Ekonomia I Środowisko: Economics and Environment

EKONOMIA i ŚRODOWISKO
ECONOMICS AND ENVIRONMENT

Journal of the Polish Association
of Environmental and Resource Economists
No. 4 (75) • 2020

copyright © by: Fundacja Ekonomistów Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych
Białystok 2020
ISSN 0867-8898
ISSN 2300-6420 (online)
Published by: Fundacja Ekonomistów Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych

15-092 Białystok, ul. Sienkiewicza 22
www.fe.org.pl; e-mail: czasopismo@fe.org.pl
Publishing: Agencja Wydawnicza EkoPress

Process Manager Andrzej Poskrobko / tel. 601 311 838
Printed by: Partner Poligrafia Andrzej Kardasz
www: www.ekonomiaisrodowisko.pl
ECONOMICS AND ENVIRONMENT
Journal of the Polish Association
of Environmental and Resource Economists
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO
Czasopismo Polskiego Stowarzyszenia
Ekonomistów Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych
THE SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME BOARD
Prof. Zbigniew Bochniarz (USA) • Prof. Tadeusz Borys • Dr Leon C. Braat (Netherlands)
Prof. Adam Budnikowski • Prof. Eva Cudlinova (Czech Republic) • Prof. Józefa Famielec
Prof. Bogusław Fiedor • Prof. Wojciech J. Florkowski (USA) • Prof. Kazimierz Górka
Prof. Włodzimierz Kaczyński (USA) • Prof. Teresa Łaguna • Prof. Rafał Miłaszewski
Prof. Bazyli Poskrobko • Prof. Leszek Preisner • Prof. Tomasz Żylicz
EDITORIAL TEAM
Editor in chief – Prof. Elżbieta Broniewicz

Editors of particular sections – Prof. Stanisław Czaja
Prof. Eugeniusz Kośmicki, Prof. Barbara Kryk
Prof. Dariusz Kiełczewski, Prof. Małgorzata Burchard-Dziubińska
The Secretary of Editorial Office – Dr Karolina Ogrodnik
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
contents www.ekonomiaisrodowisko.pl 5
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Tomasz Żylicz, Urban greenery management problems . ................................................................... 8
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT

Natalia Yosipivna Shuptar-Poryvaieva, Elena Rostislavovna Gubanova, Natalia Mykolaivna Andryeyeva,
Tetiana Ivanivna Shevchenko, Examining of portable batteries externalities with focus
on consumption and disposal phases ...................................................................................... 11
Martin Rovnak, Roman Novotny, Matus Bakon, Analytical study of selected economic-
-environmental indicators of waste management system in Slovakia ................................. 11
Ewa Ołdakowska, Estimation of pro-ecological approach to road construction in economic
efficiency assessment ................................................................................................................ 11
STUDIES AND MATERIALS

Karol Mrozik, Konrad Podawca, Daria Drożyńska, Spatial diversification of the implementation
of planning and investment processes in the Poznań Metropolitan Area ............................ 11
Piotr Bołtryk, The requirement of obtaining an environmental decision in the case
of investment concerning a road reconstruction – case study . ............................................ 11
Daniel Tokarski, Bartosz Zegardło, Costs and economic benefits of recycling electrical
insulators in special concretes production ............................................................................... 11
GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Anna Bernaciak, Wojciech Kisiała, Natalia Sołtysiak, Katarzyna Suszyńska, Social attitudes
towards planned lignite mining - the case of south-western Wielkopolska region .............. 11
Arnold Berrnaciak, Malgorzata Halaburda, Environmental protection in the perspective of CSR
activities undertaken by polish enterprises of the construction industry ............................. 11
Summaries in Polish . ........................................................................................................................... 11

Reviewrs in 2020 . ................................................................................................................................. 11
Information for Authors – Submission Guidelines ........................................................................... 11
Economics and Environment 4 (75) • 2020
THEORETICAL
AND METHODOLOGICAL
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMY TEORETYCZNE
I METODYCZNE
Ekonomia i Środowisko 4 (75) • 2020
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO • 4 (75) • 2020
Tomasz ŻYLICZ
URBAN GREENERY MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
Tomasz Żylicz, Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0003-2134-8498) – University of Warsaw
Correspondence address:
Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw
Długa Street 44/50, 00-241, Warszawa, Poland
e-mail: tzylicz@wne.uw.edu.pl
ABSTRACT: In this paper, we look at the urban greenery management as a principal-agent (PA) prob-
lem. PA problems arise whenever the management of activity requires cooperation of at least two
hierarchical levels. In the case analysed in this paper, the city mayor (the higher level) wants to maxim-
ise the pollution-mitigation capacity of trees planted. In comparison, the greenery manager (the lower
level) wants to maximise the municipal budget devoted to planting trees subject to some constraints
on the outcome of this activity. While the higher level wants certain services to be delivered in the
future, actually, the lower level is interested in the potential benefits provided by the most attractive
tree species, even though they will be delivered only partially and probably in the short run only.
As a result, the species composition of trees planted is different from what it would have been if the PA
model implemented was incentive compatible.
KEYWORDS: principal-agent models, urban trees
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 8-22 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/29 JEL:

EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 Theoretical and methodological problems 9
Introduction
Economic studies of urban greenery are carried out based on at least two
approaches. First of all, they can apply cost-benefit analyses to assess whether
total expenditures on maintaining green areas are justified by their effects in
terms of better public health, improved tourist attractiveness, environmental
protection, and so on (e.g. Tempesta, 2015); they start with a list of benefits
(e.g. Braubach et al., 2017), monetise them, and compare with the cost of
establishing and maintaining such areas. Alternatively, studies can assume
that certain objectives with respect to urban greenery are set, and a question
emerges whether they are likely to be achieved. The paper adopts this second
approach. In particular, we do not check whether planting trees is economi-
cally justified; its economic efficiency has been demonstrated both with
respect to urban forests (e.g., Dwyer et al., 1992), and street trees (e.g., Mul-
laney et al., 2015) many times. Instead, we check whether tree planting activ-
ities are organised as effectively as possible.
The aim of the paper is to analyse incentives urban greenery managers
have to plant tree species that can provide the city with services expected by
its inhabitants. Expectations of city inhabitants are reflected by priorities of
the top management (mayor of the city or its district). They include (but they
are not confined to) pollution remediation. Various tree species reveal very
different characteristics with respect to the absorption of air pollutants, and
– at the same time – they differ in terms of survival rates. The problem stud-
ied here is that the top management is interested (in principle) in services
provided actually, that is, taking into account tree survival rates, but they
have less information than greenery managers do to check whether trees
planted are most suited for this purpose. As a result, greenery managers may
prefer to plant trees that do not provide these services at the level expected.
Managing large cities is a complicated problem. A typical city is managed
hierarchically with the top management interested in enhancing the welfare
of their constituency. At the same time, lower-level officers do not have to be
preoccupied with the same concerns; they are interested in maximising their
utility subject to some constraints imposed by their bosses. This is a standard
hierarchical agency theory model studied by economists under the heading
of “principal-agent” (PA) problems. It originated in the 1970s (perhaps even
in the 18th century). Many economists link it to the papers of Wilson (1968),
Ross (1973), Heckerman (1975), Jensen and Meckling (1976), and – most
often – Laffont and Tirole (1988), who made it a part of the standard micro-
economics. The model can be kept simple by assuming that there is a two-tier
structure with the top management unit – let us call it the mayor (the “prin-
cipal”) – supervising one of its executive branches – let us call it the greenery
10 Theoretical and methodological problems EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
manager (the “agent”). This paper aims at illustrating how this theoretical
approach can be applied to improve the effectiveness of urban greenery man-
agement if the top management delegates some of its tasks to lower-level
units.
Urban trees provide an example of public goods. Hence, their manage-
ment is a raison d’être of administrative entities such as cities and states.
While theoretical analyses of how public goods can be provided by them are
numerous (Vahabi, 2020), there were almost no public choice studies of how
urban green areas are managed.
A mismatch between the objectives of various units in urban greenery
management has been identified in earlier research (e.g., Lindholst, 2008).
It was also observed while talking to officers responsible for urban greenery
in the city of Warsaw. The mayor is interested in having enjoyable and pro-
ductive green areas, while the greenery manager is interested in being ade-
quately rewarded by the city budget. Moreover, the information is asymmet-
ric. The manager knows what specific steps need to be taken to improve the
performance of greenery, but the mayor does not have this knowledge.
Using the notation typical for PA models (Mas-Colell et al., 1995), one can
write that the mayor (principal) wants to maximize
B(x) – s(x), (1)
where:
B(x) – stands for net benefits provided by greenery,
s(x) – stands for the salary of the greenery manager, and
x – is the level of effort put into the greenery enhancement/maintenance activities,
while the greenery manager (agent) wants to maximize

s(x) – c(x), (2)
where:
c(x) – stands for the cost of the effort,
subject to the usual participation constraints:

s(x) – c(x) ≥ u0, (3)
where:
u0 – is an (unknown to the principal) aspiration level.
Under the standard convexity assumptions adopted in economic model-

ling (concavity of functions to be maximised and constraints), an incentive
compatible contract requires that the greenery manager (agent) is the “resid-
ual claimant” (Varian, 2010, 731), i.e.:
∂B/∂x=∂c/∂x. (4)
In this paper, we discuss whether the residual claimant condition can be
considered realistic in the management process of green areas in Warsaw.
Up to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies of urban greenery using
PA approach. There are a number of papers which use this analytical frame-
work, but they aim at general land-use problems rather than planting trees in
a city (e.g., Hotte et al., 2016). Kronenberg (2015) identifies institutional bar-
riers to improving urban greenery other than the PA problems. Lindholst
(2008) analyses the possibilities to improve greenery managers’ perfor-
mance by designing better contracts, but – again – without referring to the PA
framework. Cortinovis and Geneletti (2019) look at ways to improve integra-
tion of biological and political considerations in urban planning decisions.
They take into account the air purification carried out by green areas, but
without analysing whether different management levels may have different
incentives. Likewise, Robinson et al. (2019) admit that many different skills
and backgrounds interact in taking natural resource decisions, but they do
not make a distinction between various hierarchical levels.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows. In the next section, we intro-
duce the basic conceptual model of urban greenery hierarchical manage-
ment. A review of analyses of the benefits provided by urban trees follows.
In section 4, we look at specific measures taken by urban greenery managers.
This middle part of the paper is based on our studies of how green areas have
been managed in Warsaw. The statistical quality of the data does not allow
for a more comprehensive econometric analysis. Section 5 discusses what
incentive incompatibility problems are faced by urban greenery manage-
ment. The last one concludes and identifies directions for future research.
The problem of urban greenery management in Warsaw
The management structure can be, more complicated than applied here.
Analysing typical urban greenery management structures in a more detailed
way is beyond the scope of this paper. A case study referring to the data col-
lected in Warsaw serves as an illustration of problems that may affect the
efficiency of management structures elsewhere too.
In Warsaw, the administrative unit which is responsible for the urban
greenery, does not manage the resources directly. It hires dozens of firms
who take care of designated areas and supervises district authorities who are
responsible for their smaller jurisdictions. This complicated reporting struc-
ture is expected to change, and a more detailed description of the manage-
ment mechanism could take into account several tiers and perhaps further
additions. Here we take a preliminary approach by assuming a simple two-

tier structure.
Our model is based on several stylised facts which are derived from anal-
yses of the urban green management in Warsaw. Most importantly, we con-
firm that there is a discrepancy between what the city mayor declares and
what the lower-level officials care for. We observe that different tree species
provide city inhabitants with different benefits. In particular, we contrast two
popular species with very different pollution-absorption capacities: large
Common oak (Quercus rrobur spp.) and Red oak (Quercus rubra spp.), and
small Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana). At the same time, these species vary in
terms of survival rates (with oak characterised by much lower rates). We also
observe that the lower level prefers to be involved in planting trees which
provide large theoretical benefits, irrespective of their survival statistics; fail-
ures are seen as a result of someone’s neglect rather than natural phenom-
ena. Finally, we assume that the lower level expects a financial premium for
planting more attractive species that are characterised by poor survival rates.
One of the most controversial aspects of the PA analysis is how to meas-
ure the level of effort x. It cannot be the total area of the municipal green,
since this is not under the control of the manager. The area is rather to be
decided by the city mayor, and it is easy to measure. Therefore, given the
exogenous area, we assume that the manager can use his/her professional
knowledge to boost the potential net benefits from a specific composition of
trees planted and specific processes applied to provide high ecosystem ser-
vices. The actual level of services obtained can be lower than declared
(expected), but it can be assessed much later – when it is too late to change
planting decisions.
Benefits from urban greenery
There are many alternative approaches to analyse benefits from biologi-

cal resources. Costanza et al. (1997) compiled an early classification of ser-
vices provided by natural resources. They made a distinction between their
“provision”, “regulation” and “societal” functions. Subsequent lists retain
these three major types, and they differ in the level of details. In our work, we
refer to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES
2015) –widely used in the European Union (the most recent version was
published in 2018) – which lists 47 such services. Sixteen of them refer to the
provision of materials (and energy), twenty – to the regulation of natural pro-
cesses, and eleven – to societal functions (including recreation). To keep the
analysis as simple as possible, we take into account only three “regulatory
services”. In the original list, they were identified as:
• bio-remediation by micro-organisms, plants, algae, and animals,
• bio-chemical detoxification / decomposition / mineralisation, etc.,
• filtration / sequestration / storage / accumulation by ecosystems.
While some crops can be harvested for the benefit of the city dwellers,
the most typical gains from urban greenery include regulation of natural pro-
cesses and recreation. These gains are not necessarily very large in economic
terms. A recent study of a major park in southern Warsaw (Zawojska et al.,
2016) demonstrated that ecosystem services could be lower (in economic
terms) than other benefits provided by the urban infrastructure. Besides, one
needs to stress that street trees have different roles than parks and other
contiguous green areas – such as urban forests – and hence each category
may require different measurement methods (Giergiczny and Kronenberg,
2014).
In this paper, we emphasise the benefits of bio-remediation. Specifically,
various tree species turn out to absorb air contaminants to a different degree.
In addition, they can provide other ecosystem-regulatory benefits, including
mitigation of surface runoff, but – again for simplicity – we do not analyse
them here. Neither do we look at other diverse benefits – such as, e.g., miti-
gating heat island effect – analysed in urban tree planting scenarios (Bodna-
ruk et al., 2017) – or amenities that might be relevant for greenery manage-
ment decisions too.
There are numerous empirical analyses on how much a given tree can
absorb (or otherwise “avoid”) of NO2, SO2, PM10, PM2.5, VOC, and O3. The
results suggest that – up to 100 years – the remediation benefit is roughly
proportional to the age of the tree (McPherson et al., 2007). Apart from what
can be found in some parks or forests, a typical urban tree is less than 100
years old, and consequently, it remediates a fraction of the maximum expected
of the oldest conceivable one. Therefore, the remediation benefit is simply a
percent of what can be absorbed by a 100 years old tree, and various trees of
the same age provide – proportionally – the same benefits as the mature ones
that belong to the same species. Table 1 lists these maximum absorption ben-
efits for four categories – coniferous trees (1) and three types of deciduous trees
(based on the diameter of the canopy): small (2), medium (3), and large (4).
As seen from the table, the physical remediation capacity of trees can
vary quite a lot. The capacity depends mainly on the surface of leaves, and the
numbers are based on empirical research carried out in the northern United
States mainly. Of course, American species composition is not the same as in
Warsaw, but the table informs about the order of magnitude of what can be
expected of certain tree types.
Table 1. Annual absorption for a 100-year-old tree [in g]
Deciduous
Coniferous
Small Medium Large
NO2 177 93 239 544

SO2 23 11 28 65
PM2.5 14 8 22 48
O3 307 160 410 933
Source: author’s work based on McPherson et al., 2007, and Szkop, 2019.
Removal of toxic substances implies health and other environmental

benefits. Ideally, site-specific empirical studies would be needed to estimate
these benefits. Lacking the opportunity to rely on such studies, we had to
apply a benefit transfer approach. To this end, the results of a number of
European research programmes were used. They are summarised in stand-
ard coefficients adopted by the ExternE project. They are differentiated for
various pollutants. It is also acknowledged that economic impacts depend on
whether pollution affects densely or sparsely populated areas. Estimates
adequate for urban environments were applied in table 2. Specifically, we
used the rates 10.65€ per kg of NO2 absorbed, 9.47 for SO2, and 2.07 for PM2.5.
The ExternE database does not include O3; hence table 2 omits this pollutant.
Table 2. Annual benefits provided by a 100-year-old tree [in €]
Deciduous
Coniferous
Small Medium Large
NOx 1.89 0.99 2.55 5.79

SO2 0.22 0.10 0.27 0.62
PM2.5 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.99
Source: author’s work based on table 1 and results of the ExternE project, http://www.externe.info/
externe_d7/?q=node/2]; please note that the project calculates monetary benefits for NOx rather than
NO2; thus numbers in the table should be regarded as rough estimates.
Table 2 demonstrates that annual monetised benefits from the absorp-

tion of acidifying substances – such as nitrogen and sulphur oxides – domi-
nate the total. They can be more than 6€ per old large deciduous tree. For
coniferous species, they are a fraction of that. Let us emphasise once again,
that these numbers have to be treated with great caution. The absorption
capacity depends on a number of circumstances (Jin et al., 2014), it is subject
to empirical research, and it cannot be easily transferred. Besides, as the sul-
phur pollution is largely under control, nitrogen contamination – linked to
the growing car traffic – emerges as one of the most important air pollution
problems in cities. Table 2 suggests that small trees provide roughly four
times lower benefits linked to nitrogen abatement than large ones.
Planting trees as an air protection instrument in Warsaw
The mayor of Warsaw has a detailed list of urban trees with information
on their age, size, and sanitary condition. The list is too much detailed to be
of practical significance for this level of management. Nevertheless, it is a
valuable source of information on urban greenery. In addition, the mayor has
information on which tree species provide maximum air quality benefits.
Top species recommended for remediation of acidifying substances
(Nowak, 2000 and Nowak, and Heisler, 2010):
Red maple (Acer rubrum)
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)
Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis)
Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara)
Northern hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)
American beech (Fagus grandifolia)
White ash (Fraxinus americana)
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus)
Black walnut (Juglans nigra)
Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera)
Cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata)
Norway spruce (Picea abies)
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus)
London planetree (Platanus hybrida)
Eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides)
American basswood (Tilia americana)
Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
American elm (Ulmus americana)
Japanese zelkova (Zelkova serrata)
All these species can be found in Warsaw, but only a few of them are
planted routinely. The local administration of urban greenery is expected to
plant trees that are well adapted to local climatic conditions and – more
recently – that were found to be allergic-friendly. Their list includes (ZOM,
2017):
Sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus)

Common lime (Tilia × europaea)
Japanese cherry (Prunus serrulata)
Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana)
London plane (Platanus × acerifolia)
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
European ash (Fraxinus excelsior)
Common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus)
Common oak (Quercus robur)
Tree planting strategies in Warsaw
The benefits provided by living trees cannot be questioned. The problem,

however, is that not every tree planted survives. The Warsaw experience is
quite vast, as thousands of trees are planted every year. Many of them sur-
vive, but some do not. There are several reasons why a tree does not survive.
First, it is not a native species, and unless an unprecedented (and costly) care
is applied, the tree is doomed to die soon as a result of harsh climatic condi-
tions, pest infestation or other causes. Second, it could have been planted in
an inappropriate way, e.g., without a reasonable space left for the canopy or
root system. Third, it could have been inappropriately maintained, e.g., insuf-
ficiently watered. Fourth, it could have been exposed to environmental con-
taminants such as chlorides (often used as de-icing agents by some real
estate owners) (Nowocin, 2017).
Urban greenery managers tend to perceive urban trees as real capital
rather than living objects thus expecting that once planted, and they will pro-
vide a steady flow of benefits. Natural survival rates are perceived as close to
100%. Whereas in fact, they can be much lower. Low survival rates of urban
trees have been studied widely (e.g., Nowak et al., 2004; Roman and Scatena,
2011) and linked to a number of threats the trees are exposed to. Climate
change has added a new important stressing factor (Fontaine and Larson,
2016).
Specifically for Warsaw, several econometric models were estimated to
check the relationship between the number of trees (of a given species)
planted and their mortality rates, as well as benefits provided by absorbing
air pollutants (Szkop and Żylicz, 2018). Despite numerous attempts, it proved
impossible to find statistically significant relationships linking these num-
bers with mortality rates. The latter was estimated based on a large inven-
tory of 162,500 trees registered in Warsaw. Planting trees seemed to be
totally unrelated to their average annual mortality rates which range from
almost zero (0.77% for Pyrus calleryana spp.), to over 4% (4.13% for Quercus
rubra spp.). In contrast, potential benefits – as represented by pollutants
absorbed by a living tree – did prove correlated with numbers of trees planted
(Szkop, 2019). Based on a smaller inventory of 2,111 street trees of 36 spe-
cies planted between 2014 and 2016, this correlation turned out to be 58%.
This allowed to claim that urban greenery managers ignore average annual
mortality rates and prefer to plant species known for their large potential to
absorb air pollutants.
Let us assume that there are two tree species which provide benefits of b1
and b2 per tree, respectively, with b1 < b2. Therefore, total benefits read β =
b1n1 + b2n2, where n1 and n2, are the number of trees of the first and the sec-
ond species, respectively. If x is the fraction of trees of the second (i.e. more
“valuable”) species (x=n2/N), and N is the total number of trees, then the for-
mula reads:
β = b1(1-x)N + b2xN, (5)
and
∂β/∂x = N(b2 – b1) > 0. (6)
From the social welfare point of view, however, as only living trees pro-
vide benefits, a more appropriate formula for the total benefits reads:
B = b1(1-x)Nθ1 + b2xNθ2, (7)
Where θ1, θ2 are survival rates of the first and second species, respec-
tively. If one assumes that the survival rate of the first species is 1 (the first
species always survives), then the formula reduces to:
B = b1(1-x)N + b2xNθ2. (8)
It is then easy to calculate that
∂B/∂x = N(θ2b2 – b1). (9)
If one lifts the assumption that θ1=1, then the notation becomes more
complicated, and θ2 has to be expressed as a fraction of θ1 (we assume that
the species considered more valuable has a lower survival rate).
The cost of planting a tree is likely to be higher in the case of the more
“valuable” species: c1 < c2. Thus, the raw cost of tree planting activity is
c1(1-x)N + c2xN, where x and N denote the same variables as before. However,
tree planting agents know that the second species is more risky to be planted
and hence they request a mark-up proportional to the share of the more risky
trees, say, 1+x. Consequently, the cost formula reads:
c = c1(1-x)N + c2xN(1+x). (10)

The derivative reads:
∂c/∂x = N(2c2x + c2 – c1). (11)
In other words, ∂c/∂x increases when the share of the more valuable spe-
cies increases.
One needs now to check these findings against the data observed in War-
saw. θ2b2 – b1 is certainly lower than b2 – b1, but its sign is not obvious imme-
diately. Trying to estimate these expressions, we can take two typical species:
Red oak (a large tree) and Callery pear (a small tree). The annual survival
rate for the more “valuable” species, Red oak, is 96%, while the survival rate
for the less “valuable”, Callery pear, is virtually 100%. These numbers indi-
cate that for these two typical species, over 10 years (perhaps an upper limit
of what greenery managers can realistically contemplate), θ2b2 – b1 > 0, since
θ2, can be assumed to be 0.66 (0.9610 is approximately 0.66) and as long as b2
> b1/0.66 which is obviously satisfied for the case of Red oak and Callery pear
(see table 2 for large and small species, respectively).
The results are based on benefits, survival rates and cost functions col-
lected by relevant authorities. The data inform about the knowledge these
authorities rely on, which is not necessarily based on the entire statistical
material characterising urban trees properly. The attempt of these analyses
is not to discover an optimum composition of urban greenery, but rather to
explain why certain tree species can be found in the city more frequently
than others.
Figure 1. Preferences with respect to tree species composition

Source: author’s work.
The main conclusion from these observations (figure 1) is that species
composition likely to be chosen by greenery managers (ξ0) is different from
what would be preferred by the mayor (x0). If urban greenery managers do
not take into account low survival rates of the most (theoretically) valuable
tree species, then these species are likely to be overrepresented in urban tree
planting schedules.
Alternative quantifications of B and β require additional analyses. In our
calculations, we assumed that managers look at annual absorption benefits.
Actually, the decision-making process can be more complex. For instance,
they can look at cumulative benefits over some time horizon, say, 10 years.
Additionally, they can discount the future with a positive discount rate. It is
easy to see; however, that the proportion of benefits provided by two species
to be compared is exactly the same irrespective of whether the annual out-
come is taken into account or the cumulative effect, and irrespective of the
discount rate applied. It simply depends on the proportion of b1 and b2.
Survival rates are a different story. If annual survival rates are different
but constant over time, they make expected annual benefits lower than the
theoretical ones. Yet it may turn out that they vary over time and, say, are dif-
ferent for the first three years than for the next three years. In this case, the
proportion of benefits obtained by planting alternative species may depend
on the time horizon adopted.
Conclusions and directions for future research
The main conclusion derived from the model is – to some extent – pre-
dictable. The fact that species composition preferred by the lower level is not
necessarily what the higher level would like to see is intuitively obvious.
What the model can shed more light on are specific management solutions
which – when implemented – can reduce the exposure to air contaminants
more effectively.
PA models studied in economics suggest that the lower level should be
the “residual claimant” of benefits. This is not practical in the context of urban
greenery, as it is inconceivable that managers can be reimbursed with any
additional benefits their extra effort implies. The model only suggests that
greenery managers should be better rewarded when they choose a species
composition likely to deliver actual rather than theoretical benefits. A mis-
match between preferences with respect to tree species known of very high
potential absorption capacity and species that are perhaps not that attrac-
tive, but less sensitive to harsh urban conditions, can be addressed by estab-
lishing more detailed guidelines for the lower level. For the time being, these
guidelines reflect potential benefits and seem to ignore survival rates. How-
ever, to arrive at more robust conclusions, more empirical research is called
for.
First and foremost, more site-specific research on the absorption of air
contaminants is necessary. Our conclusions largely based on the benefit
transfer method, with policy-site relationships extrapolated from observa-
tions collected elsewhere. While the original data are fairly detailed and
probably accurate, local climatic, economic, and environmental conditions
somewhere else can be different. Second, we need much broader data on the
survival of trees. It would be necessary to know to what extent poor survival
rates are caused by planting species that are not fit to local conditions, and to
what extent they can be controlled (either through regulations on economic
activities in the neighbourhood of trees or through an incentive structure).
Likewise, it would be illuminating to see how survival rates depend on the
time horizon. Third, it would be interesting to deepen the study of prefer-
ences of the higher level and preferences of the lower management level.
We assumed that the higher level aims at maximising the absorption capacity
of the (living) trees planted. Yet other benefits provided by the urban green
may play a role as well. Reviews of important policy documents and adequate
in-depth surveys of city officials may help to identify more closely incentives
relevant for the urban greenery management.
References
Bodnaruk, E.W. et al., 2017. Where to plant urban trees? A spatially explicit methodol-
ogy to explore ecosystem service tradeoffs. Landscape and Urban Planning, 157,
457-467, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.08.016.
Braubach, M. et al., 2017. Effects of Urban Green Space on Environmental Health,
Equity and Resilience. In: Kabish, N. et al. (Eds.), Nature‐based Solutions to Cli-
mate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas. Linkages between Science, Policy and
Practice. Springer, Cham, 187-205, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56091-
5_11.
CICES (Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services), 2015. Towards
a common classification of ecosystem services, http://cices.eu.
Cortinovis, C., Geneletti, D., 2019. A framework to explore the eﬀects of urban plan-
ning decisions on regulating ecosystem services in cities. Ecosystem Services, 38,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100946.
Costanza, R. et al., 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural
capital. Nature, 387, May 15, 253-260, https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0.
Dwyer, J.F., 1992, Assessing the Benefits and Costs of the Urban Forest. Journal of
Arboriculture, 18(5), 227-234.
ExternE (External Costs of Energy), http://www.externe.info/externe_d7/?q=node/2.
Fontaine, L.C., Larson, B.M.H., 2016. The right tree at the right place? Exploring urban
foresters’ perceptions of assisted migration. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening,
18, 221-227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.06.010
Giergiczny, M., Kronenberg, J., 2014. From Valuation to Governance: Using Choice
Experiment to Value Street Trees. Ambio, 43, 492-501, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13280-014-0516-9.
Heckerman, D.G., 1975, Motivating managers to make investment decisions. Journal
of Financial Economics, 2(3), 273-292.
Hotte, N. et al., 2016. The principal-agent problem and climate change adaptation on
public lands. Global Environmental Change, 36, 163-174, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.gloenvcha.2016.01.001.
Jensen, M.C., Meckling, W.H., 1976, Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency
costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X.
Jin, S. et al., 2014. Evaluation of impacts of trees on PM2.5 dispersion in urban streets.
Atmospheric Environment, 99, 277-287, DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.10.002.
Kronenberg, J., 2015. Why not to green a city? Institutional barriers to preserving
urban ecosystem services. Ecosystem Services, 12, 218-227, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.07.002.
Laffont, J.J., Tirole, J., 1988. The dynamics of incentive contracts. Econometrica, 56,
1153-1175.
Lindholst, A.C., 2008. Improving contract design and management for urban green-
space maintenance through action research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening,
7, 77-91.
Mas-Colell, A., Whinston, M.D., Green, J.R., 1995. Microeconomic Theory. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, New York.
McPherson, E.G., 2007. Northeast Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strate-
gic Planting. PSW-GTR-202. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research
Station.
Mullaney, J. et al., 2015, A review of benefits and challenges in growing street trees in
paved urban environments. Landscape and Urban Planning, 134, 157-166,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.013.
Nowak, D. et al., 2004. Tree mortality rates and tree population projections in Balti-
more, Maryland, US. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2, 139-147, https://doi.
org/10.1078/1618-8667-00030.
Nowak, D.J., 2000. Tree species selection, design and management to improve air
quality”. In: Scheu, D.L. (Ed.), American Society of Landscape Architects Annual
Meeting Proceedings, Washington, D.C., 23-27.
Nowak, D.J., Heisler, G.M., 2010. Air Quality Effects of Urban Trees and Parks, National
Recreation and Park Association, Ashburn, VA.
Nowocin, K., 2017. Urban Maintenance Authority, Warsaw (personal communica-
tion).
Robinson, K.F. et al., 2019, Integration of social and ecological sciences for natural
resource decision making: challenges and opportunities. Environmental Man-
agement, 63, 565-573, DOI: 10.1007/s00267-019-01141-2.
Roman, L.A., Scatena, F.N., 2011. Street tree survival rates: Meta-analysis of previous
studies and application to a ﬁeld survey in Philadelphia, PA, USA. Urban Forestry
& Urban Greening, 10, 269-274, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2011.05.008.
Ross, S.A., 1973, The Economic Theory of Agency: The Principal’s Problem. American
Economic Review, 63(2), 134-139.
Szkop, Z., 2016. An evaluation of the ecosystem services provided by urban trees: The
role of Krasiński Gardens in air quality and human health in Warsaw (Poland).
Environmental & Socio-economic Studies, 4(4), 41-50, DOI: 10.1515/envi-
ron-2016-0023.
Szkop, Z., 2019. Wartość ekonomiczna usług ekosystemowych świadczonych przez
drzewa miejskie. Problem optymalnego zarzadzania zielenią miejska”, unpub-
lished PhD thesis, University of Warsaw [Economic value of ecosystem services
provided by urban trees. Optimum management of urban greenery].
Szkop, Z., Żylicz, T., 2018. Urban greenery management as an economic problem”,
paper presented at the World Congress of Environmental and Resource Econo-
mists, Gothenburg.
Tempesta, T., 2015.Benefits and costs of urban parks: a review. Aestimum, 67, 127-
143, DOI: 10.13128/Aestimum-17943.
Vahabi, M., 2020, Introduction: a symposium on the predatory state. Public Choice,
182, 233-242, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-019-00715-2
Varian, H.R., 2010. Intermediate Microeconomics. A modern approach, W.W. Norton,
New York.
Wilson, R., 1968, On the Theory of Syndicates. Econometrica, 36, 119-132.
Wrzesień, M., 2017. Environmental Protection Office, Warsaw (personal communica-
tion).
Zawojska, E. et al., 2016. Economic valuation of ecosystem services provided by the
Wilanów Park: A benefit transfer study. Ekonomia i Środowisko, 4(59), 143-153.
ZOM (Zarząd Oczyszczania Miasta), 2017. Drzewa i krzewy (in Polish), http://zom.
waw.pl/zielen-przyuliczna/drzewa-i-krzewy.
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY AND
MANAGEMENT
POLITYKA EKOLOGICZNA
I ZARZĄDZANIE ŚRODOWISKIEM
Natalia Yosipivna SHUPTAR-PORYVAIEVA • Elena Rostislavovna GUBANOVA •

Natalia Mykolaivna ANDRYEYEVA • Tetiana Ivanivna SHEVCHENKO
EXAMINING OF PORTABLE BATTERIES

EXTERNALITIES WITH FOCUS ON CONSUMPTION
AND DISPOSAL PHASES
Natalia Yosipivna Shuptar-Poryvaieva, Candidate of Economic Sciences (ORCID: 0000-

0002-3260-2714) – Odesa State Environmental University, Ukraine
Elena Rostislavovna Gubanova, Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0002-8535-1701) – Odesa State

