Genetically modified food

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For related content, see Genetic engineering, Genetically modified organism, Genetically modified

crops, and Genetically modified food controversies.
Genetically modified foods or GM foods, also genetically engineered foods, are foods produced
from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic
engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as
greater control over traits than previous methods such asselective breeding and mutation breeding.[1]
Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr
Savr delayed-ripening tomato.[2] Most food modifications have primarily focused on cash crops in
high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. Genetically modified
crops have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrient
profiles. GM livestock have been developed, although as of November 2013 none were on the
market.[3]
There is general scientific agreement that food from genetically modified crops is not inherently
riskier to human health than conventional food.[4][5][6][7][8][9] However, there are ongoing public
concerns related to food safety, regulation, labelling, environmental impact, research methods, and
the fact that some GM seeds are subject to intellectual property rights owned by corporations.[10]

Contents
  [hide] 

 1Definition
 2History
 3Process
 4Crops
o 4.1Fruits and vegetables
o 4.2Corn
o 4.3Soy
 5Derivative products
o 5.1Corn starch and starch sugars, including syrups
o 5.2Lecithin
o 5.3Sugar
o 5.4Vegetable oil
 6Other uses
o 6.1Animal feed
o 6.2Proteins
o 6.3Livestock
 7Controversies
 8Testing
 9Regulation
o 9.1Labeling
 10Detection
 11See also
 12References
 13External links

Definition[edit]
Genetically modified foods, GM foods or genetically engineered foods, are foods produced from
organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic
engineering as opposed to traditional cross breeding.[11][12] In the US, the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) favor the use of "genetic
engineering" over "genetic modification" as the more precise term; the USDA defines genetic
modification to include "genetic engineering or other more traditional methods." [13][14]
According to the World Health Organization, "Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived
from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur
naturally...".[15]

History[edit]
Food biotechnology is a branch of food science that seeks to improve foods and food production.
[16]
 Associated processes include industrial fermentation, cross breeding, plant cultures and genetic
engineering.[17]
Food biotechnology dates back to the time of the Sumerians and Babylonians who used yeast to
make fermented beverages such as beer. [18] Plant enzymes such as malts were also by that time.
The invention of the microscope allowed humans to discover microorganisms that came to be used
in food production.[19] In 1871 Louis Pasteur discovered that heating juices to a certain temperature
kills dangerous bacteria, affecting wine and fermentation. The eponymous pasteurization was
applied to milk, to improve food safety.[19]
In 1944, Avery, McCarty, and MacLeod demonstrated that nucleic acids carried the genetic material
of cells and could be passed between organisms. [20] The first genetically modified plant was
produced in 1983, using antibiotic-resistant tobacco. In 1994, the transgenic Flavr Savr tomato was
approved by the FDA for marketing in the US. The modification allowed the tomato to delay ripening
after picking.[2] In the early 1990s, recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries.
[21][22]

Genetically modified microbial enzymes were the first application of genetically modified
organisms in food production and were approved in 1988 by the US Food and Drug Administration.
[21]
 These included the protease chymosin for cheese production. Cheese had typically been made
using the enzyme complex rennet that had been extracted from cows' stomach lining. Scientists
modified bacteria to produce chymosin, which was also able to clot milk, resulting in cheese curds.[19]
In the US in 1995, the following transgenic crops received marketing approval: canola with modified
oil composition (Calgene), Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn/maize (Ciba-Geigy), cotton resistant to the
herbicide bromoxynil (Calgene), Bt cotton (Monsanto), Bt potatoes (Monsanto), glyphosate-
tolerant soybeans (Monsanto), virus-resistant squash(Monsanto-Asgrow), and additional delayed
ripening tomatoes (DNAP, Zeneca/Peto, and Monsanto).[2] In 2000, with the creation of golden rice,
scientists genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time. As of 2011, the US
is the leading country in the production of GM foods. Twenty-five GM crops had received regulatory
approval.[23] In 2015, 92% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 94% of cotton produced in the US were
genetically modified strains.[24]
Process[edit]
Main article: Genetic engineering
Genetically engineered organisms are generated and tested in the laboratory for desired qualities.
The most common modification is to add one or more genes to an organism'sgenome. Less
commonly, genes are removed or their expression is increased or silenced or the number of copies
of a gene is increased or decreased.
Once satisfactory strains are produced, the producer applies for regulatory approval to field-
test them, called a "field release." Field-testing involves cultivating the plants on farm fields or
growing animals in a controlled environment. If these field tests are successful, the producer applies
for regulatory approval to grow and market the crop. Once approved, specimens (seeds, cuttings,
breeding pairs, etc.) are cultivated and sold to farmers. The farmers cultivate and market the new
strain. In some cases, the approval covers marketing but not cultivation.
According to the USDA, the number of field releases for genetically engineered organisms has
grown from four in 1985 to an average of about 800 per year. Cumulatively, more than 17,000
releases had been approved through September 2013. [25]

