody
power generation, motor vehicles, and other forms of vegetation (weight/year)
combustion contribute to unhealthy concentrations of
pollutants, formation of ozone, acid deposition, and • Use the US Forest Service (USFS) i-Tree suite of
visibility impairment. tools to estimate air pollutant removal by trees
and shrubs. Tool selection will depend on the scale
Compact development can reduce emissions of pollutants of vegetation and desired accuracy. The desktop
and pollution-forming compounds by promoting application i-Tree Eco gives hourly air quality
nonmotorized forms of transportation and reducing improvement for O3, NO2, SO2, CO, and PM10. It can
vehicle trips and miles traveled. Trees and other be used with data for individual trees, complete
vegetation can absorb and intercept air pollutants. Their inventories, or random plot samples. The web-
cooling effects also play a role since the reactions that based i-Tree products use aerial imagery or data for
form key pollutants like ground-level ozone and secondary individual trees to estimate air pollutant removal
particulate matter are temperature dependent. and avoidance (from reduced energy needs). These
Assessment Considerations tools can also forecast future benefits based on
projected tree growth over time.
Scale: Because air quality is typically a neighborhood, city
or regional issue, it is challenging to isolate the impacts
of an individual site. However, the benefits of specific
interventions can be estimated using predictive models. Resources
Methods: Measuring air quality directly requires USFS: i-Tree Applications
specialized equipment. Because many factors affect US Environmental Protection Agency: Air Quality Index (AQI)
outdoor air quality, including weather, topography, and
fluctuations in emissions, it is very difficult to attribute
measured air quality changes to site-scale design
interventions. Therefore, the metrics here focus on the
estimated pollutant removal rates of specific practices,
namely woody vegetation. Plant lists or an inventory of
individual trees is needed, or, for large sites with more
extensive vegetation, sampling can be done.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
adequate project documents and plant lists are available.
If fieldwork is done, plant species identification can be
difficult without prior experience.
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
project completion, though if several years have passed,
fieldwork is recommended to confirm tree species and
size. Because air pollution removal by trees depends
on canopy size, these benefits will increase as the trees
mature.

38
 Photo: Richard Cavalleri/Shutterstock.com
Millennium Park
Chicago, Illinois | Ed Uhlir, Terry Guen Design Associates, & Gustafson Guthrie Nichol, 2004

Removes 426.9 lbs of air pollutants each year Method

through the addition of 550 trees, a service with The American Forests Air Quality Calculator was used to
an estimated value of $1,000 per year. assess the quantity of air pollutants removed by trees
in Millennium Park. Pollutants removed included 191.4
pounds of ozone, 128.7 pounds of particulate matter,
Project Overview 67.2 pounds of nitrogen dioxide, 28.1 pounds of sulfur
Millennium Park is one of the world’s largest green dioxide, and 11.5 pounds of carbon monoxide. The
roofs, sitting atop two multi-level parking garages and calculator also provided the value of these services
a commuter rail line. Formerly the site of rail yards and in dollars.
a parking lot, Millennium Park has become a beloved
In this case, the benefits were calculated for newly-
local, national, and international destination, fostering an
planted trees based on the planting plan and the tree
increase in tourism and redevelopment in a previously
size at installation. Because the study was done in 2011,
underutilized part of the city. After construction, green
an actual tree survey would have yielded more accurate
space on the site increased by 62% and the number
results, since the benefits increase with canopy size.
of trees increased by 400%. Approximately half of the
park’s total surface area, or 12.24 acres, is covered in Though this specific calculator is no longer available, the
permeable surfaces. i-Tree suite offers similar functionality.

39
13 Temperature & Urban Heat Island
Reducing localized temperatures and heat island impacts

Introduction
Urban heat islands are developed areas that are POTENTIAL METRICS
significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. Reduction in air temperature (degrees or percent)
Changes in land cover are the main cause since urban
• Measure air temperatures throughout the site or
areas contain less vegetation and higher concentrations
in a particular area of interest. Compare them to
of roads and buildings that absorb more solar radiation.
the before condition or to air temperature readings
The elevated temperatures can have negative impacts,
taken in a conventionally-designed space, possibly
particularly in summer, including increased energy
using weighted averages by area of each surface
demand for cooling, higher levels of emissions and air
type. Air temperature is a better proxy for human
pollutants, and heat-related illness and mortality.
comfort than surface temperature unless people
Sustainable design can lower a site’s contribution to come into direct contact with the surface, such as a
the urban heat island effect and increase the thermal bench or playground slide.
comfort of users. Techniques include planting trees and
vegetation, incorporating green roofs and green walls, Reduction in surface temperature
and using high-albedo materials for roofs and pavements. (degrees or percent)
Shade structures and cooling features like water walls and • Measure surface temperatures throughout the
misters can also help to improve user comfort. site or in a particular area of interest. Compare
Assessment Considerations them to the before condition or to surface
temperatures of a conventionally-designed space,
Scale: Because urban heat islands are complex regional possibly using weighted averages by area of each
phenomena, it is very difficult to quantify the impact of a surface type.
single site. Nevertheless, localized temperature reductions
can be measured at the site scale. Increase in reflectivity of materials (SRI)
Methods: Metrics compare measured surface or air • Reference project documents to determine the
temperatures or the solar reflectance index (SRI) SRI values of roof, pavement, and other surface
of materials used. Temperatures can be measured materials on the site. Compare them to the before
throughout the site or can focus on a particular area condition or to SRI values of a conventionally-
of interest. Temperature monitors and handheld designed space, possibly using weighted averages
thermometers are widely available and should be by area of each surface type.
selected based on intended use, cost, and desired level of
accuracy. Since all sites include a variety of surfaces and
microclimates, a research strategy is needed to ensure
Timeframe: Assessment of material reflectivity can be
that temperature data and findings are meaningful.
performed upon project completion. Any temperature
Weighted averages based on the area of a particular
readings should be taken in the summer and should
surface can be used to compare the entire site to the
ideally include the time of day when temperatures are at
before condition or to a conventionally designed site.
their peak. More frequent measurements and a longer
Difficulty: Assessment of material reflectivity can be monitoring period will give a more complete picture of
conducted remotely. Temperature readings must be taken temperature impacts.
on-site. Processing data involves calculations and possibly
mapping site surfaces to determine area weighted
averages. If inadequate data exists to make comparisons,
assumptions can be made about the before condition or a
comparable conventional site.

40
 Photo: Charles Mayer Photography
Central Wharf Plaza
Boston, Massachusetts | Reed Hilderbrand, 2007

Reduces the average ground-level temperature Method

of the plaza by 10°F with a tree canopy cover To determine the cooling effect of the tree canopy, the
that shades 94% of the site. air temperature of the plaza was compared to the air
temperature of an adjacent park with a similar surface
but with no vegetative cover. An ambient thermometer,
Project Overview with an accuracy of ±2°F, was used to take readings
This small plaza, shaded by 25 mixed-species oaks, approximately 12 inches above the ground. Multiple
connects Boston’s Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Greenway locations across the surface were assessed and averaged.
with the waterfront of the Inner Harbor. Standing in stark All temperature readings were taken for both sites during
contrast to wide-open, nearly treeless areas covering the the same time period on the same summer day.
Greenway, the plaza’s closely spaced large oaks create
a micro-forest on the small site. Employing exemplary
planting practices, the below-grade infrastructure
supports the project and the health and density of trees
in the plaza with sand-based structural soil allowing for
an unobstructed root zone.

41
14 Carbon Sequestration & Avoidance
Capturing, storing, or preventing the release of carbon into the atmosphere

Introduction
Reducing carbon emissions and sequestering carbon POTENTIAL METRICS
are essential in the global fight against climate change. Amount of atmospheric CO2 sequestered
Carbon sequestration is the capture of carbon dioxide (weight/year)
(CO2) from the atmosphere and long-term storage of the
carbon in a stable state, such as plant biomass. • Use the USFS i-Tree suite of tools to estimate
carbon sequestration by trees and shrubs. The
Landscape-based carbon sequestration occurs through desktop application i-Tree Eco can be used with
biological processes and can include reforestation, data for individual trees, complete inventories,
wetland and prairie restoration, and no-till agriculture. or random plot samples. The web-based i-Tree
Carbon emissions can be lowered through strategies that products use aerial imagery or data for individual
reduce energy and fuel consumption for operations and trees. These tools can also forecast future benefits
maintenance and through neighborhood design that based on projected tree growth over time.
promotes nonmotorized transportation.
• Use values from published research to estimate
Assessment Considerations carbon sequestration for a particular ecosystem
Scale: Landscape-based practices to sequester carbon and type, such as a wetland or prairie.
reduce emissions are usually assessed at the site scale. • Use USDA COMET-Farm or another farm carbon
Methods: Metrics are based on estimates and predictive calculator to estimate carbon sequestration and
models. The US Forest Service (USFS) has tools to estimate emission reductions associated with conservation
carbon storage and annual sequestration in trees and practices for cropland, pasture, and rangeland.
forests. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
Reduction in CO2 emissions from maintenance or
others offer carbon calculators for farm and ranchland.
Avoidance can be calculated from the measured or
energy savings (weight/year)
estimated reduction in nonrenewable energy or fuel use. • Use an estimator like the EPA Greenhouse Gas
Equivalencies Calculator to convert energy savings
Difficulty: Sequestration can be estimated remotely if
to carbon dioxide equivalent. (See Energy Use.)
adequate project documents and plant lists are available.
If fieldwork is done, plant species identification can be • Calculate the reduction in fuel use for mowing
difficult without prior experience. Calculating avoidance or other maintenance compared to fuel use
is straightforward if the reduction in energy or fuel use is prior to the project or on a conventional site.
known. If inadequate data exists to make comparisons, Use an estimator like the EPA Greenhouse Gas
assumptions can be made about the before condition or a Equivalencies Calculator to convert to carbon
comparable conventional site. dioxide equivalent. (See Operations & Maintenance
Savings.)
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
project completion. For carbon sequestration by trees, if Reduction in CO2 emissions from a reduction in
several years have passed, fieldwork is recommended to
confirm tree species and size.
vehicle miles traveled (weight/year)
• Estimate the reduction in trip frequency and
Resources distance for private automobiles. Use an estimator
USFS: i-Tree Applications to convert this to a carbon dioxide equivalent. (See
Transportation.)
USDA: COMET-Farm
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Greenhouse Gas In areas where carbon markets exist, carbon
Equivalencies Calculator sequestration and avoidance can also be converted
to a monetary value.

42
 Photo: Studio-MLA
South Los Angeles Wetland Park
Los Angeles, California | Psomas & Studio-MLA, 2011

Sequesters an estimated 1.8 tons of atmospheric Method

carbon annually in trees and shrubs, the carbon i-Tree Canopy was used to estimate annual carbon
equivalent of driving a single passenger vehicle sequestration of trees and shrubs.
almost 4,000 miles. First, the project area was defined in Google Earth
through the i-Tree Canopy web application. In order
to create an accurate data set, a number of classes
Project Overview were added to the analysis. Categories included tree,
South Los Angeles Wetland Park represents the hardscape, building, water, shrub, grass, and permeable
transformation of a former bus yard and brownfield at non-grass. The project location was selected as Los
the center of a densely populated community into a Angeles County, California, and was denoted as urban.
functional and attractive California landscape. The park,
Points were added on the satellite imagery until all
which is located within the Los Angeles River watershed,
classes present in the park were represented with an
captures and treats urban stormwater runoff through a
error margin of ±1.75%. Then, a report was created
wetland with riparian and emergent marsh habitat at the
with the resulting values, and the EPA Greenhouse Gas
center. It also addresses environmental justice and social
Equivalencies Calculator was used to determine the
equity by creating a neighborhood-rejuvenating amenity
carbon dioxide equivalent.
in a historically underserved community. The 4.5 acres
of wetland and 4.5 acres of upland habitat support 40
different species of plants.