Environmental University, Ukraine
Natalia Mykolaivna Andryeyeva, Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0002-9960-559X) – Institute of Market
Problems and Economic and Environmental Research, Ukraine
Tetiana Ivanivna Shevchenko, Associate Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0002-3213-819X) – Sumy
National Agrarian University, Ukraine
Lvovskaya Street 15, 65016, Odesa, Ukraine
e-mail: shuptar.n@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Today, the problem of increasing negative environmental externalities related to waste
management, especially electronic waste, which also includes used household batteries and accumu-
lators, is becoming increasingly acute. They cause significant damage not only to the environment but
also to public health when released into the environment without control. The purpose of this work is
to study the environmental and economic aspects and determine the external effects caused by the
consequences of the consumption of autonomous batteries. Correlation-regression analysis showed
that there is a link between indicators of domestic market filling of household batteries and the dynam-
ics of mortality related to cancer. The study provides simplified calculations of external effects that
arise in Ukraine because of the consumption of household batteries due to the absence of a system
for their collection and disposal. The sum of the total external effects is determined, excluding losses
due to air pollution, water pollution, and agricultural losses.
KEYWORDS: externalities, used batteries, correlation-regression analysis
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 24-37 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/30 JEL: D62, Q53, C100
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 Environmental policy and management 25
Introduction
The modern stage of development of economy-based consumption is

characterized by an acute complication of the interaction between the envi-
ronment and humankind and is defined as a technogenic type of economic
development, for which significant externalities (external effects) are typical.
All people living in the same world and using the same resources are the
reason for the external effects to existing. Each person can pursue their goals,
and their actions may have a spin-off that affects the condition of others.
Today, the problem of increasing negative environmental externalities
related to waste management, especially electronic waste, which also
includes used household batteries (batteries and accumulators), is becoming
increasingly acute (Grace, 2018; Chaudhary, 2019; Bigum, 2017).
The European Union has a long-established practice of handling used
household batteries. According to the Statistics Committee of the European
Union, during 2012-2018, the total number of household power supplies
sold was relatively constant, and the dynamics of batteries collected from the
population shows a clear upward trend (Eurostat, 2020). In 2012, 173 thou-
sand tons of batteries and accumulators were sold in the EU countries, and
64 thousand of them were sent to specialized collection points, that is, 37%
of their total number, and in 2018 this percentage increased to 46% (88
thousand tons were collected out of 191 thousand tons sold) (Eurostat,
2020).
Poland, Ukraine’s neighbor, has achieved particular success in managing
battery and accumulator waste. In the period from 2012 to 2018, the number
of batteries collected increased by more than 3.5 times (from 2.9 to 10.7
thousand tons, respectively), while the number of batteries sold increased by
only a quarter (from 10.6 to 13.3 thousand tons, respectively) (Statistics
Poland, 2018).
The issue of handling used batteries is extremely relevant in Ukraine,
since the systems for collecting used batteries in our country do not exist,
and most of them are on landfills. Over time, harmful substances contained in
galvanic elements freely enter the environment and cause irreparable dam-
age not only to the environment but also to public health.
The goal of this work is to study the environmental and economic aspects
and determine the external effects caused by the consequences of the con-
sumption of autonomous batteries.
26 Environmental policy and management EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
An overview of the literature
Theoretical foundations of the problem of externalities are widely repre-

sented in the works of foreign scientists. In fact, P. Samuelson introduced the
term «external effect» into scientific parlance in 1958 (Samuelson, 1954).
However, A. Pigou carried out the development of basic approaches to the
analysis of externalities much earlier (Pigou, 1920). He justified the differ-
ence between private and public costs and benefits and proposed govern-
ment regulation of externalities through taxes and subsidies. In the 1960s, R.
Coase worked on the problem of externalities and saw the neutralization of
the problem of externalities in a clear distribution of property rights to
resources and minimization of transactional costs.
Among modern scientists T. Litman, W. Fransen, J.M.W. Dings, R.C.N. Wit,
B.A. Leurs and M.D. Davidson are noteworthy. Their works are devoted to
researches of an estimation of external effects of auto- and air transport (Lit-
man, 2009; Dings et al., 2003). Externalities of waste, including electronics,
were studied by Sindhuja M., Narayanan K. and Krishnan T S. (Sindhuja,
Narayanan, 2018; Krishnan, 2018). Approaches to study the external effects
of spent power sources are found in the works of Tang Y., Zhang Q, Li Y., Li H.,
Pan X., Mclellan B. And Lamjon L.M. (Tang et al., 2019; Lamjon, 2012).
M. Fairbrother studied the concept of externalities in the social sciences
(Fairbrother, 2016), and A. V Houndekon, H. De Groote, and C. Lomer carried
out the study of the influence of external effects on public health Houndekon
et al., 2006).
Many publications are devoted to the study of the negative effects of
e-waste on public health. In particular, the work of Zeng X., Kuchhal P., Sharma
U.C. and Kuntawee, C. is devoted to the study of serious diseases caused by
heavy metals contained in electronic waste, including spent batteries (Zeng
et al., 2017; Kuntawee et al., 2020; Kuchhal, Sharma, 2019).
Ukrainian authors, who work on this topic, studied the mechanisms of
distribution of public goods and the features of using government tools to
avoid externalities (Krasnikova, 2009), the development of theoretical and
methodological principles for assessing the economic consequences of nega-
tive external effects of environmental pollution in the field of environmen-
tally caused diseases of the population (Kurbatko, 2017).
In addition, among the studies available, a number of important issues
relating to the problem of handling used batteries that need to be addressed
immediately have been neglected. In particular, it is the development of insti-
tutional support for controlling the electronic waste management system
and improving the system of their statistical reporting, which will help to
harmonize the legislation of Ukraine and the EU in the field of state regula-
tion of used batteries.
Research methods
Fundamental and modern provisions of environmental economics, eco-

nomic and ecological theory of environmental management, and waste man-
agement became the basis of the theoretical and methodological foundations
of this study.
In accordance with the goal, the following research methods were used:
methods of logical generalization and scientific abstraction (when clarifying
the conceptual framework of the study); market research methods (when
identifying patterns of formation and development of the market for house-
hold batteries); comparative method (when studying trends in the field of
electronic waste management); the method of correlation-regression analy-
sis (when studying and evaluating the investigative relationships between
the indicators of domestic market filling of household batteries and dynam-
ics of mortality related to cancer).
Results of the research
Economists characterizing externalities distinguish several types, classes

of these phenomena. Thus, both negative and positive external effects of pro-
duction and consumption are distinguished by the criterion of the „source of
occurrence”. The author classifies the problem of handling used batteries as
externalities of goods consumption. There are several definitions of external
effects in the modern economical literature. The author proposes the follow-
ing definition:
Externalities of consumption are public losses that are incurred by stake-
holders of the socio-economic and ecological system because of the con-
sumption of goods whose value does not consider these losses. External
effects in the field of handling used batteries are shown in the graph (figure 1).
If used batteries go to landfills, this leads to negative externalities for the
population (people incur losses associated with the treatment of water, soil,
and air from harmful substances in the batteries, which are not included in
their cost). The marginal social costs from used batteries landfill placement
are marked by the MSC, and the marginal private costs from used batteries
landfill placement are marked by the MPC. As batteries have now become an
essential necessity with no alternative, the inelastic curve of demand for used
batteries recycling is marked as D. Then the cause of external effects is the
difference in social and private values.
МЕС = МЅС – МРС. (1)

Used batteries pollute the environment with heavy metals, the amount of
which depends on the amount of waste generated. The proposal to dispose of
waste batteries in landfills without taking into account the negative impact
on the population is shown by line S1. If the social costs of battery waste
disposal in the landfill had been taken into account (in their price), the
amount of batteries thrown into the garbage can would have been at a lower
S2 level. Since Q1> Q2, there is overproduction, which is associated with neg-
ative external effects. If electronic waste producers are forced to pay for the
external effect (move from equilibrium point A to equilibrium point B), prices
will increase, and the amount of waste generated in the landfill will decrease.
Figure 1. Negative externalities of used batteries

In landfills/dumps, used batteries become dangerous immediately after

damaging the shell of a battery. Usually, this happens within 6-7 weeks, as the
batteries and accumulators are affected by the elevated temperature and
acidic (with pH less than 7) filtrate of the polygon. During the whole period
of landfill existence, the filtrate serves as a permanent source of groundwater
pollution. The disposal of used batteries in solid domestic waste landfills
leads to leaching of heavy metals and increase of the concentration of heavy
metals in the polygon filtrate (especially – zinc and manganese) (Smirnova,
Sakulina, 2016).
Due to the unsatisfactory condition of landfills in Ukraine, landfill fires
have become more frequent. For example, the last cases of fire were recorded
in September 2019 on the territory of Trypillya village of Kyiv region, Berdy-
chiv city of Zhytomyr region, and Pryluka city of Chernigiv region. The big-
gest tragedy at the landfill in Ukraine was the fire on May 30, 2016, at the
landfill in Hrybovychi village in Lviv region. It partly lasted for two months,
covered an area of 800 m2, and killed four people.
In 5% of cases, used batteries as part of municipal solid waste are sent to
incineration plants. It is established that the combustion of alkaline manga-
nese zinc batteries causes the increase of metal concentration in slag and fly
ash of incinerators. If gas treatment plants are not efficient enough, some
heavy metals will also be present in the combustion gases. When one AA size
nickel-cadmium accumulator, weighing about 20 g, is incinerated together
with MSW, 3 g of cadmium in the form of steam and fly ash is released into
gases, the treatment plants trap part of this amount, the rest is emitted to the
atmosphere (12%, which is 0.36 g). The penetration of one manganese zinc
battery into the incinerated MSW leads to the emission of up to 4 g of zinc
into the gases, while the emission into the atmosphere is 4%, which is 0.045
g (Smirnova, Sakulina, 2016). Table 1 shows the structure of external effects
in the field of handling used batteries.
Table 1. Main external effects in used batteries management
External effect (МЕСі) Description
1 Land contamination Damage caused by contamination of land resources with toxic substances
from used batteries due to lack of a system for their collection and disposal
2 Air pollution Damage from air pollution caused by used batteries combustion, which gets
into waste incineration plants as part of MSW
3 Contamination of water Damage from contamination of groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs with
bodies heavy metals that seep through the soil as a result of the disposal of used
batteries in landfills
4 Damage to agriculture Losses of crop and livestock production associated with a reduced quality of
soil and water because of the heavy metals that are part of the used batter-
ies.
5 Harm to public health Damage to public health caused by contaminated drinking water, air, and
environmentally hazardous foodstuffs, which is the result of heavy metals
from used food sources entering the environment. This leads to increased
morbidity in the population, deteriorating working and rest conditions, and
reduced life expectancy.

Thus, we can record the total social costs for the production of household
food sources, taking into account externalities in the following form:
where МЕСі – external costs of the i-th kind (i = 1, ..., 5, see table 1)
The calculation of external effects faces serious objective and subjective

difficulties. For example, human health is the result of a number of social,
hygienic, environmental, and economic factors. It is difficult to characterize
the role of each of them, but they cannot be ignored. Although the problem
has not been sufficiently researched and there are no clear evidences of the
population’s disease caused by heavy metals contained in used batteries, it is
impossible to ignore their harmful effect on the health of Ukrainians.
Table 2 contains a list of poisonous substances in batteries and their
impact on human health.
Table 2. The impact of hazardous substances from used batteries on human health
In which batteries can be

Element Health impact
founded
manganese zinc and Zinc has a generally toxic, irritating effect: causes nausea, cough,
Zink (Zn)
alkaline batteries skin irritation, mucous membranes, and insomnia. Carcinogen.
In the human body, excess manganese leads to neurological
Manganese manganese zinc and diseases, causes myocardial dystrophy and vegetative vascular
(Mn) alkaline batteries dystonia. It affects cholesterol metabolism and atherosclerosis
progression.
Excess cadmium in the body leads to impaired kidney function,
Cadmium increased blood pressure, reduced number of red blood cells.
nickel cadmium batteries
(Cd) Cadmium causes reproductive disorders. It accumulates in the
body. Carcinogen.
Mercury has a bad effect on the kidneys, digestive organs, central
Mercury nervous system, and heart, sharply reduces blood pressure, and
mercury zinc elements
(Hg) has an extremely negative effect on human reproduction, as well
as on the fetus. It accumulates in the body
nickel cadmium and Irritates deep airways, causing pneumonia and pulmonary edema,
Nikel (Ni) nickel-metal hydride regardless of the path of entry into the body. A significant general
batteries toxic effect is also directed at the nervous system. Carcinogen..
Source: Smirnova, Sakulina, 2016.
Table 2 shows that most of the poisonous substances in batteries are car-
cinogens, i.e., substances that cause malignancies.
Correlation-regression analysis showed that there is a link between indi-
cators of domestic market filling of household batteries and the dynamics of
mortality related to cancer.
The data for Ukraine from 1993-2013 were used for the analysis. Starting
from 2014, there are no statistical data on three oblasts (Donetsk Oblast,
Lugansk Oblast, AR of Crimea).
Figure 2 shows the dynamics of mortality related to cancer of the Ukrain-
ian population. In 1993, this figure was 332 thousand people, and by 2013, it
has grown to 440 thousand people (by 32.5%) and has a clear tendency to
increase.
Figure 2. Statistics of cancer diseases of the population of Ukraine

Figure 3. Battery imports in Ukraine in 1993-2013

There is also a growing number of batteries imported to Ukraine, provid-

ing the performance of portable equipment used in a variety of spheres of
human activity. According to the State Fiscal Service of Ukraine, 101 320 tons
of batteries were imported to our country in the period from 1993 to 2013
(figure 3).
Table 3 shows the intermediate values for calculating the correlation
coefficient and correlation relation equation coefficients, where Y is the num-
ber of cancer patients; X is the number of imported batteries.
Table 3. Calculation table of intermediate values
Number of cancer Number of imported

Year Y2 Х2 ХY
patients, thousands (Y) batteries, tons (Х)
1 1993 332 110224 599 358801 198868

2 1994 328 107584 923 851929 302744
3 1995 327 106929 766 586756 250482
4 1996 335 112225 2061 4247721 690435
5 1997 348 121104 2742 7518564 954216
6 1998 372 138384 4311 18584721 1603692
7 1999 382 145924 2272 5161984 867904
8 2000 382 145924 3265 10660225 1247230
9 2001 394 155236 4 486 20124196 1767484
10 2002 382 145924 5 690 32376100 2173580
11 2003 395 156025 6 543 42810849 2584485
12 2004 406 164836 10 994 120868036 4463564
13 2005 408 166464 8 490 72080100 3463920
14 2006 414 171396 5 682 32285124 2352348
15 2007 407 165649 6 785 46036225 2761495
16 2008 406 164836 7 148 51093904 2902088
17 2009 407 165649 6 229 38800441 2535203
18 2010 418 174724 6 379 40691641 2666422
19 2011 423 178929 4 904 24049216 2074392
20 2012 433 187489 5 665 32092225 2452945
21 2013 440 193600 5 386 29008996 2369840
Σ 8139 3179055 101320 630287754 40683337

The correlation coefficient is determined by the formula:
1
∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ 𝑌𝑌� − ∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ ∑�� 𝑌𝑌�
𝑟𝑟��,�� = 𝑛𝑛 =
��∑�� 𝑋𝑋�� − 1 �∑�� 𝑋𝑋� � � ∗ �∑�� 𝑌𝑌�� − 1 �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� � �
� �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1
4068337 − 101320 1 ∗ 8139
= � 21
∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ 𝑌𝑌� − ∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ ∑�� 𝑌𝑌� = 0.76
𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑛𝑛 1 =
��,��
��630287754 − (101320) � �
1 � ∗� �3179055 − 1 (8139) ��
� 21
� � � � 21 �
��∑�� 𝑋𝑋� − �∑�� 𝑋𝑋� � � ∗ �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� − �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� � �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
1
The obtained correlation − 101320
4068337coefficient ∗ 8139
shows that the correlation between
= 21 = 0.76
the variables X and Y is straight, and the Chaddock scale connection force is
��630287754 − 1 (101320)� � ∗ �3179055 − 1 (8139)� �
high. 𝑟𝑟(�,�) 21 0.76 21
𝑡𝑡(�) =
The Student’s criterion �was ∗ √𝑛𝑛 𝑛
used 2 =
to1evaluate the∗ √21 − 2 = 5.097
significance of the cor-
�1 − (𝑟𝑟(�,�)∑) �� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ 𝑌𝑌� − √1 ∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ �∑�� 𝑌𝑌�
− 0.76
relation coefficient:
𝑟𝑟��,�� = 𝑛𝑛 =
��∑�� 𝑋𝑋�� − 1 �∑�� 𝑋𝑋� � � ∗ �∑�� 𝑌𝑌�� − 1 �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� � �
� �
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑟𝑟(�,�) 1 0.76
𝑡𝑡(�) = 4068337 − 𝑛 2101320
∗ √𝑛𝑛 = ∗ 8139 ∗ √21 − 2 = 5.097
= �1 − (𝑟𝑟(�,�)�)� � 21 � √1�− 0.76�� = 0.76
∑1�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑥𝑥1� 𝑦𝑦�
��630287754 𝑏𝑏� =
− (101320) � � ∗ �3179055 − =
(8139)��
21 𝑛𝑛 ∑� 𝑥𝑥 � − �∑� 𝑥𝑥 �� 21
��
The table value 630287754 of the ∗Student’s

8139 − 101320 criterion ∗ 40683337
for equal importance α=0.05
= �
= 339.32
and the number of freedom 21 ∗
�
630287754
steps� �
ꝭ=n-2=21-2=19,
− 101320
� �
ttable = 2,093.
� ∑�� ∑
Since
𝑛𝑛 ∑ �
�� =2,093<
ttable 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� −𝑏𝑏 ∑= ∑𝑥𝑥��
tr =𝑥𝑥�5.097, being
𝑦𝑦��
�
� −
𝑦𝑦21 ∗∑40683337
less 𝑥𝑥� ∑95%
than
�� − 𝑦𝑦�
𝑥𝑥�suggests
101320
= ∗ that
8139the stud-
𝑏𝑏� = � �� = � = 0.01
�𝑟𝑟(�,�) ∑ � � �
0.76
ied indicators𝑛𝑛 ∑ �of the number
�
𝑥𝑥 − (∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ) �� of
𝑛𝑛
� cancer𝑥𝑥 −patients
21�∑∗ 𝑥𝑥 and
�
630287754
�� the − number
101320 of batteries
�
𝑡𝑡(�) =�� ∗ √𝑛𝑛 𝑛 2 = ∗ √21 − 2 = 5.097
correlate, so the � 1relationship
− (𝑟𝑟(�,�) )∗�8139
630287754 between− 101320them
√1 −∗has
0.76been
�
40683337 proved.
=
To describe the paired linear regression equation,
�
=its339.32
coefficients were
21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320
determined ∑� using the∑� least-squares
∑� method:
𝑛𝑛 �� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� − �� 𝑥𝑥� �� 𝑦𝑦� 21 ∗ 40683337 − 101320 ∗ 8139
𝑏𝑏� = =
𝑦𝑦 = 339.32 + 0.01𝑥𝑥 = 0.01
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� − (∑�� 𝑥𝑥� )� 21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320�
∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦�

𝑏𝑏� = � =
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� − �∑�� 𝑥𝑥� �
∑|y� − y� |: y�
630287754 ∗А �8139
=
𝑦𝑦 = 339.32
− 101320 ∗∗ 40683337
100%
+ 0.01𝑥𝑥
= n = 339.32
�.��
21 ∗ 630287754 � = − 101320
А ∗ 100%4.8%
��
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� 21 ∗ 40683337 − 101320 ∗ 8139
𝑏𝑏� = = = 0.01
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� − (∑�� 𝑥𝑥� )� 21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320�
∑|y� − y� |: y�
�=
А ∗ 100%
R� n 0.58
F�� = �(n −�.��2) = ∗ 19 = 26.23
1 − R�А = �� ∗ 100%4.8%0.42
𝑦𝑦 = 339.32 + 0.01𝑥𝑥
R� 0.58
F�� = �
(n − 2) = ∗ 19 = 26.23
∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ 𝑌𝑌� − ∑�� 𝑋𝑋� ∗ ∑�� 𝑌𝑌�
𝑟𝑟��,�� = 𝑛𝑛 =
� � � 1 � � � � 1 � �
�∑�� 𝑋𝑋� − �∑�� 𝑋𝑋� � �0.76
𝑟𝑟(�,�) ∗ �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� − �∑�� 𝑌𝑌� � �
𝑡𝑡(�) = 𝑛𝑛 𝑛 2 =
∗ √𝑛𝑛 ∗ √21𝑛𝑛− 2 = 5.097
34 1 − (𝑟𝑟
Environmental�policy and ) �
management 1
(�,�)
4068337 − 101320 ∗ 8139
√1 − 0.76 �
= 21 = 0.76
The paired linear 1 1
��630287754 − regression
(101320)equations
� � ∗ �3179055have−the following
(8139) � form:
�
21 21
y=339.32+0.01x
∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦�
𝑏𝑏� = � =
Analyzing the calculations, 𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥we
�
� −can�∑��
conclude
𝑥𝑥� � that with the increase in the
number of630287754
batteries
𝑟𝑟(�,�)in the Ukrainian
∗ 8139 − 101320market∗ 0.76
40683337 by 1 ton the number of cancer
patients𝑡𝑡(�)=increases
= by 0.01 ∗thousand
√𝑛𝑛 𝑛 2 = people. �
= 339.32
∗ √21 − 2 = 5.097
�1 −21 ∗ 630287754
(𝑟𝑟(�,�) )� − 101320
√1 − 0.76�
To analyze the overall quality of the regression model, we use the coeffi-
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� 21 ∗ 40683337 − 101320 ∗ 8139
𝑏𝑏� cient
= of determination R2�. = = 0.01
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� − (∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ) 21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320�
For our model, R2=0.58 (58% of the variation in y can be explained by the
x-variables). For reliable models, it is assumed that the coefficient of determi-
nation should be at least ∑��0.5;𝑥𝑥�� ∑therefore,
� �we consider� our model is acceptable.
�� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦�
Let us estimate 𝑏𝑏� =the quality of the regression � = using the absolute
equation
𝑦𝑦 =𝑛𝑛 339.32
∑ �
𝑥𝑥 � + 0.01𝑥𝑥
− �∑ �
𝑥𝑥 �
approximation error. The average approximation error is the average devia-
��
630287754
tion of the calculated ∗ 8139
values − 101320
from ∗ 40683337
the actual ones:
= = 339.32
21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320�
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑��
∑|y𝑦𝑦�− y21|: y∗ 40683337 − 101320 ∗ 8139
𝑏𝑏� = � = � � = � � ∗ 100%
А = 0.01
𝑛𝑛 ∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� − (∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ) n 21 ∗ 630287754 − 101320
�
�.��
�=
А ∗ 100%4.8%
��
Since the error is less 𝑦𝑦than 12%, +

= 339.32 this equation can be used as a regres-
0.01𝑥𝑥
sion. R� 0.58
F�� = (n − 2) = ∗ 19 = 26.23
Let us evaluate the R�
1 −statistical 0.42 of modelling using F-test. To do
reliability
this, we will test the null hypothesis (H0) about the statistical insignificance
of the obtained regression |: y�
∑|y� − y�according
� =equation
А ∗ 100%
to the condition: if Ffact > Ftable,
n significance, reliability of the regression
then H0 is rejected and the statistical
equation is recognized. � = �.�� ∗ 100%4.8%
А
��
To calculate the Ffact, we use the formula:
R� 0.58
F�� = �
(n − 2) = ∗ 19 = 26.23
1−R 0.42
The Ftable (at a significance level of α = 0.05) is 4.38.
Since 26.23 > 4.38, the null hypothesis H0 is rejected, i.e., according to
Fisher’s test, the regression is adequate.
Conclusions
The study provides simplified calculations of external effects that arise in

Ukraine because of the consumption of household batteries due to the
absence of a system for their collection and disposal. Due to the imperfection
of the existing statistical reporting system, these calculations were made
only until 2013, because since 2014, due to the armed conflict in the East of
Ukraine, there are no statistics for three regions – the Donetsk region, the
Luhansk region, and the Crimea.
Based on the proposed structure of external effects in the sphere of treat-
ment of used batteries and the correlation regression analysis, it is proposed
to take into account expenditures on public health protection when deter-
mining the value of external effects.
Thus, according to the Law of Ukraine „On Approval of the National Can-
cer Control Program for the period until 2016” the amount of funding for the
implementation of the program for 2013 amounted to 472 243.6 UAH.
According to the correlation regression analysis, the increase in the number
of domestic batteries by one ton leads to an increase in cancer patients by 10
people. Therefore, we concluded that the total number of cancer patients,
whose disease could be caused by external effects of handling used batteries,
(5386 tons were imported in 2013), is 53 860 people.
Therefore, we believe that 57 807 UAH of the total amount of state budget
expenditures for the funding of the National Cancer Program, which amounts
to 472 243.6 UAH in 2013, are funds for treatment of cancer patients, whose
disease could be caused by external effects of handling used batteries. Add-
ing to this amount the ecological and economic damage from the pollution of
land resources by used batteries, which is 400 360 000 UAH (Shuptar, 2013),
the amount of total external effects of used batteries is 458 167 UAH (exclud-
ing losses due to air pollution, water pollution, and agricultural losses).
The practical significance of the results obtained in this study can be
applied in the formation of the Ukrainian system of the electronic waste man-
agement system, improvement of the methodology of state statistical moni-
toring of household battery waste generation, and the development of uni-
fied environmental standards for the development of cross-border coopera-
tion between Ukraine and neighbouring states in the field of sustainable and
environmentally sound development.
Taking into account the determined amount of general external effects
will contribute to the effective use of economic instruments in the implemen-
tation of environmental policy, reduce public spending on health protection,
and reduce economic losses from damage caused by the uncontrolled release
of used batteries into the environment.
Acknowledgements
This study is co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European
Union (grant number 620966-EPP-1-2020).
The contribution of the authors

Natalia Yosipivna Shuptar-Poryvaieva – 25% (concept and objectives, research, inter-
pretation of data).
Elena Rostislavovna Gubanova – 25% (concept and objectives, literature review,
research).
Natalia Mykolaivna Andryeyeva – 25% (concept and objectives, analysis and inter-
pretation of data).
Tetiana Ivanivna Shevchenko – 25% (concept and objectives, literature review, acqui-
sition of data).
References
Bigum, M. et al., 2017. Environmental impacts and resource losses of incinerating

misplaced household special wastes (WEEE, batteries, ink cartridges and cables).
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 122, 251-260, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
resconrec.2017.02.013.
Chaudhary, D., Moom, A., 2019. E-Waste: A Challenge for Sustainable Development
and Government Policies. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-
JHSS), 24(05), 65-69.
Coase, R.H., 1960. The problem of social cost. Journal of law and economics. Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 3, 1-44.
Dings, J. et al., 2003. External Costs of Aviation. Environmental research of the Federal
Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, https://
www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/publikation/
long/2297.pdf.
Eurostat Statistics Explained. Waste statistics – recycling of batteries and accumula-
tors, https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=env_wasbat&
lang=en [08-09-2020].
Fairbrother, М., 2016. Externalities: why environmental sociology should bring them in.
Environmental Sociology, https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2016.1196636.
Grace, A., Akese and Peter C. Little, 2018. Electronic Waste and the Environmental
Justice Challenge in Agbogbloshie. Environmental Justice, 11(2), 77-83, http://
doi.org/10.1089/env.2017.0039.
Houndekon, A.V. et al., 2006. Health costs and externalities of pesticide use in the
Sahel. 35(1), DOI: 10.5367/000000006776207627.
Krasnikova, L.I., 2009. Theory of public spending and public choice: monograph.
NaUKMA, Kyiv, 108.
Krishnan, T.S., 2018. Understanding E-Waste Reverse Supply Chain and Formaliza-
tion of Informal E-Waste Processors: A Qualitative Case Study, http://dx.doi.
org/10.2139/ssrn.3308478.
Kuchhal, P., Sharma, U.C., 2019. Battery waste management. Environmental Science
and Engineering, 5, 141-155.
Kuntawee, C. et al., 2020. Exposure to Heavy Metals in Electronic Waste Recycling in
Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17(9), 2996, doi: 10.3390/
ijerph17092996.
Kurbatko, O., 2017. Economic Estimations of Pollution Related Cancer and Nerves
Morbidity. International Journal of Ecology & Development, 32(1), 33-43.
Lamjon, L.M., 2012. Environmental benefits of electrical vehicles: externalities
appeased with the use of lithium batteries, https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/
30822906.pdf.
Law of Ukraine, On Approval of the National Program for Combating Cancer for the
Period up to 2016, №1794-VI (2009), https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/
1794-17.
Litman, T., 2009. Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis Techniques. Estimates and
Implications, https://www.vtpi.org/tca/tca01.pdf.
Pigou, A., 1920. The Economics of Welfare. Macmillan, London, DOI: 10.2307/2224491.
Samuelson, P., 1954. The pure theory of public expenditure. Journal of Political Econ-
omy, 56, 496-505.
Shuptar, N.I., 2013. Assessment of ecological and economic damage from environ-
mental pollution with waste power sources. Economic Scope, 72. 289-297.
Sindhuja, M., Narayanan, K., 2018. Policy Interventions for Sustainable Solid Waste
Management in Developing Countries. In: N. Bhanumurthy et al. (Eds.), Advances
in Finance & Applied Economics. Springer, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/
978-981-13-1696-8_5.
Smirnova, E., Sakulina, E., 2016. Impact of waste chemical power sources on the envi-
ronment and human health, https://www.mediamarkt.ru/blog/wp-content/
uploads/2014/08/Vozdejstvie-otrabotannyh-himicheskih-istochnikov-to-
ka-na-okruzhayushhuyu-sredu-i-zdorove-cheloveka.pdf.
State Fiscal Service of Ukraine. Customs statistics, 2019. The total volume of imports
and exports of individual subgroups of goods by UCGFEA codes, http://sfs.gov.
ua/ [27-11-2019].
State Statistics Service of Ukraine. Morbidity of the population, http://www.ukrstat.
gov.ua/ [02-07-2020].
Statistics Poland. Statistical analyses 2012-2018, https://stat.gov.pl [04-09-2020].
Tang Y. et al., 2019. The social-economic-environmental impacts of recycling retired
EV batteries under reward-penalty mechanism. Applied Energy, 251, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113313.
Zeng X. et al., 2017. Decreased lung function with mediation of blood parameters
linked to e-waste lead and cadmium exposure in preschool children. Environ-
mental Pollution, 230, 838-848, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.014.
Martin ROVNAK • Roman NOVOTNY • Matus BAKON
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF SELECTED ECONOMIC-

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN SLOVAKIA
Martin Rovnak, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0003-3969-6482) – University of Presov in Presov, Faculty

of Management, Department of Environmental Management
Roman Novotny, MsC (ORCID: 0000-0001-9095-5633) – University of Presov in Presov,
Faculty of Management, Department of Environmental Management
Matus Bakon, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0002-8850-9738) – University of Presov in Presov, Faculty
of Management, Department of Environmental Management
Konstantinova Street 16, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia
e-mail: martin.rovnak@unipo.sk
ABSTRACT: The main objective of the paper was to visualize and analyze the relationships between
selected economic and environmental indicators in the waste management system of Slovakia, i.e.,
the amount of fees for municipal waste in individual districts of Slovakia in 2019 and the amount of
average monthly wage and unemployment in Slovakia in the same year. Data were visualized and
analyzed on a thematic map and in a boxplot, and subsequently, they were subjected to statistical
testing. Based on the performed analysis, we can confirm the statistical relationship between the
average wage and the amount of fees for municipal waste collection and the statistical relation
between the municipal waste fee and the unemployment rate in individual districts of Slovakia.
KEYWORDS: environmental indicators, economic indicators, municipal waste fee, wage, unemploy-
ment
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 38-49 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/31 JEL: Q56, O13