Crops[edit]
Fruits and vegetables[edit]

3 views of the Sunset papaya cultivar, which was genetically modified to create the SunUp cultivar,
resistant to PRSV.[26]

Papaya was genetically modified to resist the ringspot virus. 'SunUp' is a transgenic red-fleshed

Sunset papaya cultivar that ishomozygous for the coat protein gene PRSV; 'Rainbow' is a yellow-
fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'SunUp' and nontransgenic yellow-fleshed 'Kapoho'. [26] The
New York Times stated, "in the early 1990s, Hawaii’s papaya industry was facing disaster because
of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single-handed savior was a breed engineered to be resistant
to the virus. Without it, the state’s papaya industry would have collapsed. Today, 80% of Hawaiian
papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control
ringspot virus."[27] The GM cultivar was approved in 1998. [28] In China, a transgenic PRSV-resistant
papaya was developed by South China Agricultural University and was first approved for commercial
planting in 2006; as of 2012 95% of the papaya grown in Guangdong province and 40% of the
papaya grown in Hainan province was genetically modified. [29]
The New Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast
food market. It was withdrawn in 2001 after retailers rejected it and food processors ran into export
problems.[30]
As of 2005, about 13% of the Zucchini (a form of squash) grown in the US was genetically modified
to resist three viruses; that strain is also grown in Canada. [31][32]
In 2011, BASF requested the European Food Safety Authority's approval for cultivation and
marketing of its Fortuna potato as feed and food. The potato was made resistant tolate blight by
adding resistant genes blb1 and blb2 that originate from the Mexican wild potatoSolanum
bulbocastanum.[33][34] In February 2013, BASF withdrew its application.[35]
In 2013, the USDA approved the import of a GM pineapple that is pink in color and that
"overexpresses" a gene derived from tangerines and suppress other genes, increasing production
of lycopene. The plant's flowering cycle was changed to provide for more uniform growth and quality.
The fruit "does not have the ability to propagate and persist in the environment once they have been
harvested," according to USDA APHIS. According to Del Monte's submission, the pineapples are
commercially grown in a "monoculture" that prevents seed production, as the plant's flowers aren't
exposed to compatible pollen sources. Importation into Hawaii is banned for "plant sanitation"
reasons.[36]
In 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company that
contained ten genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce lessacrylamide when fried.
The modifications eliminate specific proteins from the potatoes, via RNA interference, rather than
introducing novel proteins.[37][38]
In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA,[39] becoming the first genetically
modified apple approved for sale in the US.[40] Gene silencing is used to reduce the expression
of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruit from browning. [41]
Corn[edit]
Corn used for food and ethanol has been genetically modified to tolerate various herbicides and to
express a protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that kills certain insects.[42]About 90% of the corn
grown in the U.S. was genetically modified in 2010. [43] In the US in 2015, 81% of corn acreage
contained the Bt trait and 89% of corn acreage contained the glyphosate-tolerant trait. [24] Corn can be
processed into grits, meal and flour as an ingredient in pancakes, muffins, doughnuts, breadings and
batters, as well as baby foods, meat products, cereals and some fermented products. Corn-based
masa flour and masa dough are used in the production of taco shells, corn chips and tortillas. [44]
Soy[edit]
Genetically modified soybean has been modified to tolerate herbicides, express Bt and produce
healthier oils.[45] In 2015, 94% of soybean acreage in the U.S. was genetically modified to be
glyphosate-tolerant.[24] Soybeans contain about 20% oil. In the most common method used to extract
the oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-
extracted with commercial hexane. The remaining soy meal has a 50% soy protein content. The
meal is 'toasted' (actually heated with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Part of the balance
is processed further into high protein soy products that are used in a variety of foods, such as salad
dressings, soups,meat analogues, beverage powders, cheeses, nondairy creamer, frozen
desserts, whipped topping, infant formulas, breads, breakfast cereals, pasta and pet foods.[46]
[47]
Processed soy protein appears in foods mainly in three forms: soy flour, soy protein isolates and
soy protein concentrates.[47][48]
Food-grade soy protein isolate first became available on October 2, 1959. [49]:227–28 Soy protein isolate
is a highly refined form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90% on a moisture-free
basis. It is made from soy meal that has had most of the fats and carbohydrates removed. Soy
isolates are mainly used to improve the texture of processed meat products and to increase protein
content, enhance moisture retention and as an emulsifier.[50][51]
Soy protein concentrate is about 70% soy protein and is basically soybean meal
without carbohydrates. Soy protein concentrate retains most of the bean fiber. It is used as a
functional or nutritional ingredient in food products, mainly in baked foods, breakfast cereals and in
some meat products. Soy protein concentrate is used in meat and poultry products to increase water
and fat retention and to improve nutritional values (more protein, less fat). [50][52]
Soy flour is made by grinding soybeans into a fine powder. It comes in three forms: natural or full-fat
(contains natural oils); defatted (oils removed) with 50% protein content and with either high water
solubility or low water solubility; and lecithinated (lecithin added). As soy flour is gluten-free, yeast-
raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Soy grits are similar to soy flour except the
soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces. Kinako is a soy flour used in Japanese
cuisine.[50][53]
Textured soy protein (TSP) is a fibrous, spongy matrix similar in texture to meat. TSP is used as a
low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products.[50][54]