43
Materials & Waste

15 Reused & Recycled Materials

Repurposing materials from the site or elsewhere

Introduction
Reusing and recycling materials can help reduce a POTENTIAL METRICS
project’s cost and ecological footprint by reducing the Amount of material saved from waste disposal
need for virgin materials and waste disposal. Adapting or (weight or volume)
reusing materials and objects found on-site can also add
• Reference project documents to calculate the
historical or cultural value.
amount of material that was reused on the site
Sustainable site design can incorporate materials with instead of being sent to a landfill or other disposal
recycled content, such as composite decking made from site. This value can also be converted to carbon
plastic bags or concrete made from fly ash. Materials emission avoidance provided that all energy and
found on or near the site can be incorporated into transportation costs are accounted for.
the design or construction. For example, historical or
industrial elements can be retained as heritage features. Amount of virgin material saved
Demolition materials like concrete, bricks, and asphalt can (weight or volume)
be repurposed as fill. Cleared vegetation can be processed • Reference project documents to calculate the
into timber or mulch. Site furniture, decorative elements, amount of virgin material that would have been
and playscapes can be fabricated from found objects. needed in the absence of the reused or recycled
Assessment Considerations materials. This metric is most applicable when
recycled materials replace natural resources like
Scale: Reused and recycled materials are typically timber, stone, or gravel.
assessed for an individual site or portion of a site.
Methods: To quantify benefits, information about the Cost savings for reusing materials on-site
type and extent of reused and recycled materials must be • Estimate the cost savings from recycled or
known. This may be available in material specifications, repurposed materials compared to purchasing new
site or grading plans, documentation submitted to meet materials. This should consider labor, equipment,
rating system requirements, or other project documents. and transportation costs in addition to material
Material costs and costs of comparable virgin materials costs. (See Construction Cost Savings.)
can be sourced from project documents or from local
suppliers.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
Resources
adequate information is available. It involves performing
California Department of Housing and Community
simple calculations.
Development: Recycled Content Value Calculations Worksheet
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
Roadway Fill Volume, Cost, and Weight Calculator
project completion.
US Green Building Council LEED Existing Buildings v3 (2009):
Materials and Resources Calculator

44
 Photo: Christian Borchert/McGregor Coxall
Ballast Point Park
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia | McGregor Coxall, 2009

Diverted approximately 22,212 tons, about twice Method

the weight of the Eiffel Tower, of construction Material quantity was estimated by examining project
material from landfills by repurposing it to records. Waste reduction was calculated based on the
use of the following recycled materials in the rubble-
create gabion retaining walls. faced gabion walls: construction waste rubble, site soils,
and rubble from a construction waste recycling facility.
Project Overview The original design intent was to have the construction
Located in Sydney’s Inner Harbor, this waterfront park waste rubble produced by the site's demolition work
engages with the site’s mutilayered history from original processed for reuse on-site. However, it was significantly
indigenous villages, to colonial use as a ballast quarry less expensive for the rubble to be shipped off-site for
for ships, as a home for early colonizers, and finally as processing. An equivalent amount of processed and
an oil terminal. The park design was driven by a desire graded construction waste rubble was then returned to
to maximize sustainable design principles and innovative the site from the recycling facility.
techniques, such as on-site material recycling. The reuse
of the site’s rubble "ballast," from which the site takes
its name, was a deliberate choice by the designers who
considered it a poetic, yet pragmatic solution to add to
the sustainable credentials of the park.

45
16 Waste Reduction
Reducing the need for off-site waste disposal

Introduction
In 2015, about 262 million tons of municipal solid waste POTENTIAL METRICS
were generated in the US. Of this, 138 million tons Amount of organic waste composted annually
were landfilled, 34 million tons were combusted, and (weight or volume/year or percent of total)
91.2 million tons (45%) were recycled or composted.
• Consult waste management documents or
Construction and demolition waste is more than twice
maintenance records to determine or estimate the
this amount, with 548 million tons of debris generated in
amount of vegetative material that is composted,
2015.⁴ Reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills or
chipped, or used as mulch on-site or collected for
incinerators saves money, energy, and natural resources.
off-site composting or processing.
Site design and ongoing management practices can
• Consult waste management documents to
minimize the amount of waste generated, encourage
determine the amount of food waste that is
recycling, and provide for the composting of yard and
composted on- or off-site.
food waste either on- or off-site. Thoughtful design and
construction practices can reduce construction waste Amount of municipal solid waste recycled annually
by balancing cut and fill volumes, salvaging reusable (weight or volume/year or percent of total)
materials, and employing source reduction techniques.
• Consult waste management documents or
Assessment Considerations maintenance records to determine or estimate the
Scale: Waste reduction is typically assessed for an amount of material that is recycled. This is most
individual site or portion of a site. applicable for sites with active recycling programs
and collection facilities.
Methods: Metrics rely on tracking waste reduction
measures and the amount of materials disposed of, Reduction in construction waste
recycled, or composted. These waste streams can (weight or volume)
also be estimated from the type and frequency of
• Reference project documents to determine
maintenance activities. Construction waste reduction can
the amount of waste avoided compared to the
be determined from site or grading plans, documentation
waste from conventional design and construction
submitted to meet rating system requirements, or other
processes. (See Reused & Recycled Materials and
project documents.
Construction Cost Savings.)
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
adequate information is available. For sites that do not Reduction in energy and greenhouse gas emissions
diligently track waste management practices, determining from waste reduction (weight or unit of energy)
the amount of waste reduced, recycled, or composted
• Use the US Environmental Protection Agency
may be challenging.
(EPA) Waste Reduction Model (WARM) to estimate
Timeframe: Assessment of construction waste reduction energy and emission reductions associated with
can be conducted upon project completion. If assessing waste reduction, recycling, and composting
reductions from ongoing management practices, having compared to a baseline scenario. (See Carbon
at least a year of data is recommended to account for any Sequestration & Avoidance.)
seasonal variation.

Resources
EPA: Waste Reduction Model
US Green Building Council LEED v4: Construction and Demolition
Waste Calculator

46
 Photo: The Morton Arboretum

The Morton Arboretum: Meadow Lake & Main Parking Lot

Lisle, Illinois | The Morton Arboretum, 2005

Reduces organic waste by composting 100% Method

or 138 cu yds of the site’s plant debris and SITES 8.3 documentation was used to determine the
clippings annually. amount of debris collected on site and composted.
The arboretum reports that approximately 1.5 dump
Project Overview trailers worth of landscape material is gathered from the
site on a weekly basis during the months of collection,
The Morton Arboretum Meadow Lake and Permeable
April to October. Each trailer holds 3 cu yd of waste,
Main Parking Lot replaced a degraded retention pond
which adds up to 137.6 cu yd of material composted for
and asphalt parking lot with a functioning wetland
soil making annually.
system and permeable lot whose stormwater flow is now
integrated with aquatic ecology. To promote sustainable
practices, the Morton Arboretum composts all of its
healthy yard waste for use on-site. The arboretum
maintains three compost bins in which clippings from the
entire grounds are placed. When these bins become full,
maintenance crews haul the compost to the arboretum's
general composting collection site. The compost is used
to supplement topsoil creation.

47
48
02. SOCIAL
BENEFITS

49
 Uptown Normal Circle and Streetscape | Hoerr Schaudt
(Photo: Scott Shigley/Hoerr Schaudt Landscape Architects)
50
SOCIAL BENEFITS
1 Recreational & Social Value A Note on Surveys
Promoting play, relaxation, and interaction Surveys are frequently used as a means
to assess social benefits. In addition to
2 Cultural Preservation demographic information, surveys can gauge
Retaining or restoring culturally significant frequency and type of use and perceptions
features, areas, practices, or views related to quality of life, sense of place, safety,
and health benefits.
3 Health & Well-Being Surveys must be designed and conducted
Supporting physical health, mental health, and using applicable, valid, and defensible survey
quality of life methods, which may require consultation
with an expert. The survey instrument
(questionnaire, response options, and
4 Safety background information) must be accurate
Improving safety and reducing crime and
and valid, which usually requires pilot testing.
perceptions of danger
It must be designed to accurately measure the
variable of interest and yield consistent results.
5 Educational Value The sample size and response rate should be
Fostering knowledge and awareness
sufficient to provide an accurate representation.
Survey length and clarity will impact response
6 Noise Mitigation rate, as will the method of distribution and
Reducing actual or perceived levels of collection. In addition to in-person intercept
undesirable sound surveys, surveys can be distributed via websites,
email, social media, and QR codes.
7 Food Production Most user surveys are done using convenience
Supporting urban agriculture sampling, asking those who are easiest to
contact or reach. While easy and cost-effective,
this sampling method may not accurately
8 Scenic Quality & Views
represent the population of interest.
Improving the visual quality of an area
Best practices require the informed consent of
9 Transportation respondents, and parental/guardian consent
Fostering walking, biking, mass transit, and in the case of children or other vulnerable
other alternative modes subjects. Those affiliated with a research
institution will need to obtain approval from
an institutional review board (IRB), which
10 Access & Equity reviews and approves research involving human
Creating or improving access to facilities and subjects, including surveys.
amenities
Resources
University of Wisconsin: Collecting Evaluation Data
Checkmarket: Sample Size Calculator
Web Center for Social Research Methods

51
 1 Recreational & Social Value
Promoting play, relaxation, and interaction

Introduction
Parks, plazas, trails, campuses, and other outdoor spaces
POTENTIAL METRICS
provide places for an array of recreational, social, and Site visitation or use (number/year)
community functions, particularly in urban areas. As
• Consult records from the site owner, operator,
urbanization and density intensify across the globe, it is
or other entity that tracks use of the site.
increasingly important to create spaces for recreation and
Museums, gardens, and educational institutions
socialization as part of the urban fabric.
frequently track visitation, as do government
Well-designed landscapes help to foster these experiences agencies and business improvement districts. If
by encouraging outdoor activity, promoting social the project was an improvement to an existing
interaction, providing facilities for passive and active site, the change in visitation or use prior to and
recreation, offering access to nature, and creating a sense after the project can be reported.
of community.
• Use direct observation to obtain visitor counts
Assessment Considerations by collecting representative samples.
Scale: Recreational and social value is typically assessed • Use time-lapse photography to count the
for an individual site or portion of a site, such as a playing number of users over a period of time of
field, community green, or seating area. It is important to interest.
consider the context and the role the site plays in relation
to other facilities in the vicinity.
Visitors engaged in recreational or social activities
(number or percent of total)
Methods: Metrics require fieldwork or previous
documentation of visitation or use. If counts or records • Use direct observation, following the Gehl
are not available, time-lapse photography, direct Institute’s Public Life Tools, SOPARC, or other
observation, or surveys can be used to determine extent observational methods.
and type of use. Surveys can also yield information about • Conduct a survey of users to determine the
quality of experience. For surveys and site observations, quantity, quality, or frequency of their use of the
the instruments and protocols need to be found or site for recreational or social activities.
developed, possibly requiring training or consultation with
an expert. Several established methods exist. (See p. 51, A Quality of the visitor experience
Note on Surveys.) • Conduct a survey of site users to determine
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if the nature and quality of their experience.
adequate records are available. Surveys or observation
studies require expertise and time to create and
Extent of facility use
implement. • Reference project documents to identify
facilities that directly support recreation or
Timeframe: Site observations and surveys can be
social interaction, such as trails, playing fields,
conducted upon project completion but may be more
and picnic tables. Use records, observations,
accurate after several seasons when visitation and
or survey data to compare use to the intended
use patterns stabilize. Ideally, data on visitation and
capacity. Extent of use can be calculated and
use should be gathered over a full year to account for
expressed as the amount of time facilities are
seasonal variation.
used or the percent of capacity in use during
peak times.
Resources
Active Living Research: System for Observing Play and
Recreation in Communities (SOPARC)
Gehl Institute: Public Life Tools

52
 Photo: Landscape Architecture Foundation (Andrew Louw, CSI 2013)
Simon and Helen Director Park
Portland, Oregon | OLIN, 2009

Attracts an average of 1,495 people per day Method

during summer months, 96% of whom engage in User data was collected on site in summer 2013 using
the Public Space Public Life (PSPL) observation method
recreational activities. developed by Jan Gehl. The PSPL method includes both
pedestrian counts and stationary observation.
Project Overview Park users were observed on 3 separate site visits in
This project converted a parking lot the size of a city 2013 (two weekdays and one weekend day between June
block into an urban plaza in the center of downtown and November). Evaluators collected information about
Portland. The park hosts a range of amenities and duration and time of use, user age, gender, purpose
activities and has become a popular destination. As a (recreation or work), type of activity (necessary, optional,
European-style urban piazza, the park is unique within social), position (sitting, standing), location within the
the City of Portland and offers diverse programming and park, and other pertinent information.
rental space for events. The plaza has a water feature
The PSPL method is useful because it does not
with arching jets, movable tables, permanent seating,
require institutional review board (IRB) when making
and an on-site cafe.
observations in a public space and it offers potentially
compelling metrics about social performance, although it
is time-intensive.

53
 2 Cultural Preservation
Retaining or restoring culturally significant features, practices, or values

Introduction
Cultural landscapes are natural, historical, or designed sites POTENTIAL METRICS
associated with certain people, events, activities, or cultural Area or quantity of culturally valuable elements
values. They recognize history, express regional identity, protected or restored (area or amount)
offer narratives of culture, and promote understanding of
heritage, place, and community. • Reference project documents or preservation
records to identify areas deemed valuable or
Though these benefits are often overshadowed by other significant. Use aerial photographs, GIS analysis,
more tangible benefits, cultural preservation can be an CAD software, or other tools to quantify spatial
important element of many projects. Sustainable site extent or number. Compare pre- and post-
design should seek to preserve, enhance, and restore construction conditions. (See Land Efficiency &
meaningful cultural landscapes, support or reinterpret Preservation.)
their historic use, and educate or create awareness about
their importance. Quality of the visitor experience
Assessment Considerations • Conduct a survey of visitors to determine the
nature and quality of their experience engaging
Scale: Cultural preservation is typically assessed for an
with the cultural features on the site. This could be
individual site or portion of a site. Because a site can be
an assessment of visitor perceptions or increased
part of a larger culturally significant area or network of
awareness or understanding. (See Educational
sites, it is important to consider the context and the role
Value.)
that cultural landscape elements play in relation to other
cultural and historic resources in the vicinity. Quantity of cultural goods produced
Methods: Metrics rely on previous documentation of • Consult site management or operation records
the type, extent, and significance of cultural resources to determine the number of culturally significant
and the measures taken to protect or restore them. Local goods, such as bottles of wine or woven straw
historic preservation regulations may require this, or hats, produced from the landscape as a result of
cultural assets may be documented by religious, tribal, preservation, restoration, or enhancement.
or cultural preservation groups. While field observations
may be helpful, the assessment can usually be conducted
using information from local or national historic
preservation reports, heritage site submissions, or other Resources
project documents. User surveys can complement this by UNESCO: World Heritage List
yielding information on visitors' understanding of heritage US National Park Service (NPS): National Register Database and
and quality of experience. Research
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely American Society of Landscape Architects: Historic American
if adequate information can be obtained from project Landscapes Survey
documents. If users are surveyed, surveys require
expertise and time to create and implement. (See p. 51, A
Note on Surveys.)
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
project completion. If quantifying the production of
goods, having data for multiple years is recommended to
account for variation.

54
 Photo: Castiglion del Bosco
Castiglion del Bosco
Montalcino, Siena, Italy | EDSA, 2009

Preserved and restored approximately 400 Method

cypress trees lining the entry drive into the UNESCO documents were reviewed to understand the
cultural value of the site in general and the importance of
estate. The 800-year-old trees are an important the cypress trees in particular.
element of the distinctive visual identity of the Construction documents were consulted to determine
Val d’Orcia region, which is designated as a how arborists' recommendations were carried out to
preserve and restore existing healthy trees, remove
UNESCO World Heritage Site. unhealthy trees and invasive plants, and plant new trees
to replace those lost.
Project Overview To estimate the number of trees along the drive, the
Encompassing 4,500 acres of Tuscan countryside, the total length of the drive (1 mile) was multiplied by the
800-year-old Castiglion del Bosco estate is characterized approximate average distance between trees (25 feet)
by an iconic traditional working landscape of forests, along both sides of the drive to reach a total of 422 trees.
farms, and fields with dark green cypress trees
juxtaposed against the pale, rounded hills. This resort
project was designed to ensure the continuation of the
wine production at the estate while transforming it into a
world-class vacation destination.

55
 3 Health & Well-Being
Supporting physical health, mental health, and quality of life

Introduction
There is a well-established and ever-growing body of POTENTIAL METRICS
research on the cognitive, emotional, and physical Improvement in mood, level of satisfaction,
benefits provided by landscapes and greenery. These or quality of life
benefits include healthier childhood development,
increased physical activity, recovery from stress, improved • Conduct user surveys, interviews, or focus groups
concentration, faster healing, and a more positive outlook. to determine the improvement associated with
being in, viewing, or having access to the space.
Landscape design can foster these outcomes by creating Users can be asked to compare their experience
places for active recreation, respite, and access to nature. before and after a design intervention or to
While designing for health is done most intentionally compare to a conventionally-designed space.
in health care and educational settings, incorporating
accessible green spaces and views of trees, green roofs, Improvement in physical health or activity
and other vegetation can be done on sites of any size.
• Conduct a survey of users to determine a self-
Streetscapes, living environments, and urban parks are
reported improvement in health or physical activity
especially important because most health and well-being
as a result of having access to the space.
benefits are derived from everyday experiences.
• Use existing health data to determine a decrease
Assessment Considerations in negative indicators, such as asthma rates, or an
Scale: Health and well-being benefits are typically increase in positive ones, such as level of physical
assessed for an individual site or portion of a site. It may activity, that can be clearly linked to the site.
also be important to consider the role the site plays in
relation to other facilities in the vicinity. Level of physical activity
Methods: Metrics require fieldwork or access to • Use direct observation to document level of
previously documented health data and indicators. physical activitiy following SOPARC, SOPLAY,
Surveys can be used to gather information about how SOPARNA, or other observational methods.
the site influences users’ physical health and well-being.
Direct observations can be used to document level
of physical activity. A validated method for observing Resources
physical activity has been developed for a number of
different environments (SOPLAY, SOPARNA, SOPARC). Active Living Research: System for Observing Play and Leisure
Activity in Youth (SOPLAY)
Difficulty: Health and medical data is protected by strict
privacy rules. When available, it is often aggregated Active Living Research: System for Observing Physical Activity
at the city or regional level, which is not conducive to and Recreation in Natural Areas (SOPARNA)
determining the impact of a particular site. Because the Active Living Research: System for Observing Play and
issue of health is a sensitive topic, users may be less Recreation in Communities (SOPARC)
willing to participate in surveys or undergo observation. US Department of Health and Human Services: Healthy People
Surveys or observation studies require expertise and time 2020
to create and implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.)
US Centers for Disease Control: Health Impact Assessment
Timeframe: Surveys and site observations can be
performed upon project completion but may be more
accurate after several seasons when visitation and use
patterns stabilize. If health data or indicators are used, the
data should be reported over time period that is sufficient
to show a clear trend of improvement.

56
 Photo: Ralph Daniel Photography
Atlanta BeltLine Eastside Trail
Atlanta, Georgia | Perkins + Will, Inc., 2012

Promotes physical activity for 90% of 100 Method

surveyed trail users, and 70% of surveyed users A convenience survey of trail users was conducted during
self-reported that they exercise more since the site visits on a Sunday and Monday in early June 2014.
100 consenting participants completed hard copies of the
opening of the trail. survey, and the responses were subsequently entered
into an online database for data analysis.
Project Overview The first question reported in this benefit was:
“How do you benefit from the Eastside Trail (check all
The Eastside Trail is the first constructed segment of the
that apply)?” with 90 users selecting the option
Atlanta BeltLine, an adaptive reuse of a 22-mile corridor
“Active lifestyle.”
of abandoned railroad right-of-way that winds through
neighborhoods and new public spaces established as The second question was “Do you exercise more
part of the BeltLine. The 2.2-mile Eastside Trail provides since the Eastside Trail has opened?” with 70 users
a prime location for recreation and has become a vibrant responding "Yes."
setting for community events, volunteer activities, sports,
and philanthropic events, such as charity races. When
the entire Atlanta Beltline is complete by 2030, it will
serve as a comprehensive exemplar of transformative,
multi-phased landscape infrastructure.

57
4 Safety
Improving safety and reducing crime and perceptions of danger

Introduction
Landscape design can have a significant effect on both POTENTIAL METRICS
actual and perceived levels of crime, danger, and safety Reduction in traffic incidents (number/year)
for those using, passing through, or overlooking a
• Use data from local transportation or police
particular site.
departments to determine the change in the
A number of landscape interventions can improve number of incidents before and after a landscape
transportation safety, particularly for pedestrians and intervention or to compare to incidents at a
cyclists. These include bike lanes, marked or raised conventionally-designed site.
crosswalks, curb extensions, street trees, and other
traffic calming measures. In parks and other open spaces, Reduction in speed (rate or percent)
safety can be enhanced by the clustering of activity areas, • Measure vehicle speeds in a particular area
clear circulation and wayfinding, visibility and sightlines, of interest. Compare them to speeds before the
nighttime lighting, and other design and maintenance landscape intervention or to speeds measured on
principles known to deter crime. Activities and a different portion of the same roadway or in a
programming can promote use, which typically increases nearby conventionally-designed space.
informal surveillance and feelings of safety.

Assessment Considerations Reduction in crime (incidents/year)

• Use data on violent and/or property crime from
Scale: Safety can be assessed at the intersection, block,
local police departments to determine the change
site, or community scale, depending on the design
in the number of incidents before and after a
intervention being studied.
landscape intervention.
Methods: Determining changes in actual safety requires
access to data on traffic incidents or crime. Prior Perception of safety
transportation studies may contain information on past • Conduct a survey of site users or of those who
conditions and behaviors. Field observations can be live or spend time in the vicinity to determine if the
used to document changes in traffic speed, jaywalking, space is perceived as safe or whether the design
or other behaviors that impact safety. Surveys can yield intervention changed their perceptions about
information about perceptions of safety. safety.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
adequate records are available. Many factors contribute
to actual and perceived crime and safety, which may
make it difficult to attribute changes to the project alone.
Resources
Surveys or observation studies require expertise and time CrimeReports
to create and implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.) International CPTED Association: Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design
Timeframe: Site observations and surveys can be
conducted upon project completion, but may be more
accurate after several seasons when use patterns stabilize.
If traffic incident or crime data are used, the data should
be reported over a time period that is sufficient to show a
clear trend of improvement.

58
 Photo: OLIN/Karl-Ranier Blumenthal
Canal Park
Washington, District of Columbia | OLIN, 2012

Contributes to an 18% decrease in vehicular Method

speed through the park compared to the The average speed of vehicles traveling through the
park on L Street was compared to the average speed
adjacent block by narrowing streets and of vehicles traveling through the adjacent block on
extending park paving materials to create table- the same street. On-site measurements were taken to
determine the length of L Street between intersections
top sidewalks.
where it crosses the park (89.25 ft) and the length
between the next intersections outside of the park
Project Overview (192.5 ft).
Canal Park is a linear 3-block urban park in the Capitol Time-lapse photography taken over the course of one
Riverfront neighborhood of Washington, DC. Formerly day at the park was analyzed to estimate the time it
a parking lot for District school buses, the site was the took for vehicles to travel the distances measured. Data
historic site of the Washington City Canal that linked the was collected for over 100 vehicles for each section of
Anacostia and Potomac rivers. The design evokes this L Street to determine the average speed of vehicles
heritage through a linear rain garden and three pavilions passing through. Vehicles passing through the park
reminiscent of the floating barges that were once had an average speed of 17.3 ft/s, and vehicles passing
seen in the canal. Raised table-top intersections were through the adjacent block had an average speed of 21
implemented to slow traffic and prioritize pedestrian ft/s.
safety on the two streets that cross through the park.

59
 5 Educational Value
Fostering knowledge and awareness

Introduction
Landscapes provide incredible opportunities for POTENTIAL METRICS
engagement and learning. This education is more Site visitation (number/year)
formal at botanic gardens, cultural sites, demonstration
• Consult records from the owner, operator, or
projects, and other sites expressly designed as teaching
other entity that tracks visitation. This metric is
landscapes. Informal education occurs when people learn
most applicable for sites, such as memorials or
spontaneously from spending time in a landscape.
demonstration projects, where all visits can be
Site design can foster learning by revealing ecological assumed to have an educational purpose.
flows or cultural narratives. Many landscapes incorporate
interpretive signage, plaques, or facilities for audio or self- Number of or attendance at educational events
guided tours. Educational materials and complementary (number/year)
programming can further enhance the educational value • Consult records from the owner or other entity
of a site. Augmented reality and other technologies are that programs and tracks use of the site for
opening up new possibilities for educational experiences. educational purposes. This may include tours,
Assessment Considerations school group visits, and educational programming.

Scale: Educational value is usually assessed for an Extent of facility use (percent use or duration of time)
individual site or installation.
• Reference project documents to identify facilities
Methods: Metrics in this category require fieldwork, that directly support education, such as signage.
previous documentation of visitation or use, or access to Use observations or survey data to determine
website or provider data. Museums, gardens, educational extent of use, which can be expressed as the
institutions, and government agencies frequently keep percent of visitors who use the educational facilities
records of visitation and program participation. Direct or the amount of time they spend using them.
observation can gauge use of educational facilities.
Surveys can yield information about knowledge acquired. Number of people accessing educational materials
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if • Consult records from the owner or other entity
adequate records are available. Surveys or observation to determine use or distribution of educational
studies require expertise and time to create and materials like pamphlets or audio tour equipment.
implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.) • Use analytics or provider data to determine the
Timeframe: Site observations and surveys can be number of users accessing landscape-related online
conducted upon project completion. Ideally, data on content, videos, apps, or other educational media.
visitation and use of educational materials should be
collected over a full year. Increase in knowledge
• Conduct a survey of users to determine a self-
reported increase in knowledge or educational
value gained from visiting the site.
• Conduct a survey of users to determine
understanding of key concepts presented. Before/
after surveys can be used to measure knowledge
attributable to the site visit as opposed to prior
knowledge.

60
 Photo: Landscape Architecture Foundation
Brian C. Nevin Welcome Center, Cornell Plantations
Ithaca, New York | Halvorson Design Partnership, 2011

Achieves learning objectives, with 68% of 71 Method

survey respondents correctly answering at least The Cornell Plantations established a set of learning
objectives for visitors, including benchmarks like,
7 out of 9 questions about the site's bioswales. "most visitors will realize that water is much cleaner
when it leaves the bioswale than when it entered" and
Project Overview "most visitors will recognize that a bioswale is a more
The Cornell Plantations is a university-based public sustainable alternative to a conventional drainage
garden network with 4,000 acres of natural and culvert system."
designed landscapes in and around Cornell University's In order to evaluate a visitor's understanding of green
campus, dedicated to environmental preservation and infrastructure practices, staff developed a visitor survey
education. The Nevin Welcome Center project is part of a that included a short quiz with true or false questions
comprehensive landscape reorganization of the heart of to assess whether or not the project's bioswale-related
the Botanical Garden. Its surrounding landscape serves learning objectives were achieved.
as a pedestrian-friendly gateway to the adjacent 25-
Of 71 survey respondents who took the survey between
acre Botanical Garden. The Welcome Center features a
early June and late July 2014, 48 respondents (68%)
lush horticultural display with interpretive signage that
answered at least 7 questions out of 9 correctly.
articulates some of the ecosystem services provided by
the bioswale and other green infrastructure on site.

61
 6 Noise Mitigation
Reducing actual or perceived levels of undesirable sound

Introduction
In an increasingly urban world, outdoor ambient noise POTENTIAL METRICS
exceeds acceptable levels in many cities and communities. Ambient noise levels (decibels)
Noise pollution has been linked to sleep disturbances,
• Measure sound levels for an area of interest
impaired childhood development, annoyance, stress,
with a sound meter. Compare to design standards
and even cardiovascular disease. While road, rail,
or local thresholds. Alternately, measured sound
and air traffic is the biggest source of noise in urban
can be compared to pre-construction levels or to
environments, other sources include construction,
measured levels in a comparable location without a
industry, and recreational activities.
landscape intervention.
Landscape interventions, such as berms, walls, and
• Reference documents from a previous sound
techniques to lower vehicle speeds, can reduce noise
study or modeling conducted for the site and report
levels. Vegetation can attenuate noise, though thick bands
the change in noise levels. Such a study is common
are needed for a significant effect. Trees and plants, water
if experts in environmental acoustics are involved in
features, and the birds and wildlife these features attract
a project.
generate sounds that mask undesirable noise. In addition,
research shows that, in the presence of vegetation, Remember that decibels are logarithmic and cannot
people perceive noise levels to be lower than they be manipulated without converting back to a linear
actually are.⁵ scale or using a decibel calculator.

Assessment Considerations Perception of undesirable noise

Scale: Noise is typically assessed for an individual site or • Conduct a survey of users to determine their
area of interest on a site. perceptions about noise in an area of interest.
Methods: Metrics in this category require fieldwork or This metric is useful when undesirable noise is not
previous documentation of noise levels. When noise reduced but rather masked by pleasant noises, such
mitigation is a central goal, noise studies or modeling as the sound of leaves in the wind or falling water.
are often done as part of the project delivery process. To • Conduct a survey of site users or those who
measure noise, a Class 1 or Class 2 sound level meter is spend time in the vicinity to determine whether
needed. Smart phone applications can give approximate the design intervention changed their perceptions
levels but are less reliable. Season, time of day, weather of noise.
conditions, and other factors affecting ambient noise
must be considered. Surveys can yield information about
perceptions of noise.
Resources
Difficulty: This assessment requires fieldwork unless a
Purdue University: Noise Sources and Their Effects
noise study has already been conducted. Measurement
of noise levels is straightforward, but, because decibels NoiseMeters, Inc.: Decibel Calculator
are logarithmic, calculations involve more complicated
math. Surveys require expertise and time to create and
implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.)
Timeframe: Fieldwork and surveys can be conducted
upon project completion. If vegetation is a key noise
mitigation strategy, timing should consider seasonal
variation. Noise attenuation from vegetation will increase
over time as plants grow and fill in.

62
 Photo: Sahar Coston-Hardy/SALT Design Studio
Chester Arthur School
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | SALT Design Studio, 2017

Reduces average noise level from 87 decibels Method

to 81.5 decibels, achieving a clearly noticeable Decibel readings were taken before and after
construction by the firm with the SkyPaw Decibel 10th:
reduction. Professional Noise Meter App on two separate iPhone
6 devices at a single point in each of nine zones defined
Project Overview on site. Decibel readings were taken every hour for four
Chester Arthur School is a public K-12 school in the days, from 9am-7pm, during weekend and school days.
densely populated Graduate Hospital neighborhood Data collectors stood in the center of each zone, with
of Philadelphia. Pre-construction, the schoolyard one facing inwards towards the site, and the other facing
was almost entirely asphalt, offered little physical the street. Decibel levels were then averaged (after being
or intellectual stimulation to students, and released converted into their linear values) across observation
99% of stormwater runoff directly into Philadelphia’s periods and between the two devices to arrive at a single
combined sewer system. The new schoolyard design decibel average for each area.
incorporates the school’s fledgling STEM curriculum
A 3 decibel increase or decrease is the threshold of
into outdoor, interactive learning. Post-construction,
human ability to perceive a change, while a 5 decibel
the schoolyard is quieter and more verdant, offers
change is clearly noticeable to an average person.
habitat for neighborhood wildlife, and encourages much
higher usage and activity levels on site by students and
neighborhood residents.

63
 7 Food Production
Supporting urban agriculture

Introduction
Interest in urban agriculture has been steadily rising as a POTENTIAL METRICS
means to promote nutrition, address food security, reduce Amount of food produced (weight or volume)
transportation and storage needs, and provide economic
• Consult records from the site owner, land
opportunity. Urban agriculture typically uses intensive and
manager, or other entity that tracks food
more sustainable production methods. The resulting crops
production on the site to determine the amount of
are usually consumed by the producers, grown for local
food produced in a season or annually.
restaurants, or sold in local farmers markets.
• Use the Grow Your Own Vegetables Value
Landscapes can incorporate food production as garden
Calculator or similar tool to estimate yields based
plots, on rooftops, or as community gardens. Production
on the land area devoted to different types of
of vegetables, herbs, and fruits is most common, though
crops.
urban agriculture can also encompass beekeeping,
poultry, aquaponics, and livestock. New food production • Conduct a survey of community garden users to
techniques are emerging, like vertical farming, indoor determine the type and yield of crops they plant.
farms, and high-tech growing methods.
Monetary value of food produced
Assessment Considerations • Consult records from the site owner or land
Scale: Food production is usually assessed for an manager related to the sale of food produced
individual site or portion of a site. on-site.
Methods: Metrics rely on estimates or previous • Use local prices from a grocery store or farmers
documentation of yields or market value. Site visits, market to calculate the value of food produced.
data from site plans, and photographs can be used to • Use the Grow Your Own Vegetables Value
corroborate information obtained from site managers Calculator or similar tool to estimate the market
and users. value based on the total weight produced of
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if different types of crops.
adequate information is available. It involves performing
simple calculations. Number of meals provided or food recipients
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted at the end • Consult records from the site owner or operator.
of a year or growing season. For new urban agriculture This metric is applicable when food is prepared
operations, it may be preferable to wait until the second and consumed on the site or given to an entity that
year or growing season once operations have stabilized. distributes it to others, such as a food pantry or
Year-to-year yields will depend on weather, disease, pests, soup kitchen.
and other factors. Conducting the assessment annually
can help to gauge average production.
Resources
PlanGarden: Grow Your Own Vegetables Value Calculator

64
 Photo: Scott Shigley/Hoerr Schaudt Landscape Architects
Gary Comer Youth Center
Chicago, Illinois | Hoerr Schaudt Landscape Architects, 2006

Produces 1,000 lbs of fruits and vegetables Method

annually. Food from the rooftop contributes to The annual yield is based on the amount of food
meals for 175 children each day, is distributed harvested in 2009 and 2010. The 2009 yield and number
of distribution points, including the number of lunches
among 4 local restaurants, and is sold at a local provided each day, were reported in the summer 2009
farmers market. publication of Edible Chicago.
2010 yields and distribution points were verified through
Project Overview an interview with the Gary Comer Youth Center Garden
Located on Chicago’s South Side, the Gary Comer Manager in July 2011.
Youth Center offers extracurricular activities and
hands-on learning opportunities in a positive and safe
environment. The elevated courtyard, located above the
gymnasium and cafeteria and encircled by the broad
windows of the third floor, gives youth and seniors access
to the outdoors and creates a hospitable microclimate
for its working garden. The roof garden functions as an
outdoor classroom for a variety of courses related to
food preparation that help students prepare for careers.

65
 8 Scenic Quality & Views
Improving the visual quality of an area

Introduction
Aesthetics, the creation and appreciation of beauty POTENTIAL METRICS
and other perceptual experiences, plays a central Score on an established visual quality scale
role in the design of the built environment. Individual
• Use a federal agency’s scenic quality assessment
aesthetic preferences are embedded in complex webs of
or visual impact assessment protocol to determine
meaning derived from personal experience, sociocultural
a score or change in score prior to and after the
surroundings, and wider political and economic contexts.
project.
Yet, there are many commonalities in how humans
perceive the scenic quality of landscapes and the types of • Use a local or regional index and thresholds to
views they prefer. evaluate the scenic quality of a roadway, corridor,
shoreline, or recreation area. The score can be
While aesthetic considerations are part of any well-
compared to that of the before condition or to a
designed landscape project, views and visual quality are
comparable location without a design intervention.
often prioritized in areas of high scenic or cultural value.
Thoughtful site design can preserve, restore, and enhance Percent of unwanted views screened or desirable
these aspects. Design elements like walls, trees, and other
vegetation can block or screen unwanted views.
views retained
• Use digital photography and image analysis
Assessment Considerations software to determine the areas of screened and
Scale: Scenic quality may be assessed for an individual site retained views to calculate the percent.
or portion of a site or for a larger corridor, recreation area, • Use modeling and 3-D simulation software to
or viewshed of which the project is part. estimate the areas of screened and retained views
Methods: Quantification of landscape aesthetics is a before and after the design intervention.
notoriously thorny research issue. Best methods integrate
quantitative and qualitative data. Metrics in this category Perception of aesthetic value
are based on indices, modeling or image analysis, or user • Conduct a survey of visitors to determine their
surveys. The US Forest Service (USFS), Wyoming Bureau perceptions of aesthetic quality for a site or area
of Land Management (WBLM), National Park Service, and of interest.
other federal agencies have developed protocols to assess • Conduct a survey of site users or those who
visual quality. Local and regional guidelines also exist. spend time in the vicinity to determine whether
Impacts on views can be determined from photography or and how the design intervention changed their
model simulations. Surveys can yield information about perceptions about scenic quality or aesthetic value.
perceptions of aesthetic quality.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
adequate imagery or models are available. Fieldwork is
required for a visual quality assessment. Surveys require
Resources
expertise and time to create and implement. (See p. 51, A USFS: A Handbook for Scenery Management
Note on Surveys.) WBLM: Visual Resources Clearinghouse
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
project completion. If vegetation is a key screening
strategy, timing should consider seasonal variation. Views
screened and framed by vegetation will change over time
as plants grow and fill in.

66
 Photo: Design Workshop
Park Avenue/US 50, Phase 1 Redevelopment
South Lake Tahoe, California | Design Workshop, 2003

Increased the total visible area of the natural Method

environment by 10%. For all views of the The redevelopment had a goal of no net loss of views of
the Carson Range. To reach this goal, designers created
Carson Range that were blocked by new a set of 26 3-D computer simulations that included
development, the design created new views in the redevelopment plan's proposed new buildings and
removal of existing buildings. Specific viewpoints in
other areas of the project site.
these simulations were converted into line drawings,
transferred onto transparency sheets, and overlaid onto
Project Overview photographs of existing conditions taken from the same
The town of South Lake Tahoe had experienced sprawl, viewpoints. Then, using a planimeter, they measured
which created traffic congestion, limited connectivity the visible natural landscape area under the existing
to recreational assets, and negatively impacted the conditions and the proposed conditions. The net gain
scenic quality of Lake Tahoe and the region. Residents, or loss was calculated. To ensure accuracy, both areas
officials, and developers jointly devised development were measured twice and then averaged.
regulations to address this. Visual clutter, including It should be noted that this assessment was conducted
billboards and irregular street walls, were replaced with with model simulated views and not images of the built
consistent signage, awnings, and overhangs, which landscape.
protect and enhance views of the Carson Range.

67
 9 Transportation
Fostering walking, biking, mass transit, and other alternative modes

Introduction
For nearly a century, the dominance of the personal POTENTIAL METRICS
automobile has defined the form of American cities and Increase in walking, biking, or mass transit use
nonurban settlements. Dependence on the automobile (number/day or mode-share)
has led to sprawling development patterns, traffic
congestion, increased fossil fuel consumption, air and • Consult records or counts from a local
noise pollution, and higher rates of accidents. transportation department or mass transit
authority to determine the number of users of a
Site planning and design can encourage alternative modes given mode. Compare to data collected prior to the
of transportation by creating compact and connected project or to a local average or typical condition.
road networks, incorporating pedestrian and bicycle
infrastructure, designing for mass transit and ride-hailing • Use direct observation or surveys to count users
services, and using other complete streets treatments. of different modes for a representative sample. Use
Landscape projects can also provide missing links and this data to estimate mode-share and compare to a
connections for a transportation network. local average or typical condition.
• Install counting devices or sensors to count
Assessment Considerations pedestrians or cyclists over a period of interest.
Scale: Landscape-based transportation benefits are • Use video or time-lapse photography to estimate
assessed at the site, neighborhood, city, or regional scale, the number of users of a given mode over a period
depending on type of design intervention being studied. of time of interest.
Methods: Metrics rely on observations, surveys, or • Conduct a survey of site users to determine their
previous documentation of transportation choices. mode of transportation or whether the design
Local transportation departments and mass transit intervention affected their mode choice.
authorities frequently collect ridership data. If counts
will be conducted, equipment like a time-lapse camera Reduction in vehicle miles traveled
or infrared sensors can facilitate the process. Surveys
• Consult records from a local transportation
can yield information about modes, travel distances, and
department. Compare pre- and post-project data.
changes in transportation choices.
• Conduct a survey of those who live, work, or
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely
attend school on the site to determine if private
if adequate records or project documents are available.
vehicles are used less for daily trips than they were
Counts or surveys require expertise and time to develop
prior to the project or compared to a local average.
and implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.)
Estimate the reduction in vehicle miles traveled.
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon
• Convert mode-share data into an estimated
project completion but may be more accurate after
reduction in vehicle miles traveled based on
several seasons when use and travel patterns stabilize.
assumptions about trip origin and distance.
Counts or observations should be done on a typical day,
or ideally over a longer period of time to account for daily, Increase in key connections
weekly, and seasonal variation.
• Reference project documents to identify
Resources key linkages that were created as part of the
Institute of Transportation Engineers and Alta Planning: National project. This metric is most applicable when
Bicycle and Pedestrian Documentation Program sections of trail, sidewalk, bike lanes, or bridges
Transportation Research Board: Guidebook on Pedestrian and provide connections that had been missing from a
Bicycle Volume Data Collection larger network.

68
 Photo: D.A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Daybreak Community
South Jordan, Utah | Design Workshop, 2004-2025

Reduces auto trips with 88% of neighborhood Method

students currently walking or riding bikes to A 2010 study by the University of Utah’s Department
of Family and Consumer Studies showed that 88% of
school. This is expected to reduce auto trips by students in Daybreak walked to school.
2.3 million miles a year at build-out. US Census Bureau data was used to determine the
current proportion of households with children, and
Project Overview this was used to project the number at build-out. This
This 4,127-acre mixed-use community project was provided an estimate of 14,360 families (71.8% of
planned on surplus mining land and will accommodate 20,000 total residential units).
over 20,000 residential units, approximately 9.1 million To determine annual trip miles that would be driven, a
sf of commercial space, and 20,000 jobs at build-out. half-mile trip was estimated twice daily for 180 school
The extensive park and open space areas integrate days for each of the 14,360 families, totaling 2,584,800
stormwater management with natural systems. The miles. Because 88% of students walk to school, the
community is a sustainable new urbanist development number of trip miles saved is 2,274,624.
with walkable streets, an extensive trail system, native It should be noted that this assessment utilized
and drought-tolerant plants, habitat conservation areas, projected populations at build-out.
and amenities made out of recycled materials.

69
10 Access & Equity
Creating or improving access to facilities and amenities

Introduction
Access to high-quality parks, bike and pedestrian facilities, POTENTIAL METRICS
open space, and other landscapes is an important social Increase in level of service
and environmental justice issue. Access is especially
• Consult studies or use data from local parks
crucial for underserved populations, such as minority
departments, census data, and spatial analysis
groups, children, the elderly, people with disabilities,
to determine the level of service, such as acres
and the poor. In addition to physical access, inclusivity is
of parkland per 1,000 residents or playgrounds
important to address social and psychological barriers.
within a 10-minute walk. Compare pre- and post-
Access and equity can be improved by locating parks and construction conditions or compare to local or
infrastructure in underserved and disadvantaged areas, regional averages or level of service standards.
creating new connections, and ensuring that facilities are This metric is most relevant for new facilities in
universally accessible. The design process, programming, underserved communities.
and ongoing outreach play key roles in ensuring that sites
are inclusive and serve the needs of diverse users. Site or facility use by target population
Assessment Considerations • Consult records from the owner, operator, or
other entity that programs and tracks use of the
Scale: Use, accessibility, and inclusiveness are typically site. If the project was an improvement to an
assessed at the site scale. Equity and access to facilities existing site, the change in visitation or use prior to
are typically assessed at the neighborhood, city, or and after the project can be reported.
regional scale and must consider existing facilities,
context, population demographics, and design intent. • Use direct observation to count visitation or use
by collecting representative samples. This method
Methods: Metrics rely on population and spatial is most applicable for sites specifically designed to
information or fieldwork. Most parks departments have meet the needs of a target population, such as a
readily-available information about facilities, and the US universally accessible playground.
Census Bureau has data on neighborhood demographics.
Direct observation and surveys can be used to collect Perception of inclusiveness
information on use or perceptions. On-site convenience
• Conduct a survey of site users and those who
surveys may not be sufficient to assess access and
live or spend time in the vicinity to determine if
inclusion, which must take into consideration not only
the space is perceived as inclusive or whether the
those using the space but also those who are not.
design intervention changed their perceptions of it.
Difficulty: Level of service assessment can be conducted The survey should include demographic questions
remotely if adequate information is available. Surveys or to assess if populations of interest are being served.
observation studies require expertise and time to create
and implement. (See p. 51, A Note on Surveys.) Quality of the visitor experience
Timeframe: This assessment can be conducted upon • Conduct a survey of site users or of those from
project completion. Site observations and surveys can a population of interest, such as people with
be conducted upon project completion but may be more disabilities or those experiencing homelessness,
accurate after several seasons when use patterns stabilize. to determine the nature and quality of their
experience. Questions should focus on issues of
Resources access and inclusion.
Trust for Public Land: ParkScore
US Census Bureau

70
 Photo: Lamb Studio
Vista Hermosa
Los Angeles, California | Studio-MLA, 2008

Increased the number of publicly-accessible Method

soccer fields in the neighborhood from 2 to 3, The 2016 Los Angeles Countywide Parks and Recreation
which represents 2.6 soccer fields per 100,000 Needs Assessment was used to determine soccer
field averages for both Los Angeles County and the
residents, as compared to the county-wide ratio United States.
of 4 per 100,000 residents. Westlake neighborhood data came from the report's
Westlake section, which provided the soccer field count
Project Overview for the neighborhood and the area's population.
Located at the edge of a dense urban neighborhood,
Vista Hermosa was the first public park constructed in
downtown Los Angeles in over 100 years. Formerly a
hazardous gas field, the park provides residents of the
previously park-poor, primarily Latinx neighborhood with
opportunities for active and passive recreation along
with access to nature and its restorative qualities. The
site's new soccer field is regulation-size and made of
synthetic turf. All stormwater runoff from the soccer field
is collected in a 20,000-gallon cistern.