Introduction
We are currently witnessing many activities at the local or global level,

the aim of which is not only to increase general public interest in the environ-
ment, but to provoke efforts to take concrete measures to improve its current
state. A key aspect is its deteriorating condition. In addition to the economic
and social sphere, the environment is one of the pillars of sustainable devel-
opment. There is a lot of evidence of the nonecological use of natural
resources. Everything that threatens the environment also threatens such
development. One of the biggest dangers for the environment is waste (Bosak
et al., 2016). Waste generation has adverse effects on health, the environ-
ment, socio-economic conditions, and contributes to climate change. There-
fore, it is important to examine the links between economic growth, waste
production, and environmental degradation (Uddin et al., 2017).
In the European Union, the amount of municipal waste generated per
person in 2018 amounted to 492 kg, a decrease of 5% compared to a maximum
of 518 kg per person in 2008, which is roughly comparable to the 490 kg
recorded in 2017. In total, the European Union generated 220 million tonnes
of municipal waste in 2018. Although this was slightly higher than in 2017
(218 million tonnes), it was less than in 2008 (227 million tonnes) (Statisti-
cal Office of the European Communities, 2020). Economic and fiscal instru-
ments, together with regulatory frameworks, play a key role in addressing
these challenges as drivers of improving waste management (Nicolli and
Mazzanti, 2013). Municipal waste charges are one of the instruments that are
widely recognized as crucial for local waste management (Puig-Ventosa and
Sastre Sanz, 2017). These charges must be paid by all entities using the envi-
ronment in the field of waste generation. At the same time, a uniform rule
applies to their collection (calculation and transmission) (Małecki, 2020).
The National Council of the Slovak Republic adopted the Act No. 582/2004
Coll. on Local Taxes and Local Fee for Municipal Waste and Minor Construc-
tion Waste, which is valid since 1 November 2004 and in force since 1 July
2020. The aim and subject of this law are to establish a local tax and a local
fee for municipal waste and small construction waste. The National Agency
for Network and Electronic Services (2013) states that the municipal waste
fee is paid for the waste that is generated on the territory of a given munici-
pality of the Slovak Republic. The taxpayer is responsible for the payment of
this fee, who is considered a natural person with a permanent, resp. a tempo-
rary stay in the municipality or a person who is an authorized user of a resi-
dential space, garden, orchard, building construction, or who does business
in the territory of the municipality. In addition to the individuals, the tax-
payer for municipal waste can also be a legal person who is authorized to use
real estate in the municipality for another purpose, such as business activi-
ties, as well as a legal entity using the object in the territory for business
activities. The taxpayer is not a person who uses the territory of the munici-
pality for temporary housing in facilities such as hotels. The taxpayer is not a
person hospitalized in a health centre due to the provision of health care.
Each municipality, which determines the amount based on the frequency of
waste treatment, is responsible for determining the amount of the municipal
waste fee. The tax period for this fee is specified for the period of one calen-
dar year. The decisive factor for determining the amount of the municipal
waste fee is to look at the last period and the last determined fee (annual fee).
If the resident is not present on the territory of the municipality for more
than 90 days in a calendar year and proves this by verified documents, the
municipality has the option to waive or reduce the municipal waste fee to the
payer to the lowest possible fee, which means 0.01 euro/day, i.e. a fee of 3.65
euro/year. According to Collection of Laws of the Slovak Republic, in particu-
lar, Act No. 79/2015 Coll. on waste, collected funds must be used by the
municipality specifically for the collection, transport, recovery, and disposal
of municipal waste and small construction waste.
The management of municipalities is subject to increasing control by the
public, the state and the municipalities themselves, and these local authori-
ties around the world are being forced to deal more and more with waste
management (Budică et al., 2015; Vavrek, Adamisin and Kotulic, 2017).
Municipal waste management has become a challenge for local government
authorities in both small and large municipalities (Starkowski and Bardzin-
ski, 2018). Cheng et al. (2020) state that local and regional specific conditions
should be taken into account when modelling the economic and environmen-
tal impacts of waste generation. Recent findings also suggest that different
regional economic environments significantly affect the link between eco-
nomic growth and environmental quality (Gardiner and Hajek, 2020a). For
example, an increase in production factors (employment and capital) con-
tributes not only to production and consumption but also to industrial pollu-
tion (Alam et al., 2011). The unemployment rate is another factor that is sig-
nificantly correlated with solid waste generation (Namlis and Komilis, 2019).
Khajevand and Tehrani (2019) also agree and state that it is essential to
include an economic factor, such as the unemployment rate, in the waste dis-
posal model, especially during economic downturns, when economic factors
may outweigh the effects of population change on waste generation and thus
also for its disposal. The research by Talalaj (2017) found the lack of a signif-
icant statistical relationship between the average monthly wages and the
quantity of waste generated, that is contrary to the results of a study by
Minelgaitėa and Liobikienė (2019), that indicated that the level of waste gen-
eration in the European Union countries significantly depends on indicators
of economic development, and the results of the study carried out by Gar-
diner and Hajek (2020b), that provide empirical support for the existence of
short-term and long-term bidirectional causality between waste generation
and economic growth in EU regions. Malinowski et al. (2019) examined the
relationship between the efficiency of waste segregation and fee rate imposed
on residents for generated municipal solid waste and found that in those
municipalities where the fee increased, the growth of segregation efficiency
was hampered. Based on the results of multi-year research conducted by
Bosak et al. (2018), the average fee for municipal waste and small construc-
tion waste is gradually increasing as we move from the eastern Slovakian
districts to the west. At the same time, the amount of the fee depends not only
on whether it is paid in the municipality or in the city, on the number of
inhabitants, or on the company that collects the waste but also on the region
in which the municipality is located. Assessing the dependence of various
economic and environmental variables is commonly used by various
researchers, e.g., Chovancová and Vavrek (2020) or Fura (2020).
Research methods
The paper visualizes and analyzes data on municipal waste fees and the
average wage on a thematic map and in a boxplot, and subsequently exam-
ines the relationship between the amount of fees for municipal waste in 2019
and the average monthly wage and unemployment in individual districts of
Slovakia in the same year.
Currently, the value of the fee for municipal waste collection in Slovakia
depends on the following factors:
• Act no. 17/2004 Coll., Annex no. 1 Landfill fees,
• inflation, i.e., a generally constant rise in the price level,
• deflation, i.e., a general decline in the price level,
• consumer price index.
The amount of the fee for municipal waste collection is also calculated on
the basis of the formula:
R = Q × A × CPI (1)
where:
R– contribution to the creation of a special-purpose financial reserve in €/Year,
Q– the amount of deposited waste per year in m3,
A– the amount of fee per unit of waste calculated at the beginning of the crea-
tion of the special-purpose financial reserve,
CPI – consumer price index (amount of inflation in a given year).
The amount of the levy per unit amount of waste, which is calculated
once at the beginning of the creation of the special-purpose reserve, is calcu-
lated according to the formula:
A = CN / K (2)
where:
A– the amount of fee per unit of waste calculated at the beginning of the crea-
tion of the special-purpose financial reserve,
CN – the investment costs estimated by the project documentation intended for
closure, reclamation and operating costs for monitoring the landfill in €,
K– is the free capacity of the landfill at the beginning of the creation of the spe-
cial-purpose financial reserve at the time of calculation in m3.
The initial basis for the analysis and subsequent visualization was sec-
ondary data from the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (2020). The-
matic maps were processed in the MapInfo Professional 16.0 software. Soft-
ware Statistica 13.5 was used to test the relationship between variables.
Table 1 contains data presenting the amount of the average annual fee for
municipal waste collection in Slovakia in 2019 sorted by individual districts.
At the same time, it is the input data of the attribute table for the visualization
of this indicator in the MapInfo Professional software.
Average Average Average Average
Bratislava Region Trnava Region Nitra Region Trenčín Region
fee/year fee/year fee/year fee/year
Malacky 20,18 € Dunajská Streda 15,13 € Komárno 13,66 € Bánovce nad Bebravou 13,85 €
Pezinok 20,58 € Galanta 16,19 € Levice 11,46 € Ilava 15,33 €
Senec 16,26 € Hlohovec 14,56 € Nitra 16,37 € Myjava 13,19 €
BA I. 19,11 € Piešťany 15,03 € Nové Zámky 12,47 € Nové Mesto nad Váhom 15,72 €
BA II. 19,11 € Senica 16,16 € Šaľa 14,17 € Partizánske 12,84 €
BA III. 19,11 € Skalica 15,54 € Topoľčany 14,12 € Považská Bystrica 17,49 €
BA IV. 19,11 € Trnava 15,21 € Zlaté Moravce 13,86 € Prievidza 16,12 €

BA V. 19,11 € Average for region 15,40 € Average for region 13,73 € Púchov 18,86 €
Average for region 19,07 € Trenčín 17,24 €
Average for region 15,63 €

Average Banská Bystrica Average Average Average
Žilina Region Prešov Region Košice Region
fee/year Region fee/year fee/year fee/year
Bytča 14,86 € Banská Bystrica 16,92 € Bardejov 8,24 € Gelnica 11,48 €
Source: author’s work based on slovak.statistics.sk [26-09-2020].

Čadca 14,72 € Banská Štiavnica 11,74 € Humenné 6,78 € Košice - okolie 13,49 €
Dolný Kubín 13,14 € Brezno 13,53 € Kežmarok 10,44 € Michalovce 8,25 €
Kysucké Nové Mesto 14,83 € Detva 13,37 € Levoča 11,05 € Rožňava 10,13 €
Liptovský Mikuláš 13,36 € Krupina 11,86 € Medzilaborce 6,30 € Sobrance 9,33 €
Martin 15,21 € Lučenec 9,95 € Poprad 12,50 € Spišská Nová Ves 10,25 €
Námestovo 13,24 € Poltár 10,90 € Prešov 9,09 € Trebišov 7,99 €
Ružomberok 15,12 € Revúca 10,99 € Sabinov 8,94 € KE I. 31,35 €
Turčianske Teplice 13,25 € Rimavská Sobota 10,45 € Snina 7,57 € KE II. 31,35 €
Tvrdošín 14,81 € Veľký Krtíš 9,82 € Stará Ľubovňa 11,81 € KE III. 31,35 €
Environmental policy and management
Table 1. The average annual fee for municipal waste in individual districts of Slovakia in 2019
Žilina 14,74 € Zvolen 14,58 € Stropkov 7,19 € KE IV. 31,35 €

Average for region 14,42 € Žarnovica 14,50 € Svidník 7,40 € Average for region 17,85 €
Žiar nad Hronom 14,77 € Vranov nad Topľou 7,55 €
Average for region 12,57 € Average for region 8,84 €
43
Figure 1 shows a thematic map that visualizes the amount of the average
annual fee for municipal waste within the districts of the Slovak Republic in
2019. Based on the data analysis, the highest amount of municipal waste fee
is in Košice and Bratislava. On the contrary, the lowest fee is paid by residents
in the northeast parts of Slovakia.
Figure 1. The average annual fee for municipal waste in individual districts of the Slovak
Republic (2019)
In the analysis of the obtained data on the average fee for municipal waste
and the average wage, we visualized the variance of values using descriptive
statistics. The following graphs (figures 2 and 4) show the analyzed data on
the average fee for municipal waste and the average monthly wage in Slova-
kia in 2019.
The thematic map (figure 3) shows the average wage in individual dis-
tricts of Slovakia in 2019 (regardless of gender). If we look at the amount of
the average wage from the point of view of particular regions, the average
wage in the Bratislava region relatively highly exceeded the average of the
whole country and reached almost the amount of 1,500 euro. The lowest
value was recorded in the Prešov region.
Figure 2. The average municipal waste fees in Slovakia in 2019

Figure 3. The average monthly wage per capita in individual districts of the Slovak Republic (2019)
Figure 4. The average wage in Slovakia in 2019

The data on unemployment rates in individual districts of Slovakia were

also obtained from the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic, which is the
central body of the state administration of the Slovak Republic for the area of
state statistics.
Based on the processing of secondary data, we performed a correlation
analysis and verified the statistical relationship of the selected variables.
The statistical test verifies the assumption that there is no statistically
significant relationship between the average monthly wage and the amount
of fee for municipal waste collection in individual districts of the Slovak
Republic in 2019.
H0: ρ (correlation coefficient) = 0
H1: ρ (correlation coefficient) ≠ 0
Table 2. Testing the statistical relation of the hypothesis H1
Correlation
corr (wage, fee) 0.57439145

p-value 0.0000

We reject the hypothesis H0, a linear relationship exists.
At the significance level α = 0.05, there is a relationship between the aver-
age wage and the amount of fee for municipal waste collection. Based on the
value of the correlation coefficient ρ = 0.5744, we confirm that the relation-
ship between the variables is significant.
We further assume that there is no statistically significant relationship
between the amount of fee for municipal waste collection and the unemploy-
ment rate in individual districts of the Slovak Republic in 2019.
H0: ρ (correlation coefficient) = 0
H1: ρ (correlation coefficient) ≠ 0
Table 3. Testing the statistical relation of the hypothesis H2
Correlation
corr (unemployment, fee) -0.60482345

p-value 0.0000
We reject the hypothesis H0, a linear relationship exists.

At the level of significance α = 0.05, there is a relationship between the
fee for municipal waste collection in the districts of Slovakia and the unem-
ployment rate in individual districts of Slovakia. Based on the absolute value
of the correlation coefficient ρ = | 0.6048 |, we confirm that the relationship
between the given variables is significant.
Conclusions
The paper aimed to visualize and analyze the relationships between

selected economic and environmental indicators in the individual districts of
Slovakia. Selected indicators included: municipal waste fee, an average
monthly wage, and unemployment in the districts of Slovakia in 2019. Data
were visualized and analyzed on a thematic map and in a boxplot. Based on
the statistical testing, we can state that:
• there is a statistical relationship between the average wage and the
amount of fee for municipal waste collection in the individual districts of
the Slovak Republic,
• there is a statistical relationship between the municipal waste fee and the
unemployment rate in the individual districts of the Slovak Republic.
Acknowledgements
This article is one of the outputs of the research project of the Slovak
Grant Agency VEGA under Grant No 1/0578/18 Modification of the Method-
ology of Sustainable Development Assessment and Management.

Martin Rovnak – 65% (conception, data analysis, interpretation, discussion).
Roman Novotny – 25% (literature review, data analysis, language correction).
Matus Bakon – 10% (literature review, data collection).
References
Alam, M.J. et al., 2011. Dynamic modeling of causal relationship between energy con-
sumption, CO2 emissions and economic growth in India. Renewable and Sustain-
able Energy Reviews, 15(6), 3243-3251, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.
04.029.
Bosak, M. et al., 2016. Poplatok za komunálny odpad na Slovensku. OZ Gamajun,
Košice.
Bosak, M. et al., 2018. Costs of municipal waste in Slovak Republic, 18th International
Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2018, 18(5.3), Sofia, 175-182,
https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2018/5.3.
Budică, I. et al., 2015. Waste management as commitment and duty of citizens. Polish
Journal of Management Studies, 11(1), 7-16.
Cheng, J. et al., 2020. Analysis of the factors that affect the production of municipal
solid waste in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 259, 120808, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120808.
Chovancová, J., Vavrek, R., 2020. (De)coupling Analysis with Focus on Energy Con-
sumption in EU Countries and Its Spatial Evaluation. Polish Journal of Environ-
mental Studies, 29(3), 2091-2100, https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/110613.
Collection of Laws of the Slovak Republic, 2004. Act No. 582/2004 Coll. on local taxes
and local fee for municipal waste and minor construction waste.
Collection of Laws of the Slovak Republic, 2015. Act No. 79/2015 Coll. on waste.
Fura, B., 2020. Methodological basis for research on the relationship between envi-
ronmental initiatives and business competitiveness. Economics and Environ-
ment, 2(73), 8-20, https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/2/11.
Gardiner, R., Hajek, P., 2020a. Interactions among energy consumption, CO2, and eco-
nomic development in European Union countries. Sustainable Development,
28(4), 723-740, https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2023.
Gardiner, R., Hajek, P., 2020b. Municipal waste generation, R&D intensity, and eco-
nomic growth nexus – A case of EU regions. Waste Management, 114, 124-135,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.06.038.
Khajevand, N., Tehrani, R., 2019. Impact of population change and unemployment
rate on Philadelphia’s waste disposal. Waste Management, 100, 278-286, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.09.024.
Małecki, P., 2020. Development of fees for placing waste on landfill and their influ-
ence on the management of municipal waste. Economics and Environment,
2(73), 48-58, https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/2/15.
Malinowski, M. et al., 2019. Analysis of changes in fees for the collection and manage-
ment of municipal waste as regards the efficiency of waste segregation. Econom-
ics and Environment, 2(69), 24-41, https://doi.org/10.34659/2019/2/19.
Minelgaitė, A., Liobikienė, G., 2019. Waste problem in European Union and its influ-
ence on waste management behaviours. Science of the Total Environment, 667,
86-93, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.313.
Namlis, K.G., Komilis D., 2019. Influence of four socio-economic indices and the
impact of economic crisis on solid waste generation in Europe. Waste Manage-
ment, 89, 190-200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.012.
National Agency for Network and Electronic Services, 2013. Miestny poplatok za
komunálne odpady a drobné stavebné odpady, https://www.slovensko.sk/sk/
agendy/agenda/_miestny-poplatok-za-komunalne1/ [26-09-2020].
Nicolli, F., Mazzanti, M., 2013. Landfill diversion in a decentralized setting: A dynamic
assessment of landfill taxes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 81, 17-23,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.09.008.
Puig-Ventosa, I., Sastre Sanz, S., 2017. An exploration into municipal waste charges
for environmental management at local level: The case of Spain. Waste Manage-
ment & Research, 35(11), 1159-1167, https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X177
27067.
Starkowski, D., Bardzinski, P., 2018. Municipal waste transport process analysis. Prin-
ciples of waste management, packaging, rules of registration, storage and fines
for irregularities and infringements within the scope of municipal waste man-
agement. Economics and Environment, 3(66), 93-105.
Statistical Office of the European Communities, 2020. 492 kg of municipal waste gen-
erated per person in the EU, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-euro-
stat-news/-/DDN-20200318-1 [26-09-2020].
Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic, 2020. Databases, https://slovak.statistics.sk/
wps/portal/ext/Databases [26-09-2020].
Talalaj, I.A., 2017. The effect of socio-economic parameters on waste generation at
county level. Environmental Engineering & Management Journal, 16(9), 2025-
2033, https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2017.210.
Uddin, G.A. et al., 2017. Ecological footprint and real income: panel data evidence
from the 27 highest emitting countries. Ecological Indicators, 77, 166-175,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.01.003.
Vavrek, R. et al., 2017. Multi-criteria evaluation of municipalities in Slovakia: case
study in selected districts. Polish Journal of Management Studies, 16(2), 290-
301, https://doi.org/10.17512/pjms.2017.16.2.25.
Ewa OŁDAKOWSKA
ESTIMATION OF PRO-ECOLOGICAL APPROACH

TO ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN ECONOMIC
EFFICIENCY ASSESSMENT
Ewa Ołdakowska, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0002-5437-2470) – Bialystok University of Technology
Wiejska Street 45, 15-351, Białystok, Poland
e-mail: e.oldakowska@pb.edu.pl
ABSTRACT: The development of the road network has a positive impact on a wide range of factors
determining the efficient functioning of the state and the development of its regions. At the same time,
it is an interference in environmental and agricultural space and a threat to landscape and cultural
values. Protection of a very diversified natural environment means preservation, sustainable use, and
restoration of resources, creations, and components of nature. Hence, the environmentally friendly
design and construction of road investments should include passive and active environmental protec-
tion and compensation. All effective solutions from a wide range of „good practices” minimise or elim-
inate the negative environmental impacts. At the same time, all those activities leading to the creation
of an environmentally friendly „green” road network are „economically” estimated in economic analy-
ses. The main goal of this paper is to indicate the „simplified” valuation of the pro-ecological approach
to road construction in the assessment of economic effectiveness on the example of the Polish sec-
tion of the S8 expressway (especially within protected areas). The lack of valuation in the monetary
value of potential benefits resulting from avoidance, prevention or mitigation, unfortunately, has an
impact on the economic result of cost-benefit analysis.
KEYWORDS: assessment of the economic effectiveness of road and bridge projects, cost-benefit
analysis, environmental protection, natural environment
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 50-62 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/32 JEL: P34, P56

Introduction
The development of the road network is an economic and social benefit,

but also the possibility of permanent and irreversible environmental changes.
That road network interferes with protected areas in many places, and the
construction of each of the roads has a negative impact on the atmospheric
air, ground surface, soil, surface and underground water system, acoustic cli-
mate, fauna and flora, landscape, and cultural assets in the surroundings of
the investment (Spellerberg, 1998; Forman and Alexander, 1998; Trombulak
and Frissell, 2000; Seiler, 2003; Van der Ree, Smith, Grilo, 2015).
Making investment decisions in such range depends on the results of the
cost-benefit analysis, which, going beyond the financial analysis, allows to
assess the economic benefits. However, in its assumptions, it encounters
many difficulties (Hauer, 2011; Seiler, 2016; Daniels, 2019; Pilger, 2020) and
problems with monetary valuation of difficult to evaluate the effects of
investment execution, among which one can mention: avoiding losses as a
result of investment execution or minimising the risk.
The paper presents the assessment of economic efficiency with „econom-
ically” priced pro-environmental approaches to road construction (within
protected areas). A linear road investment consisting in the reconstruction of
a section of the existing national road to the standards of an expressway, con-
stituting a fragment (38.5 km long) of the I Trans-European Transport Corri-
dor Warsaw – Kaunas – Riga – Tallinn – Helsinki (so-called Via Baltica), was
used for the analysis. The presented section of the road runs along practically
the entire length within the boundaries of the Biała Forest Nature 2000 area.
The economic efficiency of the project was assessed, taking into account the
necessary environmental safeguards. The case of a lack of intentional envi-
ronmental solutions has also been analysed, which has allowed for the com-
parison of economic efficiency indicators (Johansson and Kriström, 2018).
Each linear road investment should generate social and economic bene-
fits and interfere as little as possible with the surrounding environment and
natural relationships. Air pollution, initially a local problem, has now devel-
oped into a global threat leading to irreversible changes. The pollution level
depends on the traffic volume, its liquidity, and the share of heavy vehicles.
The issue of over-regulatory pollution is primarily a problem of large urban
agglomerations, which are characterised by equally large traffic volumes. In
the case of extra-urban routes, the problem may only concern the area
directly adjacent to the roads, mainly in environmentally valuable areas, in
which case appropriate protection should be designed to protect the envi-
ronment against fumes. Ways of reducing emissions and spreading exhaust
gases include technical progress in engine design, increasing the fluidity of
driving, limiting heavy vehicle traffic, proper shaping of the road surface,
design of insulating green lanes, use of guards (artificial and green), and
roads in tunnels.
The impact of roads on land surface and the soil is a direct occupation of
land for roads causing their exclusion from agricultural production (Bohatk-
iewicz, 2008) and:
• pollution with heavy metal compounds (zinc, cadmium, copper, nickel,
lead),
• acidification with sulphur and nitrogen compounds,
• salinating with winter road maintenance agents,
• change in hydrographic conditions,
• destruction of soil structure.
Among the methods of soil protection (as well as surface water and
groundwater), there is an appropriate drainage system to prevent the ingress
of harmful substances into the water and soil, and the use of planting of com-
plex insulating greenery, consisting of appropriate species of shrubs, decidu-
ous trees, and coniferous trees.
Road construction always means worsening of the acoustic climate in the
vicinity of the investment and its improvement in the surroundings of
relieved roads. The most efficient method of limiting the effects of acoustic
climate deterioration in the vicinity of roads is to choose an appropriate loca-
tion of the road in the areas least sensitive to the effects of exceeding the
allowable noise levels. On the other hand, in the case of existing communica-
tion routes, the protection means may be located in the following zones:
between the source and the receiver, in the zone of immission, in the area of
emission (at the source). Among the solutions improving the acoustic climate
in the areas adjacent to the traffic routes are (Buczek, 2013): acoustic screens,
road tunnels, earth embankments, quiet pavements, proper traffic manage-
ment, leading the road in a trench, compact dense greenery, proper location
of insensitive buildings.
The most serious consequences resulting from the development of road
infrastructure are the degradation and reduction of the availability of habi-
tats and the prevention of free movement of animals – creating environmen-
tal barriers (Seiler and Bhardwaj, 2020). Those barriers may take the form of
a physical barrier resulting from artificial changes in the terrain, the pres-
ence of fences or objects, or may become a psychophysical barrier resulting
from vehicle traffic and related impacts (acoustic, light, and chemical emis-
sions). Most ecological systems show a characteristic time lag (sometimes
called extinction debt) between habitat degradation and the time when its
ecological effects are fully detected (Tilman et al., 1994; Loehle and Li, 1996;
Banks, 1997; Cowlishaw, 1999). The impact of roads is also characterised by
such “delayed response” as different effects of roads on clumping and popu-
lations of wildlife – for example, habitat loss, reduced habitat quality, mortal-
ity, and reduced cohesion – usually manifest themselves at different rates.
The most rapid effects are observed in the case of habitat loss, the lack of
which causes population losses. Decreases in population due to habitat qual-
ity decline appear slightly later. On the other hand, changes in population
mortality resulting from collisions of animals and vehicles are evaluated
along with an increase in traffic accumulation of fatal accidents, and are
observed in the context of impact on the whole population, after one or two
generations since the road has been built (Forman et al., 2003). The effect of
the road appears as a barrier to cohesion may only be observed after several
generations, when local populations will be dying out.
All those negative impacts of roads should be mitigated by designing,
installing, and building all possible solutions to bring us closer to an environ-
mentally friendly „green” road network (Iuell et al., 2003; Trocmé et al., 2003;
Clevenger and Huijser, 2009; Clevenger and Ford, 2010; Huijser and
McGowen, 2010; Van der Grift et al., 2013). Measures and methods minimis-
ing road hazards are an essential component of a sustainable transport strat-
egy (Morrall and McGuire, 2000; McGuire and Morrall, 2000). Among the
basic ones is to be mentioned:
• speed limitation in areas of particular risk of collision with animals
(active speed-limiting systems),
• reflective elements,
• protective fences for amphibians and small mammals, as well as large
and medium-sized mammals,
• anti-glare shields,
• acoustic screens,
• protective and insulating planting of vegetation,
• animal walkways.
The development of road infrastructure is also a threat to landscape and
cultural values, as each investment is a foreign element in a given area. In the
areas of high natural value, special attention should be paid already at the
design stage to integrating the road with the surrounding landscape (shaping
it properly, minimising the cutting of ecosystems). The road grade line should
be adapted to the topography of the surrounding area, and all engineering
structures should be designed with almost architectural asceticism. The
communication routes should be planted with greenery, including planting
corresponding to native tree and shrub species.
Object and methodology
Linear road investment

To indicate a pro-ecological approach to the construction of Polish roads,
an analysis of solutions (applied during the reconstruction of a section of the
existing national road to expressway standards, constituting a fragment (38.5
km long) of the 1st Trans-European Transport Corridor Warsaw – Kaunas –
Riga – Tallinn – Helsinki (so-called Via Baltica), has been prepared. The pre-
sented section of the road runs along practically the entire length within the
boundaries of the Biała Forest Nature 2000 area (Special Protection Area
PLB 140007). That area extends over several dozen kilometres on both the
northern and southern side of the analysed investment. On the south side of
the road, there are also three other Natura 2000 areas: Dolny Bug River Val-
ley (Special Protection Area PLB 140001) together with Nadbużańska Ostoja
(Special Habitat Protection Area PLH 140011) and Liwiec River Valley (Spe-
cial Protection Area PLB 140002). Approximately 63.00% of the road runs
through forests, 33.86% through agricultural areas, and 3.12% through
built-up areas. The need to build an expressway was a response to the
ever-increasing volume of traffic and the increase in the number of accidents
(resulting from the volume and lack of safety improvement solutions). The
project under consideration is among those which significantly affect the
environment, and in particular, adversely affect its natural value. It is located
in an area where there are no other forms of nature protection: national
parks, landscape parks, nature reserves, nature monuments, documentation
stands, ecological sites, and nature complexes. The road is a modern commu-
nication route providing communication facilities, but at the same time, it is
also equipped with the necessary environmental protection. The route in this
section has 15 viaducts, 7 bridges, and 3 footbridges. In this case, the struc-
tures allowing for collision-free movement of animals across the road and at
the same time preventing an increase in animal mortality and mitigating hab-
itat fragmentation are the lower passages for large animals (5 pcs.). Those
passages are designed for wolves, elks, and deer, but may also be used by
medium-sized animals such as roe deer, wild boar, and small animals. In addi-
tion to those 5 passages, there are 5 more passages integrated with bridges
over watercourses, and 41 facilities for small animals. Drainage is provided
by drainage ditches and culverts (11 reconstructed ones are at the same time
the animal passages). The areas adjacent to the crossings have been sepa-
rated from the environment by a development similar to the natural one. On
the edge of some of the objects, structures were made to insulate visually and
partly acoustically. Passages for small animals: reptiles, amphibians, and
small amphibians, as well as rodents, are situated, if possible, at the locations
of former passages. The modernised surface drainage system is supple-
mented by 26 retention, infiltration, and evaporation tanks (located in places
that required by far the least interference with forest areas and at a distance
from animal crossings), as well as cleaning devices – settling tanks and sand-
boxes (open ones of appropriate retention capacity, placed, among others, at
outlets from road ditches). To reduce the acoustic nuisance, absorbing and
reflecting acoustic screens have been made. As a result of a change in the
regulations (which occurred during the investment), less than half of the pro-
posed 14,089 m (72,616 m2) of the area of noise protection was made. More-
over, the structures were planted with vines, which additionally made it pos-
sible to mask and incorporate them into the surrounding landscape. To pre-
vent the accidental intrusion of migrating animals into the roads, practically
the entire length the road has been protected with a fence (mesh with appro-
priate mesh size, hurdles for amphibians). To minimise the impact at the
operation stage and in connection with the need to cut down trees for the
entrusted task, lanes of insulating greenery have been made (10-15 m wide
as far as possible in the field), as well as a number of compensatory plantings
in the form of decorative and functional greenery, also making the forest
denser.
Cost-benefit analysis and economic performance indicators

In Poland, the guidelines contained in two separate studies are used to
assess the economic efficiency of road and bridge projects: the „Blue Book”
(Blue Book, 2015), recommended for use in the case of investment projects
in the transport sector, for which beneficiaries apply for financial aid from
European Union funds and in the „Instructions for Assessing the Economic
Effectiveness of Road and Bridge Undertakings”, which make the detailed
economic analyses dependent on the type of road, dividing them into com-
munal, county and provincial (Instructions for economic efficiency assess-
ment... 2008). In the case of all projects, a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) method
is adopted for the assessment of economic efficiency, taking into account the
benefits of the users of the analysed investment and road costs (construction,
repairs, maintenance, and all costs of works aimed at ensuring the safety of
the road infrastructure in technical terms and its availability for daily opera-
tion, as well as preventing its degradation).
The basic stages of the cost-benefit analysis are (Drobniak, 2008;
Foltyn-Zarychta, 2008): identification of all project costs and benefits, mone-
tary valuation of all costs and benefits, discounting future net benefits, which
makes it possible to include future costs and benefits in current prices and
compare them with the investment outlay. The strength of the cost-benefit
analysis is the inclusion not only of financial expenditures and receipts but
also of social, economic, and environmental results. However, the effects in
the economy, the local community, or the environment are difficult to evalu-
ate; hence the advantage becomes at the same time the basic disadvantage of
the cost-benefit analysis method.
The first step of the cost-benefit analysis, according to its idea, is to iden-
tify all costs and benefits related to the implementation and operation of the
investment. Table 1 shows the classification of the main costs and benefits
for road infrastructure investments.
Table 1. Main categories of economic costs and benefits for road infrastructure
investments
Roads and bridges costs Costs/benefits/savings for users and environment
Investment costs Vehicle operating costs

Maintenance costs Time costs of infrastructure users
Costs of road accidents and victims
Costs related to the emission of pollutants
Climate change and noise costs („Blue Book”)
The economic assessment of projects involves the determination of the

following indicators (Blue Book, 2015; Instructions for economic efficiency
assessment..., 2008):
a) the economic net present value (ENPV), i.e., the difference in total dis-
counted benefits and costs associated with the investment; that differ-
ence should be positive for economically efficient projects,
b) economic rate of return (ERR), which should exceed the assumed dis-
count rate,
c) relation of discounted advantages to discounted costs (NB/NC), which
should be higher than one.
The calculation of economic efficiency shall be carried out upon the basis
of separate input data and parameters of the elements of the economic
account, which include:
• traffic measurements, calculation of average daily traffic, and forecast of
average daily traffic,
• travel speed,
• road costs,
• vehicle operating costs,
• costs of time in passenger transport and costs of time in freight transport,
• costs of road accidents,
• costs of toxic exhaust emissions,
• costs of users and the environment.
The sensitivity analysis is the supplementary stage in the assessment of
road and bridge investments.
Results and their evaluation
The cost-benefit analysis is based upon the incremental method consist-

ing of comparing the project scenario for the investment variant (WI) with
the base scenario for the non-investment variant (W0 – without project).
To determine the indicators of the economic assessment for the invest-
ment task consisting in rebuilding the national road to the expressway stand-
ards (the required technical data are presented in table 2), the following
assumptions have been made:
• reference period – 25 years (for road projects; from the start of construc-
tion),
• a year consists of 365 days.
• Recommended forms have been developed:
• traffic forecasts,
• road costs,
• operating costs of vehicles,
• costs of time in passenger transport,
• costs of time in freight transport,
• costs of road accidents,
• costs of toxic exhaust emissions,
• summary of the user and environmental costs,
• economic analysis of costs and benefits,
• economic values and indicators (table 3 – including the necessary envi-
ronmental safeguards, table 4 – excluding the necessary environmental
safeguards).
The forms include costs for both variants: W0 and WI. The road net costs
and savings for users and the environment have been calculated for all years
of the analysed period. In the analysed case, all necessary environmental
safeguards were taken into account.
A similar procedure has been carried out assuming the absence of any
environmental safeguards, where values and economic indicators are pre-
sented in table 4.
Table 2. Technical data of the national road rebuilt to the major road standards
No. SPECIFICATION UNIT W0 WI
1 NATIONAL - ROAD
2 SEGMENT LENGTH km 38.5
3 TERRAIN TYPE - FLAT
4 ROAD TYPE - COUNTRY ROAD
5 ROAD CLASS - S
6 NUMBER OF ROADWAYS pcs. 1 2
7 NUMBER OF ROADWAY LANES pcs. 2 2
8 ROADWAY WIDTH m 6.50 7.00
9 SHOULDER WIDTH m 1.50 0.75
10 AVERAGE ALLOWABLE SPEED km/h 90 120
11 PAVEMENT TECHNICAL CONDITION ACC. TO SOSN B A
12 BUS BAYS yes yes
13 TRAFFIC CHARACTER ECONOMIC
14 INVESTMENT NET COST PLN - 1,033,800,000.00
15 TRAFFIC CATEGORY KR 6 6
16 BRIDGE OBJECTS, VIADUCTS AND FOOTBRIDGES CONDITION 4 5
Table 3. Value and economic indices for the investment task consisting in rebuilding the national road
to the expressway standards [thousands of PLN]
DESCRIPTION VALUE OR INDEX FOR DISCOUNT RATE r

0.01 0.05 0.10 0.13216
NC DISCOUNTED INVESTMENT NET COSTS -1,045,909,172 -964,719,351 -893,437,757 -856,857,912

DISCOUNTED NET ENVIRONMENTAL COST
NB 3,844,466,393 2,176,258,231 1,192,791,556 856,857,912
SAVINGS
ENPV ECONOMIC NET PRESENT VALUE [-] 2,798,557,219 1,211,538,879 299,353,799 0
NB/NC ADVANTAGES – COSTS INDEX [-] 3.68 2.26 1.34 1.00
EIRR ECONOMIC INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN [%] 13.216

Table 4. Value and economic indicators for the investment task consisting in the reconstruction of
the national road to the expressway standards without taking the necessary environmental
safeguards into account [PLN]
DESCRIPTION VALUE OR INDEX FOR DISCOUNT RATE r