Derivative products[edit]
Corn starch and starch sugars, including syrups[edit]

Structure of the amylosemolecule

Structure of the amylopectinmolecule

Starch or amylum is a polysaccharide produced by all green plants as an energy store. Pure starch
is a white, tasteless and odourless powder. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and
helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20
to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. [55]
Starch can be further modified to create modified starch for specific purposes,[56] including creation of
many of the sugars in processed foods. They include:

 Maltodextrin, a lightly hydrolyzed starch product used as a bland-tasting filler and thickener.
 Various glucose syrups, also called corn syrups in the US, viscous solutions used as
sweeteners and thickeners in many kinds of processed foods.
 Dextrose, commercial glucose, prepared by the complete hydrolysis of starch.
 High fructose syrup, made by treating dextrose solutions with the enzyme glucose
isomerase, until a substantial fraction of the glucose has been converted to fructose. In the
US, high fructose corn syrup is the principal sweetener used in sweetened beverages because
fructose has better handling characteristics, such as microbiological stability, and more
consistent sweetness/flavor. One kind of high fructose corn syrup, HFCS-55, is typically sweeter
than regular sucrose because it is made with more fructose, while the sweetness of HFCS-42 is
on par with sucrose.[57]
 Sugar alcohols, such as maltitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol and hydrogenated starch
hydrolysate, are sweeteners made by reducing sugars.
Lecithin[edit]
Lecithin is a naturally occurring lipid. It can be found in egg yolks and oil-producing plants. it is an
emulsifier and thus is used in many foods. Corn, soy and safflower oil are sources of lecithin, though
the majority of lecithin commercially available is derived from soy.[58][59][60][better  source  needed][61]
[page  needed]
 Sufficiently processed lecithin is often undetectable with standard testing practices. [55][not in citation
given]
 According to the FDA, no evidence shows or suggests hazard to the public when lecithin is used
at common levels. Lecithin added to foods amounts to only 2 to 10 percent of the 1 to 5 g
of phosphoglycerides consumed daily on average.[58][59] Nonetheless, consumer concerns about GM
food extend to such products.[62][better  source  needed] This concern led to policy and regulatory changes in
Europe in 2000,[citation needed] when Regulation (EC) 50/2000 was passed[63] which required labelling of
food containing additives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. [citation needed] Because of the difficulty of
detecting the origin of derivatives like lecithin with current testing practices, European regulations
require those who wish to sell lecithin in Europe to employ a comprehensive system of Identity
preservation(IP).[64][verification needed][65][page  needed]
Sugar[edit]

Structure of sucrose

The US imports 10% of its sugar, while the remaining 90% is extracted from sugar
beet and sugarcane. After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar beet was extensively
adopted in the United States. 95% of beet acres in the US were planted with glyphosate-resistant
seed in 2011.[66] Herbicide-tolerant beets are approved in Australia, Canada, Colombia, EU, Japan,
Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russian Federation and Singapore. [67] Pulp from the
refining process is used as animal feed. The sugar produced from GM sugarbeets contains no DNA
or protein—it is just sucrose that is chemically indistinguishable from sugar produced from non-GM
sugarbeets.[55][68]
Independent analyses conducted by internationally recognized laboratories found that sugar from
Roundup Ready sugar beets is identical to the sugar from comparably grown conventional (non-
Roundup Ready) sugar beets. And, like all sugar, sugar from Roundup Ready sugar beets contains
no genetic material or detectable protein (including the protein that provides glyphosate tolerance).
[69]
 These results were validated with the sugar derived from a 2007 commercial-scale processing of
Roundup Ready sugar beets. [citation needed]
Vegetable oil[edit]
Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops canola,[70] corn,[60]
[71]
 cotton[72] and soybeans.[73] Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking
oil,shortening and margarine[74] and is used in prepared foods. There is a vanishingly small amount of
protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable oil. [55][75] Vegetable oil is made
of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined and may be further processed
via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process[76]removes all, or nearly all non-
triglyceride ingredients.[77]

Other uses[edit]
Animal feed[edit]
Livestock and poultry are raised on animal feed, much of which is composed of the leftovers from
processing crops, including GM crops. For example, approximately 43% of a canola seed is oil.
What remains after oil extraction is a meal that becomes an ingredient in animal feed and contains
canola protein.[78] Likewise, the bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil and meal. The high-protein
defatted and toasted soy meal becomes livestock feed and dog food. 98% of the US soybean crop
goes for livestock feed.[79][80] In 2011, 49% of the US maize harvest was used for livestock feed
(including the percentage of waste from distillers grains).[81] "Despite methods that are becoming
more and more sensitive, tests have not yet been able to establish a difference in the meat, milk, or
eggs of animals depending on the type of feed they are fed. It is impossible to tell if an animal was
fed GM soy just by looking at the resulting meat, dairy, or egg products. The only way to verify the
presence of GMOs in animal feed is to analyze the origin of the feed itself." [82]
A 2012 literature review of studies evaluating the effect of GM feed on the health of animals did not
find evidence that animals were adversely affected, although small biological differences were
occasionally found. The studies included in the review ranged from 90 days to two years, with
several of the longer studies considering reproductive and intergenerational effects. [83]
Proteins[edit]
Rennet is a mixture of enzymes used to coagulate milk into cheese. Originally it was available only
from the fourth stomach of calves, and was scarce and expensive, or was available from microbial
sources, which often produced unpleasant tastes. Genetic engineering made it possible to extract
rennet-producing genes from animal stomachs and insert them into bacteria, fungi or yeasts to make
them produce chymosin, the key enzyme.[84][85] The modified microorganism is killed after
fermentation. Chymosin is isolated from the fermentation broth, so that the Fermentation-Produced
Chymosin (FPC) used by cheese producers has an amino acid sequence that is identical to bovine
rennet.[86]The majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey. Trace quantities of chymosin
may remain in cheese.[86]
FPC was the first artificially produced enzyme to be approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration.[21][22] FPC products have been on the market since 1990 and as of 2015 had yet to be
surpassed in commercial markets.[87] In 1999, about 60% of US hard cheese was made with FPC.
[88]
 Its global market share approached 80%. [89] By 2008, approximately 80% to 90% of commercially
made cheeses in the US and Britain were made using FPC.[86] The most widely used FPC is
produced either by the fungusAspergillus niger (CHY-MAX®)[90][91]
In some countries, recombinant (GM) bovine somatotropin (also called rBST, or bovine growth
hormone or BGH) is approved for administration to increase milk production. rBST may be present in
milk from rBST treated cows, but it is destroyed in the digestive system and even if directly injected
into the human bloodstream, has no observable effect on humans. [92][93][94] The FDA, World Health
Organization, American Medical Association, American Dietetic Association and the National
Institutes of Health have independently stated that dairy products and meat from rBST-treated cows
are safe for human consumption. [95] However, on 30 September 2010, the United States Court of
Appeals, Sixth Circuit, analyzing submitted evidence, found a "compositional difference" between
milk from rBGH-treated cows and milk from untreated cows.[96][97] The court stated that milk from
rBGH-treated cows has: increased levels of the hormone Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1); higher
fat content and lower protein content when produced at certain points in the cow's lactation cycle;
and more somatic cell counts, which may "make the milk turn sour more quickly." [97]
Livestock[edit]
As of November 2013 no genetically modified animals had been approved for use as food. A GM
salmon has been awaiting regulatory approval [98][99][100] since 1997.[101]
A 2003 review published on behalf of Food Standards Australia New Zealand examined transgenic
experimentation on terrestrial livestock species as well as aquatic species such as fish and shellfish.
The review examined the molecular techniques used for experimentation as well as techniques for
tracing the transgenes in animals and products as well as issues regarding transgene stability. [102]
Some mammals typically used for food production have been modified to produce non-food
products, a practice sometimes called Pharming.

Controversies[edit]
Main article: Genetically modified food controversies
The genetically modified foods controversy is a dispute over the use of food and other products
derived from genetically modified crops and other uses of genetic engineering in food production.
The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-
governmental organizations, activists and scientists. The key areas of controversy are whether GM
food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, objectivity of scientific research and
publication and the effects on health, the environment, [103][104] pesticide resistance, farmers and on
global food supplies. Other concerns include contamination of the conventional food supply, [105] rigor
of the regulatory process[106][107] and control of the food supply by GM seed companies. [103] Additional
concerns include the impacts of conflicts of interest on research outcomes.
There is general scientific agreement that food on the market from genetically modified crops is not
inherently riskier to human health than conventional food. [4][108][109]
However, the American Academy of Environmental Medicine ("AAEM") released a position paper
calling for a moratorium on GM foods pending independent long term studies to investigate the role
of GM foods on human health.[110][111] The authors asserted that "there is more than a casual
association between GM foods and adverse health effects." The paper cited numerous animal
studies showing adverse effects and posited that the biological plausibility, as defined by Hill’s
criteria, in light of this data is that adverse health effects are also caused in humans. [112] A 2011 study
found maternal/fetal pesticide exposure associated with GM crops in Quebec. [113] A leading
critique, Gilles-Éric Séralini of the University of Caen, and his team reported that rats fed GM corn
developed tumors and organ damage in 2012 in the Journal Food and Chemical Toxicology.[114] After
reanalyses of the results, and the paper was retracted by the publisher, Elsevier, on the ground that
the study consisted of a limited number of test samples (Sprague-Dawley rats) to make any
conclusive evidence on the adverse effect of GM on the rats.[115][116] Sprague-Dawley rats are known
to develop tumours even under normal conditions. [117]But Séralini defended his study and republished
the same findings in Environmental Sciences Europe in 2014, published by SpringerOpen.[118]
Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. [119] However, the US does
not require this. The FDA's policy is to require a label only given significant differences in
composition or health impacts. They have not identified such differences in any food currently
approved for sale.[120]
Some medical and environmental groups claim that the potential long-term impact on human health
have not been adequately assessed and propose mandatory labeling [121] or a moratorium on such
products.[103][104][106] The European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental
Responsibility (ENSSER), disputes the claim of scientific consensus on the relative safety of GM
food, and that research issues due to intellectual property rights, limited access to research material,
differences in methods, analysis and the interpretation of data, it is not possible to state whether
GMOs are generally safe or unsafe, and instead must be a judged on case-by-case basis.
[122]
 The Institute of Medicineand the National Research Council also determined that GM food safety
needs to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, and noted the limited ability of scientists to predict
"adverse consequences of genetic change".[10]
One particular concern, in regards to the environment, is that GMOs designed to decrease the
problem with weeds aggravate it instead. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. A
native of the southwest, it has traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006.
Glyphosate-tolerant cotton was introduced in the 1990s. [123][124][125]
One study did not show statistically significant evidence of sponsorship conflict of interest influence
on study outcomes, but did find author affiliation to be strongly correlated to study outcome,
concluding that "articles where a COI was identified show a tendency to produce outcomes favorable
to the associated commercial interests."[126]

Testing[edit]
The starting point for assessing GM food safety is to evaluate its similarity to the non-modified
version. Further testing is then done on a case-by-case basis to ensure that concerns over potential
toxicity, allergenicity, possible gene transfer to humans or genetic outcrossing to other organisms
are satisfied.[6]

Regulation[edit]
See also: Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms and Regulation of genetic
engineering

Green: Mandatory labeling required; Red:Ban on import and cultivation of genetically engineered
food.

Governments assess and manage genetic engineering technology and GMO development and
release. Marked differences separate the US and European countries. Regulation varies depending
on the intended product use. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed
by authorities responsible for food safety.[127]
In the US, three government organizations regulate GMOs. The FDA checks the chemical
composition of organisms for potentialallergens. The United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) supervises field testing and monitors the distribution of GM seeds. TheUnited
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for monitoring pesticide usage,
including plants modified to contain proteins toxic to insects. Like USDA, EPA also oversees field
testing and the distribution of crops that have had contact with pesticides to ensure environmental
safety.[128][better  source  needed] In 2015 the Obama administration announced that it would update the way the
government regulated GM crops.[129]
In 1992 FDA published "Statement of Policy: Foods derived from New Plant Varieties." This
statement is a clarification of FDA's interpretation of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act with respect
to foods produced from new plant varieties developed using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid
(rDNA) technology. FDA encouraged developers to consult with the FDA regarding any
bioengineered foods in development. The FDA says developers routinely do reach out for
consultations. In 1996 FDA updated consultation procedures. [130][131]
Labeling[edit]
Some jurisdictions require that GM foods carry a label indicating that fact. In some case, the
requirement depends on the relative quantify of the GMO in the product. A study that investigated
voluntary labeling in South Africa found that 31% of products labeled as GMO-free had a GM
content above 1.0%.[132] In Canada and the USA labeling is voluntary,[133][citation needed] In Europe all food
(including processed food) or feed that contains greater than 0.9% GMOs must be labelled. [134]
As of 2015, 64 countries required GMO labeling. [135]

Detection[edit]
Main article: Detection of genetically modified organisms
Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques such
as PCR and bioinformatics.[136]
In a January 2010 paper, the extraction and detection of DNA along a complete industrial soybean
oil processing chain was described to monitor the presence of Roundup Ready(RR) soybean: "The
amplification of soybean lectin gene by end-point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was successfully
achieved in all the steps of extraction and refining processes, until the fully refined soybean oil. The
amplification of RR soybean by PCR assays using event-specific primers was also achieved for all
the extraction and refining steps, except for the intermediate steps of refining (neutralisation,
washing and bleaching) possibly due to sample instability. The real-time PCR assays using specific
probes confirmed all the results and proved that it is possible to detect and quantify genetically
modified organisms in the fully refined soybean oil. To our knowledge, this has never been reported
before and represents an important accomplishment regarding the traceability of genetically modified
organisms in refined oils."[137]

See also[edit]
 California Proposition 37 (2012)
 Chemophobia
 Genetic engineering
 Genetically modified crops
 Genetically modified food controversies
 Genetically modified organisms
 Pharming (genetics) – use of genetically modified mammals to produce drugs
 Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms
 Starlink corn recall

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ GM Science Review First Report, Prepared by the UK GM Science
Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor
to the UK Government, P 9
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c James, Clive (1996). "Global Review of the Field Testing and
Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995"  (PDF). The International Service
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