71
72
03. ECONOMIC
BENEFITS

73
 AT&T Performing Arts Center: Sammons Park | SmithGroup
(Photo: SmithGroup)
74
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
1 Property Value
Adding value to the site or adjacent properties

2 Operations & Maintenance Savings

Reducing ongoing costs associated with
operations and upkeep

3 Construction Cost Savings

Reducing one-time costs associated with
project implementation

4 Job Creation
Providing employment as part of construction
or ongoing operations

5 Visitor Spending & Earned Income

Generating revenues from those who visit and use
the site

6 Tax Revenue
Generating revenues through property and sales taxes

7 Economic Development
Catalyzing real estate and business investment

75
 1 Property Value
Adding value to the site or adjacent properties

Introduction
Property values are perhaps the most tangible indicator POTENTIAL METRICS
of the economic performance of a site. While higher Increase in assessed value, sales price, or rent
property values can benefit the owner and tax base, they (total or percent)
can also lead to lack of affordability and displacement.
• Use data from public records, property listings,
The outdoor environment has a significant impact on or a property manager to determine the increase
the value of commercial, residential, and other types of in the value of a property with on-site landscape
development. This includes areas on the property itself improvements as compared to the before condition
as well as streets, nearby spaces, and views. Research or to a comparable property.
has correlated property value increases to a number of
specific landscape elements including street trees, green Average increase in assessed value, sales price, or
roofs, and high quality plantings, as well as walkability, rental rates of nearby properties (total or percent)
proximity to a park or open space, and high-quality views.
• Use data from public records, property listings,
Assessment Considerations or a property manager to determine the average
increase in value for properties adjacent to a
Scale: Property value may be assessed for a specific site
landscape improvement as compared to the before
or for sites in the vicinity of a landscape intervention. The
condition or to similar properties not neighboring
analysis should consider data for the neighborhood, city,
the improvement.
or region as a whole over the same time period to account
for wider real estate and economic trends.
Methods: In the US, assessed value and other property
information are in the public record, and many Timeframe: This assessment can be performed upon
municipalities make these available online. Sales prices project completion if a property is fully sold or rented out
may be in the public record and can be found on many when it delivers. More commonly, the assessment should
property listing websites. Automated valuation models be performed a year or more after project completion
like those offered on Zillow and Redfin predict a home’s once property assessments, sales prices, or rental rates
value based on recent sales and area list prices, but these have had time to adjust. The data should be reported
should be used judiciously because many will estimate a over a time period that is sufficient to show a clear trend
value even when data is limited. Property managers can that is to some extent attributable to the project.
provide information on residential and commercial rents. Resources
If different properties are being compared, they should be
Zillow
similar in location, size, and amenities. When comparing
over time, properties may show an increase, stabilization, Redfin
or smaller decline than comparative properties, Nationwide Environmental Title Research (NETR): Public
depending on the overall market. Records Online Directory
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely
if adequate data is available. Many factors contribute to
property values, sales prices, and rents, which may make
it difficult to attribute changes to the project alone.

76
 Photo: John Gollings/Hargreaves Associates
Renaissance Park
Chattanooga, Tennessee | Hargreaves Associates, 2006

Catalyzed a 821% increase in aggregate land Method

value within a quarter mile of the park between Current and historical data from the Hamilton County
assessor’s office were examined and revealed stable
2005 and 2013, compared to a 319 % increase land values within the study area leading up to the
within the same North Shore Neighborhood but commencement of the park’s construction in 2004-2005.
further from the park over the same period. An 821% increase in the aggregate land value of 338
properties within a quarter mile of the park was
Project Overview observed between 2005 and 2013. This growth was
benchmarked against the 319% increase in the aggregate
Renaissance Park is a 22-acre urban brownfield land value of the 973 parcels within the North Shore
redevelopment project within Chattanooga’s nationally- Neighborhood that are outside of the study area during
recognized Tennessee River Park. The project the same period.
transformed a blighted post-industrial site known to be
leaching contaminants into surface and groundwater A significant spike was noted between 2009 and 2010,
resources into a celebrated public park that has been which is the first year in the county records that 245
a catalyst for reinvestment in Chattanooga’s growing new condominiums were reflected in tax records. If
Northshore neighborhood. land values associated with these new condominiums is
removed, a significant increase of 477% remains.

77
 2 Operations & Maintenance Savings
Reducing ongoing costs associated with operations and upkeep

Introduction
Design decisions can result in significant savings over the POTENTIAL METRICS
life of a project due to reduced energy and water use, Savings on water costs
lower maintenance and labor costs, and savings on other
• Calculate the overall potable water cost savings
aspects of operating and maintaining the space.
by using utility bills to determine the total annual
Thoughtful site and planting design can create resilient, cost. Compare it to the cost prior to the project or
self-sustaining landscapes that require less maintenance to potable water costs at a conventional site.
and fewer inputs than conventional plantings. Sustainable
• Convert estimated water use reductions
energy and water infrastructure lead to costs savings
associated with plant selection or a particular
through avoidance. Choices of landscape materials,
system on the site, such as an efficient irrigation
efficient fixtures, and smart systems can save on operating
system, to a monetary value using a local utility
and replacement costs.
rate. (See Water Conservation.)
Assessment Considerations • Calculate annual cost savings associated with
Scale: Operations and maintenance savings are typically on-site stormwater management using utility bills
assessed for an individual site or portion of a site. or rate/fee structure documents. (See Stormwater
Management.) This metric only applies in
Methods: Metrics rely on utility bills, maintenance
jurisdictions that impose stormwater fees based on
records, or estimates. Reductions in water, energy,
actual or estimated runoff.
and fuel use can be converted into cost savings using
applicable rates. Plant maintenance needs can be Savings on energy costs
estimated based on species type and application, such as
turf grass lawns which require regular mowing. General • Calculate the overall energy cost savings by using
parameters for life span and replacement needs can be utility bills to determine the total annual cost.
used to make comparisons for many landscape elements, Compare it to the cost prior to the project or to
such as perennial versus annual plants or LED versus energy costs at a conventional site. (See Carbon
halogen bulbs. Sequestration & Avoidance.)

Difficulty: This assessment involves performing • Convert estimated energy use reductions
simple calculations. If inadequate data exists to make associated with a particular system on the site, such
comparisons, assumptions can be made about the before as a green roof or solar panels, to a monetary value
condition or a comparable conventional landscape. using a local utility rate. (See Energy Use.)

Timeframe: This assessment can be performed upon Savings on maintenance costs

project completion if the savings are based on estimates.
• Consult records from the site owner or operator
If using utility bills or maintenance records, having at
to determine actual or estimated maintenance
least a year of data is recommended to account for
costs. Compare to costs prior to the project or to a
seasonal variation.
conventional site.
Resources • Estimate the labor and fuel costs for landscape
OpenEI: US Utility Rate Database (Electric Utility Rates) maintenance activities like mowing. Compare to
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Financial costs prior to the project or to a conventional site.
Sustainability and Rates Dashboards (Drinking Water and • Estimate savings from longer life span or lower
Wastewater)
replacement costs of sustainable plants, materials,
and systems compared to conventional ones.

78
 Photo: SmithGroup
Carmel Clay Central Park
Carmel, Indiana | SmithGroup, 2007

Saves $54,000 in annual maintenance costs by Method

introducing native plant species in open areas An interview with the Director of Carmel Clay Parks and
Recreation revealed that annual maintenance costs for
instead of turf. turf areas were $1,400 per acre and maintenance costs
for prairies and natural areas were $50 per acre annually.
Project Overview The park has approximately 15 acres of turf and 40 acres
The town of Carmel has the second-largest concentration of prairie/natural area.
of commercial office space in Indiana but had no parks To show how much is saved by the prairie acreage, the 40
before the Parks District was formed 21 years ago. As real acres of prairie was multiplied by cost per acre to reveal
estate pressures expanded, residents expressed a desire the total maintenance cost if it had been a conventional
for a park on the site of the last remaining local farm. turf landscape ($56,000) as well as the cost for the prairie
Clay Central Park is a 161-acre park that is now known landscape ($2,000).
as the "crown jewel" of the park system and includes
The difference between the two totals reveals the
60 acres of woodland, 40 acres of restored prairie, 6.5
amount saved annually by planting native vegetation
acres of wetlands, and more than four miles of trails. The
instead of turf on 40 acres of the site.
park provides opportunities for recreation and relaxation
for the city's 80,000 residents and draws visitors from
neighboring Indianapolis and other cities.

79
 3 Construction Cost Savings
Reducing one-time costs associated with project implementation

Introduction
Siting, design, and staging decisions have a direct impact POTENTIAL METRICS
on construction costs. While some sustainable solutions Reduction in earthwork costs
have higher upfront costs, many have similar costs or can
• Reference project and construction documents
even result in construction cost savings.
to determine the area or volume of earthwork
Limiting clearing and grading, balancing cut and fill avoided through siting, design, and material
volumes, and repurposing demolition materials as fill can decisions. Estimate the cost savings using local cost
save on earthwork costs. Repurposing materials from the estimates for excavation, grading, imported fill,
existing site can be more economical than importing or and/or off-site disposal.
disposal. Green infrastructure to manage stormwater and
flooding is usually less expensive than conventional pipes Reduction in hauling and disposal costs
and holding tanks. Other sustainable material choices may • Convert the amount of waste avoided through
have lower upfront costs. design decisions or material reuse to a cost savings
Assessment Considerations using local disposal rates. (See Reused & Recycled
Materials and Waste Reduction.)
Scale: Construction cost savings are typically assessed for
an individual site or portion of a site. Reduction in materials costs
Methods: Construction cost savings can be determined as • Reference project documents to determine
costs avoided or by comparing actual or estimated costs sustainable systems and materials used. Compare
to the material and/or installation costs of a conventional the actual or estimated cost of one or more of
material or system. A number of rule-of-thumb estimates these to the cost of a conventional system or
for earthwork, transportation, and disposal are available material, such as reclaimed wood versus new
online. Contractors may also be able to provide estimates. lumber. Ideally, this comparison should also
Material costs can be obtained from suppliers. Local factor in any additional transportation or
sources should be consulted whenever possible. installation costs.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if
the information can be obtained from project documents.
It involves performing simple calculations.
Timeframe: This assessment can be performed upon
project completion.

80
 Photo: Kodiak Greenwood
Cavallo Point
Sausalito, California | Office of Cheryl Barton, 2008

Saved nearly $140,000 in earthwork costs during Method

construction by using the building pads of 14 Construction documents were consulted to determine
that 14 building pads with an average size of 2,200 sf
demolished non-historic buildings to support new were reused on the site. Constructing a building pad
structures. typically involves a four foot depth of fill and off-haul,
which costs $30 per cubic yard to remove on sloped sites
Project Overview such as Cavallo Point.

This "post-to-park" transformation of Fort Baker to Volume of building pad material was calculated
Cavallo Point was designed to reduce the environmental using these numbers and equalled 8,800 cu ft or 326
and economic burdens on the new owner, the National cubic yards.
Park Service. Reusing existing infrastructure and reverting The number of cubic yards was then multiplied by the
much of the landscape to native plantings helped reach cost per cubic yard to equal $136,900.
the client’s goal of financial sustainability. Adaptive reuse
of this National Landmark District resulted in a state-of-
the-art conference center, the restoration of endangered
habitat, and the regeneration of public open space.

81
 4 Job Creation
Providing employment as part of construction or ongoing operations

Introduction
Land development projects involve many person-hours POTENTIAL METRICS
for design, construction, and project management, with Number of temporary jobs created during design
more time required for projects that are larger or more and construction
complex. Though these direct jobs are temporary, many
developments also create permanent jobs in operations • Reference project documents or consult records
and maintenance or contribute to indirect job creation. from the project manager to determine the number
of jobs or person-hours worked. Convert these to
Designed landscapes often result in the creation of full-time equivalent jobs.
full-time permanent employment for land and facilities
managers, site operators, concessionaires, maintenance • Consult records from the site owner or project
crews, and other support staff. Because many jobs in manager to obtain project expenditures. Use a
landscape operations and maintenance do not require regional or national ratio to estimate the number
prior experience or specialized education, these positions of jobs created per amount spent on construction,
may also provide a social benefit by offering transitional capital, or infrastructure investment.
jobs or employment opportunities for vulnerable groups,
such as people with disabilities, ex-offenders, and recent
Number of permanent or seasonal jobs created
immigrants. • Consult records from the site owner or operator
to determine the number of permanent or seasonal
Assessment Considerations staff positions created as a result of the project.
Scale: Job creation is typically assessed for an individual
site or development project.
Methods: Temporary jobs in design and construction can
be determined from records of personnel or person-hours
devoted to a project. Alternatively, the number of jobs
can be estimated using project expenditures. A number
of researchers and organizations have developed national
and regional estimates of jobs created per amount spent
on construction, capital, or infrastructure investment. The
type and number of permanent or seasonal jobs created
can be obtained from site or property managers.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely
if adequate information can be obtained from project
documents, project managers, or site management.
Timeframe: Temporary jobs created during the design
and construction process can be assessed upon project
completion. The creation of ongoing jobs can be assessed
once permanent or seasonal staff has been hired and
positions established. Having data for multiple years is
recommended to confirm that the jobs are stable from
year to year.

82
 Photo: OJB Landscape Architecture
Klyde Warren Park
Dallas, Texas | OJB Landscape Architecture, 2012

Creates 8 full-time and 5 part-time jobs in Method

maintenance and operations, in addition to The Park at Dallas Foundation provided archival data for
full-time and part-time jobs created.
approximately 68 temporary jobs that were
To estimate job creation during construction, the
created during design and construction. Consulting Project Manager provided construction
person-hours, which were used to calculate indirect jobs.
Project Overview Total construction person-hours and consultant hours
Klyde Warren Park is a landmark central open space that were divided by a 40-hour work week, and the resulting
spans the eight lane, sunken Woodwall Rogers Freeway, number of 40-hour work weeks were divided by 130
bridging Dallas' Uptown and Arts District neighborhoods. construction weeks to estimate 68 temporary jobs
It is the world's largest suspended infrastructure to created.
contain a park and provides new programmed public
space that physically, socially, and culturally connects
two bustling districts. Complex technical engineering
solutions structurally support massive loads above the
busy freeway while allowing for an open, flexible park
layout with sufficient soil to support a variety of trees
and plantings.

83
 5 Visitor Spending & Earned Income
Generating revenues from those who visit and use the site

Introduction
Exemplary places have the ability to attract local, POTENTIAL METRICS
regional, national, and international visitors. Particularly Revenue or net revenue from entrance or parking
popular, well-known, or iconic sites can draw hundreds of fees
thousands or even millions of visitors per year, which can
• Consult records from the site owner or operator
have a significant impact on the economy of a city
to determine annual revenue from fees charged
or region.
at the site.
A number of parks, trails, public spaces, and other
• Estimate entrance or parking fee revenues
designed landscapes serve as a primary draw for tourists.
collected based on the fee amount and site
Many sites generate earned income through entrance
visitation. (See Recreational & Social Value.)
and parking fees or fees for particular activities, such as
bike rentals, guided tours, or amusement rides, as well as Revenue or net revenue from sales
revenue from on-site concessions or retail establishments.
Sites may also have sports fields or specific areas that can • Consult records from the site owner, operator, or
be rented for picnics, parties, weddings, or special events. concessionaire to determine sales revenues from
restaurant or retail establishments, activity fees,
Assessment Considerations equipment rentals, or other goods and services sold
on or adjacent to the site.
Scale: Earned income is typically assessed at the individual
site scale. For visitor spending, because a site can be part Revenue or net revenue from facility rentals
of a larger tourist area or network of sites, it is important
• Consult records from the site owner or operator
to consider the context and the role the site plays in
to determine revenues from use permits or rental
relation to other facilities in the vicinity.
of on-site spaces or facilities.
Methods: Earned income can be determined from site
operator or concessionaire records of sales, rentals, or Proportion of site visitors that patronize local
fees collected. Net revenue can be calculated if expenses businesses (percent)
associated with providing the service and/or operating
• Conduct a survey of users to determine whether
and maintaining the space are considered. If the project
they patronize on-site or nearby businesses when
was an improvement to an existing site, the change in
visiting the site. Questions can also ask about the
revenue prior to and after the project can be reported. If
nature of their spending.
an economic impact study has been previously conducted
for the site, city, or region, it may include an estimate of Total visitor spending
visitor spending. The site’s contribution to visitor spending
• Reference economic impact analyses for the
for a larger area can be estimated if the percentage of
site, city, or region that include estimates of direct
tourists that visit the site is known.
visitor spending. If source data are available,
Difficulty: Assessment of earned income is straightforward they may be useful in translating city or regional
and involves performing simple calculations. Visitor spending into an estimate attributable to the site,
spending is a more complicated metric, typically particularly if the percentage of tourists who visit
calculated from a per visitor spending average for various the site is known.
visitor segments. Therefore, it can be challenging to try
to translate visitor spending for a city or region into the
spending impact of a particular site.
Timeframe: This assessment should be conducted a year
or more after project completion when visitation and
use patterns stabilize. Having at least a year of data is
recommended to account for seasonal variation.

84
 Photo: Wyss Associates
Mount Rushmore Visitor Services Redevelopment
Keystone, South Dakota | Wyss Associates & DHM Design, 2001

Generates an average of $3,895,000 in annual Method

parking revenue and contributes to Mount The 2007-2014 annual reports of the Mount Rushmore
Society, which operates the parking facility, were
Rushmore's impact on the regional economy, consulted to determine the average annual parking
totaling $346 million in visitor spending annually. revenue generated by the two new parking garages.
A 2013 National Park Service report was consulted for
Project Overview the estimated the impact of the park on the regional
Located in the Black Hills of South Dakota, the iconic economy. A 2013 on-site National Park Service survey
Mount Rushmore National Memorial attracts nearly asked participants to record expenditures in the park
2 million visitors per year. Prior to the redesign of the and within a 100-mile radius, and the report divided
Visitor Services area, the memorial was being "loved visitors into segments to show differences in spending
to death" as its infrastructure was inadequate for both for lodging and other daily expenditures among local
predicted and desired visitorship, particularly parking visitors, day trip visitors, motel visitors, and campers.
accommodations, pedestrian and vehicular circulation, Total spending within the local region was calculated by
and access to the sculpture. The redesign created low- multiplying the number of visitor trips for each segment
profile terraced parking that increased the number of by the average spending per trip, for an estimated total
parking spaces from 120 to 600, added new interpretive of $345,969,000 spent by Mount Rushmore visitors in
facilities, and widened trails to accommodate users of all the region in 2013.
abilities and welcome a steadily increasing flow of visitors
to the memorial.
85
 6 Tax Revenue
Generating revenues through property and sales taxes

Introduction
In the US, most local government entities impose a tax POTENTIAL METRICS
on real property. All but five states impose sales taxes Increase in property tax revenue from a site
on various goods and services, and many cities and (total or percent)
counties have additional local sales taxes. These taxes
are important sources of revenue for state and local • Consult public records or records from the site
governments. owner or property manager to determine the
increase in property taxes for a site before and
Because the outdoor environment affects property values, after a landscape intervention. Property taxes can
landscape interventions can raise the assessed value be calculated from assessed value and the local
and therefore the tax collected for a site or its adjacent property tax rate. (See Property Value.)
properties. Landscape and infrastructure projects can also
catalyze economic development or redevelopment in the Increase in property tax revenue from nearby
surrounding area, which in turn increases the property tax properties (total or percent)
base. Visitor spending at on-site or nearby businesses also
• Consult public records or records from site
generates sales tax revenue.
owners or property managers to determine the
Assessment Considerations increase in property taxes before and after a
landscape intervention for properties nearby or
Scale: Tax revenue may be evaluated for a specific site or adjacent to the improvement. This can include
for sites in the vicinity of a landscape improvement. The existing properties, as well as any new development
analysis should consider data for the neighborhood, city, or redevelopment. (See Property Value.)
or region as a whole over the same time period to account
for wider real estate and economic trends. Increase in annual sales tax revenue
(total or percent)
Methods: In the US, assessed property value is public
record, and many municipalities make the assessed value • Consult records from the site owner, operator,
as well as the annual property tax amount available concessionaire, and/or nearby businesses to
online. The amount of sales tax collected and paid by a determine total annual sales taxes paid for goods
particularly entity can only be obtained from the records and services sold on or near the site. (See Visitor
of that business; it is not public information. Business Spending & Earned Income.) Compare total
improvement districts or other economic development sales tax revenue before and after the landscape
entities may gather sales revenue information for an intervention.
entire district, which can be used to estimate sales tax
revenues. Tax revenue increases attributable to landscape
should come from an increase in property value or overall Timeframe: Evaluation of property tax revenues is most
sales, not from a change in tax rate. If property or sales commonly performed a year or more after project
tax revenues will be evaluated for establishments outside completion once property assessments have had time to
of the site boundaries, evaluators will need a strategy adjust. The data should be reported over a time period
to determine which properties are influenced by the that is sufficient to show a clear trend that is to some
landscape intervention. extent attributable to the project.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if Assessment of sales tax revenues should be conducted
adequate data is available. Many factors contribute a year or more after project completion when visitation
to property values and the sale of goods and services, and use patterns stabilize. Having at least a year of data
which may make it difficult to attribute changes to the is recommended to account for seasonal variation.
project alone.

86
 Photo: D.A. Horchner/Design Workshop
Bagby Street Reconstruction
Houston, Texas | Design Workshop, 2013

Contributed to a $53 million (26%) increase in Method

collected property taxes from 2013 to 2015. Property tax revenue data from the Bagby Street corridor
from 2012-2015 was analyzed. This data was obtained
from the Midtown Redevelopment Authority. Dollar
Project Overview
amounts were adjusted for inflation using the United
The Bagby Street Reconstruction is a 12-block States Department of Labor CPI Inflation Calculator.
transformation of a vehicular road that connects
Total appraised value, adjusted for inflation, was used to
downtown to the medical district in the heart of
calculate dollar amount and percent increase.
Houston. The neighborhood is mixed-use with numerous
multifamily and commercial developments. Instead of
following the conventional approach of a universal cross-
section for the entire corridor, the design uses block-
by-block context-sensitive design solutions tailored to
each specific location with common materials, planting,
lighting, and signage providing continuity along the
entire corridor. The Bagby Street Reconstruction has
established a new benchmark for streets in Houston
and beyond.

87
 7 Economic Development
Catalyzing real estate and business investment

Introduction
Quality of life and quality of place play a key role in POTENTIAL METRICS
attracting and retaining people and businesses. Therefore, Amount of additional investment or projects
designed landscapes can be an important part of an catalyzed
economic development or revitalization strategy for a
neighborhood, city, or region. • Consult records from the municipal government,
economic development authority, or private
Landscape projects can catalyze development by developers to determine built or planned real
reclaiming unusable or underutilized land through estate development projects that were catalyzed by
environmental remediation, provision of flood or the landscape intervention.
storm surge protection, adaptive reuse of obsolete
infrastructure, renovation of derelict spaces, and creating • Reference economic impact analyses that
access. Public parks and plazas, trail systems, waterfront include projections for real estate development or
redevelopments, and streetscape improvements can investment that will be catalyzed by the project.
increase the desirability of nearby real estate and spur
Increase in occupancy or decrease in vacancy rate
additional investment in projects and businesses.
(percentage points)
Assessment Considerations • Use data from the property owner or manager to
Scale: Real estate and business investment may be determine the change in residential or commercial
assessed for a specific site or for sites in the vicinity of occupancy rates before and after a landscape
a landscape improvement. The analysis should consider intervention. This can apply to a property with
data for the neighborhood, city, or region as a whole over on-site landscape improvements or to properties
the same time period to account for wider real estate adjacent to a landscape project like a streetscape
and economic trends. If the landscape project occurred or plaza. Occupancy rates can also be compared to
in conjunction with rezoning, additional development, typical rates for the region or market.
or other factors, it should be framed as a contributor to,
rather than the cause of, increased investment. Number of new businesses established
Methods: Metrics rely on documentation of real estate • Consult records from the municipal government,
investment or business growth. Municipal governments business improvement district, or another
and other economic development entities frequently track economic development entity to determine the
this type information. Often an economic impact analysis number of new businesses that were opened
is conducted to justify the costs of major landscape or expanded as a direct result of the landscape
and infrastructure projects, and these studies include intervention.
projections for new development and investment that will
be catalyzed.
Difficulty: This assessment can be conducted remotely if Timeframe: This assessment can be performed upon
adequate data is available. Many factors contribute to real project completion if it is based on projections. Waiting
estate investment and business growth, which may make several years can help to confirm that the anticipated
it difficult to attribute changes to the project alone. investment has begun. The data should be reported over
a time period that is sufficient to show a clear trend that
is to some extent attributable to the project.

88
 Photo: John December
Erie Street Plaza
Milwaukee, Wisconsin | Stoss Landscape Urbanism, 2010

Contributes to the economic development of Method

the expanding Third Ward district, with 243 The Milwaukee Department of City Development
provided information on the number and value of
condominium units planned and adjacent mixed- condominium units and mixed-use developments
use development attracting more than $120 planned in the district surrounding the park.
million in investment capital in a previously The Harbor Front and Hansen’s Landing mixed-use
development was planned to have 160 condominium
derelict area. units and a total investment of approximately $65.9
million. The Marine Terminal Lofts development was
Project Overview planned to have 83 condominium units and total
Erie Street Plaza is a former parking lot at the confluence investment of approximately $54.4 million.
of the Milwaukee River and the Federal Channel that has Because this planned development had not yet been
been turned into one of a series of civic spaces along the constructed at the time of the assessment, the figures
Milwaukee Riverwalk, a three-mile pedestrian and bicycle could not be verified with actual constructed values.
corridor that connects downtown Milwaukee to the
emerging Third Ward and Beerline Districts and lakefront.
The plaza is a well-used, inventive, and ecologically-
sensitive public space.

89
90
 04. ENDNOTES,
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY,
& CREDITS

91
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5. Fan Yang, Zhi Yi, and Zhun Jun Zhu. “An Assessment of Psychological Noise Reduction by Landscape Plants,”
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8 (2011): 1032-1048.

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96
CASE STUDY RESEARCH TEAMS
This guidebook uses examples from the Landscape Performance Series Case Study Briefs, a searchable database of over
140 exemplary built projects with quantified environmental, social, and economic benefits. The majority of Case Study
Briefs are produced through the Landscape Architecture Foundation’s Case Study Investigation (CSI) program, which
funds select faculty-student teams to participate in a unique 6-month training and research collaboration, working with
designers to assess performance and document each project.

Atlanta BeltLine Eastside Trail

https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0720
CSI Research Fellow: Brad Collett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Research Assistants: Angelike G. Angelopoulos and Luis D. Venegas
Firm Liaison: Valdis Zusmanis, Perkins + Will
Avalon Park and Preserve
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0060
CSI Research Fellow: Kristina Hill, University of Virginia
Research Assistant: Michael Geffel
Bagby Street Reconstruction
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1000
CSI Research Fellow: Allan W. Shearer, University of Texas at Austin
Research Assistant: Neive Tierney
Firm Liaisons: Alex Ramirez, Steven Spears, and Allyson Mendenhall, Design Workshop
Ballast Point Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1220
Research Fellows: Simon Kilbane and Andrew Toland, University of Technology Sydney
Research Assistant: Kane Pham
Firm Liaisons: Philip Coxall, Ann Deng, and Benjamin Radjenovic, McGregor Coxall
Belo Center for New Media
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1010
CSI Research Fellow: Allan W. Shearer, University of Texas at Austin
Research Assistant: Neive Tierney
Firm Liaison: Dan Sharp, Ten Eyck Landscape Architecture
Blue Hole Regional Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0450
CSI Research Fellow: Jessica Canfield, Kansas State University
Research Assistant: Elise Fagan
Firm Liaisons: Allyson Mendenhall, Steven Spears, and Emily Risinger, Design Workshop
Brian C. Nevin Welcome Center, Cornell Plantations
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0840
CSI Research Fellow: Michele A. Palmer, Cornell University
Research Assistant: Mujahid D. Powell
Firm Liaison: Tobias Wolf, Wolf Landscape Architecture
Canal Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0870
Researcher: Jennifer Salazar, University of Maryland
Firm Liaisons: Michael Miller, Meghan Talarowski, and Karl-Rainer Blumenthal, OLIN

97
Carmel Clay Central Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0470
CSI Research Fellow: M. Elen Deming, University of Illinois
Research Assistant: Paul Littleton
Firm Liaison: Patrick Brawley, SmithGroup
Castiglion del Bosco
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0260
CSI Research Fellow: Victoria Chanse, University of Maryland
Research Assistant: Jennifer Salazar
Firm Liaisons: Richard D. Centolella and Derek Gagne, EDSA
Cavallo Point
Firm: The Office of Cheryl Barton
Central Wharf Plaza
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0270
CSI Research Fellow: Victoria Chanse, University of Maryland
Research Assistant: Jennifer Salazar
Firm Liaisons: Eric Kramer and Ryan Wampler, Reed Hilderbrand
Cherry Creek North Improvements and Fillmore Plaza
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0400
CSI Research Fellow: Bo Yang, Utah State University
Research Assistants: Yue Zhang and Pamela Blackmore
Firm Liaisons: Allyson Mendenhall, Jamie Fogle, and Todd Johnson, Design Workshop
Chester Arthur School
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1310
Firm: Andrew Jacobs, Steve Buck, and Sara Pevaroff Schuh, SALT Design Studio
Daybreak Community
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0190
CSI Research Fellow: Bo Yang, Utah State University
Research Assistant: Amanda A. Goodwin
Firm Liaison: Allyson Mendenhall, Design Workshop
The Dell at the University of Virginia
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0090
CSI Research Fellow: Mary Hughes, University of Virginia
Research Assistant: Erica Thatcher
Firm: Biohabitats, Inc. and Nelson Byrd Woltz Landscape Architects
Dutch Kills Green
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0610
CSI Research Fellow: Roxi Thoren, University of Oregon
Research Assistant: Andrew Louw
Firm Liaison: Eric Tamulonis, WRT Design
Erie Street Plaza
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0430
CSI Research Fellows: Maria Bellalta and Aidan Ackerman, Boston Architectural College
Research Assistant: Jaryd McGonagle
Firm Liaison: Scott Bishop, Stoss Landscape Urbanism

98
High Desert Community
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0200
CSI Research Fellow: Bo Yang, Utah State University
Research Assistant: Amanda A. Goodwin
Klyde Warren Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0590
CSI Research Fellow: Taner R. Ozdil, University of Texas at Arlington
Research Assistants: Sameepa Modi and Dylan Stewart
Firm Liaison: Cody Klein, OJB Landscape Architecture
Magnuson Park Wetlands and Active Recreation
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0370
CSI Research Fellow: Nancy Rottle, University of Washington
Research Assistants: Delia Lacson and Jessica Michalak
Millennium Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0100
CSI Research Fellow: Dennis Jerke, Texas A&M University
Research Assistants: Ryan Mikulenka and Serena Conti
The Morton Arboretum: Meadow Lake and Permeable Main Parking Lot
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0760
CSI Research Fellow: Mary Pat Mattson, Illinois Institute of Technology
Research Assistant: Sarah Hanson
Firm Liaison: Susan L.B. Jacobson, The Morton Arboretum
Mount Rushmore Visitor Services Redevelopment
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0960
CSI Research Fellow: Matthew James, South Dakota State University
Research Assistants: Bailey Peterson and Erika Roeber
Firm Liaison: Patrick Wyss, Wyss Associates, Inc.
Napa River Flood Protection Project (1998-2012)
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0520
CSI Research Fellow: G. Mathias Kondolf, University of California, Berkeley
Research Assistant: Shanna Leigh Atherton
Firm Liaison: Daniel Iacofano, MIG
Park Avenue/US 50, Phase 1 Redevelopment
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0410
CSI Research Fellow: Bo Yang, Utah State University
Research Assistants: Yue Zhang and Pamela Blackmore
Firm Liaisons: Allyson Mendenhall, Richard Shaw, and Dori Johnson, Design Workshop
Renaissance Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0660
CSI Research Fellow: Brad Collett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Research Assistant: Jessica Taylor
Firm Liaison: Gavin McMillan, Hargreaves Associates

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Simon and Helen Director Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0630
CSI Research Fellow: Roxi Thoren, University of Oregon
Research Assistant: Andrew Louw
Firm Liaison: Karl-Rainer Blumenthal, OLIN
South Los Angeles Wetland Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1130
CSI Research Fellow: Kelly Shannon, University of Southern California
Research Assistant: Christina Hood
Firm Liaison: Sarah Curran, Psomas
Teardrop Park
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs0080
CSI Research Fellow: Kristina Hill, University of Virginia
Research Assistant: Michael Geffel
Vista Hermosa
https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1140
CSI Research Fellow (2016): Kelly Shannon, University of Southern California
CSI Research Fellow (2012): Barry Lehrman, California Polytechnic State University Pomona
Firm Liaison: Claire Latané, Mia Lehrer + Associates
Client Liaison: Lisa Soghor, Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy/Mountains Recreation and Conservation
Authority

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