0.01 0.05 0.10 0.13407
NC DISCOUNTED INVESTMENT NET COSTS -977,805,001 -926,837,009 -873,447,672 -841,237,417

DISCOUNTED NET ENVIRONMENTAL COST
NB 3,844,466,393 2,176,258,231 1,192,791,556 841,237,417
SAVINGS
ENPV ECONOMIC NET PRESENT VALUE [-] 2,866,661,393 1,249,421,222 319,343,885 0
NB/NC ADVANTAGES – COSTS INDEX [-] 3.93 2.35 1.37 1.00
EIRR ECONOMIC INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN [%] 13.407
The realised procedure has revealed, for various values of the discount
rate, that in each of the analysed variants:
• the project consisting in the reconstruction of a national road to the
expressway standards (both in case of applying for the necessary envi-
ronmental protection and in the absence thereof) is economically justi-
fied – the discounted savings exceed the discounted net costs including
all investment, repair, and maintenance expenditures (ENPV is positive),
and the sum of the discounted savings divided by the sum of the dis-
counted net costs is higher than 1 (Blue Book, 2015; Instructions for eco-
nomic efficiency assessment..., 2008),
• the interest rate, at which the economic net present value of benefits
expected from a given investment will be equal to the value of outlays, is
13.216% in the case of an investment task including the necessary envi-
ronmental safeguards and 13.407% in the variant without the necessary
environmental safeguards (the difference is 0.191%),
• the discounted savings of environmental costs in both analysed cases are
identical, which means that the necessary environmental safeguards are
only included in the investment costs, which is a much-simplified
approach,
• the absence of monetisation of the potential benefits of avoidance, pre-
vention, or mitigation of results has an impact on the economic outcome
of a cost-benefit analysis, a thorough analysis should include a discus-
sion/description of costs and benefits that cannot be quantified,
• the selected discount rates applied to all items are identical, which affects
similar “discounting of the future” and indeed some benefits may increase
over time,
• a targeted analysis would be a BCA ex-post, carried out at a certain time

after the implementation of the project to assess the extent to which the
project is giving results and to help identify “areas” for improvement in
the BCA ex-ante (Kelly et al., 2015; Odeck and Kjerkreit, 2019).
Conclusions
The implementation of all road projects entails a number of environmen-

tal effects and impacts, which include, among others, direct impacts associ-
ated with the stage of construction and use, indirect impacts, usually limited
to the immediate vicinity of the investment and secondary impacts. However,
all those impacts can be minimised or completely eliminated by using a wide
range of „good practices” and appropriate design, technical, technological,
and organisational solutions, consisting in the construction of passages and
culverts for animals, use of acoustic screens, screening greenery, buffer zones,
taking into account the protection periods for animals and birds, environ-
mental supervision over the works, number of activities limiting the occur-
rence of pollution, use of appropriate environmental protection devices and
methods of conducting construction works and modern technologies.
The assessment of economic efficiency is a practical and multilateral
evaluation of an investment project and whether it “deserves” to be imple-
mented from a social point of view. To that end, the social, environmental,
and health advantages/savings are evaluated, and the economic efficiency
indices are determined being the basis for the investment decision. The costs
and social and economic advantages of the road infrastructure projects are
estimated dividing them into categories including vehicle operational costs,
time costs of the road infrastructure users, costs of the road accidents and
victims, costs connected with the emission of pollutants, or costs of excessive
noise influence. When making an assessment, it is a serious problem to relia-
bly quantify or monetise a certain part of the costs and benefits, especially
those that are not measurable (life) or difficult to estimate (environmental
costs). The lack of valuation in the monetary value of potential benefits
resulting from avoidance, prevention, or mitigation of results has an impact
on the economic result of cost-benefit analysis, unfortunately. There is, there-
fore, a need to modify and advance the CBA, especially regarding “road pro-
jects”.
References
Banks, J.E., 1997. Do imperfect trade-offs affect the extinction debt phenomenon?
Ecology, 78, 1597-1601.
Blue Book, 2015. Road infrastructure prepared by Jaspers Initiative experts.
Bohatkiewicz, J., 2008. Podręcznik dobrych praktyk wykonywania opracowań śro-
dowiskowych dla dróg krajowych. Ekkom. ISBN 978-83-926079-2.
Buczek, P., 2013. Zabezpieczenia akustyczne stosowane na polskich drogach w aspek-
cie racjonalizacji kosztów. Drogownictwo, 2.
Clevenger, A.P., Ford, A., 2010. Wildlife crossing structures, fencing, and other high-
ways design considerations. In: Beckmann J.P. et al. (Eds.), Safe passages-high-
ways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island Press, 17-55.
Clevenger, A.P., Huijser, M.P., 2009. Handbook for design and evaluation of wildlife
crossing structures in North America. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration.
Cowlishaw, G., 1999. Predicting the pattern of decline of African primate diversity: An
extinction debt from historical deforestation. Conservation Biology, 13, 1183-93.
Daniels, S. et al., 2019. A systematic cost-benefit analysis of 29 road safety measures.
Accident Analysis and Prevention, 133, DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2019.105292.
Drobniak, A., 2008. Podstawy oceny efektywności projektów publicznych.
Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Katowicach, Katowice.
Foltyn-Zarychta, M., 2008. Analiza kosztów-korzyści w ocenie efektywności inwest-
ycji proekologicznych. Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Katowicach,
Katowice.
Forman, R.T.T. et al., 2003. Road Ecology. Science and Solutions.
Forman, R.T.T., Alexander, L.E., 1998. Roads and Their Major Ecological Effects. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 207-231.
Hauer, E., 2011. Computing what the public wants: Some issues in road safety cost–
benefit analysis. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 4, 151-164, DOI: 10.1016/j.
aap.2010.08.004.
Huijser, M.P., McGowen, P.T., 2010. Reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions. In: Beckmann,
J.P. et al. (Eds.), Safe passages – highways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island
Press, 51-74.
Instructions for assessment of economic efficiency of road and bridge projects for the
local roads, 2008. Research Institute of Roads and Bridges, Warsaw.
district roads, 2008. Research Institute of Roads and Bridges, Warsaw.
regional roads, 2008. Research Institute of Roads and Bridges, Warsaw.
Iuell, B. et al., 2003. Wildlife and traffic: a European handbook for identifying conflicts
and designing solutions, KNNV Publishers.
Johansson, P.O., Kriström, B., 2018. Cost–Benefit Analysis. Cambridge Elements of
Public Economics.
Kelly, Ch. et al., 2015. Ex post appraisal: What lessons can be learnt from EU cohesion
funded transport projects? Transport Policy, 37, 83-91, DOI: 10.1016/j.tran-
pol.2014.09.011.
Loehle, C., Li, B.L., 1996. Habitat destruction and the extinction debt revised. Ecolog-
ical Applications, 6, 784-89, https://doi.org/10.2307/2269483.
McGuire, T.M., Morrall, J.F., 2000. Strategic highway improvements to minimise envi-
ronmental impacts within the Canadian Rocky Mountain national parks. Cana-
dian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27, 523-32, https://doi.org/10.1139/l99-096.
Morrall, J.F., McGuire, T.M., 2000. Sustainable highway development in a national
park. Transportation Research Record, 1702, 3-10, https://doi.org/10.3141/
1702-01.
Odeck, J., Kjerkreit, A., 2019. The accuracy of benefit-cost analyses (BCAs) in trans-
portation: An ex-post evaluation of road projects. Transportation Research, Part
A Policy and Practice, 120, 277-294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.12.023.
Pilger, J.D. et al., 2020. Environmental impacts and cost overrun derived from adjust-
ments of a road construction project setting. Journal of Cleaner Production, 256,
DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120731.
Seiler, A. et al., 2016. Cost-benefit analyses for wildlife and traffic safety. Technical
report No. 4. Conference of European Directors of Roads.
Seiler, A., 2003. Effects of infrastructure on nature. Office for Official Publications of
the European Communities, 31-50.
Seiler, A., Bhardwaj, M., 2020. Problematic Wildlife II: New Conservation and Manage-
ment Challenges in the Human-Wildlife Interactions.
Spellerberg, I.F., 1998. Ecological Effects of Roads and Traffic: A Literature Review.
Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 7(5), 317-333.
Tilman, D. et al., 1994. Habitat destruction and the extinction debt. Nature, 371,
65-66, https://doi.org/10.1038/371065a0.
Trocmé, M. et al., 2003. COST 341 – Habitat fragmentation due to transportation
infrastructure: the European review. Publications Office of the European Union.
Trombulak, S.C., Frissell, C.A., 2000. Review of Ecological Effects of Roads on Terres-
trial and Aquatic Communities. Conservation Biology, 14, 18-30, DOI: 10.1046/
j.1523-1739.2000.99084.x.
Van der Grift, E.A. et al., 2013. Evaluating the effectiveness of road mitigation meas-
ures. Biodivers Conserv, 22, 425-448, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-
0421-0.
Van der Ree, R. et al., 2015. Handbook of Road Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,
UK.
STUDIES
AND MATERIALS
STUDIA
I MATERIAŁY
Karol MROZIK • Konrad PODAWCA • Daria DROŻYŃSKA
SPATIAL DIVERSIFICATION
OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PLANNING
AND INVESTMENT PROCESSES
IN THE POZNAŃ METROPOLITAN AREA
Karol Dawid Mrozik, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0002-7054-7648) – Poznań University of Life Sciences,
Department of Land Improvement, Environmental Development and Spatial Management
Konrad Podawca, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0001-5261-6657) – Warsaw University of Life Science,
Institute of Environmental Engineering
Daria Drożyńska – the Municipal Office of Kostrzyn, Department of Real Estate, Urban
Planning and Environmental Protection
Piątkowska Street 94, 60-649, Poznań, Poland
e-mail: kmrozik@up.poznan.pl
ABSTRACT: This paper aimed to access the changes that appeared between 2009 and 2018 in the
context of progress in the spatial planning process at the local planning level. The study also attempts
to classify communes in the metropolitan area due to the diversification of the degree of implementa-
tion in the spatial planning process. The research was conducted on the example of Poznań Metro-
politan Area (PMA), which covers 45 communes. The analysis was based on data from the Local Data
Bank of Statistics, Poland. The communes in PMA were classified into 12 groups. The most numerous
group (almost half of the analysed units) are communes with small coverage of local spatial develop-
ment plans and very low dynamics of issuing of decisions on building conditions. These are com-
munes where the urbanisation pressure, due to the distance from Poznań, is lower than in the
administrative units located near or in the immediate vicinity of Poznań.
KEYWORDS: spatial management, local spatial development plans, metropolitan area, commune, sub-
urbanisation
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 64-80 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/33 JEL: O18, O21, R58
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 Studies and materials 65
Introduction
The greatest intensity of spatial changes in Poland is characteristic of

metropolitan areas (Gałka and Warych-Jura, 2018), especially of rural com-
munes directly adjacent to the largest urban centres (Mrozik et al., 2012;
Idczak and Mrozik, 2018). The changes are the result of various types of sub-
urbanisation (Zębik, 2011; Wolny et al., 2017; Tokarczyk-Dorociak et al.,
2018).
One of the weak points of spatial planning in Poland is no binding fea-
tures of the study on conditions and directions of spatial development
(SUiKZP, i.e., an act of internal management that defines the spatial policy of
the commune and local development rules) in the perspective of the spatial
management system, weaknesses of local spatial development plans (MPZP
– constituting local law) (e.g. small share of areas covered by MPZP, optional
preparation of plans, lack of sufficient protection against urbanisation) and a
wrong idea of decisions on building conditions (DoWZ), which in the absence
of MPZP allows for the development of buildings based on the assessment of
the situation in the immediate vicinity (Mrozik and Wiśniewska, 2013;
Śleszyński et al., 2020).
For spatial development planning consistent with the principles of sus-
tainable development and spatial order, local development plans are of par-
ticular importance. Compared to the decision on building conditions, they
are positively distinguished by, among others, the obligation to conduct a
strategic environmental assessment and ensure public participation. For this
reason, it is so important to monitor the issuing of decisions on building con-
ditions and the adoption of local development plans, especially in the context
of intensively occurring suburbanisation (Mrozik, 2016)
Numerous authors have monitored progress in the planning process –
both in rural and municipal districts – and published the results in articles or
annual reports. The pace of change in MPZP coverage in Poland was assessed
as slow, and the statistical values are regionally and functionally differenti-
ated. Usually, the coverage is not sufficient from the point of view of invest-
ment plans and does not address the intensity of land-use (e.g., Feltynowski,
2013; Śleszyński et al., 2015; Podawca et al., 2019). Podawca and Mrozik
(2019) attempted to classify communes on the example of the Warsaw Met-
ropolitan Area (WMA). They distinguished 13 types of communes in terms of
the degree of implementation of location decisions and in terms of coverage
of local spatial development plans.
In the case of Poznań and its functional area, the majority of papers
focused on the analysis of the city of Poznań and Poznań district or the Poznań
Agglomeration covering the city of Poznań and 17 communes of Poznań
66 Studies and materials EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
(Zydroń and Szczepański, 2012; Kaczmarek, 2017; Wdowicka and Mierze-

jewska, 2020). In turn, Mrozik et al. (2020) focused on functional urban areas
(FUAs), where the so-called integrated territorial investments (ITI) are
implemented. The discussed issue for Poznań Metropolitan Area (PMA),
which was delimited by the WBPP, is less recognised.
This paper aimed to access the changes that appeared between 2009 and
2018 in the context of progress in the spatial planning process at the local
(communal) planning level. In this case, the planning process is understood
as actions concerning formulating and enacting local spatial development
and issuing decisions on building conditions, which are documents allowing
for obtaining a building permit. The study also attempts to classify com-
munes in the metropolitan area due to the diversification of the degree of
implementation of the spatial planning process.
Research methods
The research were conducted on example of Poznań Metropolitan Area,

which covers 45 communes including 6 urban (Gniezno, Kościan, Luboń,
Poznań, Puszczykowo, Wągrowiec), 21 urban-rural (Buk, Czempiń, Czernie-
jewo, Grodzisk Wielkopolski, Kostrzyn, Kórnik, Mosina, Murowana Goślina,
Nekla, Nowy Tomyśl, Oborniki, Opalenica, Pobiedziska, Rogoźno, Skoki,
Stęszew, Swarzędz, Szamotuły, Śrem, Środa Wielkopolska, Września) and 18
rural ones (Brodnica, Czerwonak, Dominowo, Dopiewo, Duszniki, Gniezno
Granowo, Kaźmierz, Kiszkowo, Kleszczewo, Komorniki, Kościan, Łubowo,
Rokietnica, Suchy Las, Tarnowo Podgórne, Wągrowiec, Zaniemyśl). It occu-
pies an area of about 6.2 thousand km2 and a population of approx. 1.4 mil-
lion, which is, respectively, 21% of the area of Wielkopolska (Greater Poland)
Region, and 41% of the region’s population. Delimitation of the PMA was
performed by regional planning office Wielkopolskie Biuro Planowania
Przestrzennego (WBPP). It includes also 10 cities – centers of the district and
15 other small towns (Mrozik et al., 2015).
The analysis was based on data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics
Poland collected in the section local government (subgroup spatial planning).
The time range of the analysis was chosen on the basis of data availability.
To characterise the realisation of spatial planning tasks in a commune,
the following features have been taken into account:
• the area of the commune covered by binding local development plans in
2018 – AMPZP [ha],
• the total number of binding local development plans in 2018 – NMPZP
[pcs],
• the number of decisions on the localisation of public purpose invest-
ments issued between 2009 and 2018 – ∑NDICP [pcs],
• the number of decisions on building conditions issued between 2009 and
2018 – ∑NDWZ [pcs],
• the total area of the commune – A [ha].
For assessing the spatial scale of the planning process and comparing
administrative units, the following indicators have been used:
1) the coverage with local development plans in 2018 expressed by the for-
mula:
WMPZP = (AMPZP / A) *100% [%], (1)
2) the density of MPZP (WD_MPZP) in 2018 (the ratio of the number of MPZP
to the area of the commune) expressed by the formula:
WD_MPZP = NMPZP/ (A / 100) [pcs/km2], (2)
3) the density of decisions on establishing the location of public purpose
investment (WDICP) between 2009 and 2018 (the ratio of the number of
issued decisions to the commune area) expressed by the formula:
WDICP = ∑NDICP / (A / 100) [pcs/km2], (3)
4) the density of decisions on building conditions (WDWZ) between 2009 and
2018 (the ratio of the number of issued decision to commune area):
expressed by the formula:
WDWZ = ∑NDWZ / (A/100) [pcs/km2]. (4)
The evaluation of the realization of the planning process and the invest-
ment interest in particular communes has been done using indicators in a
period of 10 years:
1) the dynamics of change in the area of land covered by the local develop-
ment plans between 2009 and 2018 (PA_MPZP) expressed by the formula:
PA_MPZP = (AMPZP2018 – AMPZP2009) /100 [%], (5)
2) the change in coverage with local development plans between 2009 and
2018 (PPA_MPZP) expressed by the formula:
PPA_MPZP = (AMPZP2018 – AMPZP2009)/A *100 [p.p.], (6)
3) the indicator of the intensity of issuing decisions on establishing the loca-
tion of public purpose investments, given by the formula:
WI_ICP = (∑NDICP2009-2018/10) / [(A – AMPZP2018)/100] [pcs/km2], (7)
4) the indicator of the intensity of issuing decisions on buildings conditions,

given by the formula:
WI_WZ = (∑NDWZ2009-2018/10) / [(A – AMPZP2018)/100] [pcs/km2]. (8)
During analysing and interpreting the results of the research problem,

the following steps have been taken:
1) filtering data gathered in the Local Data Bank, based on features from the
category local government and subgroup spatial planning,
2) obtaining spatial data on the borders of administrative units from the
Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGiK),
3) aggregation of data for particular subgroups together with determining
indicators using the ArcGIS 10.5.1 and QGIS 2.12.1 based on a created
spatial data set,
4) designation of types of communes in terms of the degree of implementa-
tion of the planning process.
The most important feature determining the level of realisation of docu-

ments on spatial planning is the percentage of the MPZP coverage in a com-
mune. In PMA local spatial development plans cover only in one case (rural
commune Kleszczewo) the whole commune. In two cases (urban commune
Luboń and urban-rural commune Pobiedziska) the coverage is bigger than
80%.
A good situation (comparing to other communes in PMA) in terms of
MPZP coverage was observed in another two rural communes (Suchy Las,
Tarnowo Podgórne), where it is maintained at 50-80%. The moderate situa-
tion with coverage at 20-50% is present in 13 communes (Komorniki, urban
commune Gniezno, Poznań, Kórnik, Czempiń, Puszczykowo, Swarzędz, Śrem,
Czerwonak, Rokietnica, Łubowo, Mosina and urban commune Wągrowiec).
Unsatisfactory level of coverage (below 20%) was shown in 27 administra-
tive units. Additionally, in 11 of them, the level of coverage is below 5%). In
the rural communes Brodnica and Dominowo, with the coverage below 1%,
the situation was assessed as extremely bad (table 1, figure 2).
While analysing the gain in the area covered by MPZP, it can be assumed
that the smaller the percentage of the commune was included in the 2009
plans, the greater should be the dynamics of its issuing. However, this is not
confirmed in the results (figure 1).
While in three communes with substantial MPZP coverage in 2009
(Kleszczewo, Luboń, Suchy Las) the dynamics of developing a new MPZP
might be weak or non-existent, it can be significant in communes with little
coverage.
The highest dynamics of changes were observed in urban-rural commune
Pobiedziska (120%), and a high dynamic was found in urban-rural commune
Kórnik (67%), urban commune Poznań (55%) and urban-rural commune
Śrem (52%). Moreover, the biggest changes in the area covered with the local
development plans are observed in Pobiedziska (63%). The new MPZP cov-
ered an additional 11956 ha of the commune’s area within 10 years, which
means an average annual increase of 1196 ha. Intensive work on subsequent
local spatial development plans in the commune is also continued during the
Covid-19 pandemic.
Out of 21 communes, which in 2009 had a share of the area covered with
local spatial development plans below 5%, only 5 recorded dynamics of
changes of over 10% in the next 10 years, and 5 – changes by more than 5%.
The greatest dynamics of changes in this group of communes was observed
in the urban-rural commune of Swarzędz (36%) and the rural commune of
Duszniki (24%). In turn, the largest changes were also recorded in Swarzędz
(35p.p.), Duszniki (15 p.p.), and Granowo (14 p.p.).
140,00
120,00
100,00
80,00
%; p.p.
60,00
40,00
20,00
0,00
0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00 80,00 90,00 100,00
-20,00
the coverage with local development plans in 2009 in %
the dynamics of change in the area covered with the local development plans in %
the change in the area covered with the local development plans in p.p.
Figure 1. The change and dynamics of change in the area covered with the local
development plans in communes in PMA in the years 2009-2018
F1 Source: author’s work.
Table 1. Features and indicators connected with local spatial development plans in municipalities of PMA
WD_ PA_ PPA_
AMPZP NMPZP WMPZP
Community MPZP MPZP MPZP
(Type:
[pcs/
1 – urban, No. A* [ha] [ha] [pcs] [%] [%] [p.p.]
km2]
2 – rural,
3 – urban-rural) 2018 to 2018 to
2009 2018 2009 2018 2018 2018
2009 2009
Gniezno (1) 1 4060.00 1 353 1 909 64 88 47.02 2.17 5.56 13.69
Gniezno (2) 2 17816.00 471 289 38 45 1.62 0.25 -1.82 -1.02
Czerniejewo (3) 3 11194.00 620 1 109 73 240 9.91 2.14 4.89 4.37
Kiszkowo (2) 4 11449.00 252 301 39 49 2.63 0.43 0.49 0.43
Łubowo (2) 5 11354.00 3 523 3 631 83 136 31.98 1.20 1.08 0.95
Granowo (2) 6 6687.00 61 1 015 29 53 15.18 0.79 9.54 14.27
Grodzisk Wlkp. (3) 7 13259.00 549 658 45 52 4.96 0.39 1.09 0.82
Kościan (1) 8 879.00 154 154 42 42 17.52 4.78 0.00 0.00
Kościan (2) 9 20272.00 66 250 11 20 1.23 0.10 1.84 0.91
Czempiń (3) 10 14219.00 4 958 5 763 32 40 40.53 0.28 8.05 5.66
Nowy Tomyśl (3) 11 18645.00 324 970 23 57 5.20 0.31 6.46 3.46
Opalenica (3) 12 14891.00 144 1 608 34 61 10.80 0.41 14.64 9.83
Oborniki (3) 13 34004.00 203 1 277 55 88 3.76 0.26 10.74 3.16
Rogoźno (3) 14 21624.00 579 1 230 58 75 5.69 0.35 6.51 3.01
Luboń(1) 15 1351.00 1 036 1 252 18 41 92.67 3.03 2.16 15.99
Puszczykowo (1) 16 1639.00 361 663 26 36 40.45 2.20 3.02 18.43
Buk (3) 17 9058.00 375 481 21 31 5.31 0.34 1.06 1.17
Czerwonak (2) 18 8248.00 1 267 2 950 42 54 35.77 0.65 16.83 20.40
Dopiewo (2) 19 10802.00 857 1 834 122 179 16.98 1.66 9.77 9.04
Kleszczewo (2) 20 7446.00 7 446 7 476 4 30 100.00 0.40 0.00 0.00
Komorniki (2) 21 6641.00 1 969 3 139 77 134 47.27 2.02 11.70 17.62
Kostrzyn (3) 22 15481.00 669 745 61 75 4.81 0.48 0.76 0.49
Kórnik (3) 23 18612.00 1 824 8 480 218 249 45.56 1.34 66.56 35.76
Mosina (3) 24 17143.00 1 481 4 895 125 115 28.55 0.67 34.14 19.91
Murowana Goślina (3) 25 17223.00 3 632 3 109 35 102 18.05 0.59 -5.23 -3.04
Pobiedziska (3) 26 18958.00 3 280 15 236 89 121 80.37 0.64 119.56 63.07
Rokietnica (2) 27 7930.00 734 2 749 73 123 34.67 1.55 20.15 25.41
Stęszew (3) 28 17502.00 611 1 367 26 51 7.81 0.29 7.56 4.32
Suchy Las (2) 29 11601.00 8 465 8 956 133 166 77.20 1.43 4.91 4.23
Swarzędz (3) 30 10178.00 401 3 970 129 117 39.01 1.15 35.69 35.07
Tarnowo Podgórne (2) 31 10175.00 3 631 6 933 111 244 68.14 2.40 33.02 32.45
Duszniki (2) 32 15630.00 664 3 024 76 109 19.35 0.70 23.60 15.10
Kaźmierz (2) 33 12790.00 605 1 040 35 78 8.13 0.61 4.35 3.40
Szamotuły (3) 34 17552.00 492 1 511 91 95 8.61 0.54 10.19 5.81
Dominowo (2) 35 7936.00 5 65 2 6 0.82 0.08 0.60 0.76
Środa Wielkopolska (3) 36 20716.00 1 300 1 371 71 88 6.62 0.42 0.71 0.34
Zaniemyśl (2) 37 10655.00 276 394 29 40 3.70 0.38 1.18 1.11
Brodnica (2) 38 9583.00 19 44 9 13 0.46 0.14 0.25 0.26
Śrem (3) 39 20587.00 2 527 7 695 74 128 37.38 0.62 51.68 25.10
Skoki (3) 40 19849.00 1 005 678 21 37 3.42 0.19 -3.27 -1.65
Wągrowiec (1) 41 1783.00 277 400 27 36 22.43 2.02 1.23 6.90
Wągrowiec (2) 42 34785.00 126 500 24 41 1.44 0.12 3.74 1.08
Nekla (3) 43 9586.00 1 100 1 186 43 62 12.37 0.65 0.86 0.90
Września (3) 44 22185.00 805 1 263 66 96 5.69 0.43 4.58 2.06
Poznań (1) 45 26191.00 6 656 12 160 111 241 46.43 0.92 55.04 21.01
* symbols as described in the research methodology
Source: author’s work based on www.bdl.stat.gov.pl.
Figure 2. Spatial diversification of the planning process in relation to local spatial

development plans in the communes of PMA
Analysing indicators concerning decisions on the localisation of public

purpose investments (DICP) and on building conditions (DWZ) does not
make sense in communes with a maximal coverage of local spatial develop-
ment plans (Kleszczewo). On the other hand, in municipalities with very high
coverage of the local development plan (Luboń, Pobiedziska), only careful
conclusions must be drawn.
The lowest number of DWZ was issued in 2009-2018 in the urban com-
mune Puszczykowo, where forests, forest land, wooded, and shrubby land
cover approx. 49% of the city area. On the other hand, built-up areas consti-
tute only slightly more than a quarter of the area of Puszczykowo. Overall,
55% of the city’s area is covered by the national park, and another 43% is the
park’s buffer zone. For this reason, the investment activity in Puszczykowo is
so limited. As indicated by Podawca et al. (2018), the Wielkopolska National
Park is one of the two national parks in Poland located in close proximity to
the urban agglomeration.
Within 10 years, almost 1,800 DWZ and ca. 360 DICP were issued on
average in each PMA commune. Both Tarnowo Podgórne and Pobiedziska,
despite the high share of the area covered by the local spatial development
plan, exceeded this average.
The smallest number of decisions on building conditions per km2 was
observed in the Suchy Las commune. On the other hand, the highest values
were achieved by urban communes (Kościan, Wągrowiec, Poznań, Luboń
Gniezno) or in communes situated in the immediate vicinity of Poznań
(urban-rural commune Kórnik, rural communes Rokietnica and Dopiewo).
Moreover, the number of decisions on the localisation of public purpose
investments per km2 appears the most in the aforementioned municipalities
as well as Rokietnica, Dopiewo, Kórnik, and in the urban-rural commune of
Swarzędz (table 2, figure 3).
Table 2. Features and indicators connected with decisions on the localisation of public
purpose investments (DICP) and on building conditions (DWZ) in municipalities
of PMA
Community NDICP NDWZ WDICP WDWZ WI-ICP WI-WZ
(Type:
[pcs] [pcs] pcs/km2 pcs/km2 pcs/km2 pcs/km2
1 – urban, No. A* [ha]
2 – rural, 2009- 2009-
3 – urban-rural) 2018 2018
Gniezno (1) 1 4060.00 282 1 196 6.95 29.46 1.31 5.56
Gniezno (2) 2 17816.00 295 2 244 1.66 12.60 0.17 1.28
Czerniejewo (3) 3 11194.00 92 449 0.82 4.01 0.09 0.45
Kiszkowo (2) 4 11449.00 66 667 0.58 5.83 0.06 0.60
Łubowo (2) 5 11354.00 92 662 0.81 5.83 0.12 0.86
Granowo (2) 6 6687.00 84 488 1.26 7.30 0.15 0.86
Grodzisk Wlkp. (3) 7 13259.00 441 2194 3.33 16.55 0.35 1.74
Kościan (1) 8 879.00 227 833 25.82 94.77 3.13 11.49
Kościan (2) 9 20272.00 187 1 617 0.92 7.98 0.09 0.81
Czempiń (3) 10 14219.00 131 907 0.92 6.38 0.15 1.07
Nowy Tomyśl (3) 11 18645.00 560 4001 3.00 21.46 0.32 2.26
Opalenica (3) 12 14891.00 156 1046 1.05 7.02 0.12 0.79
Oborniki (3) 13 34004.00 503 3139 1.48 9.23 0.15 0.96
Rogoźno (3) 14 21624.00 134 1202 0.62 5.56 0.07 0.59
Luboń(1) 15 1351.00 90 498 6.66 36.86 9.09 50.30
Puszczykowo (1) 16 1639.00 72 346 4.39 21.11 0.74 3.55
Buk (3) 17 9058.00 233 1169 2.57 12.91 0.27 1.36
Czerwonak (2) 18 8248.00 375 1045 4.55 12.67 0.71 1.97
Dopiewo (2) 19 10802.00 748 3103 6.92 28.73 0.83 3.46
Kleszczewo (2) 20 7446.00 bd. bd. bd. bd. bd. bd.
Komorniki (2) 21 6641.00 140 463 2.11 6.97 0.40 1.32
Kostrzyn (3) 22 15481.00 489 1602 3.16 10.35 0.33 1.09
Kórnik (3) 23 18612.00 2234 6080 12.00 32.67 2.20 6.00
Mosina (3) 24 17143.00 484 2255 2.82 13.15 0.40 1.84
Murowana Goślina (3) 25 17223.00 211 1063 1.23 6.17 0.15 0.75
Pobiedziska (3) 26 18958.00 363 1918 1.91 10.12 0.98 5.15
Rokietnica (2) 27 7930.00 492 3008 6.20 37.93 0.95 5.81
Stęszew (3) 28 17502.00 233 1386 1.33 7.92 0.14 0.86
Suchy Las (2) 29 11601.00 173 363 1.49 3.13 0.65 1.37
Swarzędz (3) 30 10178.00 789 2379 7.75 23.37 1.27 3.83
Tarnowo Podgórne (2) 31 10175.00 320 1845 3.14 18.13 0.99 5.69
Duszniki (2) 32 15630.00 184 1878 1.18 12.02 0.15 1.49

Kaźmierz (2) 33 12790.00 90 1164 0.70 9.10 0.08 0.99
Szamotuły (3) 34 17552.00 445 3328 2.54 18.96 0.28 2.07
Dominowo (2) 35 7936.00 71 534 0.89 6.73 0.09 0.68
Środa Wielkopolska
36 20716.00 443 2034 2.14 9.82 0.23 1.05
(3)
Zaniemyśl (2) 37 10655.00 124 671 1.16 6.30 0.12 0.65
Brodnica (2) 38 9583.00 65 727 0.68 7.59 0.07 0.76
Śrem (3) 39 20587.00 318 1688 1.54 8.20 0.25 1.31
Skoki (3) 40 19849.00 190 1 460 0.96 7.36 0.10 0.76
Wągrowiec (1) 41 1783.00 161 780 9.03 43.75 1.16 5.64
Wągrowiec (2) 42 34785.00 186 2 061 0.53 5.92 0.05 0.60
Nekla (3) 43 9586.00 123 923 1.28 9.63 0.15 1.10
Września (3) 44 22185.00 466 3 567 2.10 16.08 0.22 1.70
Poznań (1) 45 26191.00 2 530 10 920 9.66 41.69 1.80 7.78
* symbols as described in the research methodology
Source: author’s work based on www.bdl.stat.gov.pl.
Figure 3. Spatial diversification of the planning process in relation to decisions on the

localisation of public purpose investments (DICP) and on building conditions
(DWZ) in the communes of PMA
At the last stage of the work, the division of communes in PMA into groups
was proposed. In terms of the degree of MPZP realisation, the following
administrative units types were selected:
1) communes with very large MPZP coverage (WMPZP ≥80%),
2) communes with large MPZP coverage (50%≤WMPZP<80%),
3) communes with medium MPZP coverage (20%≤WMPZP<50%),
4) communes with small MPZP coverage (WMPZP<20%) (figure 2).
Regarding the issued location decisions, it is assumed that the degree of

the planning process realisation will be determined according to the follow-
ing division:
A) communes with very high dynamics of DWZ issuing, where the mean of
WI_ICP and WI_WZ sum is greater than 3 – type A,
B) communes with high dynamics of DWZ issuing, where the mean of WI_ICP
and WI_WZ sum is between 2 and 3 – type B,
C) communes with medium dynamics of DWZ issuing, where the mean of
WI_ICP and WI_WZ sum is between 1 and 2 – type C,
D) communes with very low dynamics of DWZ issuing, where the mean of
WI_ICP and WI_WZ sum is <1 – type D (figure 3).
On the basis of the isolated groups, 16 types of administrative units

showing the diversity of the degree of implementation of the spatial planning
process in PMA communes were created. The communes in PMA were classi-
fied into 12 types (table 3).
Summing up the commune typology in terms of the level of realisation of
the planning process between 2009-2018, it should be concluded that the
most numerous type is 4.D. It accounts for almost half of the analysed com-
munes. Together with type 3.D, they constitute 58% of the examined com-
munes.
These are units where small (even very small) or medium coverage of
MPZP and very low dynamics of DWZ issuing can be observed. These are
communes where the urbanisation pressure, due to the distance from
Poznań, is lower than in the administrative units located near or in the imme-
diate vicinity of Poznań. The highest dynamics of planning processes entail-
ing investment realisation is present in the 1.A and 2.A communes. In these
municipalities, in addition to the significant MPZP coverage, there is also
a very intensive issuing of location decisions.
Table 3. Types of PMA communes in terms of the degree of implementation of the planning process
Types of communes in terms of the degree of implementation of location decisions
A B C D
1 Pobiedziska, Luboń - - Kleszczewo,

2 Tarnowo Podgórne - Suchy Las, -
Rokietnica,
Wągrowiec-miasto, Puszczykowo, Mosina,
3 Komorniki, Czempiń, Śrem, Łubowo
Gniezno-miasto, Swarzędz Czerwonak
Types of communes Kórnik, Poznań,
in terms of coverage
of local spatial Czerniejewo, Rogoźno,
development plans Wągrowiec-gmina, Kiszkowo,
Dominowo, Zaniemyśl, Brodnica,
Grodzisk Wlkp.,
Skoki, Kościan-gmina, Murowana
4 Kościan-miasto, Dopiewo Szamotuły, Nowy
Goślina, Opalenica, Stęszew, Granowo,
Tomyśl,
Kaźmierz, Oborniki, Nekla, Środa Wlkp.,
Kostrzyn, Gniezno-gmina, Buk,
Duszniki, Września
Figure 4. Types of PMA communes

Type A communes only include cities and communes in the immediate
vicinity of Poznań, i.e., rural commune Tarnowo Podgórne and Rokietnica
and urban-rural commune Kórnik (figure 4).
Group 4a is also distinguished. It brings together 3 urban-rural com-
munes, seats of poviats (districts), which were also district towns in the for-
mer Poznań Province in the years 1975-1998. The population of these
urban-rural communes ranges from 20,1 thousand. (acc. to Statistics Poland
in 2019) in Grodzisk Wielkopolski to 30,3 thous. in Szamotuły. The popula-
tion of the cities themselves (excluding rural areas) ranges only from 14,4
thous. (Nowy Tomyśl) to 18,9 thous. in Szamotuły. The population density of
built-up and urbanised areas ranges from 2356 (Nowy Tomyśl) to 2628 pop./
km2 (Grodzisk Wielkopolski), and the total population density ranges from
145 (Nowy Tomyśl) to 172 (Szamotuły) pop./km2. The common feature is
also the distance from Poznań (from 39 km – Szamotuły to 65 km – Nowy
Tomyśl).
Among the communes belonging to PMA, the rural commune Suchy Las,
apart from Kleszczewo, fared best in the assessment carried out in the study
(both in the immediate vicinity of Poznań).
Similar studies carried out on the example of Warsaw Functional Area
(WOF) gave different results (Podawca and Mrozik, 2019). The authors per-
formed analyses for 39 communes in the WOF, based on statistical data from
2009-2016. They concluded that in WOF the most numerous type 1.D
together with type 2.D constitute 30% of examined communes. On the other
hand, comparing to Puszczykowo (group B3), the Izabelin commune, located
in 90% of the protected areas, was included in group D4. In total, in group D4,
the most numerous group in PMA, there are only 3 communes included in the
group.
In previous research, the dependence of MPZP coverage on the number
of issued decisions on building condition (on the example of communes and
municipalities in the Bydgoszcz-Torun Metropolitan Area) was observed
(Mrozik and Idczak, 2015). The authors also stated that in the Polish condi-
tions, the dynamic development of rural communes in metropolitan areas is
taking place without the use of appropriate (predicted) instruments, i.e.,
local plans since it is a development based on the issuance of administrative
decisions, which due to their characteristics significantly limit the possibility
of maintaining the basic principles of spatial planning, i.e. spatial order and
sustainable development in the rural commune areas subject to suburbani-
sation (Mrozik and Noskowiak, 2018; Mrozik and Idczak, 2015).
Conclusions
The analysis conducted on the example of Poznań Metropolitan Area

showed the possibility of classifying communes according to the degree of
implementation of the planning process.
The analyses performed in this work showed that the distance from the
regional capital city and the type of commune determine the degree of imple-
mentation of the planning process. The type of commune is significant in the
case of urban communes and urban-rural communes, being the seat of povi-
ats (districts). It should be emphasised, however, that the similarity of urban
communes results mainly from the degree of implementation of location
decisions.
The most numerous group in the proposed classification (almost half of
the analysed administrative units) are communes with small coverage of
MPZP and very low dynamics of DWZ issuing. These are communes where
the urbanisation pressure, due to the distance from Poznań, is lower than in
the administrative units located near or in the immediate vicinity of Poznań.
The limited planning coverage is a big challenge for most PMA communes.
At the same time, the example of Swarzędz shows that with the high activity
of local authorities, it is possible to make up for many years of delays quickly.
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by Polish National Science Centre core
funds within the framework of the project No 2013/09/D/HS4/01858.

Karol Mrozik – 50% (concept of the paper, literature review, data collection, data
analysis
and interpretation, drafting the text).
Konrad Podawca – 25% (concept of the paper, literature review, data collection,
data analysis, drafting the text).
Daria Drożyńska – 25% (concept of the paper, literature review, data interpretation,
drafting the text).
References
Data from the state register of borders and areas of units of territorial division of the
country – PRG, http://www.gugik.gov.pl/pzgik/dane-bez-oplat/dane-z- panstwo-
wego-rejestru-granic-i-powierzchni-jednostek-podzialow-terytorialnych-kra-
ju-prg [20-10-2020].
Feltynowski, M., 2013. Planowanie miejscowe a użytkowanie terenów w wybranych
gminach wiejskich województwa łódzkiego. Studia Obszarów Wiejskich, 34,
221-231.
Gałka, J., Warych-Juras, A., 2018. Suburbanization and migration in Polish metropoli-
tan areas during political transition. AGS, 58(2), 63-73, DOI: https://doi.org/
10.3986/AGS.2256.
Idczak, P., Mrozik, K., 2018. Periurbanisation – evidence from Polish metropolitan
areas. Economic and Environmental Studies, 18(1), 183-202.
Kaczmarek, T., 2017. Dynamika i kierunki rozwoju suburbanizacji rezydencjalnej
w aglomeracji poznańskiej. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Geographica
Socio-Oeconomica, 27, 81-98, DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/1508-1117.27.06.
Mrozik, K. et al., 2012. Spatial policy in rural communes in relations to land use
change resulting from suburbanization. Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska, Annual
Set The Environment Protection, 14, 761-771.
Mrozik, K. et al., 2015. Problems of the Integrated Urban Water Management. The
Case of the Poznan Metropolitan Area (Poland)‎. Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska,
Annual Set The Environment Protection, 17, 230-245.
Mrozik, K. et al., 2020. Ländliche Gebiete als die Herausforderung der Siedlungswas-
serwirtschaft in Polen Rural areas as a challenge of urban water management in
Poland. Wasserwirtschaft, 110, 38-45, DOI:10.1007/s35147-019-0323-0.
Mrozik, K., 2016. Assessment of Retention Potential Changes as an Element of Subur-
banization Monitoring on Example of an Ungauged Catchment in Poznań Metro-
politan Area (Poland). Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska. Annual Set The Environ-
ment Protection, 18, 188-200.
Mrozik, K., Idczak, P., 2015. Suburbanizacja w wybranych gminach wiejskich Bydgo
sko-Toruńskiego Obszaru Metropolitalnego. Studia i Prace Wydziału Nauk Eko-
nomicznych i Zarządzania, 42(2), 183-194, DOI: 10.18276/sip.2015.42/2-16.
Mrozik, K., Noskowiak, A., 2018. Suburbanizacja a możliwości zrównoważonego
rozwoju przestrzennego wybranych gmin wiejskich Poznańskiego Obszaru Met-
ropolitalnego. Infrastruktura i Ekologia Terenów Wiejskich. 3(1), 755-769, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14597/INFRAECO.2018.3.1.051.
Mrozik, K., Wiśniewska, A., 2013. Miejscowe plany zagospodarowania przestrzen-
nego jako instrument zarządzania procesem suburbanizacji na terenach wiejs-
kich na przykładzie obrębu geodezyjego Skórzewo. Rocznik Ochrona Środow-
iska. Annual Set The Environment Protection, 15, 2126-2141.
Podawca, K. et al., 2019. The assessment of the suburbanisation degree of Warsaw
Functional Area using changes of the land development structure. Miscellanea
Geographica, 23(4), 215-224, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/mgrsd-2019-0019.
Podawca, K., Mrozik, K., 2019. Dywersyfikacja stopnia realizacji procesów planistycz
no-inwestycyjnych w gminach Warszawskiego Obszaru Funkcjonalnego. Scien-
tific Review Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 83, 28(1), 105-117, DOI
10.22630/PNIKS.2019.28.1.10.
Podawca, K., Pawłat-Zawrzykraj, A., 2018. Diversifying tourism in municipalities
within impact areas of national parks. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies,
27(5), 2213-2227, DOI: 10.15244/pjoes/78927.
Śleszyński, P. et al., 2015. Analiza stanu i uwarunkowań prac planistycznych w gmin-
ach w 2014 roku. Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania PAN na
zlecenie Ministerstwa Infrastruktury i Budownictwa, Warszawa, 220 + załączniki.
Śleszyński, P. et al., 2020. The Contemporary Economic Costs of Spatial Chaos: Evi-
dence from Poland. Land, 9, 214, https://doi.org/10.3390/land9070214.
Statistics Poland, Local Data Bank, https://bdl.stat.gov.pl/BDL/start [20-10-2020].
Tokarczyk-Dorociak, K. et al., 2018. The Impact of a Large City on Land Use in Subur-
ban Area – the Case of Wrocław (Poland). Journal of Ecological Engineering,
19(2), 89-98, https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/81783.
Wdowicka, M., Mierzejewska, L., 2020. Procesy Suburbanizacji w Strefie Podmiejskiej
Poznania. Prace i Studia Geograficzne, 65(3), 125-137.
Wolny, A. et al., 2017. Identification of the spatial causes of urban sprawl with the use
of land information systems and GIS tools. Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic
Series, 35, 111-120, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/bog-2017-0008.
Zębik, G., 2011. Typology of suburban communities in Poland. Bulletin of Geography.
Socio-economic Series, 16, 173-188, DOI: 10.2478/v10089-011-0021-x.
Zydroń, A., Szczepański, P., 2012. Ocena procesu suburbanizacji na przykładzie
wybranych gmin powiatu poznańskiego w latach 2001-2010. Rocznik Ochrona
Środowiska, Annual Set The Environment Protection, 14, 998-1008.
Piotr BOŁTRYK
THE REQUIREMENT OF OBTAINING AN

ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION IN THE CASE
OF AN INVESTMENT CONCERNING A ROAD
RECONSTRUCTION – CASE STUDY
Piotr Bołtryk, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0003-2738-7068) – Bialystok University of Technology,

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Wiejska Street 45E, 15-351, Białystok, Poland
e-mail: p.boltryk@pb.edu.pl
ABSTRACT: The goal of this article is to present the procedure for obtaining an environmental decision
using the example of an investment involving the reconstruction of a road. The case study concerned
the reconstruction of a public municipal road No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, Prostki
municipality, Ełcki poviat, Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship of the length of 4308.50m against legal
regulations of obtaining environmental decisions. Through the interpretation of legal regulations, it
was established that the described investment – under certain conditions – does not require obtaining
an environmental decision. Based on literature studies, basic concepts and activities pertaining to the
procedure of obtaining environmental decisions in Poland were presented. Moreover, the conclusions
obtained as part of the research may prove useful to public investors who are obligated to verify their
investments in terms of their legal compliance during the planning stage.
KEYWORDS: decision, environment, procedure, evaluation
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 81-94 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/34 JEL: K23, K32, K40
Introduction
The investment process in Poland consists of several stages. Some of

them are obligatory, while others depend on the type of construction goals
that were undertaken. The latter is the so-called environmental proceedings,
nevertheless, the assessment of whether their investment will have an envi-
ronmental impact must be carried out by each investor intending to commit
to an investment in Poland, to confirm or eliminate the need to conduct an
environmental impact assessment for the project under development.
Environmental proceedings are based on predicting potential environ-
mental risks at the investment planning stage, as well as the scale of these
risks, and – as a result – counteracting or limiting these threats and minimiz-
ing the negative impact of the planned investment. It is an administrative
procedure initiated at the investor’s request and concluded with the issuance
of a decision on environmental conditions for the investment’s development.
Investments in the field of road infrastructure undoubtedly affect the
environment, both at the construction and operation stages. In most cases,
the impact is mostly negative, such as destruction of plant and animal sites,
fragmentation of these habitats, landscape fragmentation, changes in hydro-
logical processes, increased noise levels or the need to demolish existing
buildings (Karlson, Mörtberg, Balfors, 2014; Broniewicz, Ogrodnik, 2020). Of
course, the number and scale of this impact depend directly on the location
and the parameters of a given investment.
Due to the enormous socio-economic importance of road investments
and their potential impact on virtually all components of the environment
(fauna and flora, atmospheric air, acoustic climate, landscape, etc.), environ-
mental proceedings play a unique role in this group of investments.
The main objective of this paper is to present the procedure for obtaining
environmental decisions, based on the example of an investment pertaining
to road reconstruction. The work consists of a theoretical part, in which liter-
ature studies have been conducted primarily in the field of the selected pro-
visions of the Construction Law. In the empirical part, a case study was pre-
sented, which concerned an investment pertaining to a reconstruction of
a public municipality road No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe,
Prostki municipality, Ełcki poviat, Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship with
a length of 4,308.50 m. The author of this article participated in court pro-
ceedings concerning this investment, in which a dispute arose as to the need
to obtain an environmental decision for this type of project. The current
authorities of the municipality were of the opinion that an environmental
investigation was necessary in this case, whereas the previous administra-
tion decided to the contrary. On the other hand, the provisions on obtaining
an environmental decision for road reconstruction are imprecise to the
degree that makes it impossible to – after only a cursory reading – support
any of the two positions. Hence arose the need for an in-depth analysis of the
problem to dispel doubts and avoid similar problems in the future, especially
as road investments in municipalities are usually the most frequently under-
taken, due to their importance and value for local communities.
Literature review
The main research problem discussed in this paper concerns the invest-
ment pertaining to the reconstruction of a municipal road. Therefore, during
the first stage, it was necessary to determine whether this type of investment
requires a building permit. According to Art. 28 sec. 1 of the Act from May 21,
2019, Construction Law (Journal of Laws from 2019, item 1186 – hereinafter
referred to as Construction Law), construction works in Poland can generally
commence on the basis of a building permit. It is a principle, from which
there are exceptions specified in further provisions of the Construction Law.
Exceptions were introduced because, in accordance with the will of the legis-
lator, building permits are required for the most complex projects, whereas
those with a lower degree of complexity only need to be reported, or can even
be implemented without notifying the architectural and construction author-
ities (responsible for accepting building permit applications and notifica-
tions – Articles 82-82b of the Construction Law).
According to the legal definition, a building permit is an administrative
decision allowing for the commencement and conduct of the construction
process or the performance of construction works other than the construc-
tion of a civil structure. Construction works other than construction include
works pertaining to, inter alia, reconstruction, assembly, renovation, or dem-
olition of a building object (Niewiadomski, 2021).
A building permit may be issued after the project’s environmental impact
assessment has been carried out and the investor has obtained permits,
approvals or opinions of authorities required by specific regulations, includ-
ing decisions on environmental conditions for the implementation of the
investment (Strzelczyk, 2019).
That is why, whether the reconstruction of a municipal road requires
a construction permit and whether the requirement to obtain an environ-
mental decision is in force, always depends on the procedure of obtaining
a construction permit. Considerations should begin with the definition of
a municipal road. According to Art. 2 clause 1 point 4 and Art. 1 and Art. 4
sec. 1 point 2 of the Act from March 21, 1985, on public roads (Journal of
Laws from 2013, item 260 – hereinafter referred to as the Public Roads Act),
a municipal road is a structure together with road-like engineering struc-
tures, equipment and installations, constituting a technical and operational
entity, intended for road traffic, located within a road lane, which can be used
by anyone, in accordance with its intended purpose, within the limitations
and exceptions specified in relevant acts.
However, according to Art. 3 point 7a of the Construction Law, redevelop-
ment is defined as „performance of construction works that result in opera-
tional or technical parameters of an existing object being changed, except for
characteristic parameters such as cubature, building area, height, length,
width or number of storeys. In the case of roads, changes in characteristic
parameters are allowed within the scope that does not require changes to the
boundaries of the road lane. The reconstruction of a road is also defined as:
„performance of work that results in an increase in the technical and opera-
tional parameters of the existing road, which do not require changing the
boundaries of the road lane” (Article 4 (18) of the Public Roads Act).
Taking into account the above legal definitions, we should therefore state
that the reconstruction of roads in Poland (including municipal roads), in
accordance with Art. 29 sec. 3 point 1 lit. 2 of the Construction Law, does not
require a building permit. However, it requires issuing a notification. The
reconstruction of the municipal road No. 178044N Prostki-Ostrykół-Li-
pińskie Małe in the municipality of Prostki, therefore, belongs to the category
of projects that only require notification, as this investment is limited to the
reconstruction (not construction) of a road, with the provision that, if the
reconstruction included a change in the boundaries of the road lane, it would
be necessary to obtain a construction permit.
The term „road lane” is defined in Art. 4 point 1 of the Public Roads Act,
and it is described as land separated by borderlines together with the space
above and below its surface, on which the following are located: the road and
construction facilities and technical equipment related to the management,
security and service of traffic, as well as devices designed to meet the require-
ments of road management. The term „road lane” is therefore much broader
than „road”. Voivodeship Administrative Court in Krakow, in its judgment
from January 7, 2010, file ref. Act I SA / Kr 1666/09 indicated that a road has
to constitute a structure, but the road lane is a land on which that structure is
located. In addition, the Supreme Administrative Court in a judgment from
January 13, 2009, file ref. II GSK 614/08 stated that: „Taking into account the
functional role of a road lane – in the context of its scope, both above and
below the designated area – it should be stated that these boundaries define
facilities and devices used to achieve objectives pertaining to driving, secur-
ing and managing traffic, as well as road management. „The boundaries of
the road lane should be clearly delineated with borderlines on the land plan.
Therefore, to present the boundaries of a road lane, it is necessary to submit
a land plan with clearly marked boundary lines of this land (judgment of the
Supreme Administrative Court in Warsaw from June 17, 2008, file reference:
II GSK 171/08). It is not sufficient to define the strip of land only with the
boundaries of registration plots (Sadkowski, 2017). The road, as a structure,
must therefore be built on specific land. The construction of a road requires
the acquisition of appropriate land, necessary for its foundation, along with
other facilities needed for road traffic. This area is what is defined as a road
lane (Morawiec, 2013).
It is undeniable that the undertaking that is subject to this analysis did
not interfere with the boundaries of the road lane. This was apparent not
only from the master map attached to the design documentation (included in
the case files) but also from the lack of objections raised by the County
Administrative Office in Ełk (acting as an architectural and construction
administration body). The investment was submitted for construction pursu-
ant to Art. 29 sec. 3 point 1 lit. 2 of the Construction Law by the previous
municipal authorities and the County Administrative Office did not raise any
objections. If the reconstruction reported to the County Administrative Office
required a building permit (and thus interfered with the road lane), the
County Administrative Office would be obligated to raise an objection to the
notification (Article 30 (6) (2) of the Construction Law), which was not done
in the analyzed case.
Pursuant to Art. 30 sec. 6 point 2 of the Construction Law, architectural
and construction administration authorities are obligated to raise an objec-
tion if:
• the application concerns construction or performance of construction
works that are required to obtain a building permit,
• the construction or performance of construction works covered by the
notification violates the provisions of the local spatial development plan,
stands against the decisions on development conditions, or is in breach of
other acts of local law or other provisions.
The notification is a sui generis application for tacit approval by the
authorities of the construction project that is subject to that notification. In
this situation, the silence of the authorities, i.e., failure to raise an objection
(which takes the form of an administrative decision), entitles the notifying
party to commence construction works. The architectural and construction
administration body that received the notification is required to assess the
project from the point of view of its legal compliance (Niewiadomski, 2021).
Environmental impact assessment in the case of road

reconstruction
As indicated above, in the case of the investment pertaining to the recon-

struction of the municipal public road No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół –
Lipińskie Małe, Prostki municipality, Ełcki poviat, Warmińsko-Mazurskie
voivodeship with a length of 4,308.50 m, according to Polish architectural
and construction administration authorities, no construction permit was
required. Moreover, according to the County Administrative Office in Ełk,
it did not require obtaining an environmental decision.
According to Art. 30 sec. 2a of the Construction Law, the notification must
be accompanied by, inter alia, permits, arrangements, and opinions. The obli-
gation stems from the provisions of separate acts, in particular the decision
on environmental conditions.
The responsibility of the County Administrative Office in Ełk was, there-
fore, to verify the notification in terms of its compliance with the law. If it was
found that any of the attachments is missing, it was the obligation of the
Office to impose on the investor, by way of a decision, the obligation to sup-
plement the notification with the necessary documents within a specified
period (Article 30 (5c) of the Construction Law). Then, in case of a failure to
deliver such supplements, the County Administrative Office would be obli-
gated to raise an objection regarding the documentation submitted by the
investor (judgment of the Provincial Administrative Court in Bydgoszcz from
February 4, 2020, II SA/Bd 1046/19). This was not done, however, which
effectively served as an administrative sanction of the fact that the recon-
struction of that road (in the scope indicated in the application) does not
require an additional procedure that would conclude with an environmental
decision. The new authorities of the Prostki municipality did not agree with
this interpretation.
Therefore, the key research problem of this article was to verify the cor-
rectness of the actions undertaken by the County Administrative Office,
within the discussed scope and to answer the question whether reconstruct-
ing a road in Poland does not, in fact, require an environmental assessment of
the investment.
Generally speaking, in Poland, the assessment of whether a given invest-
ment requires environmental proceedings is based on two legal acts:
• the Act from October 3, 2008, on the provision of information on the envi-
ronment and its protection, public participation in environmental pro-
tection and environmental impact assessments (Journal of Laws from
2020, item 283 – hereinafter also u.i.o.ś.)
• Regulation of the Council of Ministers from September 10, 2019, on pro-
jects that may have a significant impact on the environment (Journal of
Laws of 2019, item 1839 – hereinafter also: Regulation).
Pursuant to Art. 71 sec. 1 u.i.o.ś., the decision on environmental condi-
tions specifies the environmental conditions of the project. The pending pro-
ceeding regarding its issuance concerns the planned project and is focused
on determining whether the investment – in the scope described by the
investor in the application – poses a threat to the environment and whether
it meets the requirements and parameters of environmental protection
(Tomaszewska, 2018). Moreover, pursuant to Art. 72 sec. 1a, and sec. 3 u.i.o.ś.,
the decision must be issued prior to the notification of the execution of con-
struction works, and such a decision constitutes a required motion that sup-
plements such a notification.
Obtaining an environmental decision is required only for the projects
that (Art. 71 (2) of the Environmental Protection Act):
• typically have a significant impact on the environment,
• may potentially have a significant impact on the environment.
Consequently, it should be determined whether the reconstruction of a
municipal road falls into one of the two categories: projects that typically
have a significant impact on the environment, and projects that can poten-
tially have a significant impact on the environment. The above-mentioned
regulation, which contains a list of projects belonging to both categories, is
particularly helpful in that regard.
The Regulation in § 2 sec. 1 indicates a list of projects that typically have
a significant impact on the environment, while in § 3 par. 1 it describes invest-
ments that potentially have a significant impact on the environment. The fact
that both lists are closed sets does not require further comment (Siwkowska,
2018).
According to the author of this study, the following provisions of this law
should be subject to analysis:
• § 2 (1) point 31: (construction of) motorways and expressways,
• § 2 clause 1 point 32: (construction of) roads different than those men-
tioned in point 31, not less than four lanes and of length not less than 10
km in a single section or a route change or the extension of an existing
two-lane road to at least four lanes along with a distance no shorter than
10 km in a single section,
• § 2 clause 2: included among projects that typically have a significant
impact on the environment are ones involving the extension, reconstruc-
tion or assembly of implemented or completed projects listed in:
– paragraph 1, if this extension, reconstruction or assembly reaches the
thresholds specified in sec. 1, provided they have been specified,
– § 3 clause 1, if this extension, reconstruction or assembly results in

reaching the thresholds specified in sec. 1, provided they have been
specified,
– § 3 clause 1 ones not meeting the thresholds referred to in § 3 sub-
para. 1, provided they have been specified, if the extension, recon-
struction or assembly will result in reaching the thresholds specified
in par. 1.
• § 3 clause 1 pt. 62: (construction of) paved roads with a total project
length exceeding 1 km, other than those mentioned in § 2 par. 1
paragraphs 31 and 32 or bridges along the road with a hard surface, with
the exception of the reconstruction of roads or bridges used to service
power substations and located outside the areas covered by the various
forms of nature protection referred to in article 1. 6 sec. 1 points 1-5,
8 and 9 of the Act from April 16, 2004, on nature protection (Journal of
Laws from 2020, item 55 – hereinafter: the Nature Conservation Act).
When analyzing the wording of the above regulations in terms of the
investment pertaining to the reconstruction of the public municipal road
No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, Prostki municipality,
Ełcki poviat, Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship with a length of 4308.50
m, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• § 2 (1) (31) of the regulation will certainly not apply in this case. The
analyzed investment does not pertain to an expressway or a motorway
– the subject of the investment is a road which does not meet the require-
ments of either a motorway or an expressway. A motorway is a road
intended exclusively for motor vehicle traffic: equipped with at least two
permanently separated one-way carriageways, with multi-level intersec-
tions and including all land and water transport routes that cross it,
equipped with passenger, vehicle and parcel service facilities intended
exclusively for users of that motorway (Article 4 (11) of the Act on public
roads). On the other hand, an express road is a road intended exclusively
for motor vehicle traffic, equipped with one or two carriageways, with
multi-level intersections and including other land and water transport
routes that intersect it, with the exceptional admission of single-level
intersections with other public roads, equipped with passenger, vehicle
and parcel service facilities intended exclusively for users of that express-
way; (Article 4 (10) of the Act on Public Roads). What is equally impor-
tant, the municipality cannot be the manager of motorways or express-
ways, ergo: it does not perform the function of an investor in this respect
(Art. 19 (2) in conjunction with Art. 20 (3) of the Act on Public Roads);
therefore, it cannot move for their reconstruction.
• There also exists a lack of premises to apply § 2 para. 1 point 32 of the
regulation to the subject of this paper, due to the fact that the planned
road section is 4308.50m in length, so it is shorter than the minimum
indicated in the provision, i.e. 10 km (10,000 m). The provision will also
apply only to roads with at least four lanes, while road no. 178044N
Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, according to its design documenta-
tion, is only a two-lane road.
• It is the opinion of the author that there are also no grounds to apply the
disposition of § 2 sec. 2 of the regulation, although the interpretation is
not as obvious as in previous cases. The regulation mentions reconstruc-
tion, which is relevant to the case of this investment. However, a refer-
ence is also made here to the thresholds measured in kilometers and
indicated in the regulations discussed above. Therefore, if the municipal
road was to be subject to a single rebuild (in accordance with the design
documentation) over a section longer than 10 km, then it would be nec-
essary to obtain an environmental decision.
By applying the principle of elimination, it should be concluded that the

most likely application is the disposition of § 3 para. 1 point 62 of the regula-
tion. The circumstances indicated in the discussed paragraph will be applica-
ble in the case of an investment pertaining to the reconstruction of a munici-
pal road in a section shorter than 10 km, and thus:
• Municipal road No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe is made
of a hard (asphalt) surface. Its reconstruction was designed in such a way
that the new surface would also be a bituminous one. The concept of a
road with a hard surface should be understood as a road made of hard
materials and one that uses relevant technology which impacts the hard-
ening of the road. Therefore, it will not be only understood as a road
whose types of surfaces are listed in Art. 2 point 2 of the Road Traffic Law
(bituminous, concrete, paver blocks, clinker or paving stone, and con-
crete or stone-concrete slabs). A different assessment of this issue would
lead to the possibility of easily circumventing the requirement to obtain
an environmental conditions decision for projects including the con-
struction of a hard surface road, since the types of road surface other
than those listed in the Road Traffic Act would exclude such a require-
ment (judgment of the Provincial Administrative Court in Kraków of
August 7, 2017 II SA / Kr 608/17).
• The total length of the reconstructed road is 4,308.50m. Thus, the condi-
tion of the project’s length being more than 1 km (1000 m) was also met.
Therefore, it should be considered whether, in such a case, an investment

pertaining to the reconstruction of the public municipal road No. 178044N
Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, Prostki municipality, Ełcki poviat, Warm-
ińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship of the length of 4308.50m actually meets the
requirement of § 3 par. 1 point 62 of the said regulation. If that is the case,
then it is a project that has a potentially significant impact on the environ-
ment, i.e., it is necessary to obtain an environmental decision and possibly to
conduct a full environmental impact assessment. Assuming that the above
thesis is true, it should also be stated that the ruling of the architectural and
construction administration authority (County Administrative Office in Ełk),
which sanctioned the above investment without the requirement to submit
an environmental decision was incorrect.
In the opinion of the author of this article, however, the action of the
County Administrative Office in Ełk was correct, with certain reservations
that should be made as part of this study.
The provisions of § 3 sec. 1 point 62 of the regulation exclude the need to
obtain an environmental decision in the case of road reconstruction (or
bridge structures) used for servicing power substations and located outside
of areas covered by forms of nature protection, referred to in Art. 6 sec. 1
points 1-5, 8 and 9 of the Nature Conservation Act, i.e., national parks, nature
reserves, landscape parks, protected landscape areas, Natura 2000 areas,
ecological sites, and nature and landscape complexes.
The difficulty in interpreting the above provision is rooted in need to
determine whether the two cases should be interpreted jointly or separately.
The understanding of the above provision is at least ambiguous, i.e.
• investments pertaining to the reconstruction of roads are exempt from
the obligation to obtain an environmental decision, provided that the fol-
lowing conditions are jointly met:
– they are used to service power substations, and
– are located outside of areas covered by the forms of nature protection
referred to in the Nature Conservation Act,
• investments pertaining to the reconstruction of roads are exempt from
the obligation to obtain an environmental decision, provided that one of
the two conditions is met:
– they are used to service a power substation,
– they are located outside of areas covered by the forms of nature pro-
tection referred to in the Nature Conservation Act.
Selecting the appropriate interpretation of the wording of the above pro-

vision is not an easy task, especially since there are no publications on this
subject. The judicial practice also failed to develop a position on the discussed
matter. However, in the opinion of the author of this article, one should sup-
port the second of the presented positions, due to the arguments given below.
The presented position is supported primarily by the logical and pur-
pose-based interpretation of the provision in question. It should not be for-
gotten that the investment analyzed in the article pertains only to the recon-
struction of a road, not its construction. The very construction of the road No.
178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe had to be preceded by obtain-
ing an environmental decision. The planned reconstruction does not extend
beyond the existing road lane. Therefore, there is no change in the scope of
the investment’s impact, which would require its reverification in terms of
environmental solutions, subject to the reconstruction carried out in the
areas covered by the forms of nature protection referred to in the regulation.
The separate nature of both conditions may also be demonstrated by the
application of a systemic and functional interpretation of the wording of the
regulation. If it were to be said otherwise, this provision would most likely
not apply. It is difficult to find an investment which would meet both condi-
tions jointly, pursuant to the provisions of the Nature Conservation Act,
which:
• prohibit the construction or reconstruction of buildings and technical
devices in national parks and nature reserves, except for facilities and
devices serving the purposes of the national park or nature reserve – Art.
15 sec. 1 of the Nature Conservation Act,
• generally, prohibit the implementation of projects in areas of a landscape
park and in areas of the protected landscape that may significantly affect
the environment – Art. 17 sec. 1 of the Nature Conservation Act,
• prohibit the performance of earthworks that permanently deform the
topography in the areas of nature and landscape complexes and ecologi-
cal areas, – Art. 45 sec. 1 of the Nature Conservation Act.
The above regulations effectively prohibit locating buildings, such as
power substations, in areas of natural value. There is also no functional con-
nection between the operation of a power substation and the areas covered
by forms of nature protection. At the same time, it is logical that the recon-
struction of a road located within the area of, e.g., a national park, requires an
environmental procedure due to the principle of inviolability of naturally
valuable areas.
Moreover, the combination of both exclusions with the conjunctive func-
tor (conjunction) „and” does not mean that they should be understood as
only applied jointly. According to the principles of legal logic: „ conjunction is
true only if both sentences joined by a conjunction (called factors) are true.
(...) This means that, for the purposes of analyzing the logical properties of a
statement which is a complex sentence, in which the ‘and’ functor appears, it
is not important whether there is any content relationship between the sen-
tences joined by this functor. The sentence ‘On September 11, 2001, there
was a terrorist attack in New York, and Stanisław August Poniatowski abdi-
cated in Petersburg’ is logically true, because both sentences joined by a con-
junction functor are true ‘(Lewandowski et al., 2010, pp. 98-99). The Supreme
Court also commented on the „and” function in the provision on „weapons
and ammunition” – the judgment of the Supreme Court of March 2, 2015, file
ref. act IV KK 382/14.
The truthfulness of the thesis pertaining to the “and” conjunction used in
the regulation is also supported by the conclusions from the legal inference
by analogy with respect to other provisions of the legal act in question, where
„and” was also used within the scope of the following exclusions:
• Art. 3 sec. 1 point 6: (construction of) installations using wind energy to
generate electricity, located in areas covered by forms of nature protec-
tion, (...) with the exception of installations intended exclusively for pow-
ering road and railway signs,
• Art. 3 sec. 1 point 31: (construction of) gas transmission installations
other than those mentioned in § 2 sec. 1 point 20 and the accompanying
compressor stations or pressure reduction stations, with the exception of
gas pipelines with a pressure of not more than 0.5 MPa and connections
to buildings.
It seems that, when analyzing the above provisions, there is no doubt that
the use of the conjunction „and” means that we do not deal with two condi-
tions that must be met jointly to apply for a given exemption. It is difficult to
imagine that only the following can take advantage of the exemption from the
obligation to obtain an environmental decision:
• wind installations that simultaneously supply power to both road and
rail signs,
• gas connection to a building, which also serves as a gas pipeline – which
in itself is an absurd statement, in particular, that both terms have sepa-
rate legal definitions contained in § 2 point 6 and § 2 point 24 of the Reg-
ulation of the Minister of Economy from April 26, 2013, on the technical
requirements to be met by gas networks and their locations (Journal of
Laws from 2013, item 640). In accordance with the above-mentioned
regulations, a gas pipeline is used to transport gas, and a connection is
used for connecting the gas installation to the gas valve.
Bearing in mind the wording of the above arguments, it is necessary to
confirm the thesis that it is not necessary to obtain an environmental deci-
sion for the investment pertaining to the reconstruction of the public munic-
ipal road No. 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, Prostki munici-
pality, Ełcki poviat, Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship of a length of 4,308.50
m, unless it is located within areas covered by the forms of nature protection
referred to in Art. 6 sec. 1 items 1-5, 8 and 9 of the Nature Conservation Act
(§ 3 section 1 item 62 of the Regulation of the Council of Ministers from Sep-
tember 10, 2019, on projects that may significantly affect the environment
(Journal of Laws from 2019, item 1839).
Conclusions
Environmental proceedings are an important element of the investment

process in Poland, especially in the case of road investments, due to their
socio-economic importance and the scale of their impact. Environmental
proceedings are a complex procedure that requires many regulations to be
correctly interpreted. In general, the assessment of whether a given invest-
ment requires environmental proceedings is based in Poland on two legal
acts: the Act from October 3, 2008, on the provision of information on the
environment and its protection, public participation in environmental pro-
tection and environmental impact assessments (Journal U. from 2020, item
283) and the regulation of the Council of Ministers from September 10, 2019,
on projects that may significantly affect the environment (Journal of Laws
from 2019, item 1839). The appropriate classification of the project, in accor-
dance with the provisions of the above-mentioned regulations, is of crucial
importance.
In the case of an investment selected for this case study, the ruling of the
previous authorities of the Prostki municipality shall be deemed correct.
This position is also supported by the actions of the architectural and con-
struction administration body (County Administrative Office in Ełk), which
did not raise any objections. However, no decision on the environmental con-
ditions for the project was attached to the construction application. The veri-
fication of the authority’s activities additionally led to the conclusion that the
proceedings in this regard, despite the correctness of the decision, were
incomplete. There was no unequivocal determination whether the proposed
road reconstruction was located in protected areas. Such circumstances
could, however, be easily verified by asking the Regional Director for Envi-
ronmental Protection for information in this regard. According to the author
of the article, such an obligation rested with the architectural and construc-
tion administration body. Obligating the investor to submit such information
would go beyond the scope of Art. 30 sec. 2a of the Construction Law.
References
Act from April 16 2004 on nature protection (Journal of Laws from 2020, item 55).
Act from October 3 2008 on the provision of information on the environment and its
protection, public participation in environmental protection and environmental
impact assessments (Journal of Laws from 2020, item 283).
Act from March 21 1985 on public roads (Journal of Laws from 2013, item 260).
Act from May 21 2019 Construction Law (Journal of Laws from 2019, item 1186).
Broniewicz, E, Ogrodnik, K., 2020. Multi-criteria analysis of transport infrastructure
projects. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 83,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102351.
Judgment of the Provincial Administrative Court in Bydgoszcz from February 4, 2020,
II SA/Bd 1046/19.
Judgment of the Provincial Administrative Court in Kraków of August 7, 2017 II SA/
Kr 608/17.
Judgment of the Supreme Administrative Court from January 13 2009, file ref. II GSK
614/08
Judgment of the Supreme Administrative Court in Warsaw from June 17, 2008, file
reference: II GSK 171/08
Judgment of the Supreme Court of March 2, 2015, file ref. act IV KK 382/14.
Judgment of the Voivodeship Administrative Court in Krakow from January 7, 2010,
file ref. Act I SA/Kr 1666/09.
Karlson, M., Mörtberg, U., Balfors, B., 2014. Road ecology in environmental impact
assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 48, p. 10-19, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.04.002.
Lewandowski, S. et al., 2010. Logika dla prawników. Lexis Nexis, Warszawa, 98-99.
Morawiec, A., 2013. Zmiany granic pasa drogowego. Prawne Zeszyty Drogowe,
Poznań, 4(9).
Niewiadomski, Z. (Ed.), 2021. Prawo budowlane. Komentarz. Wydawnictwo CH Beck,
Warszawa.
Regulation of the Council of Ministers from September 10, 2019 on projects that may
have a significant impact on the environment (Journal of Laws of 2019, item
1839).
Regulation of the Minister of Economy from April 26, 2013 on the technical require-
ments to be met by gas networks and their locations (Journal of Laws from 2013,
item 640).
Sadkowski, Ł., 2017. Kary pieniężne w świetle ustawy o drogach publicznych po now-
elizacji KPA. Wydawnictwo CH Beck, Warszawa.
Siwkowska, A., 2018. Decyzje środowiskowe. Opinie i uzgodnienia. Wydawnictwo CH
Beck, Warszawa.
Strzelczyk, R., Prawo nieruchomości. Wydawnictwo CH Beck, Warszawa.
Tomaszewska, M., 2018, Decyzja o środowiskowych uwarunkowaniach w świetle
nowego Prawa wodnego. Komentarz. Wydawnictwo CH Beck, Warszawa.
Daniel TOKARSKI • Bartosz ZEGARDŁO
COSTS AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS

OF RECYCLING ELECTRICAL INSULATORS
IN SPECIAL CONCRETES PRODUCTION
Daniel Tokarski, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0002-3475-1115) – University of Lodz

Bartosz Zegardło, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0002-1292-3107) – University of Natural Sciences
and Humanities in Siedlce
Revolution 1905 Street 37/39, 90-214, Łódź, Poland
email – daniel.tokarski@uni.lodz.pl
ABSTRACT: The article is a continuation of the research work undertaken to indicate the economically
and ecologically justified recycling of ceramic waste material from used electrical insulators. During
the renovation works of old electric lines, relatively large amounts of insulators are obtained, the dis-
posal of which is now quite a costly undertaking. Based on previous experiences (Zegardło, Ogrodnik,
Woliński, 2016; Zegardło et al., 2018), the authors of this article indicate the potential possibility of
using the used insulators in the production of aggregates for special concretes. Such aggregates meet
all parameters and requirements, and the concretes obtained from them have parameters higher than
those obtained from traditional aggregates. Based on the analysis of data taken from the archives of
the company dealing with electrical and repair works, the areas from which insulators are obtained
were presented. The scale of the said project on a national scale was discussed. The aim of the study
is to estimate the costs and economic benefits related to the disposal of insulators and their reuse as
aggregates for special concretes. Despite the calculations that show that such a project would not be
associated with significant financial profits, the authors indicate other benefits that would flow from
this type of management of the mentioned waste.
KEYWORDS: electrical insulators, recycling, special concretes
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 95-102 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/35 JEL: P53, L74

Introduction
The guidelines of environmental protection authorities require that all

new products manufactured should be provided with effective recycling
methods. The best way to recycle products is to use them in primary produc-
tion – as is the case, for example, with steel products. However, there are
many industries in which these products cannot be reused for the production
of new products. Ceramic products are an example of such an industry. Due
to the specificity of the production of fired clays, processes occur during their
production that cannot be reversed. Such a production system means that
the used products cannot be reused for the production of new products. One
of the ceramic products covered by the described procedure is electrical
insulators. Despite the fact that these products are very durable while mod-
ernizing electric lines, relatively large amounts of this matter are produced.
For this reason, new and innovative solutions for their recycling are sought.
In this article, referring to previous research works, the authors present the
possibility of using used insulators for the production of aggregates for con-
crete. The work describes this issue in economic terms. The article presents
an analysis of the costs and economic benefits that would be associated with
the disposal of insulators by using them as aggregates for concrete. Despite
the fact that the conclusions confirm that such activity would not be associ-
ated with large financial profits, other benefits of this type of solutions were
presented.
Motivation and purpose of the analysis
Various mineralogical compositions, aggregate states and colours of clays

from which ceramic products are made (Awgustinik, 1980; Haase, 1961) give
a wide possibility of their classification. The basic division of clays (Zegardło
et al., 2018; Węgrowski, Przeździecka, 1979) in terms of their use for the pro-
duction of products is the division into common clays (brown to yellow in
colour, widely used in the production of construction products such as bricks,
wall and ceiling blocks, chimney fittings, roof tiles) and precious clays (white
in colour, for the production of porcelain or similar porcelain products, of
which, inter alia, ceramic electrical insulators). The production process of
these products consists of several stages, as a result of which the ceramic
material receives its unusual features. The first stage of production is the
preparation of ground components from which insulators are formed. The
next stage is the drying stage, in which the elements are subjected to a tem-
perature of about 45 °C, thanks to which the ingredients become solid, and
the product receives its final shape. This process is followed by glazing, i.e.,
covering the elements with a thin layer of glaze. The final process that decides
about posting products of the final characteristics is a firing stage, carried out
at a temperature of approx. 1280 °C, during which the final processes of for-
mation of ceramic bonds occur. Thanks to them, the ceramic material has
high strength parameters, up to 400 MPa, compressive strength, and is resist-
ant to high temperatures. Ceramic electrical insulators are elements used in
the power industry to support and insulate conductive elements (Maksym-
iuk, 1997; PN-IEC 60050-151:2003). Despite the fact that in the production
technology of electrical insulators, there are modern materials (Zegardło et
al., 2016). such as resin composites or silicone rubbers, which also meet the
requirements, the largest percentage of insulators is still produced, and the
largest amount of waste electrical insulators associated with it is made of
ceramic. The entities undertake activities aimed, for energy and ecological
reasons, to fully manage all waste, including ceramic waste. Here, in addition
to simple, non-structural applications, such as land levelling, the aim is to
ensure that the waste substances can also be implemented on the wider mar-
ket of load-bearing materials. However, this issue is quite complex, and many
areas of this type of possibility have not yet been explored. Preliminary
results show that concretes produced with ceramic waste products can be
used, for example, in communication construction (Ogrodnik, Zegardło,
2015; Zegardło et al., 2016) for the production of asphalt concretes for use in
road binding layers and wearing courses. Another type of use of waste elec-
trical insulators is presented in (Zegardło et al., 2016), where the conducted
tests proved that the aggregate obtained from ceramic electrical insulators is
a suitable aggregate for cement concrete, and the concretes made with its use
exceed the strength characteristics of concretes prepared using traditional
aggregates. The results of these studies are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Average values of the examined properties of the compared concrete
Concrete
Concrete on aggregate Concrete on basalt
Feature Unit on traditional
from electrical insulators aggregate
gravel aggregate
Tensile strength MPa 7.20 6.70 4.30

Compressive strength MPa 86.40 76.50 49.90
Source: author’s work based on research results.
The results of endurance tests carried out according to (Jamrozy, 2016;

Neville, 2012) showed a clear improvement in the properties of the obtained
concrete after replacing the traditional aggregate with ceramic aggregate
obtained from crushing waste ceramic insulators. Despite obtaining excel-
lent parameters for the recipe concrete containing basalt aggregate in its
composition (compressive strength 76.50 MPa, tensile strength 6.7 MPa), the
results for the recycling aggregate were 12% for compressive strength and
7% for tensile strength, respectively higher (compressive strength 86.40
MPa, tensile strength 7.2 MPa). Similar results of research studies in which
concrete was used for the production of ceramic aggregates were presented
in the works (German construction standard 1951-DIN 4163; De Brito and et
al., 2005; Senthamarai et al., 2011; Halicka, Ogrodnik, Zegardło, 2013; Lopez
et al., 2007; Guerra et al., 2009). The results of these tests confirmed that the
higher the addition of ceramic materials, the better the parameters of the
concretes obtained with them. In the summary of the above-mentioned arti-
cles, the authors emphasize that the use of recycling aggregates from ceramic
insulators for concrete may have a double effect. Concrete producers can
obtain cheap aggregate from waste difficult to utilize, thanks to which such
disposal will be economically justified. On the other hand, such action may
bring about an ecological effect, the residual waste will be disposed of, and
the extraction of natural aggregate resources will decrease.
Estimating the costs and economic benefits of recycled waste
Cost-benefit analysis is a complex method of assessing the effectiveness

of investments and projects, taking into account all expected benefits and
costs, including qualitative and quantitative elements, allowing to determine
the degree of effectiveness of a given investment in the environment (Becla,
Czaja, Zielińska, 2012). Apart from the economic aspects of the project, the
cost-benefit analysis also takes into account social, cultural, and environmen-
tal areas, classified as external costs (Boardman et al., 2006). Cost-benefit
analysis is particularly useful in assessing projects whose implementation
involves a significant number of stakeholders, and where the main selection
criterion is not profit maximization. The theoretical basis of the above analy-
sis is welfare economics (Szot-Gabryś, 2013). The article estimates the costs
and potential economic benefits of recycling electrical insulators; a detailed
analysis is part of a separate study.
The solution proposed in this article for the utilization of the said waste
was to transfer it to companies dealing in commercial production of concrete.
The assumption was that this aggregate is provided free of charge – which
was a profit for electric companies that would not pay for waste disposal.
It was assumed that concrete companies equipped with crushers would be
able to crush the waste and use it for concrete as a substitute for traditional
aggregates. The table below presents the costs of transport, aggregate crush-
ing, standardization, and other additional expenses that would have to be
incurred by entrepreneurs producing concrete based on waste aggregate.
Table 2. Analysis of the prices of recycling aggregates
Traditional Concrete destruct Concrete destruct Aggregate from recycled ceramics

Aggregate type / Feature Unit aggregate of low class of high class Basalt grit
(sand, gravel) concretes concretes Traditional red Fine ceramics –
ceramics insulators
the aggregate
aggregate directly large-size ele- large-size ele- medium-sized medium-sized
Character in the deposit – produced directly
for use ments ments elements elements
for use
Price in the deposit (gross at
PLN/ton 36.9 18.45 30.75 61 18.45 0

the seller)
Estimated transport distance km 50 50 80 300 80 50
Price of transport PLN/ ton 12 12 19.2 72 19.2 12
Need to adapt to commodity
yes/no no yes yes no yes yes
production
cleaning and cleaning and cleaning and
Type of customization – – crushing –
crushing crushing crushing
Estimated cost of adaptation PLN/ton – 21.07 14.76 – 21.07 34.15
Total cost in the concrete plant PLN/ton 48.9 51.52 64.71 133 58.72 46.15
Special requirements in the increasing the increasing the increasing the increasing the
type – –
production of concrete mix amount of cement amount of cement amount of cement amount of cement
The cost of the outlay on a
PLN/ton – 12.3 12.3 – 12.3 12.3
scale of 1 ton of aggregate
Total cost including additional
PLN/ton 48.9 63.82 77.01 133 71.02 58.45
expenditure
Studies and materials
Source: author’s work based on the results of the analysis.

99
The presented average costs related to 1 ton of waste were obtained from
entrepreneurs providing these services. The additional cost of increasing the
amount of cement during the production of concrete with recycled aggre-
gates resulted from the fact confirmed by tests (Halicka, Ogrodnik and
Zegardło, 2013). The analysis of the prices of recycling aggregates, taking
into account the cost of purchase, transport, standardization, and additional
expenditure compared to the prices of traditional aggregates is presented in
table 2.
When analyzing the data included in the list, it is noted that the most
economically justified in the production of traditional concretes is the use of
sand and gravel aggregates. These aggregates have the lowest price, i.e., about
PLN 49/ton (total cost in the concrete factory) and the broadest range of
applications. The presented prices of insulating ceramic aggregates, despite
relatively high rates, may be an interesting object for entrepreneurs. Their
main advantage is that they can be used to produce concrete of higher classes
and concretes with special properties such as resistance to high tempera-
tures or abrasion resistance. For this type of application, commodity concrete
plants currently buy aggregates in the form of basalt grits, the price of which,
after being transported to the concrete plant, is higher and amounts to
approximately PLN 133/ton. The limitations of the use of traditional sand
and gravel aggregates, in this case, are significant, as the maximum concrete
classes that can be obtained with their use reach about 40-50 MPa. These
aggregates also do not work well at high temperatures and high abrasive
loads, where electrical insulators can be used in these applications. The final
price of electrical insulators crushed to the aggregate form is also more
favourable than other recycled aggregates. It should be noted, however, that
the tests proved that its parameters are better than those tested for aggre-
gates made of red ceramics or recycled concrete.
Conclusions
As can be seen from the considerations presented above, the market of

recycling aggregates from electrical insulators can be economically justified,
but not in the case of large-scale production of traditional concretes. These
aggregates require additional logistics both in their acquisition, adaptation
and in the production process itself (crushing), which discourages entrepre-
neurs from using them. The use of insulators for the production of special
concretes would be economically justified – however, such activities are car-
ried out on a small scale; therefore, it is claimed that such activities would not
be associated with significant financial profits. However, for the sake of the
good of the environment and the desire to effectively manage unwanted
waste or reduce the amount of natural aggregate extraction, it is more and
more often claimed that even non-economic measures should be used here.
The only possibility is seen in the apparatus of state authorities. The forced,
non-economic use of waste in construction in Poland is already taking place,
although – so far only theoretical. This is possible thanks to the compact sys-
tem of environmental law and the increasing activity of the Ministry of Envi-
ronment, provincial and local environmental protection departments and
building supervision departments. Building permit decisions may require
the use of local waste material and enforce this condition with the full force
of law – this solution, however, is not used on a larger scale. Along with the
disappearance of sources of natural aggregates and their depletion of
resources, their prices are expected to increase over the years. An alternative
solution will be the desire to use aggregates from unconventional – recycling
sources. Taking into account the fact that a large amount of natural resources
and energy are consumed, which is used to produce electrical insulators, it
can be concluded that the potential of this waste is currently unused. In this
situation, the proposed solution is to search for more advanced recycling
methods than the use of aggregates for hardening areas. Research should be
carried out to use the specific features of insulators, such as their high
strength or presumed resistance to high temperatures or chemically aggres-
sive environments. The possibility of producing, for example, special con-
crete, e.g. heat-resistant, from this material, would make the waste a valuable
substrate in production. The use of recycled electrical insulators as a substi-
tute for the sophisticated and expensive special aggregates currently used
would make them a sought-after material and perhaps there would be no
need to pay for their disposal. For this purpose, it is necessary to intensify the
research work that will prepare the necessary state of knowledge for recy-
cling aggregates, including those from ceramic electrical insulators, to be
implemented without restrictions in the production of concrete.

Daniel Tokarski – 50% (conception, analysis, and interpretation of data).
Bartosz Zegardło – 50% (literature review, acquisition of data).
References
Awgustinik, A.J., 1980. Ceramics. Arkady, Warsaw.

Becla, A. et al., 2012. Cost-benefit analysis in the valuation of the natural environ-
ment. Difin, Warsaw.
Boardman, A.E. et al., 2006. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Concepts and Practice, 3rd edition.
Upper Saddle River. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
De Brito, A. et al., 2005. Mechanical behavior of non-structural concrete made with
recycled ceramic aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites, 27, 429-433,
https://10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.07.005.
German construction standard 1951-DIN 4163: Concrete with crushed bricks – Spec-
ification for production and use.
Guerra, I. et al., 2009. Eco-efficient concretes: The effect of using recycled ceramic
material from sanitary installations on the mechanical properties of concrete.
Waste Management, 29, 643-646, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.was-
man.2008.06.018
Haase, T., 1961. Ceramics. Leipzig. 2 ed. VEB German, Verlag fur Grundstofindustire.
Halicka, A. et al., 2013. Using ceramic sanitary ware waste as concrete aggregate. Con-
struction und Building Materials, 48, 295-305, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.con-
buildmat.2013.06.063.
Jamrozy, Z., 2006. Concrete and its technologies. PWN, Warsaw.
Lopez, V. et al., 2007. Eco-efficient Concretes: Impact of the Use of White Ceramic
Powder on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete. Biosystems Engineering,
96(4), 559-564. https://10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2007.01.004.
Maksymiuk, J., 1997. Electrical apparatus in questions and answers. Scientific and
Technical Publishing House, Warsaw, 88-95.
Neville, A.M., 2012. Properties of concrete. Polski Cement, Warsaw.
Ogrodnik, P., Zegardło, B., 2015. Analysis of the possibility of using waste ceramic
substances in building and engineering structures for transport construction.
TTS Rail Transport Technique, 12, 1732-1738, http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/
element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-0f9c57a2-8f3d-420d-9a41-9c6c20883dd7.
PN-IEC 60050-151:2003 International vocabulary of electrical terminology – Part
151: Electrical and magnetic devices.
Senthamarai, R.M. et al., 2011. Concrete made from ceramic industry waste: Durabil-
ity properties. Construction and Building Materials, 25, 2413-2419,
https://10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.049
Szot-Gabryś, T., 2013. The concept of cost-benefit accounting in corporate social
responsibility accounting. Difin, Warsaw.
Węgrowski, W., Przezdziecka, K., 1979. Glass and ceramics. State School Publishing
Works, Warsaw.
Zegardło, B. et al., 2016. Initial analysis of the basic parameters of recycled ceramic
sanitary cullet in terms of its possible use in the production of asphalt mixtures.
Bus 2016, 12, 1715-1718, http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.
element.baztech-8040cdea-4df0-420b-b548-87bb37324b28.
Zegardło, B. et al., 2016. Investigation of the possibility of using waste ceramic electri-
cal insulators as recycling aggregate for concrete. Electro Technical News, 4, 6-7,
https://doi.org/10.15199/74.2016.4.2.
Zegardło, B. et al., 2018. The use of ceramic dust produced from exhausted electrical
insulators as a filler for cement mortars. Electro technical News, 86(1), 36-38,
http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-
b8882e69-c15f-4325-a32e-085dd3313ec9.
GENERAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS
PROBLEMATYKA
OGÓLNOEKOLOGICZNA I SPOŁECZNA
Anna BERNACIAK • Wojciech KISIAŁA • Natalia SOŁTYSIAK •

Katarzyna SUSZYŃSKA
SOCIAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS PLANNED

LIGNITE MINING – THE CASE OF
SOUTH-WESTERN WIELKOPOLSKA REGION
Anna Bernaciak, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0001-8603-1323) – Poznań University of Economics and

Business
Wojciech Kisiała, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0003-3342-3985) – Poznań University of Economics and
Business
Natalia Sołtysiak, MsC
Katarzyna Suszyńska, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0003-4540-8352) – Poznań University of Economics
and Business
Niepodległości Avenue 10, 61-875, Poznań, Poland
e-mail: katarzyna.suszynska@ue.poznan.pl
ABSTRACT: Lignite is a raw material considered a strategic fuel in the Polish energy sector. One of the
prognostic lignite deposits is located in the south-western Wielkopolska (Krobia, Miejska Górka and
Poniec communes). However, the perspective of exploitation causes concern to the local community.
In this context, the paper aimed to identify the attitudes towards lignite mining in this area. In the
research procedure aimed at statistical verification of factors differentiating these attitudes, a survey
was conducted. The results of the study showed that the inhabitants of the analysed communes had
indecisive attitudes, yet with a very clear tendency towards negative assessments of the subject issue.
Farmers and rural residents were the most sceptical, while entrepreneurs, town dwellers and young
people had the most conciliatory attitudes. Moreover, it has been proved that professional status,
place of residence (town-village) and age can be considered as factors affecting these attitudes.
KEY WORDS: social attitudes, lignite, deposit exploitation, Wielkopolska
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 104-121 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/36 JEL: Q34, C83, D91
EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 General environmental and social problems 105
Introduction
Lignite opencast mining is an example of an investment that significantly

interferes with the environment, transforming the landscape and changing
the structure of the local economy. Poland, acquiring lignite in Konin, Turo-
szowskie and Bełchatów coalfields, is one of the world leaders in the exploita-
tion of this raw material (following Germany, China, USA, Russia, Australia,
Greece and Turkey). One of the prospective deposits, which, due to its param-
eters, boasts balance characteristics, is located in the south-western part of
Wielkopolska region, in the communes of Krobia, Poniec and Miejska Górka.
Due to the favourable environmental and economic conditions, as much as
85% of their area is used for agriculture. Therefore, the deposit is character-
ised by a high level of potential exploitation conflict in relation to the envi-
ronment and a lack of social acceptance (Kasiński, Mazurek, and Piwocki,
2006). Despite this fact, these areas were classified as prognostic lignite
deposits. In the analysed communes, lignite resources are estimated at
approx. one billion tons. Therefore, it is potentially one of the richest lignite
deposits in Poland (Wielkopolskie Biuro Planowania Przestrzennego, 2015).
The aim of this article is to identify the attitudes of the local communities
of the three analysed communes towards lignite mining. The research mate-
rial was obtained through a survey of the inhabitants of Krobia, Miejska
Górka and Poniec communes. The research was conducted at the turn of
2018 and 2019. The obtained data were subjected to statistical analysis,
which included, on the one hand, the proprietary method of quantifying
respondents’ attitudes based on synthetic indicators, and, on the other hand,
a one-way analysis of variance to verify the factors influencing the identified
attitudes.
The article begins with a review of the existing body of literature con-
cerning the attitudes of residents towards investments negatively affecting
the environment and living conditions, with particular emphasis on mining
activities in rural areas. The empirical part encompasses the description of
the spatial scope of the research, survey construction, and the sample. The
description of the research results includes an analysis of the factors shaping
the attitudes of the local community towards lignite mining.
Literature review
The issues of shaping and changing the attitudes of the local community
in rural areas and the ones related to lignite mining may be analysed in vari-
ous dimensions. In the Polish and international literature on the subject,
106 General environmental and social problems EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
changes in rural areas related to mining activities, or more broadly industrial

activities, are described, among others by Walkiewicz (2013). He emphasises
the landscape aspects, forms of land use and development, impact on the nat-
ural environment or the structure of the local economy (see also Jawecki and
Jawecka, 2011). In the international literature, the health impact of the min-
ing industry is often raised (Hendryx, 2009; Hendryx et al., 2012; Boyles et
al., 2017; Ishitiaq et al., 2018; Werner et al., 2018; von der Goltz and Barnwal,
2019) as well as the landscape changes (Hendrychova and Kabrna, 2016;
Popelkova and Mulkova, 2018; Fagiewicz and Łowicki, 2019) and environ-
mental pressure (Caballero Espejo et al., 2018; Nendel et al., 2018; Čech and
Krokusová, 2017). Some researchers focus on the issues of further use and
management of degraded areas (Sawicki and Łyszczarz, 2009; Kwiatkows-
ka-Malina and Wyszomierska, 2014; Mańkowski et al., 2013; Rachwał et al.,
2009). Research on the attitudes of rural residents is not so extensive. Perep-
eczko (2012) draws attention to the lack of broader research on the attitudes
of residents concerning the natural environment, pointing to studies focused
on partial and exiguous publications. An interesting study was presented by
Bader (2010), identifying approximately 40 examples of socio-environmen-
tal conflicts related to the development of domestic mineral deposits in the
period of 2004-2009. He also indicated that the key motivators for the atti-
tudes of the local community are the fear of losing the possibility of satisfying
needs with the use of specific elements of the environment, as well as the fear
of deteriorating quality of life. Other researchers (e.g., Majewski, Fiszka
Borzyszkowska and Florek (2018) or Kwiatkowska-Malina and Wyszomier-
ska (2014)), focus on the ecological and economic dimension of social and
environmental conflicts, which affect the shape of development policy cre-
ated by the local authorities, as well as on the attitudes of the local commu-
nity and people visiting the municipality, e.g. for tourist purposes. Nieć and
Radwanek-Bąk (2009) argue that strong opposition from the local govern-
ment authorities, local nature conservation activists or local lobbying, not
always reasonably justified, may constitute a significant obstacle to the
investment process.
The main issues related to mining that cause concerns of the local com-
munity in the areas previously used for agricultural purposes include: trans-
formation of the landscape and topography, change of lithological, hydrolog-
ical and soil conditions, which may limit the values of biodiversity and geodi-
versity (Sawicki and Łyszczarz, 2009; Sobczyk, Kowalska and Sobczyk, 2014;
Uberman, Pietrzyk-Sokulska and Kulczycka, 2014; Majewski, Fiszka Borzysz-
kowska and Florek, 2018; Kucharska, 2018; Przybyszewski and Kruszyńska,
2019; Schackelton, 2020; Ofosu et al., 2020).
Temporary nuisances related to the emission of noise, vibrations, dust or
road destruction or the occurrence of threats in the form of tremors, sink-
holes, landslides are also addressed (Badera, 2010; Sobczyk, 2007; Jawecki
and Jawecka, 2011). At the same time, activity in this area constitutes a sig-
nificant source of the commune’s income and the income of individual resi-
dents (lease or sale of land), it may influence the creation of jobs in emerging
enterprises or modify the commune’s economic profile. Moreover, it is worth
mentioning that the effects of possible or existing exploitation of raw materi-
als, not necessarily within rural areas, were the subject of analyses as early as
in the 1980s when Kozłowski (1989) classified the deposits in terms of the
negative effects of their exploitation. He divided the deposits into three
classes: A – low-conflict deposits – can be mined without major problems,
located outside the protected areas, away from residential estates, B – con-
flict deposits – can be mined after meeting specific environmental protection
requirements, C – highly conflicting – impossible to exploit due to environ-
mental hazards or the land use of the deposit itself or its surroundings. Cur-
rently, in addition to the protection of mineral resources, the environment,
economic priorities and goals, and spatial development regulations, the
social factor gained attention for determining the current or future exploita-
tion of minerals (Nieć and Radwanek-Bąk, 2014; Sikorska-Maykowska,
Walentek and Andrzejewska-Kubrak, 2017).
Resolving conflicts regarding the use of space, including the problem of
social resistance to mining activities expressed in the NIMBA syndrome
(characteristic of local communities), less often in the BANANA syndrome
(typical for supra-local ecological organisations), are the main issues that
should be addressed (NIMBY – Not In My Backyard, BANANA – Build Abso-
lutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anything). Radwanek-Bąk (2010) even
emphasises that mitigating conflicts and counteracting the syndromes men-
tioned above are indispensable conditions for the sustainable management
of mineral resources. The tools mentioned as possible to use for this purpose
are information campaigns, clarifying disputable issues, public consultations
or broadly understood ecological education (Naworyta, 2010; Frączek,
2011). Both the purposefulness of taking these actions and their potential
effectiveness must be analysed each time concerning individual social and
spatial conditions. They should be preceded using social research tools to
determine the state of knowledge and attitudes of the local community.
Lignite deposits of south-western Wielopolska
The Poniec-Krobia-Miejska Górka deposit was documented during geo-

logical works conducted at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s (Piwocki, 1979).
The total area of the deposit is 106.2 sq. km, of which approximately 100 sq.
km are the so-called balance resources. The Krobia-Poniec-Miejska Górka
deposit is a multi-decay deposit consisting of five layers. The technological
and chemical properties of lignite that characterise the deposit classify the
raw material into the groups of energy coals. In the analysed communes, lig-
nite deposits lie at a depth of 115-160 m, and their size is estimated at
approximately one billion tons, which shows that it is potentially one of the
richest lignite deposits in Poland. Therefore, the deposit located in south-west-
ern Wielkopolska has been classified as the so-called prognostic deposit.
Figure 1. Documented and prognostic lignite deposits in Wielkopolska region

Source: author’s work based on the report published by the Wielkopolska Spatial Planning Office
(Wielkopolskie Biuro Planowania Przestrzennego, 2015).
These areas are adjacent to the documented deposits of lignite within the
so-called Poznań Trench (a coal-bearing region about 130 km long, stretch-
ing from Czarnków and Szamotuły to Gostyń and Krobia) (figure 1).
In Wielkopolska region, the opencast mining plans that assumed con-
verting thousands of hectares of first-class agricultural land in an area inhab-
ited by over 150,000 people, with predominant employment in agriculture,
faced mass protests not only from residents but also from entrepreneurs.
Geologists estimated that a depression crater would cause groundwater to
fall within a distance of 20-30 kilometres. This is more than in the case of the
open pit in Bełchatów (the depression crater there was as long as 20 kilo-
metres). There are 22 settlements in the Krobia-Poniec-Miejska Górka
deposit (figure 2), which would be closed as a result of lignite mining
(Sutowski, 2015).
Figure 2. The prognostic lignite deposite in the Krobia, Poniec and Miejska Górka
communes
Source: author’s work based on the report published by the Wielkopolska Spatial Planning Office
(Wielkopolskie Biuro Planowania Przestrzennego, 2015).
Local communities’ attitudes towards lignite mining
The structure of the study and research sample

Public opinion research on the potential lignite mining was carried out
with the use of a diagnostic survey method. The purpose of this method is to
acquire knowledge about social phenomena as well as opinions and views of
a specific community (Łobocki, 1984). In the survey, a paper questionnaire
(PAPI technique) was used. The survey was conducted among the inhabit-
ants of Krobia, Poniec and Miejska Górka communes, both in towns and in
rural areas. The questionnaires were handed out to the respondents in per-
son in two rounds – between December 2016 and February 2017 (285 ques-
tionnaires) and in the period from October 2018 to January 2019 (265 ques-
tionnaires).
In total, out of 550 distributed forms, 442 complete questionnaires were
included in the final study. Most respondents lived in Krobia commune
(43%), Miejska Górka (31%), and Poniec (27%). The population of the sur-
veyed sample was dominated by inhabitants of rural areas (65%), women
(52%), and people aged 31-50 (48%), which resulted from the dominant
share of these demographic groups in the population of the three surveyed
communes. More than one-third of the surveyed people are full-time employ-
ees (38%). Farmers were also well represented (27%). The share of retirees
and disability pensioners among the respondents reached 10.5%. Entrepre-
neurs, students, and unemployed accounted for the smallest groups (8%
each). The reason for such a high share of middle-aged adults, farmers and
employees may be the fact that it is these people who are most familiar with
the subject of the research problem, they appreciated the importance of
researching the problem and therefore were more willing to answer.
The comparison of the structure of the studied sample with the structure
of the population of the examined communes shows many similarities (table
1). The sample used in the study mirrors the population directly in terms of
the inhabited commune, sex and place of residence understood as a town or
rural area. More profound differences were identified in the case of the age
structure due to the lack of control over the survey questionnaires – they
were delivered to random households. Moreover, children and adolescents
were excluded from the study, as evidenced by the below-proportional share
of people from the youngest age group (in relation to the share of this group
in the population). Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the structure of the
surveyed inhabitants corresponded to the structure of the entire population
in communes.
Table 1. The structure of the research sample vs population of the communes under
analysis
Research sample Population
Category and specification
number % number %
Commune:
Krobia 189 42.8 13 086 43.2
Miejska Górka 135 30.6 9 389 31.0
Poniec 118 26.7 7 849 25.9
Sex:
Women 227 51.4 15 288 50.4
Men 215 48.6 15 036 49.6
Place of residence:
Town 154 34.8 10 390 34.3
Rural area 288 65.2 19 934 65.7
Age:
up to 30 years old 122 27.6 11 483 34.9
31-50 years old 214 48.4 8 730 26.5
over 50 years old 106 24.0 12 687 38.6
Research procedure
The survey results were subjected to statistical analysis, the aim of which
was to quantify the attitudes of the local community towards the potential
exploitation of lignite and to identify the factors shaping (differentiating)
these attitudes. The research procedure resulted from the structural defini-
tion of attitude, according to which its final shape consists of 1) cognitive
(knowledge, beliefs), 2) emotional-evaluating (emotions, evaluations), and
3) behavioural (action program) components (Brzeziński, 1980). Therefore,
the identification of the attitudes of the local community towards the ana-
lysed phenomenon required, first of all, the selection of a set of questions
relating to the above-mentioned components of the attitude, the calculation
of a synthetic indicator, which is the resultant of the expressed beliefs, assess-
ments and preferences, and finally the use of statistical tests checking
whether a given factor influences the attitudes declared.
When analysing the attitudes of the local community, a set of questions
was used based on the Likert attitude scale (see table 2). Through the content
of the questions, the respondents were expected to declare their opinions on

the plans for the exploitation of lignite deposits in the municipalities of Kro-
bia, Poniec and Miejska Górka. The respondents expressed their views on
a five-point estimation scale, in which the variants of answers were evenly
distributed along the continuum of attitudes, from extremely favourable to
extremely negative (see Brzeziński, 1980; Mayntz, Holm and Hubner, 1985).
The answers to individual questions were assigned points according to the
set of assumptions. Five possible variants of the answer could be chosen in
integers in the range [-2; +2]. Positive values were assigned to the categories
of responses expressing an enthusiastic (positive) attitude, zero – to the cat-
egory adequate to the passive (neutral/undecided) attitude, while negative
values were assigned for responses showing a negative attitude towards the
analysed issue.
Table 2. Set of questions and response evaluation scales applied in testing the
respondents’ attitudes
1. Do you agree with the statement that the communes where lignite mining is carried out are among the
richest in Poland?
strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)
2. Do you agree with the statement that only public institutions and private companies benefit from lignite
mining, not residents?
strongly disagree diagree neutral agree strongly agree

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)
3. Do you agree with the statement that lignite contributes to a reduction in unemployment?

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)
4. Do you agree with the statement that the economic benefits of lignite mining outweigh the environmen-
tal losses?

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)
5. Would you consider changing your place of residence and moving to another commune/town due to
lignite mining?

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)
6. Would you consider changing your professional status or job (e.g., taking up a job in the mine or its
offices) due to the planned mining investment in your neighbourhood?

(+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (-2)

In the next step of the research procedure, the respondents were divided
into complementary groups, adopting the following socio-demographic divi-
sion criteria:
• gender (female, male),
• age (up to 30 years old, 31-50 years old, over 50 years old),
• education (primary or no education, basic vocational, secondary, higher),
• professional status (full-time employee, entrepreneur, farmer, retired/
pensioner, unemployed, student),
• place of residence (town, rural area),
• commune (Krobia, Miejska Górka, Poniec).
Then, the synthetic index A was calculated for the Likert Attitude Scale.
For this purpose, each of the respondents was assigned an average number of
points, calculated based on previously given answers. Similar averages were
also calculated for pre-selected groups of respondents. The research proce-
dure was limited to calculating the values resulting from the formulas:
2a + b − d − 2e
2a + b − dA−j 2=e – for j-th respondent,
Aj = r respondent,
– for j-th respondent, (1) (1)
r
r r r r
r 2 ×  a + 1 ×r  b + ( −1) × r d + ( −2) ×  e
r
2 ×  a +A
1 ×= b +i =(1−1) × i =d1 + ( −2) × i =1e i =1
– for k-th respondent group,
k i =1
Ak = i =1 i =1 rn i =1
– for k-th respondent group, (2)
rn
– for k-th respondent group, (2)
where:
a – number of extremely favourable responses,
b – number of moderately favourable responses,
d – number of moderately negative answers,
e – number of extremely negative answers,
i – question number,
r – number of questions used to test attitudes,
n – number of respondents in the k-th group.
The calculated Ak values made it possible to rank groups of respondents

depending on the attitude (bias) towards the prospective lignite mining. Sim-
ilarly to the method of calculating the synthetic index, three categories of
attitudes (positive, negative, and neutral) were distinguished, and each cate-
gory was assigned an equal part of the interval [-2; +2] (see figure 3).
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
negative attitude neutral attitude positive attitude

-0.67 +0.67
Figure 3. Dependence of the type of attitude on the value of the synthetic index
F3Source: author’s work.
In the final part of the analysis, the one-way ANOVA was used to verify the
differences between the synthetic indicators for individual groups of
respondents. The essenceA [-0.69 ; of variance analysis is to divide the total variance
-0.06]
into two components measuring the variability within and between the ana-
-2
lysed groups.
-1
By comparing the 0
variance between+1groups with the with- +2
in-group variance, it can be determined whether the group means differed
negative attitude
significantly from neutral attitude positive attitudeThus, the
-0.67each other or not (McClave and Benson,
+0.67 1988).
analysis of variance leads to the identification of factors differentiating the
attitudes of the local community.
F4
Factors influencing the attitudes of the local community
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
towards lignite mining plans
-0.67 +0.67
Based on the analysis of synthetic indicators Ak for particular groups of
respondents, it was found that these indicators fell within the range [-0.69;
-0.06]. Therefore, they indicate the indecisive attitudes of the local commu-
F3
nity and reveal clear tendencies towards negative assessments of the ana-
lysed issue (figure 4, table 3).
A [-0.69 ; -0.06]
-2 -1 0 +1 +2

-0.67 +0.67
Figure 4. The area covered by the values of synthetic indicators A for individual groups of respondents
F4Source: author’s work.
Table 3. Ak synthetic indicators ranking for individual groups of respondents
value Ak
-0.606
-0.403
-0.390
-0.360
-0.063
-0.692
-0.675
-0.649
-0.637
-0.597
-0.594
-0.589
-0.569
-0.552
-0.531
-0.531
-0.515
-0.389
-0.375
-0.315
the inhabitants of Miejska Górka commune
primary education and lack of education
the inhabitants of Poniec commune

the inhabitants of Krobia commune
basic vocational education

Group of respondents
secondary education
full-time employees
retirees/pensioners
up to 30 years old
over 50 years old
higher education
31-50 years old
rural residents
entrepreneurs
city dwellers
unemployed
students
farmers
women
men
Although the inhabitants were aware of the economic benefits of lignite

mining in other communes, they feared the need to change their residence
and workplace. The area of the open-pit mine could cover about 10,000 hec-
tares, i.e., the area where 22 towns are located in Krobia, Poniec and Miejska
Górka communes. The inhabitants expressed their doubts about the degra-
dation of the natural environment and the collapse of agriculture. In their
opinion, mining would destroy the surrounding crops, and local agriculture
would not be restored to the previous state. A common effect of an open-pit
mine is a lowering of the groundwater level, which could lead to the drying
out of wells, rivers and soil in the mine’s surroundings.
The obtained results showed that farmers and rural residents were the
most sceptical of the lignite mining plans (in both cases the Ak value was
lower than the -0.67 threshold, which indicates a negative attitude).
Rural residents are usually very resistant to change, which in this
case may be aggravated by the fear of losing their property, deterioration of
the environment and living conditions, uncertainty to compensation pay-
ments, the need to change jobs and even place of residence.
In turn, farmers perceive the threat to the functioning of their farms and
production activities, resulting, for example, from lowering the groundwater
level that usually accompanies open-pit mining. In the traditionally agricul-
tural area of southern Wielkopolska, the problem of the coexistence of mines

and agricultural seems to be one of the key factors for the success of a poten-
tial investment.
Entrepreneurs were among the most enthusiastic groups of respondents
(although still expressing views indicating a neutral attitude with a tendency
for a negative one). This group was primarily aware of the financial benefits
for communes where natural resources are exploited. Local entrepreneurs
also saw an opportunity for their companies regarding the mine construction
plans. They accepted the possibility of changing the profile of their activity
and adapting to the changing market needs.
Moreover, among the groups of respondents with the lowest level of
scepticism towards lignite mining plans were town dwellers (Ak = -0.32),
people up to 30 years old (Ak = -0.36), students (Ak = -0.38), unemployed (Ak
= -0.39) and people with higher education (Ak = -0.39). Young and educated
town dwellers are in the group of people who absorb changes most easily
and are able to take advantage of the opportunities that a potential invest-
ment would bring. However, it should be remembered that although these
categories of respondents were the least sceptical, the level of non-accept-
ance of the analysed issue among their representatives was still significant.
Analysing indicators Ak in the groups complementary to the total of sur-
veyed residents, the greatest difference in the attitude dimension can be
noticed between the respondents separated based on their professional sta-
tus (entrepreneurs -0.06 vs farmers -0.69), as well as the place of residence
in the town-rural area (-0.32 vs -0.68) and the age of the respondents (up to
30 years old -0.36 vs 31-50 years old -0.65). The attitudes of the respondents
distinguished on the basis of sex and education were much less diversified, as
evidenced by the value of synthetic indicators within [-0.53; -0.57] in the first
case and [-0.39; -0.59] in the second (table 3).
On this basis, it could be assumed that the attitudes of the local commu-
nity of south-western Wielkopolska towards the potential exploitation of
lignite depend to the greatest extent on the professional status and place of
residence. The role of such factors as sex and education is less important.
These hypotheses were verified based on the single-factor analysis of vari-
ance ANOVA (table 4).
The calculated F test statistics made it possible to assess the statistical
significance of differences between the groups of respondents separated
within the examined factors. In the light of the obtained results, it could be
concluded that the factors differentiating the attitudes of the local commu-
nity were primarily the place of residence (town – rural area) (p <0.000),
professional status (p ≈ 0.001) and the age of the respondents (p ≈ 0.03).
However, no statistically significant differences were found between the
declared opinions of the groups of respondents classified by gender or edu-
cation (p > 0.6). The role of the commune, where the respondents live, as a
factor differentiating attitudes, was noticeable, although the statistical signif-
icance of the differences could only be confirmed at the level of α = 0.1.
Table 4. Results of single-factor variance analysis
Factor Variants of answers F Value p
Sex man, woman 0.228 0.63341

Age up to 30 years old, 31-50 years old, over 50 years old 3.665 0.02714
primary education and lack of education, basic vocational
Education 0.548 0.64983
education, secondary education, higher education
Professional full-time employee, entrepreneur, farmer, unemployed,
4.243 0.00105
status retiree/pensioner, student
Place of resi-
town, rural area 19.329 0.00002
dence
Commune Krobia, Miejska Górka, Poniec 2.383 0.09458
Conclusions
In the light of the research results obtained, it was observed that the
respondents’ attitudes were dominated by „local” thinking and the fear of
functional, environmental, and socio-economic changes caused by lignite
mining. Therefore, the inhabitants of the analysed communes were cautious
about the plans of lignite mining and mostly did not see the benefits for their
households and entire communes. In particular, they were reluctant to the
possible necessity to change their place of residence and professional status.
Such attitudes were understandable considering the specificity of the region
– its agricultural character, multi-generational traditions of farming and the
indigenous local community.
The largest differences in attitudes could be observed within the groups
of respondents distinguished on the basis of their professional status, place
of residence (town – rural area), and age. The conducted analysis of variance
statistically confirmed that it was these socio-demographic features that
could be considered as factors shaping the attitudes of the local community
towards the plans for lignite mining in the studied area.
The negative opinions on the potential exploitation of lignite, in particu-
lar those declared by farmers and those dwelling rural areas, can be explained
by fears of environmental degradation and the liquidation of numerous
farms. A frequent effect of launching an opencast mine is a lowering of the

groundwater level, which may lead to drying out of wells, rivers and soils
within a radius of up to 50 kilometres from the mine. The reduction of agri-
cultural activity would result in inhabitants suffering financial losses, and the
necessity to expropriate the land for the mine would lead to the loss of a sig-
nificant part of the property.
The inhabitants may have been concerned about the prospect of rising
unemployment. Although the mine and its operation would generate new
jobs, the new stands would be for external experts, not the local community.
As a consequence of the deterioration of farming conditions, the losses could
affect the local enterprises whose activities are mainly based on agriculture.
An example is Heinz – a fruit and vegetable processing plant in Pudliszki
(Krobia commune) or a sugar factory in Miejska Górka, which are currently
an important link in the local labour market.
The identified attitudes of the local community prove that one of the sig-
nificant problems of the potential investment will be to convince the inhabit-
ants of the benefits that may result from the exploitation of lignite. At the
same time, when planning the investment, in addition to activities and pro-
grams for the protection of the natural environment and landscape values,
the economic interests of the inhabitants should be secured, including local
farms and enterprises in particular. Without any conciliation action, the
implementation of the investment could be considered against the will of the
local community.

Anna Bernaciak – 25% (conception; literature review).
Wojciech Kisiała – 25% (conception; analysis and interpretation of data).
Natalia Sołtysiak – 25% (acquisition of data; analysis and interpretation of data).
Katarzyna Suszyńska – 25% (conception; acquisition of data).
References
Badera, J., 2010. Konflikty społeczne na tle środowiskowym związane z udostępni-

aniem złóż kopalin w Polsce. Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi, 26, 105-125.
Boyles, A.L. et al., 2017. Systematic review of community health impacts of mountain-
top removal mining. Environment International, 107, 163-172, doi: 10.1016/j.
envint.2017.07.002.
Brzeziński, J., 1980. Elementy metodologii badań psychologicznych. PWN, Warszawa.
Caballero Espejo, J. et al., 2018. Deforestation and forest degradation due to gold min-
ing in the Peruvian Amazon: A 34-year perspective. Remote Sensing, 10(12),
1903, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121903.
Čech, V., Krokusová, J., 2017. Utilisation of environmentally degraded area by mining
activity: a case study of Slovinky tailing impoundment in Slovakia. Acta Mon-
tanistica Slovaca, 22(2).
Fagiewicz, K., Łowicki, D., 2019. The dynamics of landscape pattern changes in min-
ing areas: The case study of the Adamów-Koźmin Lignite Basin. Quaestiones Geo-
graphicae, 38(4), 151-162, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2019-0046.
Frączek, P., 2011. Przeciwdziałanie konfliktom lokalizacyjnym w sektorze energii.
Polityka Energetyczna, 14, 65-78.
Hendrychová, M., Kabrna, M., 2016. An analysis of 200-year-long changes in a land-
scape affected by large-scale surface coal mining: History, present and future.
Applied Geography, 74, 151-159, DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.07.009.
Hendryx, M et al., 2012. Self-reported cancer rates in two rural areas of West Virginia
with and without mountaintop coal mining. Journal of Community Health, 37(2),
320-327, DOI: 10.1007/s10900-011-9448-5.
Hendryx, M., 2009. Mortality from heart, respiratory, and kidney disease in coal
mining areas of Appalachia. International Archives of Occupational and Environ-
mental Health, 82(2), 243-249, DOI: 10.1007/s00420-008-0328-y.
Ishtiaq, M. et al., 2018. Potential harmful elements in coal dust and human health risk
assessment near the mining areas in Cherat, Pakistan. Environmental Science
and Pollution Research, 25(15), 14666-14673, https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-018-1655-5.
Jawecki, B., Jawecka, B., 2011. Kopalnie w krajobrazie powiatu strzelińskiego–złoża,
zasoby i eksploatacja surowców naturalnych. Infrastruktura i Ekologia Terenów
Wiejskich, 1, 125-138.
Kasiński, J.R. et al., 2006. Waloryzacja i ranking złóż węgla brunatnego w Polsce.
Państwowy Instytut Geologiczny, Warszawa.
Kozłowski, S., 1989. Ochrona złóż kopalin użytecznych. Gospodarka Surowcami Min-
eralnymi. Mineral Resources Management, 5(1), 129-171.
Kucharska, P., 2018. Wpływ działalności przemysłu wydobywczego i energetycznego
na środowisko życia ludzi–szansa czy zagrożenie? Przykład KWB i Elektrowni
Bełchatów. Gospodarka w praktyce i teorii, 53(4), 65-80, https://doi.org/10.
18778/1429-3730.53.04.
Kwiatkowska-Malina, J., Wyszomierska, M., 2014. Zagospodarowanie obszarów po
eksploatacji kruszyw naturalnych na przykładzie złoża Sitno w gminie Rzewnie.
Infrastruktura i Ekologia Terenów Wiejskich, (II/3), 705-717, DOI: http://dx.me-
dra.org/10.14597/infraeco.2014.2.3.052.
Łobocki, M., 1984. Metody badań pedagogicznych. PWN, Warszawa.
Majewski, M. et al., 2018. Wpływ eksploatacji kruszywa na zmiany w środowisku i
strategię rozwoju gminy Lipnica (powiat bytowski). Infrastruktura i Ekologia
Terenów Wiejskich, (II/1), 317-330, DOI: https://doi.org/10.14597/INFRAECO.
2018.2.1.02.
Mańkowski, J. et al., 2013. Rekultywacja terenów zdegradowanych w wyniku działa-
nia kopalni odkrywkowych. Biuletyn Informacyjny PILiK Len i Konopie, 20, 7-10.
Mayntz, R. et al., 1985. Wprowadzenie do metod socjologii empirycznej. PWN, War
szawa.
McClave, J.T., Benson, P.G., 1988. Statistics for business and economics. Dellen Pub-
lishing Company, San Francisco.
Naworyta, W., 2010. Uwarunkowania społeczne zagospodarowania złóż kopalin

metodą odkrywkową. Prace Naukowe Instytutu Górnictwa Politechniki Wroc
ławskiej. Studia i Materiały, 130(37), 183-190.
Nendel, C. et al., 2018. Land‐use change and land degradation on the Mongolian Pla-
teau from 1975 to 2015 – A case study from Xilingol, China. Land Degradation &
Development, 29(6), 1595-1606, DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2948.
Nieć, M., Radwanek-Bąk, B., 2009. Wykorzystanie złóż kopalin w Polsce a zagrożenia
bezpieczeństwa surowcowego kraju. Przegląd Geologiczny, 57(7), 591-599.
Nieć, M., Radwanek-Bąk, B., 2014. Ochrona i racjonalne wykorzystywanie złóż kopa-
lin. Wydawnictwo IGSMiE PAN.
Ofosu, G. et al., 2020. Socio-economic and environmental implications of Artisanal
and Small-scale Mining (ASM) on agriculture and livelihoods. Environmental Sci-
ence & Policy, 106, 210-220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.02.005.
Perepeczko, B., 2012. Postawy proekologiczne mieszkańców wsi i ich uwarunkowa-
nia. Zeszyty Naukowe Szkoły Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie,
SGGW, 5-22.
Piwocki, M., 1979. Dokumentacja geologiczna poszukiwań złóż węgla brunatnego
w rejonie Poniec-Krobia, woj. leszczyńskie, Warszawa.
Popelková, R., Mulková, M., 2018. The mining landscape of the Ostrava-Karviná coal-
field: Processes of landscape change from the 1830s to the beginning of the 21st
century. Applied Geography, 90, 28-43, DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.11.008.
Przybyszewski, D., Kruszyńska, M., 2019. Zmiany w rzeźbie i problem zagospodarow-
ania obszarów po wydobyciu surowców skalnych na przykładzie okolic Tarnowej
(Polska Centralna). Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Geographica Physica, 18,
41-51, DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/1427-9711.18.03.
Rachwał, B., Szpakowska, B., 2009. Próby rekultywacji krajobrazu dla potrzeb turyst-
yki na przykładzie Legnicko-Głogowskiego Okręgu Miedziowego. Nauka Przy-
roda Technologie, 3(1), 37.
Radwanek-Bąk, B., 2010. Rozwój górnictwa zrównoważonego w Polsce. Surowce
i Maszyny Budowlane, 36-40.
Sawicki, B., Łyszczarz, L., 2009. Zagospodarowanie turystyczne i rekreacyjne jako
szansa rozwoju dla terenów zdegradowanych obszaru górniczego kopalni węgla
w Bogdance. Inżynieria Ekologiczna, 121-130.
Shackleton, R.T., 2020. Loss of land and livelihoods from mining operations: A case in
the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Land Use Policy, 99, 104825, DOI: 10.1016/
j.landusepol.2020.104825.
Sikorska-Maykowska, M. et al., 2017. Kryteria waloryzacji geośrodowiskowej obsza
rów perspektywicznych występowania kopalin. Gospodarka Surowcami Miner-
alnymi, 33(2), 81-96, DOI 10.1515/gospo-2017-0012.
Sobczyk, W. et al., 2014. Wykorzystanie wielokryterialnej metody AHP i macierzy
Leopolda do oceny wpływu eksploatacji złóż żwirowo-piaskowych na środow-
isko przyrodnicze doliny Jasiołki. Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi, 30(2),
157-172.
Sobczyk, W., 2007. Badania opinii respondentów na temat uciążliwości środowi
skowej górnictwa węgla kamiennego. Górnictwo i Geoinżynieria, 31, 497-506.
Sutowski, M., 2015. Polski węgiel. Wydawnictwo Krytyki Politycznej, Warszawa.
Uberman, R. et al., 2014. Ocena wpływu działalności górniczej na środowisko-ten-
dencje zmian. Przyszłość. Świat-Europa-Polska, 2(30), 87-119.
von der Goltz, J., Barnwal, P., 2019. Mines: The local wealth and health effects of mine
ral mining in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics, 139,
1-16, DOI: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.05.005.
Walkiewicz, D., 2013. Przemiany wsi pod wpływem przemysłu na obszarze wiejskiej
gminy Zgierz w województwie łódzkim-wybrane aspekty przestrzenne. Studia
Obszarów Wiejskich, 34, 233-246.
Werner, A.K. et al., 2018. Examination of child and adolescent hospital admission
rates in Queensland, Australia, 1995–2011: A comparison of coal seam gas, coal
mining, and rural areas. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(9), 1306-1318,
doi: 10.1007/s10995-018-2511-4.
Wielkopolskie Biuro Planowania Przestrzennego, 2015. Wpływ ochrony i potencjal-
nej eksploatacji złóż węgla brunatnego „Czempiń”, „Krzywiń”, „Gostyń”, „Oczko
wice”, „Poniec-Krobia” na rozwój przestrzenny południowo-zachodniej Wielko
polski, Poznań.
Arnold BERNACIAK • Małgorzata HALABURDA
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN
THE PERSPECTIVE OF CSR ACTIVITIES
UNDERTAKEN BY POLISH ENTERPRISES
OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Arnold Bernaciak, Associate Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0003-1099-286X) – WSB University in Poznan

Małgorzata Halaburda, PhD (ORCID: 0000-0001-6171-2894)
Powstańców Wielkopolskich Street 5, 61-895, Poznań, Poland
e-mail: arnold.bernaciak@wsb.poznan.pl
ABSTRACT: The article aims to show the level of involvement of Polish enterprises from the construc-
tion industry in the implementation of CSR programmes, with particular emphasis on environmental
protection tasks. The survey, carried out with the use of a questionnaire technique, covered 177 enter-
prises, including their division into large, medium, and small ones. The survey was carried out using
CAVI and PAPI techniques with the use of a proprietary questionnaire form. The results of the research
indicate that environmental protection is not a priority CSR area for construction enterprises. The
activities undertaken in the field of environmental protection are dominated by those which are directly
related to the construction activities conducted. For them, activities going beyond that scope, such as
supporting initiatives or promoting pro-ecological behaviour, are much less important. There is a visi-
ble difference between large enterprises and entities belonging to the two remaining groups. Large
enterprises are more inclined to take universal measures which go beyond their construction site. This
indicates their important role as potential creators of good practice, setting behaviour patterns
throughout the construction sector.
KEY WORDS: CSR, environmental protection, industry sector
No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 122-133 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/37 JEL: D22, Q01

Introduction
Environmental degradation, together with other threats from increasing

globalisation poses numerous challenges for the construction industry. These
include, above all, the risk of losing financial liquidity, the limited supply of
skilled labour and the volatility of material prices. These are accompanied by
problems relating to the efficiency of natural resources management and the
amount of waste and pollution produced. The construction industry is also
burdened with numerous health risks for workers. According to the statistics
of Statistics Poland (GUS, 2020), it is in the construction industry sector that
the highest number of severe and fatal accidents at work occurs. At the same
time business partners of construction companies, such as investors, co-
operators, banks, insurance companies, and public administration entities
more and more often perceive economic entities in terms of their pro-social
and environmental activities. Apart from a price, they are guided by confi-
dence in a given company, its image and the manner it operates on the mar-
ket and in its environment. In pursuing their business goals, enterprises are
forced to consider social and environmental issues as equivalent areas of
their activity. One of the instruments enabling the integration of the above
objectives is the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The imple-
mentation of its assumptions may be a source of opportunities to increase
competitive advantage, leading at the same time to social and environmental
benefits.
The article aims to present the results of research showing the activity of
Polish enterprises in the construction industry in implementing the CSR
principles. The areas of involvement of these enterprises are analysed, with
particular emphasis on activities concerning environmental protection. The
article attempts to determine the extent to which construction sector enter-
prises in Poland undertake CSR activities, what are the types of these activi-
ties, and what is the place of actions aimed at limiting the pressure on the
natural environment in relation to other CSR activities. Research results
show the real importance attached by various size companies of the con-
struction sector to contemporary environmental problems.
An overview of the literature
One of the management instruments, creating conditions for reducing

the pressure of the economic system on the environment, is the CSR concept.
There are numerous definitions of this concept in the literature (Carroll,
1991, p. 39-48; Aarts, 2011, p. 207-211; Griffin, 2004, p. 118-119). Their
common feature is the reference of business activities to the social needs and
requirements of the natural environment. The European Commission defines
CSR as the responsibility of enterprises for their impact on society [Commis-
sion Communication, p. 7]. The ISO 26000 standard defines CSR as the impact
of an organisation’s decisions and actions on society and the environment
through transparent and ethical behaviour in seven areas: 1) organisational
governance, 2) human rights, 3) labour practices, 4) environment, 5) fair
operating practices, 6) consumer issues, 7) community involvement and
development.
Taking actions to reduce the negative impact on society and the environ-
ment is particularly important in the case of enterprises belonging to the
most burdensome sectors. One of such sectors is construction (Adamczyk
and Dylewski, 2010, p. 127). Environmental risks are present at all stages of
the construction process from planning and design to operation and finally,
demolition. Stawicka-Wałkowska (1998, p. 81) indicates that problems in the
construction-environment relations are concentrated around two areas: 1)
obtaining natural raw materials in the production process of construction
materials and products, and 2) soil, water and air pollution during the oper-
ation and disposal of construction works. According to Salih (2013), almost
half of the final energy consumption and extracted raw materials, and about
one-third of water consumption in the European Union are related to the
construction and operation of buildings.
To reduce the negative environmental impact, companies in the con-
struction sector take numerous measures. The most important of these
include (Deszcz, 2006; Nauman, 2016, pp. 7-10): proper management of the
construction site, making connections, preparing storage yards, dehydrating
the construction site, minimising noise and vibrations associated with the
use of heavy machinery and equipment, and waste management.
In Poland, the concept of corporate social responsibility has become the
subject of consideration and research by many authors. Jung (2010) has
attempted to identify the main barriers that hinder the pro-social activity of
small enterprises. According to her, the problems result both from the speci-
ficity of small enterprises and from the inadequacy of CSR tools to them. The
Author stresses that it is necessary to individually adjust actions in the area
of corporate social responsibility to how small organisations are managed as
well as their economic and human resources. Many studies have been con-
ducted to determine the level of implementation of the social responsibility
concept in Polish enterprises (Bartkowiak, 2010, Oczkowska, 2012; Rata-
jczak, 2015; Wołoszyn, Stawicka and Ratajczak, 2012; Rogowski, 2016;
Piskalski, 2015). Wildowicz-Giegiel (2010) presents examples of good prac-
tices undertaken in the implementation of CSR principles. The results of the
research conducted by the Author confirmed that in the case of small and
medium-sized enterprises, the CSR concept still plays a secondary role. The
degree of advancement of the CSR concept implementation in Polish enter-
prises was included in the continuum model (Rojek-Nowosielska, 2017, p.
103).
Despite the significant impact of construction companies on the social
and natural environment and analyses carried out in other countries (e.g.
Barnes, Croker, 2013; Duman, Giritli, McDermott, 2016; Petrovic-Lazarevic,
2010; Seriki, 2020; Zahidy, Sorooshian, Hamid, 2019), comprehensive
research has not been undertaken so far to identify the involvement of Polish
enterprises of this industry in the implementation of the CSR concept and, in
particular, to take action to reduce their pressure on ecosystems.
Research methods
The survey covered companies in the construction industry:

• conducting a registered business activity,
• whose activities, in accordance with the Polish Classification of Activities,
are carried out under section F, division 41: works related to the erection
of buildings,
• are not in bankruptcy or liquidation,
• operating in Poland.
The study investigated companies from three size categories: small (with
10-49 employees), medium (50-249 employees) and large (250 and more
employees).
Data on the size of the population were obtained from the studies of Sta-
tistics Poland. The sample, due to the lack of an appropriate sampling frame,
was selected using a targeted method. The sample size was determined based
on two key premises: possibilities of data acquisition and fulfilment of statis-
tical rigour. It was assumed that the minimum sample size in the survey to
achieve the objectives of the survey is 100-200 units (Bazarnik et al., 1992, p.
16). Based on the data obtained from EMIS, Amadeus and ALEO databases, a
database of enterprises was created, to which invitations to participate in the
survey were sent (by mail and e-mail), together with a questionnaire form.
Two thousand forty-seven invitations were sent out. Replies were received
from 177 companies. The return rate of the questionnaire was 8.65%. The
sample was dominated by small enterprises, which constituted almost 60%
of the total number of respondents (106 entities). The share of medium-sized
enterprises was slightly over 27% (49 entities) and large enterprises, over
12% of the research sample (22 entities) (table 1).
Table 1. Comparison of the structure of the general population and the research sample
Share of enterprises Number Share of enter-

Employment vol- Size of the general
in the general of enterprises prises in the test
ume population
population [%] surveyed sample [%]
from 10 to 49 6543 88.55 106 59.89
from 50 to 249 794 10.75 49 27.68
250 and above 52 0.70 22 12.43
Σ 7389 100 177 100
Source: author’s work based on GUS (Statistics Poland), 2019.
A diagnostic survey method was used in the study. CAWI (computer-as-

sisted web interview) and PAPI (paper and pen personal interview) tech-
niques were used. The research tool was an original questionnaire form. The
research was conducted from February to November 2019. The subject of the
research was the corporate social responsibility activities undertaken by
enterprises. The analyses were carried out by grouping individual activities
into areas distinguished by the ISO 26000 standard and an original set of
activities in environmental protection.
In Poland, only 37% of enterprises in the construction sector declare the

implementation of CSR principles. Taking into account the size of the com-
pany, the CSR concept is implemented primarily in large companies (77%). In
the case of medium-sized companies, 43% of the respondents confirmed
their involvement in implementing socially responsible activities. Definitely,
the lowest number (25%) of companies implementing CSR postulates is in
the group of small entities.
Environmental protection is an area of interest declared by 82% of Polish
enterprises in the construction industry, which implement the CSR demands.
In comparison to other areas, the result should be considered relatively low.
The highest percentages of respondents declare undertaking activities in the
area of human rights (96%). A slightly smaller group of respondents (91%)
declared involvement in activities in the area of organisational governance.
Fair operating practices and consumer issues are areas of activity declared
by 84% of the respondents. To a lesser extent (67%), activities concerning
labour practices are implemented in companies. The least frequently declared
are activities in the area of community involvement and development (figure 1).
Human rights 96
Organizational governance 91
Consumer issues 84
Fair operating practices 84
The environment 82
Labor practices 67
Community involvement and development 56
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% implementing CSR principles
Figure 1. Areas of activity undertaken by construction enterprises
[% of enterprises declaring activity in particular areas]


Environmental protection activities, most often undertaken by the sur-
F1
veyed companies, are those directly related to construction works: proper
management of the generated waste, proper preparation of the construction

site, securing greenery and selection of appropriate materials. Over 90% of
the surveyed enterprises declare that they take conscious actions in this area.
Slightly fewer indications were given for other activities, also directly related
to the construction works: the selection of environmentally friendly technol-
ogies, saving resources (energy, water), reduction of noise emission, and
reduction of waste and pollution. These activities were indicated by over
80% of the surveyed entities. The remaining activities, not directly related to
construction works, received fewer indications. Offering environmentally
friendly services, restrictive observance of environmental regulations and
standards, ongoing monitoring of environmental regulations and promoting
pro-environmental behaviour among employees, customers, subcontractors
and suppliers were indicated by about 70% of the surveyed entities. Support
for pro-environmental activities undertaken by other entities received the
fewest indications. 68% of the respondents declare actions in this area (fig-
ure 2).
The size of the company affects the type of environmental protection
measures taken. The smallest variation can be seen in waste management
and site development. The percentage of companies declaring to take action
in this respect is close to 95% in each size category. In turn, the most signifi-
cant differences are revealed in the tendency to reduce the amount of gener-
ated waste and pollution and in the ongoing monitoring of legal regulations
related to environmental protection. In the first case, 100% of large enter-
prises, 90% of medium-sized, and only 70% of small enterprises declare to
take action. In the second case, 91% of large companies, 70% of small, and
only 61% of medium-sized enterprises (figure 3).
Waste management 97
Construction site management 95
Caring for greenery 92
Selection of suitable building materials 91
Use of environmentally friendly technologies 85
Saving resources 85
Reduction of noise emissions 85
Reduction of waste and pollution generated 82
Compliance with environmental regulations and… 72
Offering environmentally friendly services 72
Ongoing monitoring of legislation 70
Promoting pro-ecological behaviour 70
Supporting environmental initiatives 68
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
%
Figure 2. Environmental protection activities declared by construction enterprises implementing CSR
principles [% of enterprises declaring individual activities]
F2
In the four categories of activity, large companies are much more com-
mitted than others. These are reduction of generated waste and pollution,
promotion of pro-environmental behaviour among employees, customers,
subcontractors and suppliers, ongoing monitoring of environmental regula-
tions and support for environmental initiatives. In these areas, the activity of
small and medium-sized enterprises is relatively small.
An essential aspect for small companies is the proper management of
waste, including hazardous waste. Socially responsible behaviour was con-
firmed in this respect by as many as 96% of respondents. Equally important
is the proper management of the construction site, making connections and
preparing storage yards (94%). Moreover, representatives of small compa-
nies declare the use of appropriate building materials (92%). Rarely under-
taken activities include: reduction of harmful waste, gases, etc. (75%), pro-
moting pro-environmental behaviour among employees, customers, subcon-
tractors and suppliers (69%), offering environmentally friendly services
(72%), ongoing monitoring of new environmental regulations/legislation
(70%), compliance with standards, regulations (69%), supporting environ-
mental initiatives (68%).
96
Waste management 98
95
94
Construction site management 96
95
89
Caring for greenery 98
91
92
Selection of suitable building materials 90
86
84
Use of environmentally friendly technologies 86
91
81
Saving resources 92
91
82
Reduction of noise emissions 88
91
75
Reduction of waste and pollution generated 90
100
Compliance with environmental regulations and 69

78
standards 77
72
Offering environmentally friendly services 69
77
70
Ongoing monitoring of legislation 61
91
69
Promoting pro-ecological behaviour 67
82
68
Supporting environmental initiatives 65
77
0 10 20 30 40 50% 60 70 80 90 100
small enterprises medium enterprises large enterprises
Figure 3. Diversification of environmental protection activities declared by construction

enterprises implementing CSR principles, by size categories [% of enterprises
F3 declaring individual activities]

In medium-sized enterprises, the most widespread activity in the field of

environmental protection is taking care of greenery and waste management
(98%). The least frequently used methods to reduce the negative impact of
the activities of medium-sized companies on the environment are: promot-
ing pro-environmental behaviour among employees, customers, subcontrac-
tors, suppliers (67%), offering environmentally friendly services (69%),
ongoing monitoring of new environmental laws and regulations (61%), and
supporting environmental initiatives (65%).
In large companies, almost all environmental activities are carried out to
a huge extent. The most significant involvement of these companies is visible
in the reduction of harmful waste and gases, which was confirmed by as
much as 100% of the respondents. It is a less common practice among large
entities to offer environmentally friendly services, to comply with standards
and regulations and to support environmental initiatives. 77% of companies
in this category have indicated that they are doing so.
Conclusions
Despite the significant impact of construction sector enterprises on the

social and natural environment, CSR principles have so far been of little inter-
est. Enterprises in this sector that implement CSR principles focus on other
areas rather than on environmental protection.
The undertaking of environmental protection activities by Polish enter-
prises in the construction industry should be considered as fulfilling their
formal and legal obligations rather than, as one of the definitions of CSR, con-
sciously „taking responsibility for actions for a cleaner environment” (Com-
mission of the European Communities 2001, p. 5). Therefore, the most popu-
lar among enterprises in the construction industry, declaring the implemen-
tation of CSR principles, are activities directly related to operational pro-
cesses: proper preparation of the construction site, proper management of
the generated waste, or securing greenery facilities. To a much lesser extent,
these companies declare undertaking activities not directly related to their
current operations: supporting environmental initiatives or promoting
pro-ecological behaviour.
Large companies are the leaders in terms of the pro-ecological approach
to their entire activity. They are the driving force behind socially responsible
activities and activity in the field of environmental protection in the whole
sector. Apart from the high level of operational activities related to environ-
mental protection, they also declare other activities in this area. The declara-
tions concerning attempts to minimise the amount of waste and pollution
produced or to seek environmentally friendly technologies are much higher
than in the other two categories of enterprises. They also carry out much
greater image activities: they support the promotion of pro-ecological behav-
iour or independent support initiatives in this area. Large companies can
play an essential role as a source of good practice and a model of behaviour
in this area for the whole industry. Their impact on small and medium-sized
entities may manifest itself as a result of direct requirements addressed to
smaller business partners within the framework of the agreements con-
cluded, as well as examples of business models that combine the achieve-
ment of competitive advantage with the creation of values important for the
socio-economic environment.
Among the most important findings made as a result of the research per-
formed are the following:
identification of the differentiation in the commitment to implementing
CSR principles, and the types of CSR activities undertaken by enterprises in
the construction sector according to their size,
establishment of the importance attached by the enterprises surveyed to
environmental protection in relation to other areas of CSR,
identification of types of pro-ecological activities undertaken by the ana-
lysed entities,
definition of the role of large construction companies as a carrier of good
practice in this area,
identification of the needs of enterprises in the construction sector in
terms of awareness of CSR principles and the benefits of applying them.

Arnold Bernaciak – 50% (conception), 50% (literature review), 40% (acquisition of
data), 60% (analysis and interpretation of data).
Małgorzata Halaburda – 50% (conception), 50% (literature review), 60% (acquisi-
tion of data), 40% (analysis and interpretation of data).
References
Aarts, A., 2011. Społeczna odpowiedzialność przedsiębiorstw. In: Sztuka public rela-
tions. Z doświadczeń polskich praktyków. Związek Firm Public Relations,
Warszawa, 207-211.
Adamczyk, J., Dylewski, R., 2010. Recykling odpadów budowlanych w kontekście
budownictwa zrównoważonego. Problemy Ekorozwoju, 5(2), 125-131.
Barnes, L.R., Croker, N., 2013, The relevance of the ISO26000 social responsibility
issues to the Hong Kong construction industry. Construction Economics and
Building, 13(3), 37-50, DOI: 10.5130/ajceb.v13i3.3280
Bartkowiak, G., 2010. Działania odpowiedzialne społecznie w średnich przedsiębi-

orstwach i ich postrzeganie przez studentów i absolwentów wybranych uczelni
na terenie Wielkopolski. Problemy Zarządzania, 8(28), 182-201.
Bazarnik, J. et al., 1992. Badania Marketingowe. Metody i Oprogramowanie Komput-
erowe. Canadian Consortium of Management Schools. Akademia Ekonomiczna
w Krakowie, Warszawa-Kraków, 16.
Carroll, A.B., 1991. The pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the moral
management of organisational stakeholders. Business Horizons, 34(4), 39-48,
Deszcz, J., 2006. Odpowiedzialność społeczna przedsiębiorcy budowlanego, Buduj
z głową. Kwartalnik Kosztorysanta, 1, http://www.bzg.pl/node/334 [02-02-
2020].
Duman, D.U. et al., 2016. Corporate social responsibility in construction industry.
A comparative study between UK and Turkey. Built Environment and Asset Man-
agement, 6(2), 218-231, DOI: 10.1108/BEPAM-08-2014-0039
Griffin, R.W., 2004. Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami. Wydawnictwo Naukowe
PWN, Warszawa.
GUS, 2020, Wypadki przy pracy w 2019 r. – dane wstępne, Warszawa.
GUS, Polska klasyfikacja działalności (PKD 2007), https://stat.gov.pl/Klasyfikacje/
doc/pkd_07/pkd_07.htm, [20-11-2019].
International Standard Organization, ISO 26000:2010, Guidance on social responsi-
bility.
Jung, M., 2010. Bariery implementacji koncepcji społecznej odpowiedzialności
biznesu w małych przedsiębiorstwach. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonom-
icznego we Wrocławiu, 116, 117-126.
Komunikat Komisji do Parlamentu Europejskiego, Rady, Europejskiego Komitetu
Ekonomiczno-Społecznego i Komitetu Regionów – Odnowiona strategia UE na
lata 2011-2014 dotycząca społecznej odpowiedzialności przedsiębiorstw
(KOM2011) 681.
Nauman, S., 2016. Specyfikacje techniczne wykonania i obioru robót budowlanych.
Wymagania ogólne (roboty budowlane), Warszawa, https://bip.men.gov.pl/wp-
content/uploads/sites/2/2016/06/ zalacznik-nr-2a-do-siwz-specyfikacja-tech
niczna-wykonania-i-odbioru-robot-budowlanych.pdf [11-03-2017].
Oczkowska, R., 2012. Społeczna odpowiedzialność biznesu i jej implementacja w pol-
skim handlu. Zeszyty Naukowe, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie, 880,
79-93.
Petrovic-Lazarevic, S., 2010, Good corporate citizenship in the Australian construc-
tion industry. Corporate Governance International Journal of Business in Society,
10(2), 115-128, DOI: 10.1108/14720701011035648.
Piskalski, G., 2015. Społeczna odpowiedzialność biznesu w polskich realiach. Teoria
a praktyka, Raport z monitoringu społecznej odpowiedzialności największych
polskich przedsiębiorstw. Fundacja CentrumCSR.PL, Warszawa.
Ratajczak, M., 2015. Wdrażanie kluczowych składowych koncepcji CSR w małych
i średnich przedsiębiorstwach agrobiznesu z Małopolski. Prace Naukowe Uni
wersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu. Polityka ekonomiczna, 402, 307-317.
Rogowski, R., 2016. Praktyka wdrażania CSR w polskich przedsiębiorstwach w opinii
doradców. Annales. Etyka w życiu gospodarczym, 19(1), 37-54, DOI: 10.18778/
1899-2226.19.1.03.
Rojek-Nowosielska, M., 2017. Społeczna odpowiedzialność przedsiębiorstw. Model –
diagnoza – ocena. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wroclawiu,
Wrocław.
Salih, J., 2013. Impact of the Construction Industry on the Environment, http://www.
bimhow.com/impact-of-the-construction-industry-on-the-environment/ [30-01
-2015].
Seriki, O.O., 2020. Looking through the African lenses: a critical exploration of the CSR
activities of Chinese International Construction Companies (CICCs) in Africa.
International Journal of Corporate social Responsibility, 5(8), 2-9, https://doi.
org/10.1186/s40991-020-00055-1.
Stawicka-Wałkowska, M., 1998. Ocena wpływu budownictwa i przemysłu materiałów
budowlanych na środowisko naturalne w świetle programu „Zrównoważony
rozwój”. Prace Instytutu Techniki Budowlanej, 2-3, 106-107.
Wildowicz-Giegiel, A., 2010. Implementacja koncepcji społecznej odpowiedzialności
biznesu w polskich przedsiębiorstwach. Olsztyn Economic Journal, 5(1), 145-158,
DOI 10.2478/v10021-010-0012-4.
Wołoszyn, J. et al., 2012. Społeczna odpowiedzialność małych i średnich przedsiębi-
orstw agrobiznesu z obszarów wiejskich. Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa.
Zahidy, A.A. et al., 2019, Critical success factors for corporate social responsibility
adoption in the construction industry in Malaysia. Sustainability, 11, 1-25, DOI:
10.3390/su11226411.
DISCUSSION
AND REVIEWS
RECENZJE
OMÓWIENIA, PRZEGLĄDY
SUMMARIES
IN POLISH
STRESZCZENIA POLSKOJĘZYCZNE
138 Summaries in Polish EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020
Tomasz ŻYLICZ
PROBLEMY ZARZĄDZANIA ZIELENIĄ MIEJSKĄ
ST RE SZCZEN I E: W artykule analizowane jest zarządzanie zielenią miejską jako problem „przeło-
żony-podwładny”. Problemy tego typu pojawiają się jeśli działanie wymaga współpracy dwóch (lub
więcej) szczebli hierarchicznych. W analizowanym przypadku prezydent miasta (szczebel wyższy)
oczekuje, że posadzone drzewa maksymalizują potencjał neutralizacji zanieczyszczeń, natomiast
zarząd zieleni miejskiej (szczebel niższy) chciałby zmaksymalizować wydatki budżetowe przy spełnie-
niu pewnych warunków brzegowych. O ile szczebel wyższy chciałby, aby korzyści zostały w przyszłości
dostarczone faktycznie, o tyle szczebel niższy jest zainteresowany sadzeniem najbardziej atrakcyj-
nych drzew, nie bacząc na to, że owe korzyści zostaną dostarczone tylko częściowo i zapewne tylko
w krótkim okresie. W konsekwencji skład gatunkowy nasadzeń odbiega od tego, który miałby miejsce,
gdyby struktura zarządzania była poprawna motywacyjnie.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: modele przełożony-podwładny, drzewa miejskie
Natalia Yosipivna SHUPTAR-PORYVAIEVA, Elena Rostislavovna GUBANOVA, Natalia

Mykolaivna ANDRYEYEVA, Tetiana Ivanivna SHEVCHENKO
BADANIE EFEKTÓW ZEWNĘTRZNYCH AKUMULATORÓW PRZENOŚNYCH

Z UWZGLĘDNIENIEM ETAPÓW ZUŻYCIA I UTYLIZACJI
ST RE SZCZEN I E: Obecnie coraz bardziej dotkliwy staje się problem negatywnych środowiskowych
efektów zewnętrznych związanych z gospodarką odpadami, zwłaszcza elektroodpadami, które obej-
mują również zużyte baterie i akumulatory z gospodarstw domowych. W przypadku niekontrolowa-
nego ich uwolnienia do środowiska, powodują znaczne szkody nie tylko dla środowiska, ale także dla
zdrowia publicznego. Celem artykułu jest zbadanie środowiskowych oraz ekonomicznych aspektów,
jak również określenie zewnętrznych skutków związanych z używaniem baterii. Analiza korelacji
i regresji wykazała, że istnieje związek pomiędzy wskaźnikami wypełnienia rynku krajowego bateriami
dla gospodarstw domowych a dynamiką umieralności związanej z rakiem. W opracowaniu przedsta-
wiono uproszczone obliczenia skutków zewnętrznych, które pojawiają się na Ukrainie w wyniku zuży-
cia baterii domowych z powodu braku systemu ich zbierania i utylizacji. Suma całkowitych skutków
zewnętrznych jest określana z wyłączeniem strat spowodowanych zanieczyszczeniem powietrza,
wody i strat w rolnictwie.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: efekty zewnętrzne, zużyte baterie, analiza korelacji i regresji

EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 Summaries in Polish 139
Martin ROVNAK, Roman NOVOTNY, Matus BAKON
ANALIZA WYBRANYCH WSKAŹNIKÓW EKONOMICZNO-ŚRODOWI

SKOWYCH SYSTEMU GOSPODARKI ODPADAMI NA SŁOWACJI
STRE SZCZ E NI E : Głównym celem artykułu była wizualizacja oraz analiza zależności pomiędzy
wybranymi wskaźnikami ekonomiczno-środowiskowymi systemu gospodarki odpadami na Słowacji,
tj. pomiędzy wysokością opłaty za odpady komunalne w poszczególnych rejonach Słowacji a wysoko-
ścią średniego miesięcznego wynagrodzenia oraz poziomem bezrobocia w 2019 roku. Dane zostały
zwizualizowane przy użyciu mapy tematycznej oraz wykresu typu boxplot, następnie zostały poddane
testom statystycznym. Na podstawie przeprowadzonej analizy potwierdzono statystyczną zależność
pomiędzy średnim wynagrodzeniem a wysokością opłaty za wywóz odpadów komunalnych oraz sta-
tystyczną zależność pomiędzy opłatą za odpady komunalne a stopą bezrobocia w poszczególnych
rejonach Słowacji.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: wskaźniki środowiskowe, wskaźniki ekonomiczne, opłata za odpady komu-

nalne, wynagrodzenie, bezrobocie
Ewa OŁDAKOWSKA
SZACOWANIE PROEKOLOGICZNEGO PODEJŚCIA DO BUDOWY DRÓG

W OCENACH EFEKTYWNOŚCI EKONOMICZNEJ
STRE SZCZ E NI E : Rozbudowa sieci połączeń drogowych wpływa korzystnie na szerokie spektrum
czynników warunkujących sprawne funkcjonowanie państwa oraz rozwój jego regionów. Jednocze-
śnie jest ingerencją w przestrzeń środowiskową i rolniczą oraz zagrożeniem dla walorów krajobrazo-
wych i kulturowych. Ochrona niezwykle urozmaiconego środowiska przyrodniczego to zachowanie,
zrównoważone użytkowanie oraz odnawianie zasobów, tworów i składników przyrody. Stąd przyjazne
środowisku projektowanie i budowa inwestycji drogowych powinny uwzględniać bierną i czynną
ochronę środowiska oraz kompensację. Wszystkie skuteczne rozwiązania z szerokiego zakresu
„dobrych praktyk” minimalizują bądź eliminują negatywne skutki wyrządzone środowisku. Jednocze-
śnie wszystkie działania prowadzące do stworzenia przyjaznej środowisku, „zielonej” sieci dróg są
„oszczędnie” szacowane w analizach ekonomicznych. Głównym celem artykułu jest wskazanie
„uproszczonej” wyceny proekologicznego podejścia do budowy dróg w ocenach efektywności ekono-
micznej na przykładzie polskiego odcinka drogi ekspresowej S8 (szczególnie w granicach obszarów
chronionych). Brak wyceny w wartościach pieniężnych potencjalnych korzyści wynikających z unika-
nia, zapobiegania czy łagodzenia skutków ma niestety wpływ na ekonomiczny wynik analizy kosztów
i korzyści.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: ocena efektywności ekonomicznej projektów drogowo-mostowych, analiza

kosztów i korzyści, ochrona środowiska, środowisko naturalne
Karol MROZIK, Konrad PODAWCA, Daria DROŻYŃSKA
PRZESTRZENNE ZRÓŻNICOWANIE REALIZACJI PROCESÓW

PLANISTYCZNO-INWESTYCYJNYCH W POZNAŃSKIM OBSZARZE
METROPOLITALNYM
ST RE SZCZEN I E: Celem artykułu była ocena dynamiki procesów planistycznych na poziomie lokal-
nym w latach 2009-2018. W opracowaniu podjęto również próbę sklasyfikowania gmin w obszarze
metropolitalnym ze względu na zróżnicowanie stopnia postępujących procesów planistycznych. Bada-
nia przeprowadzono na przykładzie Poznańskiego Obszaru Metropolitalnego (POM), który obejmuje
45 gmin. Analiza została oparta na danych Banku Danych Lokalnych GUS. W wyniku przeprowadzo-
nych analiz gminy w POM zostały podzielone na 12 grup. Najliczniejszą grupę (obejmującą prawie
połowę analizowanych jednostek administracyjnych) stanowią gminy o niewielkim pokryciu miejsco-
wymi planami zagospodarowania przestrzennego i bardzo niskiej intensywności wydawania decyzji
o warunkach zabudowy. Są to gminy, w których presja urbanizacyjna ze względu na odległość od
Poznania, jest mniejsza niż w jednostkach administracyjnych położonych blisko lub w bezpośrednim
sąsiedztwie Poznania.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: gospodarka przestrzenna, miejscowy plan zagospodarowania przestrzen-

nego, obszar metropolitalny, gmina, suburbanizacja
Piotr BOŁTRYK
KONIECZNOŚĆ UZYSKANIA DECYZJI ŚRODOWISKOWEJ W PRZYPADKU

INWESTYCJI POLEGAJĄCEJ NA PRZEBUDOWIE DROGI – STUDIUM
PRZYPADKU
ST RE SZCZEN I E: Celem niniejszego artykułu jest przedstawienie procedury uzyskania decyzji śro-
dowiskowej na przykładzie inwestycji polegającej na przebudowie drogi. Studium przypadku dotyczyło
przebudowy drogi gminnej publicznej nr 178044N Prostki – Ostrykół – Lipińskie Małe, gmina Prostki,
powiat Ełcki, województwo Warmińsko-Mazurskie na długości 4308,5 m pod kątem przepisów doty-
czących uzyskiwania decyzji środowiskowych. Poprzez interpretacje przepisów prawnych ustalono,
że opisana inwestycja, pod pewnymi warunkami, nie wymaga uzyskania decyzji środowiskowej.
Na podstawie studiów literaturowych przedstawiono podstawowe pojęcia oraz czynności związane
z procedurą uzyskiwania decyzji środowiskowej w Polsce. Uzyskane w ramach badań wnioski mogą
okazać się przydatne inwestorom publicznym, którzy są obowiązani do weryfikacji swoich inwestycji
pod kątem ich zgodności z prawem na etapie planowania.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: decyzja, środowisko, procedura, ocena

EKONOMIA I ŚRODOWISKO 4 (75) • 2020 Summaries in Polish 141
Daniel TOKARSKI, Bartosz ZEGARDŁO
KOSZTY I KORZYŚCI EKONOMICZNE RECYKLINGU IZOLATORÓW

ELEKTRYCZNYCH W PRODUKCJI BETONÓW SPECJALNYCH
STRE SZCZ E NI E : Artykuł stanowi kontynuację podjętych prac badawczych mających na celu wska-
zanie uzasadnionego, pod względem ekonomicznym oraz ekologicznym, recyklingu odpadowej mate-
rii ceramicznej pochodzącej ze zużytych izolatorów elektrycznych. Podczas prac remontowych starych
linii elektrycznych pozyskuje się stosunkowo duże ilości izolatorów, których obecna utylizacja jest
dość kosztownym przedsięwzięciem. Opierając się na wcześniejszych doświadczeniach autorzy niniej-
szego artykułu wskazują potencjalną możliwość wykorzystania zużytych izolatorów w produkcji kru-
szyw do betonów specjalnych. Kruszywa takie spełniają wszelkie parametry i wymagania, a betony
z nich uzyskane posiadają parametry wyższe od tych, jakie otrzymywano z kruszyw tradycyjnych.
Na podstawie analizy danych zaczerpniętych z archiwów przedsiębiorstwa zajmującego się prowadze-
niem prac remontowo-elektrycznych przedstawiono, z jakich obszarów pozyskuje się izolatory.
Omówiono, jaka jest skala wymienionego przedsięwzięcia w skali kraju. Celem opracowania jest osza-
cowanie kosztów i korzyści ekonomicznych związanych z utylizacją izolatorów oraz ponownym ich
zastosowaniu, jako kruszyw do betonów specjalnych. Pomimo kalkulacji, które wskazują, że przedsię-
wzięcie takie nie wiązałoby się ze znaczącymi zyskami finansowymi autorzy wskazują inne korzyści,
jakie płynęłyby z tego rodzaju zagospodarowania wymienionych odpadów.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: izolatory elektryczne, recykling, betony specjalne
Anna BERNACIAK, Wojciech KISIAŁA, Natalia SOŁTYSIAK, Katarzyna SUSZYŃSKA
POSTAWY SPOŁECZNOŚCI LOKALNEJ WOBEC PLANÓW EKSPLOATACJI

ZŁÓŻ WĘGLA BRUNATNEGO – PRZYKŁAD POŁUDNIOWO-ZACHODNIEJ
WIELKOPOLSKI
STRE SZCZ E NI E : Węgiel brunatny jest surowcem, który w polskiej energetyce od lat pełnił rolę stra-
tegicznego paliwa. Jedno z prognostycznych złóż węgla brunatnego położone jest w południowo-
-zachodniej Wielkopolsce (gminy Krobia, Miejska Górka oraz Poniec). Jednak plany eksploatacji
wywołują duże obawy społeczności lokalnej. W tym kontekście celem pracy była diagnoza postaw
społeczności lokalnej wobec planów eksploatacji węgla brunatnego na tym terenie. W postępowaniu
badawczym zmierzającym do statystycznej weryfikacji czynników różnicujących te postawy, wykorzy-
stano dane zgromadzone w wyniku sondażu diagnostycznego. Wyniki badania wskazują, że mieszkań-
ców badanych gmin cechowały niezdecydowane postawy, jednak z bardzo wyraźnymi tendencjami
do negatywnych ocen analizowanego zagadnienia. Najbardziej sceptycznie do planów eksploatacji
węgla brunatnego nastawieni byli rolnicy oraz mieszkańcy wsi, a do grup respondentów o postawach
najbardziej przychylnych zaliczono przedsiębiorców, mieszkańców miast oraz ludzi młodych. Dowie-
dziono ponadto, że status zawodowy, miejsce zamieszkania (miasto-wieś) oraz wiek można uznać za
czynniki kształtujące postawy społeczności lokalnej wobec planów eksploatacji węgla brunatnego na
badanym terenie.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: postawy społeczne, węgiel brunatny, eksploatacja złóż, Wielkopolska
Arnold BERNACIAK, Małgorzata HALABURDA
OCHRONA ŚRODOWISKA W PERSPEKTYWIE DZIAŁAŃ CSR

PODEJMOWANYCH PRZEZ POLSKIE PRZEDSIĘBIORSTWA SEKTORA
BUDOWLANEGO
ST RE SZCZEN I E: Celem artykułu jest ukazanie poziomu zaangażowania polskich przedsiębiorstw

sektora budowlanego w realizację programów CSR, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem zadań z zakresu
ochrony środowiska. Badaniem, przeprowadzonym techniką ankietową objęto 177 przedsiębiorstw,
z uwzględnieniem ich podziału na jednostki duże, średnie i małe. Badania przeprowadzono technikami
CAVI i PAPI z wykorzystaniem autorskiego formularza ankiety. Wyniki badań wskazują, iż ochrona śro-
dowiska nie jest dla przedsiębiorstw budowlanych priorytetowym obszarem CSR. Wśród działań
podejmowanych z zakresu ochrony środowiska dominują te, które związane są bezpośrednio z prowa-
dzonymi działaniami budowlanymi. Dużo mniejsze znaczenie mają dla nich działania wychodzące
poza ten zakres, jak np. wspieranie inicjatyw czy promowanie zachowań proekologicznych. Widoczne
jest zróżnicowanie między przedsiębiorstwami dużymi a podmiotami należącymi do dwóch pozosta-
łych grup. Przedsiębiorstwa duże, są bardziej skłonne do podejmowania działań uniwersalnych. Wska-
zuje to na ich ważną rolę jako potencjalnych kreatorów dobrych praktyk, wyznaczających wzorce
zachowań w całym sektorze budowlanym.
SŁ OWA K LU CZOWE: społeczna odpowiedzialność biznesu, ochrona środowiska, sektor budowlany

REVIEWERS in 2020
Dr Hanna Adamska, Poland Prof. Jurij Lopatynskij, Ukraine

Dr Bahman Jabbarian Amiri, Iran Prof. Piotr Małecki, Poland
Prof. Felix Arion, Romania Prof. Bulent Mertoglu, Turkey
Prof. Piotr Banaszuk, Poland Prof. Ionel-Mugurel Jitea, Romania
Prof. Arnold Bernaciak, Poland Prof. Rafał Miłaszewski, Poland
Prof. Eng. Elżbieta Broniewicz, Poland Prof. Maciej J. Nowak, Poland
Prof. Eng. Mirosław Broniewicz, Poland Prof. Aleksandra Nowakowska, Poland
Prof. Małgorzata Burchard-Dziubińska, Poland Dr Eng. Karolina Ogrodnik, Poland
Dr Eng. Robert Czubaszek, Poland Dr Monika Paradowska, Poland
Dr Eng. Jacek Dawidowicz, Poland Prof. Barbara Pawłowska, Poland
Prof. Eng. Wojciech Dąbrowski, Poland Prof. Dariusz Pieńkowski, Poland
Dr Dominik Drzazga, Poland Prof. Łukasz Popławski, Poland
Prof. Marcin Feltynowski, Poland Dr Bogumiła Powichrowska, Poland
Prof. Iwona Foryś, Poland Prof. Ryszard Piasecki, Poland
Prof. Tomáš Gajdošík, Slovakia Prof. Wojciech Piontek, Poland
Dr Elżbieta Gołąbeska, Poland Prof. Eng. Bazyli Poskrobko
Prof. Kazimierz Górka, Poland Prof. Zbigniew Przygodzki, Poland
Prof. Karsten Grunewald, Germany Prof. Joanna Rodziewicz, Poland
Prof. Andrzej Hopfer, Poland Dr Agnieszka Rzeńca, Poland
Prof. Ryszard Janikowski, Poland Prof. Eng. Mirosław Skorbiłowicz, Poland
Prof. Józef Jasiczak, Poland Prof. Antonis Skouloudis, Greece
Dr Ewa Jastrzębska, Poland Prof. Olga Sobko, Ukraine
Prof. Sławomir Kalinowski, Poland Prof. Mariusz Sokołowicz, Poland
Prof. Eng. Dorota Krawczyk, Poland Prof. Maciej Stolarski, Poland
Prof. Yoram Krozer, Netherlands Prof. Eng. Izabela Tałałaj, Poland
Prof. Barbara Kryk, Poland Prof. Tetiana Vitenko, Ukraine
Prof. Joanna Kulczycka, Poland Prof. Anetta Zielińska, Poland
Dr Paulina Legutko-Kobus, Poland
Information for Authors – Submission Guidelines
Authors are invited to submit Academic Papers on theoretical and empirical aspects of Sustain-
able Development and Environmental Management as well as on Environmental Economics and
Natural Resources. Papers submitted for review should be in the form of Articles, Research
Reports, Discussions or Reviews of Books, information on Academic Conferences, Symposia or
Seminars.
Submissions should have up to 25.000 characters excluding abstract, footnotes, and reference
list, with a clearly defined structure (Introduction, Chapters, Sub-chapters, Ending/Conclusions).
Please strictly observe the number of characters. Each additional 1.000 characters of the text
is charged (25 PLN or 6 EUR net).
Articles should be sent by e-mail to: czasopismo@fe.org.pl, in compliance with the official form
published on the website of the journal (www.ekonomiaisrodowisko.pl). A model form can be
found in TEMPLATE. The references cited have to be in alphabetical order, unnumbered. Plans,
drawings and schemas (black & white only) should be prepared using Microsoft Word with all
elements grouped in a single element group. Graphic elements (e.g. JPG) and schemas (e.g. in Excel)
should be submitted additionally as separate files.
Papers will be submitted to Peer Review and only original (previously unpublished) papers will be
accepted. Papers not complying with Editorial Recommendations will be returned to the Author
for correction.
The article, after taking into account the comments of our reviewers, is treated as final text. Pos-
sible corrections resulting from the editorial composition can only be made on pdf files sent for our
approval. Any corrections should concern only the errors resulting from the work on the text during
the composition (e.g. changes in subscript/upload indices, drawing errors and other technical
errors).
Please proofread your texts before sending them to us, as only the papers without any grammati-
cal and spelling errors will be accepted. The Author have to sign the STATEMENT, that the article
has been checked by the native speaker or professional translator. Please use correct scientific
English. The Editorial Office may publish abridged versions of papers or change titles.
Authors of a submitted manuscript must sign a CONTRACT, confirm that the paper has not been
published previously and transfer the propriety copyrights concerning the work to the Publisher.
Author’s Fees: PLN 1500 or 350 EUR.

The fee is charged after accepting the paper for publication.
Editorial Office Contact Details:

FUNDACJA EKONOMISTÓW ŚRODOWISKA I ZASOBÓW NATURALNYCH
Journal “Ekonomia i Środowisko”
FUNDACJA EKONOMISTOW SRODOWISKA I ZASOBOW NATURALNYCH
Sienkiewicza 22, 15-092 Białystok, POLAND
e-mail: czasopismo@fe.org.pl

Ekonomia I Środowisko: Economics and Environment

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ekonomia I Środowisko: Economics and Environment

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ekonomia I Środowisko: Economics and Environment

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EKONOMIA i ŚRODOWISKO

ECONOMICS AND ENVIRONMENT

No. 4 (75) • 2020

Published by: Fundacja Ekonomistów Środowiska i Zasobów Naturalnych

Publishing: Agencja Wydawnicza EkoPress

Printed by: Partner Poligrafia Andrzej Kardasz

THE SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME BOARD

Editor in chief – Prof. Elżbieta Broniewicz

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT

STUDIES AND MATERIALS

GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Summaries in Polish . ........................................................................................................................... 11

URBAN GREENERY MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Tomasz Żylicz, Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0003-2134-8498) – University of Warsaw

KEYWORDS: principal-agent models, urban trees

No. 4(75) 2020 • pages: 8-22 https://doi.org/10.34659/2020/4/29 JEL:

while the greenery manager (agent) wants to maximize

subject to the usual participation constraints:

Under the standard convexity assumptions adopted in economic model-

The problem of urban greenery management in Warsaw

additions. Here we take a preliminary approach by assuming a simple two-

Benefits from urban greenery

There are many alternative approaches to analyse benefits from biologi-

Table 1. Annual absorption for a 100-year-old tree [in g]

NO2 177 93 239 544

Removal of toxic substances implies health and other environmental

Table 2. Annual benefits provided by a 100-year-old tree [in €]

NOx 1.89 0.99 2.55 5.79

Table 2 demonstrates that annual monetised benefits from the absorp-

Planting trees as an air protection instrument in Warsaw

Sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus)

Tree planting strategies in Warsaw

The benefits provided by living trees cannot be questioned. The problem,

c = c1(1-x)N + c2xN(1+x). (10)

Figure 1. Preferences with respect to tree species composition

Conclusions and directions for future research

Natalia Yosipivna SHUPTAR-PORYVAIEVA • Elena Rostislavovna GUBANOVA •

EXAMINING OF PORTABLE BATTERIES

Natalia Yosipivna Shuptar-Poryvaieva, Candidate of Economic Sciences (ORCID: 0000-

Elena Rostislavovna Gubanova, Prof. (ORCID: 0000-0002-8535-1701) – Odesa State

KEYWORDS: externalities, used batteries, correlation-regression analysis

The modern stage of development of economy-based consumption is

An overview of the literature

Theoretical foundations of the problem of externalities are widely repre-

Fundamental and modern provisions of environmental economics, eco-

Results of the research

Economists characterizing externalities distinguish several types, classes

МЕС = МЅС – МРС. (1)

Figure 1. Negative externalities of used batteries

In landfills/dumps, used batteries become dangerous immediately after

Table 1. Main external effects in used batteries management

External effect (МЕСі) Description

Source: author’s work.

The calculation of external effects faces serious objective and subjective

In which batteries can be

Source: Smirnova, Sakulina, 2016.

Figure 2. Statistics of cancer diseases of the population of Ukraine

Figure 3. Battery imports in Ukraine in 1993-2013

∑�� 𝑥𝑥�� ∑�� 𝑦𝑦� − ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� ∑�� 𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦�