A

DICTIONARY

OF

SCHOLASTIC

PHILOSOPHY
 A

DICTIONARY
OF

SCHOLASTIC
PHILOSOPHY

BERNARD WUELLNER, S.J.

SECOND EDITION

THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY

MILWAUKEE
WPIUMI POTEST:

JOHN R. CONNERY, S.J.

Praepositus Provini;ialis
Chicago Province of the Society of Jesus

NIHIL OBSTAT:

JoHN E. TWOMEY, S.T.L., PH.D.

Censor librorum

IMPRIMATUR:

+ ROMAN R. ATKIELSKI
Auxiliary Bishop of Milwaukee
November 9, 1965

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-24259

(3/66)
@ 1966 THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY
MADE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

This DICTIONARY, covering most of the technical language used in all

branches of scholastic philosophy, is meant chiefly for undergraduate
students. Familiarity with an author's language and meanings opens the
door to a true, deep grasp of his thought. The beginner remains a stranger,
ill at ease and somewhat lost, until he gains some mastery of the termi­
nology of a great philosopher. A sound student of philosophy seeks as
ready a grasp of the terminology of the great and contemporary scholastic
thinkers as a physicist or music critic possesses of the special vocabulary
of his cultural interest.
A dictionary is true if it reports usage even if the usage does not
conform to reality or shows other faults in understanding, clearness, and
the like. The compiler, as a reporter, does not try to settle philosophical
debates about the beings, problems, concepts, distinctions, and views that
lie behind the language. The philosopher, unlike a compiler, is interested
in exact terminology and sharp definitions because he is seeking to describe
reality or precisely express some aspect of his understanding of reality.
Hence, the hard fights about definitions that scar the pages of the
scholastics. As realist philosophers, these thinkers treat beings and activities,
not merely their own ideas or ways of thinking. But the real is accessible
to everybody and carries names invented and used by the ordinary man.
Scholastic realism, then, often employs common or natural language and
stays close to common usage, though it often refines on this usage.
Another feature of scholasticism is its inherited Aristotelian appreciation
of definition as method. Often beginning a discussion of a moot issue by
insisting on finding the right term for what they mean and on expert
explanation of their definitions, schoolmen characteristically will then prove
their definition to be the right statement of what a nature, a property,
or an activity truly is. Evidence, not assumed definitions, must settle
philosophical problems. Scholastic writers, for instance, try carefully to
decide what being is, not merely tell what they or others mean by being;
or, in another instance, they try to discover and gather together all
essential features of a political society before they are satisfied with
their definition of a state. Philosophers struggle over terms and true
meanings because they are striving to penetrate the facts. Clear, consistent,
sharply used language is an excellent tool of theirs; but it is not philosophy.
The subtlety of some philosophical issues, the analogies and variety in
the universe of the real, the fluidity and opaqueness of the human mind,

v
 Preface to the Second Edition

and an original mind's fondness for his own terminology combine to

fashion philosophical language that is not always as good an instrument
for communication between thinkers as might be desired.
From time to time, the formulation of definitions has become a land­
mark in philosophical progress by sharpening the issues and by hitting
deep into reality. Aristotle, for example, with his genius for building
philosophical language, defined for us art, change, intrinsic form, judgment,
life, nature, potency, prime matter, quality, science, soul, substance, time,
and moral virtue. Cicero contributed beatitude, philosophy, and republic.
Augustine added eternal law, peace, and virtue. Boethius offered the
honored definitions of eternity, free will, and person that all thinkers
since have had to consider. St. Isidore of Seville, Avicenna, and Peter Lom­
bard made collections of definitions. St. Thomas Aquinas contributed many
of his own, e.g., law, but also transformed his predecessors' use of agent
intellect, being, illumination, efficient causality, judgment, person, virtue,
etc. The language of scholasticism, and indeed of all philosophies, owes
more to Aristotle and Aquinas than to anyone else. But it is plain that
modern systems and modern logic have enriched, modified, and partly
jumbled the terminology of contemporary scholasticism.
This DICTIONARY has given particular attention to the combinations of
incidental with principal terms, for this was felt to be a special need
of our younger students. Assistance in these compound terms or phrases
is seldom provided even by excellent English dictionaries.
Some of the charts list the various meanings of a term; others, the
applications; others, the divisions; others add the incidental terms. Some
of these groupings are questionable and merely approximate for a number
of reasons. Even so, they may aid the student in seeing some of the
relationships between members of a family of terms and situate these
in his mind better than only the verbal definitions will do.
References on meanings, distinctions, and historical usage are at times
added for some major or disputed terms. In these and like sources, the
alert student will find descriptions, analyses, proofs, debates, and even
bewilderment among great scholastics. The references are meant to be
good references, not necessarily all or the best on the subject.
The practical economy of the task in terms of subject matter and
cost suggests that nobody expect more than the book· offers. For it is a
dictionary of philosophy, not of psychology, of theology, or of any related
subjects. It is a dictionary of scholastic philosophy, not of all philosophies,
even though some attention has been paid to some points of other philos­
ophies. It is not an historical dictionary of scholastic usage; it is not
Preface to the S econd Edition vii

the dictionary of all scholastic philosophy. Some of these tasks have been
done. Major attention has been given to the terminology, distinctions,
and uses of Aristotle and St. Thomas; they have influenced all the scho­
lastics and even many nonscholastics in philosophical language and mean­
ings. Terms that seem to occur commonly in the better modem books
and textbooks with a Thomistic bent have been hunted during years
of compilation. Novel terms and peculiar meanings, adopted by only one
or a few writers, can be plucked from the writer's statement or context.
Alfred North Whitehead in Process and Reality warned us of "the
fallacy of the perfect dictionary": the assumption, namely, that there is
a stable, well-known philosophical vocabulary perfectly complete and
satisfactory for any philosophical discussion. Yet needless uncleamess,
uncertainty, equivocation, looseness, and neologisms ought to be shunned.
No academy of international philosophy authorizes and regulates usage.
Uniformity would stifle growth and contact with the modern mind; yet
abandonment of tradition and complete modernization of scholastic lan­
guage would also be perilous. The young student will find no well-paved
highway into the land of philosophical communication. This DICTIONARY
/helps us scholastics to understand each other and our own literature
and classroom lectures and gives nonscholastics some glimpses into what
we truly mean. The reading of the history of philosophy and of some
leading modern works, together with patient listening in discussion, en­
ables one to understand the language of the particular nonscholastics with
whom one may happen to be engaged.
Teachers of philosophy like to warn students against beginning and
ending their knowledge of philosophy with a study of its terms and
definitions. While a dictionary can be one of the greatest self-helps in
learning, yet it can be misused. Watching words and meanings is only
one skill needed by a philosopher; understanding, correlating, and prov­
ing are much higher abilities. Since understanding is needed, the student
must recognize that a list of usages, however finely discriminated for
different situations and concepts, does not substitute for his intelligent
interpretation of the actual sense of a term in its context. For context
gives the full-bodied meaning of a term and its particular shading or its
special interpretation by a given philosopher; context itself often sup­
poses some grasp of the history of a problem.
The student must also attend to the meaning of the listed term, not
just to the literal phrasing of a definition. Teachers and textbooks often
give good alternative statements of a definition. So, too, does this
DICTIONARY in an effort to find a way of putting a definition that will
viii Preface to the Second Edition

better strike now this reader and now that one. And behind context and
the history of philosophy stands reality. It finally determines what our
important philosophical terms should mean. One must beware of the
vocabulary trap, the danger, that is, of becoming little more than a
logician whose interests lie only in the modes of predication and not in
things, the subj ects of predication. But things and their parts and their
causes and their fellow beings demand names when known; things gen­
erate knowledge; knowledge generates the desire for better, clearer, richer
knowledge of things; all this must lead to meanings of terms. When one
has enough terms and meanings, one has a dictionary. It is the hope that
when the sun of the intellect is not fully risen and the moon of a text
is clouded, this DICTIONARY may serve beginners as a little flashlight
showing a trail into the lovely land of philosophical truth.
 GUIDE TO ENTRIES

I. Order of Entries

The alphabetical order of the principal term determines the basic

sequence of entries.
Incidental terms used to restrict a principal term to one of its divisions
are listed after the full set of meanings of the principal term. These
divisions follow the alphabetical place of the first letter of the first
modifying term. This order helps to easy finding of these terms, but it
has the disadvantage of not pairing opposed terms and of not grouping
subdivisions together. The charts of the divisions or other indications in
the text will often lead to discovery of these relationships among the
members of a division.
Many English dictionaries list compound terms and phrases that open
with an incidental term by the first letter of that term; for example,
missing link is entered under mis. This DICTIONARY seldom follows that
rule unless some special consideration would make the listing under the
principal term misleading or unexpected. Usually, then, the entry for
compound terms and phrases is to be found under the principal term.
References to the principal-term entries will be made by SMALL CAPITALS
and to modifying terms by italic small letters.
Latin words and phrases as well as expressions from other languages
are listed alphabetically among the English words.
Abbreviations are seldom listed separately from the philosophical term
for which the abbreviation is used.
Modern logical notations are not regarded as abbreviations of words
but as symbols in a special language. They occur only in a special section
at the end of this DICTIONARY.
Compound words that today are spelled as a single word in English,
even though they are compound in Latin texts, are entered according to
the first letter of the single English word.
When the same word with identical spelling is used as more than one
part of speech, the sequence chosen is noun, adjective, verb, or adjective
before adverb. In some cases, these meanings are so close to each other
that only one of the parts of speech is listed: the noun rather than the
verb, the adjective rather than the adverb. When the adverb occurs only
in some senses of the adjective or when the adverb is common in philo-
ix
x Guide to Entries

sophical texts, the note Also adv. is attached to the adjective or some
meanings of the adjective.
Within an entry, the elements follow each other in this sequence as
far as they fit the term being discussed:
Term or phrase
Its part of speech
Its distinct meanings; to each of these may be added references to
antonyms, synonyms, and related terms; often an illustration of its
meaning or use may be given, introduced by as
Its divisions
Phrases, etc., that include the given term, especially if these be axiomatic
or idiomatic
Citation of a principle about the term; for example, the principal
of finality
Scholia or notes which may include: the recognized abbreviation of
the term in standard English dictionaries; comment on use and mis­
use of the term or on preference between it and its synonyms; refer­
ences to philosophical literature that discusses the term, usually in
the historical order of the date of birth of authors; chart or diagram
of meanings, divisions, contrasts, etc.
The diagrams and charts follow a term as closely as printer's space
allows. A chart may combine information for a number of terms scattered
through the alphabet. Thus object and subject will appear in the same
chart. It is placed in the text at the earliest occurrence of the related
terms.

D. Order of Meanings

If a term has more than one meaning, the distinct meanings are sepa­
rated from each other by a period and a number. The effort has been
made to avoid putting two meanings under one number, as Latin defini­
tions sometimes do. It is hoped that duplications of meanings have also
been avoided. Meanings or definitions that are approximately equivalent
are given within the same number and are separated from each other by
a semicolon.
Etymological meanings are seldom given. When given, this nominal
or literal meaning comes first.
Historical sequence in the set of meanings is rarely given.
In imitation of good English dictionaries, the attempt has been made
to present the distinct meanings in a flow of related and analogous con­
nections. But such a current often becomes arbitrary and conjectural
Guide to Entries xi

on any editor's part; loosely connected and even disconnected meanings

defy a pattern of ordering them. Hence the position of a meaning within
a set of meanings of the same term is often not indicative of its original
or derived status, of its preferred or commonest meaning. The editor
has tried to give a generalized or fundamental meaning before more
limited meanings; the active before the passive meaning; the causal mean­
ing before the result; the act before the power and its habits; the transi­
tive verb before the intransitive's meaning unless the intransitive seems
to be more basic or more usual; the first known or primary analogue
precedes the secondary analogues in a set. Meanings of ordinary language
and of technical philosophical language may be intermingled since much
scholastic terminology was not invented ad hoc but takes up and refines
the ordinary speech of men.
Field labels designating use in some branch of philosophy or a related
science or in a particular philosopher or school are given in italics. Some­
times these labeled meanings are divisions rather than distinct meanings
of the principal term. But the practice of English dictionaries in listing
these as distinct meanings is well established and useful even if it is
not an analytically perfect systt;m of entering meanings.

III. Placement of Variants and Alternatives

Variant spellings of the same word are not entered separately if they
are very like each other. If they vary much in spelling (as aesthetic and
esthetic), all spellings are listed, but the definition is presented only once.
This chief entry is referred to by the abbreviation, q.v.
Varying words for the same term are usually put in parentheses in lists
of divisions of terms and in the charts. Multiple equivalent terms will be
separated from each other by semicolons within these parentheses. Usu­
ally, only one of these variants is defined; the others give only the syno­
nym, followed by the suggestion that the first variant be consulted.
The same philosophical notion may bear names taken from Greek,
Latin, and Germanic roots. In these and like cases, only one of the
names is defined; the other names cross-refer to it by the one-word
synonym.
Some terms and variants of terms appear in standard English dictionaries
with the caution that they are obsolete, obsolescent, etc. These may be
withering away in ordinary speech, but many of these are leading a
lively existence in technical philosophical writing. Hence, this DICTIONARY
has included them without a death notice.
xii Guide to Entries

IV. Acknowledgment

After many experiments with different styles of entering terms and

meanings, the excellent technique of the College Edition of Webster's New
World Dictionary of the American Language (Cleveland: The World
Publishing Co., 1966) was adopted as the best for the purposes of this
DICTIONARY. In addition to its intrinsic worth, the technique has a special
advantage for many students who are already familiar with this particular
dictionary of their own language.
St. Thomas' commentaries on the works of that main architect of
philosophical language, Aristotle, are almost always worthy of careful
study.
 GUIDE TO ABBREVIATIONS USED
[A - ] - capital and long dash; spelling of a term begins with
a capital in a specified sense.
a.; aa. - article; articles
ABBR. - abbreviation
ad- reply to objection (by number or numbers)
adj. - adjective
adv. -adverb
ANT. -Antonym, Antonyms
Aris. -Aristotle
c - circa (Lat.): about (used with some dates)
c. - corpus (Lat.): body of the article or text
Cat. - Aristotle's Categories, cited by chapters
cf. - confer; compare; also see
C.G. - St. Thomas Aquinas' Summa Contra Gentiles, cited by
books (in Roman numerals) and chapters (in Arabic
numerals)
ch. - chapter; chapters
Chr.-Christian
Comm. - Commentary; Commentaries
Comm. in Met. - St. Thomas' Aquinas Commentary on Aristotle's "Meta­
physics,'' cited by books, lectures, and place numbers
d. - (with a year number) date of death
def. - definition
ed. - edition; editor
e.g. - exempli gratia (Lat.): for example
esp. - especially
fl. - floruit (Lat.): at the peak of his influence; used with
some dates
ibid. - ibidem (Lat.): in the same place
id. - idem (Lat.): the same, especially by the same author
i.e. -id est (Lat.): that is. This explains or paraphrases
whereas e.g. adds an example.
I.; II. - lib er; libri (Lat.): book; books
Lat.-Latin
lect. - lecture; lesson
lit. - literally
loc. cit. - loco citato (Lat.): in the place cited
Met. -Aristotle's Metaphysics, cited by books and chapters,
and arranged so that Ia is numbered II, and following;
metaphysics, as field label

xiii
xiv Guide to Abbreviations Used

N.-Note
n.-noun
N. Eth.-Aristotle's Nicomachaean Ethics, cited by books (in
Roman numerals) and chapters (in Arabic numerals)
no.; nos.-number; numbers; paragraph number (s)
p.; pp. -page; pages
par. - paragraph
pl.-plural
q.; qq. -question; questions
q.v. - quod vide (Lat.) : consult; see this term, passage re­
ferred to
REF. - reference; references
S.; St. -Saint
Sent. - Peter Lombard's Four Books of Sentences; In Sent.,
some author's commentary on the Books of Sentences
S.T. -St. Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologiae, referred to
or cited by parts (in Roman numeral), questions (in the
first Arabic numeral), and articles (in an Arabic nu­
meral preceded by a., aa).
supra-above (Lat.) : see above
s.v. - sub verbo; sub voce (Lat.) : see under word named
schol. -scholastic; scholasticism
sc. - scilicet; namely; that is to say
sec. - section or sections of a book
SYN. - synonym; synonyms; synonymies
T. Aq. - St. Thomas Aquinas
tr. - translated by; translation; translator
v.; v.i.; v.t.-verb; intransitive verb; transitive verb
vs - versus; against; opposed to
vol., vols.-volume; volumes
* - a term or phrase in Latin or some other language that
standard dictionaries do not recognize as Anglicized;
hence, it is cited as a word in a foreign language. The
sign * is used at the entry and italics elsewhere.
? - disputed classification; disputed interpretation; uncer­
tain date
Other references to authors and to works are given by full name and
title. No commonly accepted system of referring to titles of major works
of the scholastics prevails. One may adopt the usage of the better edited
philosophical magazines.
 CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION v

GUIDE TO ENTRIES ix

GUIDE TO ABBREVIATIONS USED xiii

DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS • xvii

DICTIONARY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY 1

APPENDIX: LOGICAL NOTATION 337

 The 24 Thomistic Theses
Ontology
Thesis 1 1 :
Potentia et actus ita dividunt ens, ut quidquid est, vel sit actus purus, vel ex potentia et actu tamquam primis atque intrinsecis
principiis necessario coalescat.
Potency and act divide being in such a way that whatever is, is either pure act, or of necessity it is composed of
potency and act as primary and intrinsic principles.

Thesis 2 2 :
Actus, utpote perfectio, non limitatur nisi per potentiam, quae est capacitas perfectionis. Proinde in quo ordine actus est purus, in
eodem nonnisi illimitatus et unicus existit ; ubi vero est finitus ac multiplex, in veram incidit cum potentia compositionem.
Since act is perfection, it is not limited except through a potency which itself is a capacity for perfection. Hence
in any order in which an act is pure act, it will only exist, in that order, as a unique and unlimited act. But whenever it is
finite and manifold, it has entered into a true composition with a potency.

Thesis 3 3 :
Quapropter in absoluta ipsius esse ratione unus subsistit Deus, unus est simplicissimus, cetera cuncta quae ipsum esse participant,
naturam habent qua esse coarctatur, ac tamquam distinctis realiter principiis, essentia et esse constant.
Consequently, the one God, unique and simple, alone subsists in absolute being. All other things that
participate in being have a nature whereby their being is restricted; they are constituted of essence and being, as really
distinct principles.

Thesis 4 4 :
Ens, quod denominatur ab esse, non univoce de Deo ac de creaturis dicitur, nec tamen prorsus aequivoce, sed analogice, analogia
tum attributionis tum proportionalitatis.
A thing is called a being because of being. God and creatures are not called beings univocally, nor wholly
equivocally, but analogically, by an analogy both of attribution and of proportionality.

Thesis 5 5 :
Est praeterea in omni creatura realis compositio subiecti subsistentis cum formis secundario additis, sive accidentibus : ea vero, nisi
esse realiter in essentia distincta reciperetur, intelligi non posset.
In every creature there is also a real composition of the subsisting subject and of added secondary forms, i.e.
accidental forms. Such composition cannot be understood unless being is really received in an essence distinct from it.

Thesis 6 6 :
Praeter absoluta accidentia est etiam relativum, sive ad aliquid. Quamvis enim ad aliquid non significet secundum propriam
rationem aliquid alicui inhaerens, saepe tamen causam in rebus habet, et ideo realem entitatem distinctam a subiecto.
Besides the absolute accidents there is also the relative accident, relation. Although by reason of its own
character relation does not signify anything inhering in another, it nevertheless often has a cause in things, and hence a
real entity distinct from the subject.

Thesis 7 7 :
Creatura spiritualis est in sua essentia omnino simplex. Sed remanet in ea compositio duplex : essentiae cum esse et substantiae
cum accidentibus.
A spiritual creature is wholly simple in its essence. Yet there is still a twofold composition in the spiritual
creature, namely, that of the essence with being, and that of the substance with accidents.

1 a
St Th. I . Q.77, a.1 ; Metaph. VII, 1 and IX, 1 and 9 ; …
2 a
St Th. I . Q.7, a.1-2 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.43 ; I Sent. Dist.43, Q.2 ; …
3 a
St Th. I . Q.50, a.2, ad 3 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.38,52,53,54 ; I Sent. Dist.19, Q.2, a.2 ; De Ent. et Ess. c.5 ; De Spir. Creat. a.1 ;
De Verit. Q.27, a.1, ad 8 ; …
4 a
St Th. I . Q.13, a.5 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.32,33,34 ; De Pot. Q.7, a.7 ; …
5 a
St Th. I . Q.3, a.6 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.23 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.52 ; De Ent. et Ess. c.5 ; …
6 a
St Th. I . Q.28, mainly a.1 ; …
7 a
St Th. I . Q.50 and ff ; De Spirit. Creat. a.1 ; …
 Cosmology
Thesis 8 8 :
Creatura vero corporalis est quoad ipsam essentiam composita potentia et actu ; quae potentia et actu ordinis essentiae materiae et
formae nominibus designantur.
However, the corporeal creature is composed of act and potency even in its very essence. These act and potency in the
order of essence are designated by the names form and matter respectively.

Thesis 9 9 :
Earum partium neutra per se habet, nec per se producitur vel corrumpitur, nec ponitur in praedicamento nisi reductive ut
principium substantiale
Neither the matter nor the form have being of themselves, nor are they produced or corrupted of themselves,
nor are they included in any category otherwise than reductively, as substantial principles.

Thesis 10 10 :
Etsi corpoream naturam extensio in partes integrales consequitur, non tamen idem est corpori esse substantiam et esse quantum.
Substantia quippe ratione sui indivibilis est, non quidem ad modum puncti sed ad modum ejus quod est extra ordinem dimensionis ;
quantitas vero, quae extensionem substantiae tribuit, a substantia realiter differt, et est veri nominis accidens.
Although extension in quantitative parts follows upon a corporeal nature, nevertheless it is not the same for a
body to be a substance and for it to be quantified. For of itself substance is indivisible, not indeed as a point is
indivisible, but as that which falls outside the order of dimensions is indivisible. But quantity, which gives the substance
extension, really differs from the substance and is truly an accident.

Thesis 11 11 :
Quantitate signata materia principium est individuationis, id est numericae distinctionis (quae in puris spiritibus esse non potest )
unius individui ab alio in eadem natura specifica.
The principle of individuation, i.e., of numerical distinction of one individual from another with the same specific
nature, is matter designated by quantity. Thus in pure spirits there cannot be more than one individual in the same
specific nature.

Thesis 12 12 :
Eadem efficitur quantitate ut corpus circumscriptive in loco, et in uno tantum loco, de quacumque potentia per hunc modum esse
possit.
By virtue of a body’s quantity itself, the body is circumscriptively in a place, and in one place alone
circumscriptively, no matter what power might be brought to bear.

Psychology
Thesis 13 13 :
Corpora dividuntur bifariam : quaedam enim sunt viventia, quaedam expertia vitae. In viventibus, ut in eodem subiecto pars
movens et pars motu per se habeantur, forma substantialis, animae nomine designata, requirit organicam dispositionem, seu partes
heterogeneas.
Bodies are divided into two groups: for some are living and others are devoid of life. In the case of the living
things, in order that there be in the same subject an essentially moving part and an essentially moved part, the
substantial form, which is designated by the name soul, requires an organic disposition, i.e. heterogeneous parts.

Thesis 14 14 :
Vegetalis et sensilis ordinis animae nequaquam per se subsistunt, nec per se producuntur, sed sunt tantummodo ut principium quo
vivens est et vivit, et, cum a materia se totis dependeant, corrupto composito, eo ipso per accidens corrumpuntur.
Souls in the vegetative and sensitive orders cannot subsist of themselves, nor are they produced of themselves.
Rather, they are no more than principles whereby the living thing exists and lives; and since they are wholly dependent
upon matter, they are incidentally corrupted through the corruption of the composite.

8
St Th. De Spirit. Creat. a.1 ; and everywhere …
9 a
St Th. I . Q.45, a.4 ; De Pot. Q.3, a.5, ad 3 ; and elsewhere …
10
St Th. Cont. Gent. IV, c.65 ; I Sent. Dist. 37, Q.2, a.1, ad 3 ; II Sent. Dist. 30, Q.2, a.1 ; …
11 a
St Th. Cont. Gent. II, c.92-93 ; I . Q.50, a.4 ; De Ent. et Ess. c.2 ; …
12 a
St Th. III . Q.75 ; IV Sent. Dist. 10, a.3 ; …
13 a
St Th. I . Q.18, a.1-2 and Q.75, a.1 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.97 ; De Anima everywhere ; …
14 a
St Th. I . Q.75, a.3 and Q.90, a.2 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.80 and 82 ; …
Thesis 15 15 :
Contra, per se subsistit anima humana, quae, cum subiecto sufficienter disposito potest infundi, a Deo creatur, et sua natura
incorruptibllis est atque immortalis.
On the other hand, the human soul subsists of itself. When it can be infused into a sufficiently disposed
subject, it is created by God. By its very nature, it is incorruptible and immortal.

Thesis 16 16 :
Eadem anima rationalis ita unitur corpori, ut sit eiusdem forma substantialis unica, et per ipsam habet homo ut sit homo et
animal et vivens et corpus et substantia et ens. Tribuit igitur anima homini omnem gradum perfectionis essentialem ; insuper communicat
corpori actum essendi quo ipsa est.
This rational soul is united to the body in such a manner that it is the only substantial form of the body. By
virtue of his soul a man is a man, an animal, a living thing, a body, a substance and a being. Therefore, the soul gives
man every essential degree of perfection; moreover, it gives the body a share in the act of being whereby it itself exists.

Thesis 17 17 :
Duplicis ordinis facultates, organicae et inorganicae, ex anima humana per naturalem resultantiam emanant : priores, ad quas
sensus pertinet, in composito subiectantur, posteriores in anima sola. Est igitur intellectus facultas ab organo intrinsece independens.
From the human soul there naturally issue forth powers pertaining to two orders, the organic and the non-
organic. The organic powers, among which are the senses, have the composite as their subject. The non-organic powers
have the soul alone as their subject. Hence, the intellect is a power intrinsically independent of any bodily organ.

Thesis 18 18 :
Immaterialitatem necessario sequitur intellectualitas, et ita quidem ut secundum gradus elongationis a materia, sint quoque gradus
intellectualitatis. Adaequatum intellectionis obiectum est communiter ipsum ens ; proprium vero intellectus humani in praesenti statu unionis,
quidditatibus abstractis a conditionibus materialibus continetur.
Intellectuality necessarily follows upon immateriality and, furthermore, in such manner that the farther the
distance from matter, the higher the degree of intellectuality. Any being is the adequate object of understanding in
general. But in the present state of union of soul and body, quiddities abstracted from the material conditions of indivi-
duality are the proper object of the human intellect.

Thesis 19 19 :
Cognitionem ergo accipimus a rebus sensibilibus. Cum autem sensibile non sit intelligibile in actu, praeter intellectum formaliter
intelligentem, admittenda est in anima virtus activa, quae species intelligibiles a phantasmatibus abstrahat.
Therefore, we receive knowledge from sensible things. But since sensible things are not actually intelligible, in
addition to the intellect which formally understands, an active power must be acknowledged in the soul, which power
abstracts intelligible likenesses or species from sense images in the imagination.

Thesis 20 20 :
Per has species directe universalia cognoscimus ; singularia sensu attingimus, tum etiam intellectu per conversionem ad phantasmata
; ad cognitionem vero spiritualium per analogiam ascendimus.
Through these intelligible likenesses, or species, we directly know universals, i.e. the natures of things. We
attain to singulars by our senses, and also by our intellect, when it beholds the sense images. But we ascend to
knowledge of spiritual things by analogy.

Thesis 21 21 :
lntellectum sequitur, non praecedit, voluntas, quae necessario appetit id quod sibi praesentatur tamquam bonum ex omni parte
explens appetitum, sed inter plura bona, quae iudicio mutabili appetenda proponuntur, libere eligit. Sequitur proinde electio iudicium
practicum ultimum : at quod sit ultimum, voluntas efficit.
The will does not precede the intellect but follows upon it. The will necessarily desires that which is presented
to it as a good in every respect satisfying the appetite. But it freely chooses among the many goods that are presented to
it as desirable according to a changeable judgment or evaluation. Consequently, the choice follows the final practical
judgment. But the will is the cause of it being the final one.
15 a
St Th. I . Q.75, a.2 and Q.90 and 118 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.83 and ff. ; De Pot. Q.3, a.2 ; De Anim. a.14 ; …
16 a
St Th. I . Q.76 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.56, 68-71 ; De Anim. a.1 ; De Spirit. Creat. a.3 ; …
17 a
St Th. I . Q.77-79 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.72 ; De Anim. a.12 and ff. ; De Spirit. Creat. a.11 and ff. ; …
18 a
St Th. I . Q.14, a.1 and Q.74, a.7 and Q.89, a.1-2 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.59 and 72, and IV, c.2 ; …
19 a
St Th. I . Q.79, a.3-4 and Q.85, a.6-7 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.76 and ff. ; De Spirit. Creat. a.10 ; …
20 a
St Th. I . Q.85-88 ; …
21 a
St Th. I . Q.82-83 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.72 and ff. ; De Verit. Q.22, a.5 ; De Malo Q.11 ; …
 Theodicy
Thesis 22 : 22

Deum esse neque inmmediata intuitione percipimus. neque a priori demonstramus, sed utique a posteriori, hoc est, per ea quae facta
sunt, ducto argumento ab effectibus ad causam : videlicet, a rebus quae moventur et sui motus principium ad primum motorem immobilem ; a
processu rerum mundanarum e causis inter se subordinatis, ad primam causam incausatam ; a corruptibilibus quae aequaliter se habent ad
esse et non esse, ad ens absolute necessarium ; ab iis quae secundum minoratas perfectiones essendi, vivendi, intelligendi, plus et minus sunt,
vivunt, intelligunt, ad eum qui est maxime intelligens, maxime vivens, maxime ens ; denique, ab ordine universi ad intellectum separatum
qui res ordinavit, disposuit, et dirigit ad finem.
We do not perceive by an immediate intuition that God exists; nor do we prove it a priori. But we do prove it a
posteriori, i.e., from the things that have been created, following an argument from the effects to the cause: namely,
from things which are moved and cannot be the adequate source of their motion, to a first unmoved mover; from the
production of the things in this world by causes subordinated to one another, to a first uncaused cause; from
corruptible things which equally might be or not be, to an absolutely necessary being; from things which more or less
are, live, and understand, according to degrees of being, living and understanding, to that which is maximally
understanding, maximally living and maximally a being; finally, from the order of all things, to a separated intellect
which has ordered and organized things, and directs them to their end.

Thesis 23 23 :
Divina Essentia, per hoc quod exercitae actualitati ipsius esse identificatur, seu per hoc quod est ipsum Esse subsistens, in sua
veluti metaphysica ratione bene nobis constituta proponitur, et per hoc idem rationem nobis exhibet suae infinitatis in perfectione.
The metaphysical notion of the Divine Essence is correctly expressed by saying that it is identified with the
exercised actuality of its own being, or that it is subsistent Being itself. And this is the reason for its infinite and
unlimited perfection.

Thesis 24 24 :
Ipsa igitur puritate sui esse, a finitis omnibus rebus secernitur Deus. Inde infertur primo, mundum nonnisi per creationem a Deo
procedere potuisse ; deinde virtutem creativam qua per se primo attingitur ens in quantum ens, nec miraculose ulli finitae naturae esse
communicabilem ; nullum denique creatum agens in esse cuiuscumque effectus influere, nisi motione accepta a prima Causa.
By reason of the very purity of his being, God is distinguished from all finite beings. Hence it follows, in the
first place, that the world could only have come from God by creation; secondly, that not even by way of a miracle can
any finite nature be given creative power, which of itself directly attains the very being of any being; and finally, that no
created agent can in any way influence the being of any effect, unless it has itself been moved by the First Cause.

22 a
St Th. I . Q.2 ; Cont. Gent. I, c.12 and 31 and III c.10-11 ; De Verit. Q.1 and 10 ; De Pot. Q.4 and 7 ; …
23 a
St Th. I . Q.4 , a.2 and Q.13, a.11 ; I Sent. Dist. 8, Q.1 ; …
24 a
St Th. I . Q.44-45 and 105 ; Cont. Gent. II, c.6-15 and III c.66-69 and IV c.44 ; De Pot. mainly Q.3, a.7 ; …
 DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

DIVISIONS OF AcT AND POTENCY 6

SUGGESTED DIVISIONS OF ANALOGY OF THE REAL 13

USAGE IN REGARD To BEING 32

CATEGORIES (PREDICAMENTS) OF BEING 40

A DIVISION OF EFFICIENT CAUSES 43

CHANGE, MOTION, MOVEMENT, AND BECOMING 48

SOME DIVISIONS OF END 91

FIGURES OF THE SYLLOGISM • 105

SOME MEANINGS AND DIVISIONS OF FORM 108

DIVISIONS OF THE Goon 118

DIVISIONS OF AcTs OF MAN AND OF HUMAN AcTs 127

SENSES OF THE IMMATERIAL . 133

xvii
xviii Diagrams and Charts

INFERENCES (INCLUDING) .ARGUMENT, IMPLICATION,

PROOF, REASONING, REFUTATION, SYLLOGISM 142

SENSES OF INTELLECT, INTELLECTION, AND INTELLIGENCE 147

SERIES OF ACTS OF INTELLECT AND WILL 148

SOME SENSES OF INTENTION • 150

TYPES AND SOME RELATIONSHIPS OF LAWS • 169

COMPOSITE LIST OF TERMINOLOGY ON MAN • 178

SOME USES OF THE TERMS MATERIAL CAUSE AND MATTER 182

TYPES OF NECESSITY 203

SOME USES OF OBJECT AND SUBJECT 210

ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOME DIVISIONS OF OBJECT

OF KNOWLEDGE 211

DIVISIONS OF A UNIT (THE ONE) 315

THE MORAL VIRTUES 324

SOME INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES 326

SUPERNATURAL VIRTUES. 326

 A

DICTIONARY

OF

SCHOLASTIC

PHILOSOPHY
 A
ability, n. 1. power to do something lute, whether this be conceived as the
in oneself, for oneself, or for others. ego, nature itself, or an extramundane
2. a faculty or power of man. 3. skill being.
or talent in making something. 4. abstract, a dj 1. being apart from, or
.

a habit or group of habits: as, ability thought of as apart from, an actual

to read rapidly. subject of being. Thus, quantity is
*ab initio, Lat. phrase. from the thought of as a form; but only the
beginning. quantitative exists as a modification
absolute, adj. 1. self-sufficient in be­ of a body. 2. representing or naming
ing; necessary in itself and needing an essence, form, or attribute as if
no other; having the full reason for it subsisted by itself, separated from
its being and perfections within itself; a real subject: as, sweetness is an
completely independent of all other abstract representation of the sweet
beings in its existence and activities; in sweet substances.
unaffected by any external causes and in the abstract: (1) in the state
conditions and by any internal limita­ of absolute nature. (2) merely theo­
tions. A N T. -relative. 2. perfect; retically, apart from existential in­
necessarily perfect; complete in it­ dividual differences, concrete circum­
self; whole. 3. infinite; the positively stances, and the other elements and
infinite; the unconditioned and un­ forces that are actually found to­
limited in being and activities. 4. hav­ gether with the more mature and that
ing no real relation to another before modify its real being and operations;
or after itself. 5. considered in itself ideally or only under ideal conditions.
or just by itself, independently of its NOTE -The abstract is not to be
relations and potential extension; con­ confused with the abstruse (difficult
sidered only in its pure essence or to ·understand), though an untrained
definition: as, an absolute nature, mind may find the abstract to be
e.g., man as such. 6. unqualified; un­ abstruse. The universal is abstracted
restricted; unconditional; without res­ but it is not abstract.
ervations; simple; unmixed; pure: as, ABBR.-abs.
an absolute ruler; an absolute inten­ abstract, v.t. I. to take away, notice,
tion. 7. necessary either under all or consider one or some features
conditions or under specified condi­ or part of a thing and leave or dis­
tions that have been fulfilled. 8. posi­ regard some other features or parts
tive; certain; definite; categorical: as, which actually belong to a thing or
an absolute affirmation. 9. primary, with which it is connected. 2. to
irreducible. universalize or make a general con­
ABBR.-abs. cept of a form representing it without
The Absolute, God (however con­ the individual existence and in­
ceived). dividuating accidents of a thing and
ABBR.-A. sometimes even without some ele­
absolutism, n. 1. the doctrine that ments of the essence and without its
civil sovereignty is an unlimited au­ essential properties. 3. improperly.
thority. 2. government according to mentally to separate by attending to
such a theory, including denial of one and not attending to another
rights of subjects, and of the com­ physically inseparable aspect of a real
mon good as the purpose of the thing. See RATIO.
state and government, and rule by abstraction, n. I. any mental act of
decree; despotism. 3. Any doctrine taking out some form or note in a
involving the existence of an abso- thing and not attending to other notes

1
abstraction 2 abstraction

naturally present in the same con­ abstraction of the whole (total

crete object of perception. Abstrac­ abstraction), the abstraction and
tion is not merely selective attention representation of the whole essence
although its negative aspect omits or complete nature, free only from
attention to other notes actually in a the existence and accidental elements
whole object. Sense abstracts, as the in the concrete object; abstraction of
eye noticing only the sensible prop­ the absolute or universal nature with­
erty of color in a concrete object or out considering the individual whose
even only one color among several nature it is. Scotus would explain
present in the sensible object; the this as mentally universalizing the
imagination abstracts from the pres­ common nature already present as
ence or absence of the object; the common in things; and this abstrac­
intellectual act of simple apprehen­ tion would not be a dematerializing
sion abstracts with the help of the of the sensible nature.
agent intellect from the material­ Three modes (degrees) of abstrac­
ity, singularity, plurality, existence, tion express three types of freedom
and other features of the concrete from matter in the nature repre­
object before it. This intellectual sented in the mind. The first two
act is not a judgment. Most of degrees are abstraction; the third is
the divisions of abstraction concern explained by some as a separation
this intellectual separation from mat­ or negative judgment and by others
ter. 2. the form that is taken out as an abstraction.
by an act of perception of sense or first mode (degree), the ab­
intellect. 3. the form represented as straction, proper to the philosophy
abstract. See ABSTRACT, adj., sense 2. of nature and to physical sciences,
abstraction of first intention (in­ in which the mind disregards in­
tuitive abstraction), immediate at­ dividual (signate) matter in the
tention to and abstraction of the object while it attends to the physi­
essence or necessary properties from cal nature having sensible matter,
the sensed; the mental act that forms e.g., the abstractions that result
a direct universal concept of some in concepts of water as such, color
form in the individual object present as such. These are also abstractions
before the knower. The essence thus of the whole.
represented in a concept is common second mode, the abstraction,
to many but is not represented as proper to mathematics, in which the
or recognized as common to many. mind disregards both signate and
abstraction of second intention, sensible matter in the object while
a reflective mental act, following the it attends to the intelligible matter
first intention, in which the mind of form or figure only, e.g., the ab­
recognizes the form already known stractions that result in concepts of
to be common to many. This results circle, plane, etc. See intelligible
in a reflex universal concept, e.g., of a MATTER.
species known to be a class. It is third mode, a negative judg­
often the fruit of judgment and ment, peculiar to metaphysics, in
reasoning. which the mind separates all mat­
abstraction of the form (of a ter from the object known and
form; formal abstraction), the in­ grasps it as independent of any
tellectual detaching and representing matter or any necessary relation
of a form without the existing sensi­ to matter, e.g., "Being is not mate­
ble matter and other forms present rial." This judgment is usually fol­
in the object, e.g., abstraction of lowed by a construct conceptualiz­
mathematical figure or temperature ing what is known by the judgment.
from the many possible formal ob­ This concept, e.g., of common be­
jects in a material body. ing, of transcendental unity, may
abuee 3 accident

be regarded as a third mode of something happening incidentally; the

abstraction. See SEPARATION. result of chance or of coincidence.
abstraction without prescission, See CHANCE. 4. an unforeseen or un­
the abstraction used in conceptualiz­ controllable misfortune that is no
ing transcendentals in which the mind one's fault. 5. ethics. a circumstance
attends to the common or what is added to or modifying the object or
conceived to be somehow common intention of a human act. The object
without explicity excluding the differ­ is sometimes referred to as the moral
ences. The transcendental includes all substance or essence of the act;
its inferiors and all differences be­ hence, circumstances are referred to
tween its inferiors. as accidents. 6. ethics. an indirect
ABBR. - abs., astr. effect of a human act that is not
REF. - St. Thomas, Commentary foreseeable or not blameworthy even
on Boethius' Book "On the Trinity,'' if foreseeable.
q. 5, aa. 3, 4. The articles and dis­ The divisions pertain to sense 1
cussions on this subject are nu­ except for contingent accident, fal­
merous. lacy of accident, and proper accident.
abuse, n. I. misuse (not merely non­ absolute accident: ( 1) an intrin­
use); a use that is wrong, immoral, sic accident. ( 2) an accident that is
or excessive. 2. use that is contrary really distinct from the subject in
to the nature, natural function, or which it inheres. (3) an accident that
natural purpose of the living organ immediately affects the substance to
that a person is using; destructive which it belongs or of which it is
use. 3. mistreatment of another. 4. predicated rather than affecting an­
a bad, corrupt, or legally forbidden other accident or another extrinsic
custom; an unjust practice, even if object.
general. common accident, accident as
accent, fallacy of, phrase. a fallacy such; accident as analogously com­
in the use of language, consisting in mon in the nine categories rather
faulty emphasis, change of emphasis than any class of or any individual
from the original, mispronunciation accident.
of similar words, slanting, and in­ contingent (logical) accident, an
nuendo. attribute that is not characteristic of
acceptation, n. the generally received or essential to a nature but may be
meaning of a word or phrase. present or absent in different mem­
accident, n. I. that whose being is bers of the same species: as, philo­
to be in and be dependent upon a sophical ability in man.
substance; a modification of a being denominated (extrinsic; formal­
whose essence naturally requires it ized; noninherent) accident; acci­
to exist in another being; being in­ dent by extrinsic denomination, an
hering in another being as in a sub­ accident that gives no modification
ject of existence; an attribute of or real change to a substance but
another being; a being of a being; only brings a substance into a new
ens in alio; ens entis. In the plural. external relation with something
accidents are often referred to as else; one whose nature is known and
appearances, phenomena, or species. named in terms of something out­
ANT. - substance. See chart on side itself: as, the relation, place, and
CATEGORIES OF BEING for the nine times of a being. The time of a thing,
classes of accidents. 2. logic. an at­ for example, is determined by the
tribute belonging to some nature but course of the earth around the sun.
not constituting its essence or a part It is disputed how many of the later
of its essence. See contingent and categories are of this kind.
flroper ACCIDENT, below. 3. what is fallacy of accident: ( 1) confus­
unforeseen or, at least, not intended; ing what is accidental to a thing with
accident 4 act

what is essential to it. (2) confusing its absolute nature and, therefore,
attributes with essence. ( 3) illicitly found in all members of the species;
reasoning from what is contingently a property. This is the fourth pred­
accidental to a thing as though it icable.
were essential to it. subsistent accident, one that
formal accident, an intrinsic acci­ miraculously exists without inhering
dent; a true accidental form. in a proportionate subject, e.g., the
formalized accident, an accident Eucharistic species of bread and wine
by extrinsic denomination. Some without the substance of bread and
metaphysicians regard these as not wine.
inhering in the subject of which they REF. - Topics, I, ch. 5; Posterior
are predicated and as not constituting Analytics, I, ch. 6 near end; Met.,
an accidental form of that substance; V, ch. 30; S.T., I-II, 7, a. 1; 17, a. 9
but they are thought of as though ad 2; 53, a. 2 ad 3; 110, a. 2 ad 3;
they were forms. Hence their inher­ III, 77, a. 1 ad 2.
ence is a construct or mentally made accidental, adj. 1. describing the be­
form rather than a true form of the ing of an accident in the concrete,
substance. not in the abstract. 2. of, like, or
intrinsic (absolutely inherent) resulting from the accidents of a
accident, one that really has its be­ thing; distinguished from substantial.
ing in its subject, modifies it, and 3. nonessential; not necessary; con­
changes its subject accidentally; one tingent; not invariably connected
belonging to its subject of itself, re­ with another. 4. being with another;
gardless of other beings or of con­ merely associated with another. 5.
nections that it may set up between incidental; secondary; not usually
its substance and other beings: as, connected with another. 6. indirect;
quantity and qualities of themselves indirectly connected with or follow­
express no relation except to their ing from. 7. unforeseen; unforeseen
substance. and unintended; beside or even con­
metaphysical accident, one that trary to the intention of the agent;
directly belongs in any of the nine marked by chance. See *PER ACCI­
categories: distinguished from logical DENS. The adverb accidentally oc­
accident and from something reduced curs mainly in senses 4-7.
to the category of accident. acosmicism, n. a theory of being and
modal accident: (1) an accident of knowledge that denies the exis­
that some scholastic philosophers con­ tence of a material world and claims
sider is only modally, not really, that all existents are spiritual sub­
distinct from the substance or other stances, ideas, and their relations.
accidents of the substance or from The classic example is George Ber­
related substances and accidents. In­ keley (1685-1753) with his maxim:
stances may be the extrinsically de­ esse rerum est percipi, "to be is to be
nominated accidents. (2) an accident perceived."
that immediately inheres in or modi­ act, n. 1. a capacity in a subject
fies other accidents: as, shape modi­ whereby it is real, really such a be­
fies quantity. (3) a mode of being. ing, or really this being; an intrinsic
necessary accident, an accident principle determining a potency; the
inseparable from its subject. intrinsic principle that confers a defi­
physical accident, an absolute or nite perfection on a subject. This is
formal accident; some form by na­ the Aristotelian energeia; it is the
ture inhering. most important of the senses of act
proper accident, a characteristic for the Aristotelian-Thomist doctrines
or distinctive accident of a particular on act and potency. 2. a perfection,
type of substance, essentially belong­ realization, or fulfillment of a po­
ing to or necessarily resulting from tency; the state of being perfect;
act 5 act

what is fully real, complete, finished, that primarily determines any passive
realized. This is the Aristotelian ente­ potency to be or to be something
lecheia, which is the correlative of specific: as, esse is the first act of
the incomplete. 3. the perfection re­ being; substantial form is the first
sulting from an action; the thing act of a bodily nature; power is the
done, changed, or made; the deed. first act in the order of operation.
4. an activity or operation, whether Being, nature, and operation are dif­
doing or making; deed; the second ferent orders First proximate act
. .

act of a power: as, an act of choice. is the power considered together with
act of God, an unforeseeable and all the concrete factors wherewith it
nonpreventable occurrence for which is ready for action. First remote act
no one is accountable; an accident or is the power considered in itself, apart
disaster due to natural causes. from other requirements needed for
act of man, see MAN. action.
act of the imperfect, the gaining formal act, substantial form in an
of a new perfection and the priva­ essence (nature) composed of matter
tion of an old form; a real change in and form; hence, the first actuality
a being actualized or perfected in of a natural body as a nature; as,
some way. This act of the imperfect the human soul is the formal act and
is not to be confused with an im­ the first act of the matter of the
perfect human act or an imperfectly body. See souL, sense 1.
performed action. human act, see HUMAN act.
act of the perfect: (1) an im­ immanent act, see ACTION.
manent activity; an act by and in incomplete act, a change going on;
a being that is already complete in an actualizing of a potency that has
its existential, substantial, and proper not yet reached the term of its ac­
accidental perfection. (2) especially tion. The term probably is inappro­
an intentional change (in which there priate for instantaneous changes.
is no privation of an old form). indifferent act, see morally IN­
commanded act, see HUMAN act. DIFFERENT.
complete act: (1) an end or per­ mixed act, a being or perfection
fection achieved. (2) an operation which is united in some way with
that is an end; the ultimate act of a potency or limitation; hence, a finite
being. being. The potency need not be
elicited act, see HUMAN act. matter.
end of the act, see moral DE­ pure act: (1) a simple perfection
TERMINANTS. of any kind without imperfection;
entitative act, the act whereby a mere perfection free of potency. (2)
thing exists; esse: as distinguished strictest sense. the unqualified perfec­
from formal act. tion of existence, which is not present
exercised act, a present, existing in, not united with, and not limited
perfection. by any passive potency. Hence, it is
extrinsic act, not an internal act a name for God, though Aristotle
of a thing but an attribute named meant by this name a Pure Act of
from its relation to an external act: thought rather than Pure Act of be­
as, the being of the place of a thing ing. See PERFECTION; BEING.
seems to give no perfection to the received act, a perfection of any
placed substance but relates the sub­ order or class combined with and
stance to the actuality of other bodies present in a potential subject.
about it. See extrinsic ACCIDENT. second act, a perfection or deter­
first act: (1) the intrinsic basic mination added to a being that al­
perfection of a being in any order in ready possesses the first act; an act
which it is. (2) in a series or set of that presupposes a prior act in a
acts within the same being, the act being and that perfects that act acci-
act 6 act

dentally (by way of an accidental signate (designated) act; *in

modification): as, intellect is a sec­ actu signato, a perfection of which
ond act of the soul; reasoning one is explicitly or reflectively aware.
about God is a second act of the I know I am thinking, by exercised
intellect. act without attending to myself, when

DIVISIONS OF ACT AND POTENCY

ACT (being in act, actual being)

1. Entitative act (act of being; esse)

{
a) whole essence or nature
form (determining part of a nature)
subsistent
b) first act (substantial form)

Formal act
second act (accidental form)
{ nonsubsistent
proper (essential)

{
contingent

remote
c) first act (the power)
proximate (tendency)
second act (activities of the power)

2. Pure act

{
Mixed act
of existence
3. Unreceived act
of form
Received act
4. Act of the perfect (immanent)
Act of the imperfect (transeunt)

. { simple (pure)
{ absolutely simple
5. Complete act (perfection) simple
mixed
Incomplete act
-----
·-------------------- -------- --------------------

POTENCY (being in potency, potential being)

Active (an act)

{ a nature
a power

1. pure potency
(prime matter)

mixed with act

{ substantial (to become
another substance)
subjective accidental

Passive 2. natural
{ essential ( noncontradictory)
existential (producible)
obediential

objective
{ intrinsic (absolute; metaphysical)
extrinsic (relative to an agent)
act 7 actu

I am thinking of an object. I know I action (activity), producing a term

am thinking, in a designated act, in or causing change in another dis­
when I bring to the fore the fact tinct being (known as the patient or
that I am thinking of an object. recipient).
transeunt (transitive act), see formally immanent, virtually
ACTION. transitive action, activity of a spirit
ultimate act: (1) the last in a that is wholly immanent, without any
series of acts by which a being ob­ passage of being, power, or matter
tains its proper natural fulfillment. from the agent to the patient, yet
(2) the best, highest perfection of resulting in new being or real change
a being according to its nature. outside the agent: as, God's activity
virtual act, a cause in the state of creating.
of remote act. See ACTION. virtual action: (1) the power to
REF.-Met., IX, ch. 6, 8; St. act while it is not being exercised on
Thomas, Power of God, q. 1, a. 1. any object: as, the sun does not heat
act, v.i. 1. to do or make something. empty space. (2) causal power in re­
2. to have an effect (on); to exer­ mote act.
cise positive influence on; to cause principle: "Action is in the patient"
something to be in act, whether by (Actio est in passo). The agent truly
way of efficient, final, or formal acts but acts on and in the recipient
causality. 3. ethics. to use human potency; i.e., action is a formal per­
powers; behave. fection of the agent but an entitative
(be) acted upon, phrase. subjected to perfection of the patient.
the action of another; receiving the REF. - Physics, III, ch. 3; Genera­
action of a cause; the category of tion and Corruption, I, ch. 7, 9; Met.,
passion. VIII, ch. 8; XII, ch. 16; S.T., I,
action, n. 1. the doing of something; 1 8, a. 3, esp. ad 1; 41, a. 1 replies;
acting; activity; operation; exercise 54, aa. 1-3; C.G., II, ch. 9; Truth,
of power or of a power. 2. the acci­ q. 8, a. 6; Evil, q. 2, a. 11; q. 5,
dent of a finite being whereby it im­ a. 5.
parts motion to another (the patient); activate, v.t. 1. to make active; cause
a second actuality of the power to to engage in activity. 2. to apply an
act; change considered as proceeding instrument to action.
from the cause. While the being of active, adj. 1. able to act, work, func­
this accident, the fifth category, is dis­ tion, perform, etc. 2. acting; working;
puted, the meaning is agreed upon. functioning; causing being or change
3. an act performed. 4. the way an by its action. 3. lively; busy; ener­
object moves; the sequence or proc­ getic. 4. intentional; deliberately
ess of an object's changes in re­ causing: as, active scandal.
sponse to causal impulse. 5. pl., con­ activity, n. action; doing or making;
duct, esp. habitual: as, actions speak use of a power; the second or ulti­
better than words. 6. the abstract mate perfection of a finite being. In
term for act; operation. God's case, the activity of making
formal (improper causal) action, cannot be regarded as a second ac­
what a form does; the communica­ tuality of a being who is pure act
tion of a formal effect to a being. and absolutely simple.
This has also been called active · *actu, Lat. n., ablative singular of
causality. "actus." in act; in the state of ac­
immanent (metaphysical) action tuality; actually. This occurs in
(activity), activity whose principle phrases like in actu, in act: the same
and term are within the agent; ac­ as actu; ens actu, actual or existent
tion that perfects the agent itself. being; in actu primo, in first act;
See ACT of the perfect, LIFE. in actu secundo, in second act; in
transeunt (transitive; physical) actu exercito, in the fact of doing it;
actual 8 aeviternity

implicitly in the exercise of being or end, organs to stimuli and to func­

power; in actu signato, explicitly; as tions, organisms to environment, men­
pointed out; as designated in the act. tal powers to the properties of reality,
ANT. - in potentia, (only) in etc. See divisions of ORDER. 2. the
potency. state of being thus fitted or con­
actual, adj. 1. existing in physical formed. 3. changing or adjusting to
reality; real, not merely possible; suit different conditions. 4. the ability
that in fact is. 2. now existing; now to change or conform to various con­
occurring. 3. active. ditions. 5. esp., in a living being the
actualism, n. the opinion of J. G. new modifications, properties, func­
Fichte (1762-1814) and others that tions, structures, or states brought
being is pure activity, i.e., that ac­ about by adapting itself to the en­
tivity is what a thing is. vironment; the effect of the process
actuality, n. 1. an act in senses 1, 2, of adaptation.
3; a perfection; an actual thing, *ad extra, Lat. phrase. lit., "to the
form, power, action, fact, etc. 2. an outside"; externally (related to).
act or perfection thought of ab­ *ad hominem, Lat. phrase. lit., "to
stractly as a state of being or of the man." See ARGUMENT.
form; completeness. *ad infinitum, phrase. on and on
actualize, v.t. 1. to make actual or without end; without limit or stop.
real; to perfect a potency; to impart ABBR. - ad inf.
a new form or act to a potency or adjective (adjectival), adj. 1. gram­
patient. 2. to improve something by mar. qualifying or limiting a sub­
changing its substantial or accidental stance. 2. logic. an incidental term
form for the better. 3. to cause some­ qualifying or limiting a principal
thing to come true by making it to term; expressing a difference or at­
be; to turn the possibly true into tribute added to the essence. 3. met.
a fact. having the nature or function of an
actuate, v.t. 1. to put into action; accident; an attribute of another. 4.
to set in motion; to apply an instru­ dependent; subordinate.
ment to action; to activate. 2. to ABBR. - a., adj.

actualize. *in adjecto, Lat. phrase. used with

*ad, Lat. preposition. 1. to; toward, predication expressed or understood;
after expressions of motion. 2. at. signified or predicated as an attribute
This preposition occurs in a number of, accident of, or addition to the
of phrases in logical and philosophi­ essence.
cal writings: as, ad aliquid. adoration, n. worship, q.v.
�ad aliquid, Lat. phrase for Aris· *ad rem, Lat. phrase. to the point;
totle's "pros ti." lit., "to something"; connected with the topic or issue.
to another thing. adj., relative to; be­ *jus ad rem. See JUS.
ing related to; having a reference aesthetics (aesthetic; esthetics ; es·
to something. n., reference; "toward­ thetic), n. the study of the nature
ness." This states the formal note of and causes of beauty, of the modes
a relation which is not to be in of perceiving it, and of the ways it
another but to be toward another. is realized in artistic products. NoTE
*ad aliud, Lat. phrase. lit., "to an­ - It seems that in strict scholastic
other." It is the equivalent of ad usage, aesthetics is not the same as
aliquid. the philosophy of art.
"'ad baculum, Lat. phrase. lit., "to aeviternity (aevum; eviternity), n.
• the stick." See ARGUMENT. 1. long-lasting duration with only
adaptation, n. 1. putting things into periodic or irregular change in a be­
order or relation by fitting one thing ing. This is intermediate between the
to another: as of part to whole, part changeless duration of eternity and
to part within the whole, means to the constant changing of time. Some
affection 9 agnosticism

scholastics regard eviternity as the edge of what he is doing, making, or

same as time; some refer to it as a changing. Agent here seems to be pre­
finite or participated eternity. 2. the ferred to cause. 2. a dependent, hired,
period between the infrequent changes appointed, or delegated moral cause:
of spiritual beings; an interval of as a government tax agent; a real­
unchanging existence. estate agent.
affection (sometimes: affect), n. 1. agent in act, the activity of the
a quality indicating a subjective state agent; the agent exercising its causal
in response to a stimulus. The cor­ power.
relative quality in the object is an natural agent: (1) a cause of
affective quality. 2. strict sense, a generation or corruption. (2) a cause
primary sensible quality of a passing that moves to an end determined by
nature: as, blushing. It is also called its nature not by its choice; a cause
passion. 3. an emotional disposition, acting necessarily according to its na­
tendency, impulse, or stirring, involv­ ture under the conditions appropriate
ing either fond and pleasant feelings for its activity: distinguished from
or unappealing and disagreeable ones. voluntary agent.
4. loosely, a quality; attribute. moral agent, one acting with de­
affective quality. See QUALITY; AF­ liberate choice; one capable of choos­
FECTION, sense 1. ing moral good or moral evil.
affectivity, n. a subject's sensitivity separate agent, a pure spirit or
or tendency to respond to emotional separated substance if it is acting on
stimuli. Hence, it can be regarded as bodies. Hence, if man is a substantial
a synonym for the appetites, emo­ unit, his soul is not a separate agent
tions, and conative states. Often re­ when acting on his body.
ferred to as the heart. voluntary agent, a deliberate or
affirmation, n. 1. a statement or prop­ freely acting agent; one that self­
osition declaring the existence of determines its own acts and is not
something, an objective identity be­ moved by the mere necessity of its
tween subject and predicate, or a nature.
connection between antecedent and aggregate, n. a sum, mass, heap, or
consequent; a positive declaration. collection of things not having one
2. a judgment of which such a prop­ nature; an unorganized accidental
osition is the sign. 3. a legal solemn whole composed of many distinct
declaration, but not under oath. things that may be either like or un­
way of affirmation, see WAY. like each other. See UNIT.
a fortiori, adjectival phrase. lit., *agibilia, n. pl., Lat. things to be
"for a stronger (reason);" "on the done within the agent and morally
stronger side." all the more so. It is perfecting the agent when they have
said of a demonstration, conclusion, been done. Agibilia are the objects
or instance that is logically more of prudence; factibilia, things to be
cogent than one already accepted. made, belong to art.
agape, n. I. charity; spiritual love of agnosticism, n. the general view that
a person present to the lover; self­ any natural knowledge or, at least,
giving love. 2. a feast of love. See certitude about first . causes, origins,
EROS. and natures beyond the phenomena
agency, n. 1. causality; efficacy: as, is impossible. The term was coined
the agency of sunlight. 2. the de­ by T. H. Huxley (1825-1895). Ag­
pendent causality of a hired, ap­ nostics stress the uncertainty of natu­
pointed, or delegated moral cause. ral knowledge of (1) essences or sub­
directed agency, see FINALITY. stances, (2) the existence of the
special agency, see proper CAUSE. soul, (3) the existence, perfections,
agent, n. 1. an efficient cause; esp. an and activity of God, ( 4) the origin
efficient cause who acts with knowl- of the universe, and (5) final caus�s
agreement 10 amoral

in nature. As a consequence, they alpha and omega. ( 1) the begin­

usually doubt all supernatural revela­ ning and the end. (2) caps. God as
tion; but ti.deism escapes natural first efficient cause and as supreme
agnosticism by supernatural belief. end.
agreement, n. 1. the consent of two alter, v.t. I. to make other or dif­
or more to the same arrangement, ferent; modify; change. 2. specifi­
promise, purpose, statement, etc. 2. cally. to change the quality or
a contract. 3. sameness in assent to qualities of a thing and esp. its im­
a proposition, opinion, or point of mediately sensible qualities. 3. v.i. to
view; acceptance of another's judg­ undergo change, esp. of sensible quali­
ment about some matter. 4. con­ ties. The cause of alteration is called
formity to a measure or standard. 5. the alterant or alterative being;
consistency of judgments or propo­ the changeable, the alterable; the
sitions. 6. likeness; equality. changed, the altered.
aim, n. 1. end. 2. directing something alternative, adj. supplying or requir­
to an end; finality. ing a choice between two (or, loosely,
alienation, n. I. transfer of one's more than two) objects, courses of
property to another; causing one's action, sets of means, reasons, an­
own goods to be another's. 2. bring­ swers, etc.
ing about estrangement; causing un­ alternative, n. 1. a choice between
friendliness. 3. causing a transfer of one or other of two; a selection of
affection to another. 4. often in one from several. 2. either or any
modern philosophies. making man one of the things to be chosen or
other than he is; making man a selected.
stranger and even an enemy to his fallacy of alternative, lack of
true self; turning man's thought and true opposition between alternatives;
activity away from his true nature, incomplete disjunction in a sup­
needs, goals, and progress. Thus, to posedly disjunctive proposition; ig­
the Marxist humanist, religion alien­ noring relevant alternatives.
ates man from his true self as a ambiguous, adj. having, suggesting,
material social animal. 5. mental de­ or open to two or more distinct mean­
rangement; insanity. ings or interpretations; equivocal; un­
*aliquid, Lat. pronoun. lit., "some­ certain in meaning because of multi­
thing." It occurs in three main uses. ple possible meanings.
1. the transcendental, something, un­ The ambiguous is not well applied
derstood as another thing, a distinct to the truly analogical. Ambiguity
thing. 2. hoc aliquid, this (singular) concerns terms; amphiboly concerns
substance. 3. ad aliquid, to another; grammatical construction and posi­
relatedness. tion that permits multiple meanings.
aliunde, adj. and adverb. from some ambiguous by chance, acciden­
other source: as, aliunde evidence. tally having the same sound, spell­
allegory, n. I. a story in which peo­ ing, title, etc., so that meaning may
ple, things, and events have another be uncertain (at least to the inat­
meaning, as in a fable or parable. tentive or to those not familiar with
2. the presentation of ideas by means the idioms ()f a language): e.g., soil
of such stories; symbolical narration bank and savings bank.
or description, e.g., Plato's myths, ambiguous by intention (design),
More's Utopia, Orwell's Animal bearing some similarity or relation in
Farm, the analysts' invisible gardener. fact or in meaning to another so that
alpha, n. 1. the first letter of the ambiguity may be deliberately ex­
Greek alphabet. 2. a beginning, esp. ploited. See also mental RESERVA­
an efficient cause at the start of a TION.
series of events. 3. (A-) God as Crea­ amoral, adj. 1. morally indifferent;
tor. neither moral nor immoral. 2. un-
amphiboly 11 analo&iue

trained in morality; unconcerned with biguous, however, has completely dis­

moral standards; not interested in the tinct meanings even though it is
fact whether conduct is or is not uncertain which of them is being
morally good or bad. used.
amphiboly (amphibology), n. 1. a analogical by chance, said of a
meaning that is ambiguous, double, term similar to another in sound,
or uncertain. 2. an ambiguous phrase spelling, or root but altogether dif­
or proposition, arising from uncer­ ferent in its two or more meanings;
tain or careless grammatical structure hence, ambiguous or equivocal.
and position or from misleading oral analogical by intention (by de·
stress; hence, a fallacy of ambiguous sign; equivocal by design in Boe­
construction. 3. in a syllogism, the thius' terminology), said of a term
fallacy of four terms under the ap­ that is used in common for different
pearance of three terms, of which things because the mind recognizes
one is used in two distinct meanings. some imperfect similarity between the
ampliation, n. logic. enlarging the beings, natures, parts, relations, etc.,
actual meaning of the time expressed that it names by the same term.
by the verb, e.g., "The blind see" ABBR. - anal.
must mean "Those who were blind analogon, n. 1. the analogous per­
now see." fection (note, property, relation, etc.)
anagogical, adj. I. leading upward that is somewhat common to two or
to spiritual things; spiritual; mysti­ more; the imperfectly similar trait
cal; used or to be understood in a in which two or more are compared.
transferred spiritual meaning. 2. in 2. the primary analogue.
C. G. Jung's (1875- ) psychology. analogous, adj. analogical.
relating to the moral or allegorical ABBR. - anal.
tendencies of the unconscious. analogue, n. commonly used in the
analogal, n. I. the analogous perfec­ plural, though one of the pair or set
tion or note in which analogues are of analogues is referred to by the
compared; analogon. 2. an analogical singular. 1. any two or more that
concept, or term. 3. adj. analogical. bear an imperfect resemblance to
analogate, n. an analogue. each other. Hence, analogues may be
analogical (analogous), adj. 1. of, beings, natures, parts, principles of
based on, or like an analogy. 2. ex­ things, perfections, substances, acci­
plaining or reasoning by analogy; dents, operations, functions, relations,
analogizing. 3. somewhat like and meanings of terms, etc. 2. the mem­
somewhat unlike another or others bers or divisions of an analogous
in a certain respect or respects, e.g., form or note: as the perfective, use­
in appearance, being, function, na­ ful, and pleasant are analogues of
ture, structure, etc.; imperfectly the good. 3. words with a common
similar. The analogical is intermedi­ source; cognate.
ate between the univocal and equi­ principal (primary; prior) ana·
vocal; yet sometimes it is spoken of logue: (1) the member of the set
as equivocal but not purely equi­ that chiefly and more perfectly and
vocal. The analogical is like and more literally has the compared per­
unlike in the same given respect or fection. (2) the better known ana­
note, not alike in one and unlike logue, from which the analogous per­
in another. Because of the similarity, fection has been named.
it can be compared to its analogue, secondary (dependent; subordi·
can be partly known by such a com­ nate; posterior) analogue, any
parison, is spoken of by the same analogue that is related to the princi­
terms, and is sometimes paired with pal, named from it, and has the
it in other relationships. 4. multi­ analogous perfection in a less perfect
valued in exact meaning. The am- way.
analogy 12 analogy

analogy, n. I. original mathematical usage or combination. Examples:

meaning. 1. proportion; ratio; a rela­ apology-apologize as a model for
tion between quantities or mathemati­ forming energize from energy; do
cal figures. 2. a sameness of propor­ philosophy patterned after do your
tion between respective pairs or sets work.
of proportions, e.g., the proportion All the divisions below except
of double between the pairs: 3-6, false analogy pertain to the meta­
5-10. physical senses, esp. to sense 3. The
II. metaphysical meanings. 3. re­ terminology, explanation, and identi­
semblance without identity; simul­ fication of examples is far from uni­
taneous likeness and unlikeness in form among past and present scho­
a given respect or perfection between lastics. This is partly due to the
two or more beings, or their natures, double basic difficulty of knowing
parts, functions, accidents, operations, what being truly is and what God
relations, etc.; imperfect likeness be­ is like when compared with creatures.
tween unlike beings. 4. the capacity analogy by association, an extrin­
of things partially alike to be com­ sic analogy that thinks of things as
pared with each other and under­ alike or names them in the same way
stood in terms of each other. 5. the even if they are naturally unlike, e.g.,
capacity of transcendental objective to think that a book of philosophy is
concepts to signify similar relation­ philosophy, a form of knowledge; that
ships in different grades of being. See a computing machine knows mathe­
ANALOGY OF PROPORTIONALITY, below. matics.
III. logical meanings. 6. a mental analogy by reference, a referring
process of comparing or relating or relating of one to another with
things and meanings of terms that which it is somehow connected and
present both similarities and dissimi­ with which it shares some likeness;
larities to each other. 7. an explaining attribution, e.g., the being of an acci­
of something by comparing it imper­ dent is referred to the being of a
fectly, point by point, with some­ substance. The reason for the refer­
thing else: as, explaining the nature ence is more important: inherence,
of the state by comparing it to a causality, participation, etc.
real organism is an analogy. Analo­ analogy of attribution, an imper­
gous meanings are well illustrated in fect resemblance of two or more
the set of dictionary meanings of because of a simple relation or con­
hand, see, strength. 8. probable rea­ nection of the secondary analogue
soning that moves from certain or analogues with the principal. Some
known likenesses and like relations property of the principal is attri­
of things to additional likenesses and buted to the secondaries because of
relations between them; an argu­ a real or mental connection between
ment based on similarities but not them. Various connections of effects,
on identities between different things, conditions, helps, and circumstances
pairs, groups, etc. with their cause are thus named ac­
IV. biology. 9. similarity in func­ cording to the cause's proper nature.
tion between things dissimilar in ori­ Aristotle's classic example was health
gin and structure. ANT. - homology. or healthy. Health properly is only
V. linguistics. 10. the process of in an organism; but it is applied to
forming new or unfamiliar words, food, medicine, climate, complexion,
constructions, or pronunciations ac­ vacation, etc. Connections of natural
cording to the pattern of older or signs with the signified may also be
more familiar ones. This is based on attributions when the natures of the
analogy of model and modeled. The two differ. Scholastics dispute whether
process can be extended to adopting attribution may be an intrinsic or
a familiar word for an unfamiliar extrinsic analogy or be of both types.
analogy 13 analogy

analogy of being, the imperfect of being: any real being is intrin­

likeness of real things to each other sically analogous to any and every
in the fact that they are existing other being in the proportion of its
things. essence to existence.
principle of universal analogy

SUGGESTED DIVISIONS OF ANALOGY OF THE REAL

I. In the distinctions of Cajetan and Suarez -

Attribution
{ � �
intr ns c
extnns1c

Proportionality
{ intrinsic
extrinsic (metaphorical)

II. A suggested modern scheme

Basis of division Members

1. Presence of the anal­ 1. extrinsic

ogous note in one or (improper)

{
all analogates intrinsic
(proper)
cause and effect
2. Cause of the analog­ 2. attribution: model and copy

{
ical likeness between natural sign and naturally
signified
real (actual, proper, intrinsic)

{
proportionality metaphorical (in idea, by associ­
ation, improper, extrinsic)
proportion between coprinciples
3. a single (two­

( { :::;:� :: :
3. Structure of the re­ of the same being
lation between the member)
attribution
analogates relation
degree of participation

o
a multiple (four­
member, six­ proper
member, etc.) f
relation, i.e., coprinciples of
proportionality whole beings
improper
4. Degree of likeness 4. proportion without essential difference; mathematical
and unlikeness be­ mere inequality between univocal natures
tween analogates simultaneous intrinsic likeness and intrinsic difference

III. G. P. Klubertanz, S.J., Introduction to the Philosophy of Being, 2 ed., p. 323,

presents a scheme of names and types of analogy divided li.rst by form or structure
of terms, then by relation to reality (intrinsic, extrinsic), then by quality of the
analogy.
analogy analogy

analogy of causality, the imper­ extrinsic proportionalities, e.g., the

fect likeness between a cause and sun blessed our graduation day.
its nonunivocal effects. Since the effect analogy (analogia) secundum
has the imperfectly common perfec­ esse et intentionem, an analogy in
tion in a better way, this relationship being and in idea (knowledge of the
is also known as an analogy of being).
eminence. analogy {analogia) secundum in·
analogy of inherence, the ana­ tentionem et non secundum esse,
logical resemblance of an accident to an analogy according to our concept
the being and nature of the sub­ but not in being. This may refer
stance in which it inheres. to the mental formation of (a) an
analogy of inequality, a univocal analogous concept for the purpose of
likeness in the generic or specific testing whether the objects referred
nature with unlikeness (a) in the spe­ to by it are at least analogous, e.g.,
cific difference of the species within the wave concept in mechanics and
the same genus or ( b) unlikeness in in light; ( b) a single vague concept
the degree of perfection that members of things that are only extrinsically
of the same species possess the com­ analogous, as the mind does in fash­
mon nature. Type a is sometimes ioning similes and in attributing be­
called the analogy of genus; for ing to the merely possible.
genus, in a sense, differs in its species. false analogy, the fallacy of ig­
analogy of names: ( 1) the ana­ noring significant differences in ob­
logical meanings of terms referring serving, comparing, and reasoning
to compared beings. (2) the analogi­ about imperfectly like things or
cal meaning of the names given to imperfectly like relations between
God when compared with similar things. The fallacy tends to assert
names given to creatures. identity when it is not present or
analogy of participation: (1) to claim certitude for only probable
sharing in essentially different degrees conclusions about the degree of
in some imperfectly common perfec­ likeness.
tion; as, plants, animals, men, and extrinsic (improper) analogy, a
angels all variously participate in resemblance in which the analogous
life which God has in an unpartici­ note is truly or formally present only
pated way. (2) the sharing in dif­ in the principal analogue and is predi­
ferent individual ways in the trans­ cated of the other analogues only
cendentals of being, unity, truth, and because of some relation to the pri­
goodness. mary analogue. Instances are the ob­
analogy of proportion, a simple jects compared in metaphors and the
relation of two wholes or principles connection between natural signs and
of the same whole to each other natural associations with the signi­
because of some imperfectly like fied: campus queen; happy holiday.
trait. intrinsic (proper; natural) anal·
analogy of proportionality, an o gy, a resemblance in which the anal­
imperfect relation of relations; an ogous note or perfection is truly
imperfect likeness between two or (formally) present in all the ana­
more complex sets of relations; im­ logues that are being compared,
perfect resemblance between sets of though differently present in each
distinct relations; an imperfect pro­ analogue. This analogy occurs in
portion between proportions, e.g., natural objects that do imperfectly
goodness in a grape is related to the resemble each other independently of
nature of a grape somewhat as moral our thought of them and language
goodness is related to the nature of about them.
a man. Besides such an intrinsic pro­ ABBR. - anal.
portionality, metaphors or similes are REF. -Thomas Cardinal Cajetan,
analysis 15 angel

0.P., The Analogy of Names; G. P. tice. 7. any system of analysis: as, the
Klubertanz, S.J., St. Thomas Aquinas logical analysts' study of the mean­
on Analogy (all the texts and a sys­ ing of common or scientific language
tematic analysis of their correlations). by using their principle of verifica­
analysis, n. 1. the breaking down of tion. But use of an analytic method
any composite thing or nature into does not constitute an analytic phi­
smaller parts, components, or units; losophy.
the act or process of taking some­ empiriological analysis (used by
thing apart. 2. the dissolution of Maritain {1882- ) and some
compounds into their elements. 3. others), analysis directed to the ob­
the breaking down of any complex servable and measurable features and
object of thought into simpler con­ operations of sensible things; spatio­
cepts and implied judgments: as, the temporal knowledge of the world,
analysis of composite propositions or esp. as practiced in experimental
of a text of Plato. 4. the mental physical sciences.
division of an object followed by ontological analysis, the study of
the detailed study of the distinguished sensible reality directed to the intel­
parts or notes, one after another. ligible reality, sc., the essence and
Abstraction concentrates on only one constituents of a nature, and its in­
form but does not attend to all, in telligible relations; a knowledge of
turn, as analysis does. 5. the analytic what a thing is; hence, a philosophi­
method: also named resolution, re­ cal knowledge.
duction, the way of discovery or of reductive analysis, the breaking
investigating, the way of judgment, down of arguments into their com­
and the way of ascent. This way ponents and tracing back proposi­
begins with what is at hand and is tions to the primary principles which
first known to us and proceeds by support them. The expression may
breaking this down into its simpler occasionally be used of resolving a
elements. Material, sensible reality as whole into its matter and form. See
experienced is complex, rich, and REDUCE, sense 5.
many-sided. This intelligence attempts reflexive analysis, reflection on
to understand by distinguishing its the thinking and experiencing sub­
elements, studying the parts of its ject to determine, isolate, and com­
structure, tracing it to its causes, etc. pare its elements; introspection of
Thus, analysis of man begins with the phenomena contained in con­
human operations, with what we ex­ sciousness.
perience ourselves and men doing; ABBR. - anal.
then we move to isolate different REF.- L. M. Regis, O.P., Epis­
types of experience, to find the struc­ temology, writes extensively of the
ture of man's nature and powers, and analytic method and refers to other
the causes within and without man literature on this; E. McMullin,
for his operations. This is called the "The Analytic Approach to Philoso­
way of ascent because it moves from phy," American Catholic Philosoph­
what is less in being and less know­ ical Association, Proceedings, XXXIV
able in itself, sc., the concrete singu­ (1960), 50-79, distinguishing three
lar material being, to what is greater phases: logical atomism, linguistic
in being and more intelligible. Ideal­ analysis, and analytic philosophy.
istic philosophies will use the word analytic (analytics; Analytics), n.
1. that part of Aristotle's logic that
"analysis" in almost the reverse sense
treats of certain and necessary con­
since they tend to begin with ideas,
clusions. 2. Aristotle's logical works,
axioms, and truths and "analyze" or Prior Analytics and Posterior Ana­
deduce what these imply. 6. psycho­ lytics.
analysis; its theory, method, or prac- angel, n. I. an incorporeal substance;
anger 16 antinomy

an intellectual substance; a purely thropomorphism that makes God the

spiritual creature; a separate intel­ same as something living or the spirit
ligence; a separate substance. 2. of all life. 5. any theory of vitalism.
a member of the lowest order of animus, n. 1. soul. 2. deliberate love
angels. in the soul. 3. intention. 4. the ra­
NoTE - Since Pseudo-Dionysius tional powers of the soul or its spirit­
(end of the fourth century A.D. ) the ual functions: distinguished from
angels have been classified in three anima.
hierarchies, each having three orders antecedent, n. I. any being or event
or choirs. From highest to lowest that precedes another; a real prin­
these are named: seraphim, cheru­ ciple. 2. anything logically before
bim, thrones; dominations, virtues, another; said especially (a) of the
powers; principalities, archangels, premises of a syllogism; (b) the con­
angels. dition in a conditional proposition;
REF. -S.T., I, q. 108, a. 5 for ( c) the word, phrase, clause, etc.,
meaning of these names, in reply to which a pronoun refers. 3. the
to the objections; Pseudo-Dionysius, first term of a simple analogy of
The Celestial Hierarchy. proportion or the first and third terms
anger, n. I. a passion or feeling in of a proportionality.
the irascible appetite desiring and antepredicaments, n. pl. (but the
prompting defense against the diffi­ singular may occur). the topics and
cult or revenge against what is re­ terms treated by Aristotle in the first
garded as opposition, mistreatment, three chapters of his Categories be­
injury, etc. 2. the irascible appetite. fore the predicaments themselves are
anima, n. 1. life principle; vital prin­ taken up. The topics are chiefly
ciple; soul. 2. as distinguished from modes of predication.
animus: the sentient, irrational, and anthropology, n. 1. in Kant and C.
instinctive in man; the functions Wolff (1679-1754). the philosophical
of the soul acting as form rather study of man. Sometimes it is spoken
than as principle of its spiritual of as philosophical anthropology. 2.
operations, desires, etc. modern. the study of races, esp. of
animal, n. 1. a sentient bodily sub­ primitive peoples, their physical and
stance; the genus including brutes mental characteristics, institutions,
and men. 2. specifically. nonrational social customs, etc.
or merely sentient bodily substance; anthropomorphism, n. thinking of
brute. or describing the nonhuman and, par­
social (civil; political) animal, ticularly the divine, merely in terms
man considered in his natural ability, that apply properly to human nature
desire, and need for social or political alone, e.g., attributing old age to God.
union with other human beings. antilogism, n. 1. indirect reduction of
animate, adj. living; having a soul. a syllogism in any of the fifteen valid
the prime animate (animated), moods to test its validity. 2. an ar­
matter in that condition or disposi­ rangement of three propositions such
tion in which the soul first actualizes that, if any two of them are true,
it; the matter of which the soul is the third must be false; hence, given
the first act. any two of them as premises, the
animism, n. 1. the attribution of hu­ contradictory of the third follows as
man powers to material beings and a syllogistic conclusion.
animals. 2. a belief that physical na­ antilogy, n. a contradiction in terms,
tures are alive and have souls. 3. a ideas, or statements.
belief in the existence of spirits antinomy, n. a contradiction between
dwelling in natural objects. 4. a con­ apparently sound principles, positions,
fusion of the powers of living things conclusions, or laws; irreconcilable
with divine power; a variety of an- conclusions. The word became fa-
antirational 17 appearance

mous from Kant's antinomies of pure apologetics from being or seeming

reason. to be a needed basis for preliminary
antirational, adj. distrustful or sus­ to religious faith.
picious of, skeptical about, or op­ REF. -A. Dulles, S.]., Apologetics
posed to reason, its special method and the Biblical Christ.
of deductive thinking, and its results. apologia (apology; apologetic) n.
Hence, behaviorist, sensist, fideist, ro­ 1. a formal defense, usually written,
mantic, and voluntarist positions are of a belief or cause, especially when
often said to be antirational. Even it has been attacked; a declaration
the pragmatic with its distrust of of the reasons that show some be­
system and deductive method in phi­ lief, action, policy, way of living,
losophy may be so described, though etc., is good or honorable. 2. the
antirationalist is more appropriate in title of a number of famous philo­
this sense. sophical and theological writings, e.g.,
antithesis, n. 1. a contrast or opposi­ Socrates' Apology, Justin Martyr's
tion of thoughts, opinions, statements, Apology for the Christian Religion,
or propositions. 2. the phrase, clause, Cardinal Newman's Apologia pro
or proposition stating such an opposi­ Vita Sua.
tion. 3. contradictory or complete aporia, n. 1. the troubled state of an
opposition. 4. the counterposition; intellect which confronts two con­
the exactly opposite thesis. 5. a trary views or proofs that enjoy
contrast or opposition in a state of about equal evidence, at least at first
being, of material nature, of social look. 2. the question that leads to
and economic organization, etc.; the such a conflict of views and trouble
complete opposite of the state of of intellect. Aristotle is often said
thesis. This sense, with its own shad­ to have used the aporetic method
ings, is common in the philosophies in summarizing conflicting positions
of Hegel (1770-1831) and Marx among his predecessors, giving rea­
(1818-1883). See DIALECTIC. sons as well as objections on both
*a minori ad majus, Lat. phrase. sides. The scholastic method of the
lit ., "from the less to the greater." question may be regarded as a me­
See *A FORTIORI. thodical use of aporia.
*a pari, Lat. adjectival phrase. on a posteriori, adjectival phrase. lit. ,
an equal or common basis with an­ "from the latter" "from the back "
'
other: used esp. of an a pari argu­ "from what is after" "from wh�t
ment or a close analogy. follows." 1. proceeding from facts to
apathy, n. in Stoic philosophy. cul­ principles; hence, empirical in
tivated control of feeling and resig­ method of beginning knowledge. 2.
nation to misfortune; deliberate ac­ proceeding from particulars to uni­
ceptance of pain and sorrow as the versals; hence, inductive in method.
will of (a pantheistic) god or logos; 3. proceeding from effects to cause;
emotional unconcern about oneself, hence, proceeding from the better
others' states, or nature. known and inferring the cause: there­
apologetics, n. an historico-philosoph­ fore said to be causal in method. 4.
ical explanation and defense of the moving from experience of the sensi­
presuppositions and origins of the ble and complex real to theoretical
Christian religion. Apologetics is vari­ interpretation and generalization.
ously treated as an introduction to Compare analytic method, ANALYSIS,
theology, as part of the philosophy sense 5.
of religion, and as a selection of ANT. - a priori.
topics from the philosophy of man, appearance, n. 1. anything that ap­
natural theology, and the history of pears to sense or intellect; any be­
Christ and the Apostolic Age. Recent ing that is present and immediately
methodology is concerned to keep knowable by perception or by in-
appellation 18 appetite

temal experience. 2. (usually pl.), an object or end; appetency.

the external immediately sensible ac­ elicited appetite (appetency):
cidents; the directly perceptible (1) a conscious, deliberate use of a
physical details; species; phenomena. tendency or an application of an
See an English dictionary for other appetite to its object, e.g., a human
meanings. act; the deliberate pursuit of hap­
appellation, n. I. the act of giving a piness. (2) an act of a lower appetite
name to or calling by a name. 2. commanded or controlled by a higher
the name given; a common name. appetite.
3. in late medieval logic after Peter higher appetite, the will seeking a
of Spain (1210-1279): found, e.g., truly human or moral good.
in Ockham (1300?-1349?). (a) taking lower appetites: (1) the sensory
a term to designate an existing thing. appetites seeking their own good or
(b) in William of Sherwood: the seeking a present satisfaction con­
property of a term by which it is apt, trary to the truly human good. (2)
because of its meaning, to be said of the will yielding to the sensory ap­
something by means of the copula is. petites or emotions.
apperceive, v.t. I. to interpret and natural appetite: (1) the spon­
judge new experience and knowledge taneous, habitual, unvarying tendency
by the help of one's past experience, (inclination) of a natural body or of
background, expectations, etc.: dis­ any natural power of a living thing
tinguished from pure perception. 2. to a good naturally suitable to itself
to be conscious of self and one's or away from something naturally
state of consciousness. harmful to itself; the ontological
appetency (appetence), n. an act or tendency or direction of a noncogni­
movement of an appetite to or away tive thing to what perfects or satisfies
from an object; actual tending to an it. This definition excludes the sensi­
object; inclination; appetition; a tive appetites and the will. Some­
drive toward satisfaction of the de­ times reference is made to a legal
sire for something. appetite in inanimate natures and
appetible, adj. desirable; able to sat­ to a plastic appetite in plants. (2)
isfy a tendency; hence, in some any spontaneous, indeliberate, and
sense good. habitual act of any appetite tending
appetite, n. I. a form, power, or to its proper object or end or mov­
constant disposition of a being ing away from its specific evil. Note
whereby it tends toward an object both the words act and any in the
that is or seems to be suitable to definition. Some would include here
itself or whereby it withdraws from instinctive activities and spontaneous
or acts against an unsuitable object; or primo-primi responses of the sensi­
a tendency or inclination in a nature tive appetites of man. Scotus and
to a definite type of object or end. others would include the natural love
Older scholastic writers preferred ap­ of what appeals to the will because
petite; most recent writers prefer these thinkers do not regard such an
tendency except when they name the act as an elicted one.
powers of the sensitive and rational ANT. to sense 2. - elicited appetite.
appetite. Appetite begins with the rational appetite: (1) the human
will; (2) any will; a rational desire;
metaphor of seeking a good: as, ap­
an act of will. See WILL.
petite for food; tendency begins with
sensitive appetite, an inclination
the metaphor of stretching toward an in a sentient being to a sensible good
end or going in a given direction. known by the senses or a turning
2. a movement of a power to its away from a sensible evil; sensuality.
proper good, e.g., in desire or choice; This term, too, may apply to the
actual tending; natural attraction to powers or to the acts. There are two
application 19 architectonic

sensitive appetites in animals and 1. logic. proceeding from cause to

men. (1) concupiscible appetite, the effect or from principle to implied
sensory power of desire (or the de­ conclusions and instances: as, reason­
sire) for the sensibly pleasant and ing from fire to heat is a priori. 2.
of sensory dislike for the sensibly epistemology. (1) prior to and inde­
unpleasant; concupiscence; the pleas­ pendent of experience of the object
ure-seeking and pain-avoiding tend­ or of the relation of object and
ency at the sensory level. (2) irasci­ attribute; known by intuitive or rea­
ble appetite, the sensitive appetite soned insight into a nature or its
which inclines the sentient being to relationships or into its properties of
strive and fight for a difficult sensi­ universality and necessity rather than
ble good or to resist attacks against by experience of these known ele­
its sensible good. ments. 3. hence, not established or
REF.- Aristotle, On the Soul, III, verified by experience. (But this in­
ch. 9-10; S.T., I, qq. 80, 81. dependence of experience is not al­
application, n. 1. a putting to use, ways derogatory, except in a purely
especially for one's own purposes; empirical philosophy.) See a priori
using; use in the active sense. 2. JUDGMENT. a priori FORMS in Kant.
exercising one's causal power on a ANT. -a posteriori.
patient or directing an instrument or aptitude, n. 1. fitness; special fitness
object to a specific work at a par­ for a particular task, duty, office,
ticular time: as, God applies crea­ etc. 2. an ability. Sometimes, the
tures to their operations. 3. relevance, word is substituted for power or
especially to a practical problem or faculty. 3. natural tendency or in­
need. clination; a native capacity and in­
apprehend, v.t. 1. to grasp mentally; terest.
perceive; take hold of by the mind. *a quo, Lat. phrase. lit., "by whom,"
2. to understand a meaning. 3. to "by which," "from which." 1. by
look forward to with anxiety or fear. which: expressing agency by a per­
apprehension, n. an act of the in­ son. 2. from which: as, the term
tellect seizing upon the essence of a a quo.
thing; the intellectual act of taking arbitrary, adj. 1. based on will or
cognitive possession of an object or preference, not on nature or natural
meaning; the mental act of represent­ necessity; conventional. 2. willful;
ing something without affirming or capricious; voluntarist. 3. unreason­
denying anything about it; knowing able and inconsiderate, or even un­
an essence or nature. just, in dealing with others; absolute;
complex apprehension: (1) the despotic. 4. discretionary; not man-
act of seizing the truth in a judg­ . datory.
ment. (2) an apprehension that rests *arche, Greek. n. the first thing; be­
on a prior judgment or conclusion -ginning; a first principle.
of reason. archetype, n. 1. the original form,
simple apprehension (mere ap· real or mental, according to which all
prehension), mentally grasping what or some of a given kind are made. See
is immediately given in one's experi­ divine IDEAS; Platonic FORM; eternal
ence; conception, as distinguished LAW; MODEL. 2. the pattern for fixed
from judging and inferring. living species to which Linnaeus
Newman (1801-1890) speaks of (1707-1778) believed the Creator
notional and real apprehension as acts conformed in producing organisms.
preparing for notional and real assent. See fixed CREATION.
REF. - S.T., I, 85, a. 5. architectonic, adj. 1. of or like an
a priori, adjectival phrase. lit., "from architect or his practices. 2. hence,
the earlier " "from the prior " "from directive; regulative; principal; or­
what is b� fore," "from th� front." ganizing, commanding, and governing:
argument 20 Aristotelianism

as, ethics is the architectonic science regard it as a mere variation of a

of human actions. 3. systematizing. priori proof. See ontological ARGU­
argument, n. (often in Lat. phrases, MENT, below.
argumentum) 1. a reason or reasons dialectical argument, reasoning
for or against (a position, thesis, hy­ from generally accepted premises to
pothesis, opinion, action, etc.). 2. the the contradictory of a given thesis.
process of finding, presenting, or or­ Thereby a question for dialectical in­
ganizing reasons for or against some­ vestigation is set. The term may be
thing; reasoning. An argument is not applied to the Socratic method of
always a demonstration. 3. a syl­ reaching a correct definition as a
logism. 4. a proof. 5. a discussion conclusion.
in which there is disagreement. 6. didactic argument, reasoning from
a quotation, as from an authority on principles proper to each subject,
the matter, adduced as a proof. 7. not from the learner's or answerer's
a summary of the subject matter of opinions. See SYNTHESIS.
an address, chapter of a book, etc. ontological argument, reasoning
8. mathematical logic. a symbol or that proceeds from some conception
subject determined by another sym­ or judgment about being to the exis­
bol. tence of that known being; specif­
� *argumentum ad baculum, lit., ically, any of the attempts to prove
/"argument to the stick." The fallacy the existence of God from some idea
of using or threatening force instead of being, of a perfection of being, or
of reasons. from some judgment about the pos­
;,. *argumentum ad hominem, lit., sible existence of some sort of being
"argument against the man." Any or perfection.
variety of the fallacy that irrele­ supporting argument, a second
vantly attacks the character, wealth, argument or additional evidence of
other interests, background, former the same type, confirming or enrich­
opinions, etc., of an opponent instead ing the conclusion reached by a differ­
of refuting his reasons. ent argument.
*argumentum ad ignorantiam, argumentation, n. 1. arguing or rea­
lit., "argument appealing to igno­ soning. 2. the connected statements
rance." See IGNORANCE. that are the external sign of a reason­
*argumentum ad populum, lit., ing process. 3. the third operation of
"argument to the people." The argu­ the mind and its syllogistic and other
ment of popularity, majorities, opin­ expressions, together with the rules
ion polls, and appeals to popular for right reasoning; the third part
passions and partisan prejudices when of formal logic. 4. the style of speak­
these are irrelevant to the issue of ing or writing that presents and
proof. refutes arguments: distinguished from
· argument from silence, the at­ narration, description, and exposition.
tempt to prove an author's or speak­ Aristotelianism, n. the philosophical
er's assent, disapproval, ignorance, principles, characteristic doctrines,
absence, lack of interest, or negli­ and method of Aristotle (384-322
gence of duty because he does not B.c.) or of a follower of Aristotle:
discuss some topic, object to a cur­ distinguished from positions contem­
rent view, use a certain source, etc. porary with Aristotle, e.g., Platonism,
*a simultaneo argument, a kind or contemporary with given followers
of reasoning that proceeds from a of Aristotle, e.g., Augustinianism con­
premise that implies its conclusion fronting medieval Aristotelianism.
in the full meaning of the premise Some discoveries and distinctive
instead of giving the reason for the doctrines of Aristotle include his
truth of the conclusion as a right teachings on the full reality of natu­
a priori proof does. Some writers ral bodies, real change in natures,
art 21 art

the four causes of change, the mat­ follow the type of object imitated: as
ter-form structure of bodies, the visible figure, emotion, character,
role of soul as form, the primacy whole human action, etc.
of first substance, the distinction of liberal art, nominally, an art that
act and potency in beings, the struc­ a free man (liber) may nobly prac­
ture of the syllogism, the study of tice: distinguished from servile arts
demonstration, the origin of knowl­ practiced by slaves, mechanics, mere
edge in sense perception, the existence workmen; hence, an intellectual prac­
and abstractive activity of the agent tice directed to modifying a non­
intellect, free will in man, the notion material subject chiefly in the knowl­
of the human act, the distinction edge of the object of the art, e.g.,
of intellectual from moral virtues, the arts of logic, teaching, legislating.
contemplative happiness as the pur­ They may be referred to as the arts
pose of human life, and the doctrine of doing rather than of making. They
of God as immovable prime Mover are concerned with one's own person
and pure Act of thought. or other people rather than with
art, n. 1. correct knowledge joined to external or material things.
sufficient skill in making things; right mechanical art, see servile ART,
reason in regard to the making of sense 1.
things; the intellectual virtue re­ operative art, one that merely
quired for making things; recta modifies a natural object, e.g., shoe­
ratio factibilium (Aristotle and St. making.
Thomas); an exemplary conception philosophy of art, the study of the
and plan in the maker's intellect first principles of making things, of
giving sure direction in producing a creativity and imitation, and of the
definite product by suitable means. relations of art to nature. See
The philosophical conception here is AESTHETICS.
much closer to the modem notion practical art: ( 1) skill in exer- .
of designing than of craftsmanship, cising one's faculties rather than in
though skill in execution is not ex­ making things, e.g., correct speaking,
cluded from the intellectual habit or medical diagnosis, musical composi­
acts of conceiving the products and tion. (2) an art that uses products
learning how to make it that the well for the agent's purpose, e.g.,
definition stresses. See chart on sailing a boat (made by a productive
VIRTUES. 2. a work of art. artist).
architectonic (master) art, that productive art, one that makes
art in a related group of artistic habits its objects by changing matter in
that directs the other arts (and natural bodies or imposing an arti­
artists) for the purpose of the master ficial form or order on suitable mat­
art. The name comes from the role ter, e.g., sculpture, shipbuilding.
of the architect among the building servile art: ( 1) one directed to
arts, all of which are controlled to making external material products
the purpose of a structure designed and requiring (notable) bodily ac­
and planned by the architect. tivity. Also called mechanical arts,
cooperative art, an art exercised they may be regarded as arts in the
on something living which must work most proper sense; they are workers'
with the artist's efforts: e.g., agricul­ arts. (2) a useful art.
ture, healing, teaching, and directing useful art, one directed to activi­
consciences. ties or external products that are
fine art (beaux arts), an art means to other human ends and are
whose product is an end in itself or not desired for their own sake, e.g.,
a form to be contemplated and en­ nursing, cooking, toolmaking. Useful
joyed: distinguished from useful arts, arts may include liberal and servile,
which concern means. Subdivisions practical and productive arts.
artifact 22 assent

REF. - Physics, II, ch. 2; N. Eth, of something, esp. the distinctive

I, ch. 1, 2; VI, ch. 4; Politics, I, ch. appearance. 2. any one of the intel­
11; Poetics; S.T., I-II, 57, aa. 3-4; ligible formal objects or notes in a
M. ]. Adler, Art and Prudence. thing, considered apart from others
artifact (artefact), n. an object, or that may simultaneously be present
an order among objects, made by hu­ in it; ratio: as, the entitative, psy­
man art or transitive work. Natural chological, and moral aspects of a hu­
bodies and their natural products, man act. 3. one side of a complex
unmodified by man, are not artifacts. phenomenom, problem, etc. 4. a par­
artificial, adj. 1. made by human art tial interpretation of a complex phe­
or work, not by nature alone. 2. made nomenon or fact. 5. a distinction
in imitation of nature by deliberate made among the manifold elements
skill. 3. presupposing and improving of a situation or issue: as, the his­
on nature; cultivated. This is better torical, scientific, and theological as­
regarded, however, as a perfecting of pects of a miracle.
the natural rather than as properly assent, n. 1. strict sense. a certain
artificial. See NATURAL, sense 5. 4. judgment about an object; a judg­
superimposed on natural powers, de­ ment that consciously accepts and
sires, needs, or necessary operations; adheres to the truth of its object;
humanly invented and chosen; con­ perception of the truth of the rela­
ventional, arbitrary; voluntary: as, a tion between subject and predicate;
teamsters' union is an artificial holding something as true. Hence, not
society. 5. unnatural; opposed to na­ every judgment is an assent. Assent
ture: as, artificial contraception. 6. is more than the composition of sub­
poorly imitating nature; displeasing ject and predicate (or their separa­
in its inferiority to nature. 7. affected; tion) ; its object is not things but the
contrived; superficial; uselessly com­ truth about things. Assent affirms one
plicated. 8. insincere. side of a contradiction and at least
ABBR.-art. implicitly denies the opposite because
ascent, n. 1. a going-up; climbing; it is false. Assent preferably means
moving upward. 2. a way of rising a certain judgment; but it is used for
from a lower, less perfect being to a a judgment that the object or enunti­
knowledge of a higher, better, ana­ able is probably true. Scholastic usage
logical being or cause. 3. the return prefers to regard assent as an intel­
to God (a) of the intellectual crea­ tellectual act and consent as a
ture by natural and supernatural voluntary act. 2. free conviction;
knowledge of Him and (b) of the mental satisfaction in a free decision
nonintellectual creature through serv­ to act in a certain way or to accept
ing man. some evidence as sufficient for action.
*a se, Lat. phrase. lit., "from itself," 3. loosely. consent; agreement; con­
"from its own self,'' "from himself." currence.
See ENS A SE. external assent, some outward act
aseity, n. 1. the divine attribute of or sign that one internally judges, be­
uncaused existence. 2. God regarded lieves, etc., that something is true.
as uncaused cause. This is a less accu­ free assent, assent motivated not
rate usage. merely by objective evidence (which
asocial, adj. not interested in the may be insufficient) but by free con­
companionship of others; not well trol over the intellect because the
fitted to live, work, and cooperate assent is recognized to be good for
with others. Asocial is not as severe the person.
a term as unsocial (averse to fellow­ internal assent, the intellect's (and
men) and antisocial (harmful or hos­ sometimes will's) acceptance of a
tile to fellowmen). proposition, or of the statement of a
aspect, n. I. the appearance or look witness, as true.
assimilate 23 assumption

notional assent, assent to and the divine goodness, their common

even conviction about the truth of a end, as they act and are acted upon
proposition, esp. of a general prin­ to gain more perfection.
ciple, but with no dynamic or prac­ association, n. 1. a voluntary coming
tical interest in its truth or its im­ together of persons having common
plications for one's life: as, merely interests and purpose. 2. the union
philosophical arguments that God thus set up; an informal organiza­
exists generate only notional assent tion; companionship; fellowship, etc.
in many minds. An association usually means some­
practical assent, a judgment that thing less formal and permanent than
a certain course of action is the best a society. 3. a connection or relation
one to take in the given circumstances of sensations, images, concepts, and
and with the available information. feelings brought about by processes
See CONSCIENCE; JUDGMENT. that bring these elements together.
real assent, assent to an individual The three main psychological proc­
existent or fact, fortified by images, esses are likeness of the combined
feelings, interest, love, and dynamic elements, their contrast, and their
factors so that it becomes influential nearness in time or place. 4. mental
in one's thinking and living. Many ability to combine ideas and their
notional assents - to the idea - can objects into new images, constructed
become real assents - to the reality. concepts, etc. See IMAGINATION; cen­
theoretical assent, a judgment tral SENSE. 5. a recall of past ex­
about the objective truth of a propo­ periences through some connection
sition or about the facts of a case: with a present state of mind. 6. the
distinguished from practical assent. neurological correlation of impres­
REF. -Truth, q. 14, a. 1; John sions.
Henry Cardinal Newman, An Essay free association, the psychoana­
in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (be­ lytic technique of opening up the
sides notional and real assent, New­ memory of past experiences, images,
man treats simple and complex as­ and feelings by having the subject
sent of faith); F. A. Cunningham, talk freely about something, bringing
"The Second Operation: The Assent in all his associations with that topic,
vs. the Judgment in St. Thomas," without selecting or controlling the
New Scholasticism, XXXI (1957), flow of these elements.
1-22. guilt by association, accusing or
assimilate, v.t. 1. to make something condemning those who lived with,
like another; cause a resemblance. 2. knew, legally defended, or were in
to make the mind intentionally like some way connected with a guilty
things; to conform the mind to person, considering them as sharing
things. 3. to unite new knowledge his guilt, without evidence of their
with previous experiences and knowl­ formal cooperation in the crime of
edge and interpret the new accord­ another.
ing to this past fund of experiences associationism, n. a type of sensism
and knowledge; apperceive. 4. to take that attempts to explain all human
in and absorb food, making it into liv­ knowledge as being developed by mere
ing tissue of the same kind as that of combinations of elementary acts of
the living body (organ, cell, etc.) sensation and their retained images.
which is its host. 5. v.i. to become The opinion, notable for omitting the
like or alike. 6. to be absorbed or affective side of man, has been called
incorporated through becoming like "mental chemistry" and "structural­
another, e.g., by intermarriage or ism" of knowledge.
common education. assumption, n. 1. taking something
law of assimilation, there is a for granted; positing as true or agreed
tendency in all things to become like or conceded. 2. something taken for
atheism 24 attribute

granted or posited. 3. a minor prem­ there are only two kinds of causes,
ise. See S U BS UM P TION. 4. putting on material and efficient.
or taking on something: as, the as­ attention, n. 1. close or earnest direc­
sumption of human nature by the tion of the mind to some object;
Son of God. concentrated looking, listening, ob­
fallacies of assumption, see BEG serving, or reflecting. 2. the turning
THE QUESTION. of the mind to one formal object
hidden assumption: ( 1) an un­ out of many possible ones within the
stated antecedent in an argument; a field of perception. 3. the voluntary
suppressed minor in an enthymeme. application of cognitive powers to one
(2) taking for granted what is not thing or subject to the exclusion of
evident or what has not been con­ others. 4. practical care of some per­
ceded. son or object.
ataraxy, n. the ideal or practice NoTE - Attention in the first three
of imperturable calm based on in­ senses is not knowledge but it pre­
difference to all earthly things and pares for knowing. Attention is to be
events because virtue is the only distinguished from intention when un­
good. derstood as a voluntary act. Sense 2
atheism, n. I. the view that the true is not abstraction.
God does not exist; godlessness. 2. attribute, n. 1. any perfection, prop­
the view that there is no Supreme erty, action, change, passion, or rela­
Being upon whom all others in some tion that belongs to a thing and
way depend and to whom they owe can be predicated of it or that is
honor. 3. the view that the god widely thought of as belonging to and pre­
accepted in a given culture does not dicable of a thing. See PERFECTION.
exist: as, the reputed atheism of 2. an accident belonging to a certain
Christians in the Roman persecutions. substance. 3. a proper accident neces­
negative atheism holds there are sarily connected with its respective
no arguments that prove God's exist­ subject but not entering into its es­
ence: e.g., naturalism, positivism of sential definition. 4. any perfection or
many brands. name of God other than the proper
positive atheism holds that God's name or quasi-metaphysical essence
existence has been disproved: e.g., of God, conceived as belonging to or
Marxism, radical existentialism as in flowing from the divine nature; hence,
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905- ). in strict Thomism, any name but
practical atheism, living as though Ipsum Esse. But even this "primary"
God did not exist and rule human perfection of God may broadly be
life, e.g., secularism. called a radical attribute. See NAME;
speculative (dogmatic, theoreti­ PERFECTION. 5. grammar. an adjec­
cal) atheism, an opinion or system tive; adjectival name. 6. logic. in an
claiming that God does not exist. It attributive proposition, the predicate
may be negative or positive atheism. that is declared to belong to some
atom, n. in muck older philosophy. the subject or to be caused by it or to
indivisible, most elementary unit of be due to it or to be in some way re­
matter, whether of one or more kinds. ferred to it. 7. an object used in art,
atomism, n. the view of some ma­ literature, and iconography as a sym­
terialist Greek and Roman philoso­ bol for a person, saint, position, etc.:
phers (Democritus, Epicurus, Leucip­
as, the wheel is the attribute of St.
pus, Lucretius) that the universe is
Catherine of Alexandria, patroness of
made of indivisible, indestructible
atoms of one kind, that these have philosophers.
drifted through the void and become absolute attribute: ( 1) one that
a universe by the chance forces of essentially belongs to a being, apart
attraction and repulsion, and that from its relationships to other beings.
attribute 25 authentic

(2) the substance or a substantial forming us about a subject through

principle. its relationships.
accidental (*per accidens) attri· transcendental attribute, a predi­
bute, one that is extrinsic to the es­ cate or passion that belongs to all
sence of its subject; a contingent beings, viz., one, true, good, beautiful.
attribute. Being, thing, something, essence are
affirmative attribute, one that is transcendentals, but not transcend­
positive in conception and in name, ental attributes. Also see the divisions
declaring that the subject either has of PERFECTION.
this perfection or causes it in others. ABBR - attri b.
.

communicable attribute, one that attribution, n. 1. grammar. modifica­

can be shared by many either uni­ tion of a substantive by an adjective.
vocally or analogically. 2. logic. use of an incidental term.
divine attribute, see entry 4. Some writers, seemingly, also mean
eminent attribute, one that be­ predication in a proposition. 3. giving
longs to a being in an excellent or a name to some being, concept, sys­
unique way. tem, etc. 4. the analogy of attribu­
entitative (quiescent) attribute, tion. See ANALOGY.
one that describes a way of being *Aufkliirung, n., German. the En­
or qualities of an essence but not the lightenment; the rationalist philoso­
activities of a being; one thought phies of the eighteenth century.
of as nonoperating: as, unity, sim­ Augustinianism, n. I. the princi­
plicity, spirituality, immutability, etc. ples, doctrines, and method of St.
in God. Augustine (354-430) or of his fol­
essential (intrinsic, per se) at· lowers. 2. the body of medieval
tribute: ( 1) a perfection naturally philosophers and theologians who ad­
needed by a being, as in sense 3. hered to the doctrines and method
(2) an absolute attribute. (3) an en­ of the pre-Aristotelian period and
titative attribute. strongly opposed Aristotelian and
incommunicable (transcendent) Thomist views and methods. Typical
attribute, a perfection that is or can Augustinian doctrines include the psy­
be possessed by only one being: as, chological or introspective approach
God's infinity is an incommunicable to truth; illumination; little distinc­
attribute but His knowledge is com­ tion between philosophy and theology;
municable and communicated by loose unity in man; the desire to
creation. understand the truth of faith; stress
operative attribute, a perfection on the soul of man, on the spiritual,
that is a power or its use; activity. on the will and charity; seminal
proper attribute, a specific or reasons in natures; the eternal truths;
characteristic attribute of a being: divine ideas and exemplarism; the
as, speech is a proper attribute of eternal law; special proofs for God's
man. existence; states and governments
radical attribute, usually said exist because of the disorder of origi­
only of God, the perfection regarded nal sin; a providential reading of
as absolutely and primarily charac­ history in terms of the Incarnation;
terizing God's special being and na­ etc.
ture; the proper name of God. All autarky, n. the Stoic ideal of virtuous
the other divine attributes may be character, consisting in complete self­
named His secondary attributes. See
reliance and a complete self-control
NAME.
that makes one the master of one's
relative attribute, a relation to
others that tells something about the fate. NOTE -The term also has mod­
related subject: as, cause, parent, ern political and economic meanings.
well-like d are relative attributes, in- authentic, adj. 1. trustworthy; reli-
authoritarianism 26 axiom

able; having authority that deserves rulers to direct and compel the mem­
assent; agreeing with truth or fact bers to cooperate in using common
as stated. 2. genuine; not mixed; not means for the common good; the
substituted; really as represented. 3. right to govern in political society.
being truly itself; not merely seeming moral authority, a right granted
or pretended; not alienated from its by moral law to impose obligation on
proper nature or prospects. the acts of others; moral power to
NoTE -The word appeall!i often bind persons to act and not to act
in recent philosophical writing in ex­ in certain ways under penalty of
pressions like an authentic person, sinning.
authentic value, etc. social authority, the right pos­
authoritarianism, n. 1. authoritarian sessed by a social representative to
principles, esp. in political society, compel the members of a society as
such as the absolute power of the members to seek the specific end of
leader, unquestioning obedience to au­ that society by their cooperative ac­
thority, suppression of individual tivity. Civil authority is one type of
rights and freedom of opinion against this.
views and practices of the leader, etc. sovereign authority: (1) supreme
2. advocacy or enforcement of au­ authority in a perfect community.
thoritarian rule and submission to au­ (2) the sovereign.
thority in this manner. theories on the origin of civil
authority, n. 1. the moral power to authority, see s.v. CONSENT, CON­
command or enforce obedience in a TRACT, DESIGNATION, NATURAL-JURI­
community. See JURISDICTION and DIC, PATRIARCHAL, TRANSMISSION.
dominative POWER. 2. intellectual au­ autoexistent, adj. self-existent; un­
thority. the right to exact assent be­ caused in existence.
cause of one's knowledge and truth­ automatism, n. an action or regular
fulness. 3. a person having moral or way of acting that resembles a habit
intellectual authority. 4. specifically. in ease, constancy, and efficiency, but
an author who is standard, traditional, exists only in the sensitive or motor
or classic in a particular heritage or powers and is not controlled by in­
field of knowledge. This and the next tellect and will. The term may be
sense are frequent in medieval writers. extended to subconscious psychisms of
5. a citation of a definition, opinion, association and impulse.
interpretation, proof, etc., from an autonomy, n. 1. freedom; independ­
intellectual authority: as, the cita­ ence; the state of being self-ruling
tions in Peter Lombard's Books of and sui juris. 2. political sovereignty
Sentences. with no legal dependence on the su­
argument from authority, a proof perior will of another temporal power.
based on the testimony of others or autonomous morality. See s.v.
on authentic citations from intellect­ HETERONOMOUS.
ual authorities but not based on in­ awareness, n. consciousness, q.v.
trinsic evidence or on one's own im­ Averroism, n. 1. the principles, main
mediate knowledge of the truth. doctrines, and method of the Moslem
authority of a witness, the right philosopher and physician, Averroes
of a witness to be believed in mat­ (Ibn Rochd) (1126-1198) and of
ters of which he has firsthand knowl­ his type of Aristotelianism. 2. the
edge. principles, main doctrines, and
civil authority, the social author­ method of his medieval followers
ity of rulers over a state's members in the Christian universities.
for the proper good of the state ac­ axiology, n. the study of value. One
cording to the constitutional grant department of it would be ethical.
of power; legitimate moral power in See VALUE.
the state as a whole or in its lawful axiom, n. a self-evident, primary
axiom 27 axiom

truth; a proposition stating a uni­ contradiction. It is also called a

versal and immediately evident truth "dignity."
that is regarded as true in any in­ ABBR.-ax.
quiry, e.g., the principle of non- REF.-Post. Anal., 1, ch. 2.
 B
bad, adj. evil; not as it should be; of the subject: e.g., "my soul is"
lacking the good it ought to have. means "my soul exists" or "my soul
When applied to different matters, lives." Not be, the sign of a nega­
bad takes on special names : erro­ tive judgment, separates predicate
neous; ill; immoral; incorrect; in­ from subject or denies identity, equal­
wlid; offensive; substandard; un­ ity, attribution, presence, or union of
pleasant; wicked; etc. these two. See BEING, sense 2.
Bannezianism, n. a doctrine on God's be in another, verbal phrase. The
foreknowledge of and cooperation notion of inclusion in this phrase has
with natural and supernatural free many aspects.
acts of a creature's will, named from I. spatio-temporal senses. 1. to
Domingo Bannez (Bafiez, Vafiez), be in another as the contained is
O.P. (1528-1604) a major Spanish in the container, by occupation. 2.
theologian. The main features of this as a body is in place or in space,
theory interesting to philosophers are by occupation. 3. as a passing mo­
these: ( 1) God infallibly foresees ment or period is in time.
futuribles and free futures of created II. part-whole relationships. 4.
wills in His predetermining decrees to be in another as a part or
to give physical premotions to these· member is in a whole, by real com­
wills, and (2) He physically premoves position. 5. as a whole is in its
the free created will to one course parts. 6. as a species is in the genus,
of action. This physical premotion is its logical whole, by indefinite impli­
His immediate physical cooperation cation. 7. as any member or in­
in the natural order, efficacious actual ferior is in a class. 8. as singulars
grace in the supernatural order. The and particulars are in the correspond­
chief rival theory is Molinism or the ing universal. 9. as genus or specific
Suarezian modification of this called difference is in the species, by logical
congruism. composition.
Barbara, Celarent, etc., the first two III. causal senses : 10. to be in
words of the old mnemonic lines that another as form is in matter, by com­
give the valid moods of the figures munication or information. 11. as
of the syllogism and the symbols for matter is in form, by communication
reduction to the first figure. Barbara or reception. 12. as act of existence
is in the first figure because it oc­ is in essence or substance, by actuat­
curs in the first line; the three A's ing the subject. 13. as accident is
indicate that its three propositions are in substance, by inherence. A proper
all universal affirmative. accident is essentially in the modified
be, to be, infinitive as noun. the substance. 14. as effects and events
act of being. See BEING, sense 5. are in their cause or its power, vir­
Some writers use to be or the "to be" tually. 15. as consequents are in
as the direct translation of the Latin their antecedent, virtually or by im­
infinitive esse, "to be." plication. 16. as cause is in its ef­
be, linking v. the copula expressing fects by action while making, by
the union of a predicate with a sub­ likeness after action. 17. as being,
ject in a proposition. This link may nature, and value are in the end of
express identity, equality, attribution, a being, tendentially. 18. as a like­
presence, or a unity of relation. To ness is in its original.
be sometimes is more than a copula IV. intentional and spiritual
because it explicitly affirms existence presence. 19. as the known is in

28
beatitude 29 beauty

the knower, by the species. 20. as is, is disputed among the scholastics.
the loved is in the lover and the This is also styled happiness of the
loving in tum in the loved. 21. as homeland.
spiritual soul is in the body, by dy­ imperfect beatitude: ( 1) any
namic information. 22. as God is state of happiness that prepares for
in all creatures, by the omnipresence or is less than essential natural or
of power, knowledge, and authority. essential supernatural beatitude. (2)
23. as rights are in the holder of any state of man's nature that does
rights; hence, as power is in the not fully satisfy all man's higher or
ruler. 24. as relative opposites are specific desires for good.
in the concept of each other. 25. natural beatitude, perfect happi­
as intellect and will are in each other, ness in as far as the nature of man
by circuminsession. The intersubjec­ without sanctifying grace and the
tive presence of meaning 26 has been light of glory (in the mere state of
called insistence. pure nature) may be able to possess
REF. - Physics, IV, ch. 3; S.T., I, the perfect good. Many writers think
8; 39, a. 8. that natural beatitude can never be
beatitude, n. 1. happiness. 2. esp., per/ect happiness because it would
perfect happiness; the full and en­ leave the intellect with only analogi­
during possession of the supreme cal knowledge of God.
good; conscious satisfaction in se­ objective beatitude, the necessary
curely possessing the best. 3. the and sufficient good object that is
eight beatitudes or blessings of Christ. spiritually possessed by the beatified.
4. the supernatural acts and rewards In scholasticism, this good can be
mentioned in the famous beatitudes only God.
of Christ. participated beatitude: ( 1) any
NoTE - Divisions pertain to senses beatitude of creatures as sharing in
1 and 2. the infinite uncaused happiness of
accidental beatitude, all the gifts God. (2) the sharing of other powers
and rewards possessed by the beati­ of man in the happiness of the power
fied in addition to the essential goods, or powers that attain essential beati­
together with the delight in the tude; the redundance of happiness
possession of these secondary goods. through the whole of human nature.
adequate (complete) beatitude, perfect beatitude, formal beati­
that full happiness which includes tude considered as completing the
essential, consequent, and accidental natural (and supernatural) capacity
beatitude. of the person for the perfect good.
antecedent beatitude, any happi­ subjective beatitude, the general
ness preparatory to formal beatitude: state of being perfectly happy, with­
as the contentment of a good family out specifying the proper activity of
on earth. It is also called happiness this state (formal beatitude) or the
of the way (journey). See *HOMO beatifying object (objective beati­
VIATOR. tude). The distinction of these three
consequent beatitude, the happi­ is methodically useful since philoso­
ness that necessarily flows from the phers have disagreed on the beatify­
state of formal beatituC.e. Thus, if ing activity and object while accept­
formal beatitude is in the intellect, ing man's destiny to subjective
joy in the will belongs to consequent beatitude.
beatitude. The term may be stretched supernatural beatitude, the per­
to include accidental beatitude. fect happiness given to graced nature
essential (formal) beatitude, the in the eternal vision of God; perfect
particular operation of the soul in peace with God in heaven.
which perfect happiness is already beauty, n. "that which gives pleasure
achieved. What activity of man this upon being seen" (St. Thomas); that
becoming 30 being

which delights the mind immediately make politics a nonethical, purely

perceiving and contemplating it; the behavioral science.
attribute of a being whereby it can behaviorism, n. (a word coined by
please upon being intuited because of John B. Watson in 1913). 1. a
its evident integrity, due proportion, psychological method that limits ac­
and splendor. See SPLENDOR VERI. ceptable data to such behavior of
aesthetic beauty, the reality actu­ sentient organisms as can be objec­
ally appreciated upon being perceived. tively and externally observed, dis­
ontolog i ca l (t ra nscendental) regarding introspection. 2. a theory
beauty, the property of a real thing of the structure and powers of man
whereby it can stir aesthetic appreci­ that is limited by the behavioristic
ation in the acute or trained spec­ method; hence, a theory of man as
tator. an impersonal sentient organism.
becoming, n. any coming into being; being n. 1. very general, grammatical,
any passing from potency to act. or provisional sense in setting the
Hence, becoming includes creation, problem of what the real is. that
new knowledge and new appetency, which in any way is. The ways of
and all types of real change. See being are many: actually existing, in
chart on CHANGE. potency to exist, in the power of its
beg the question, phrase. 1. to as­ cause, in the mind, in itself, as a
sume an answer in some way. See whole, as part of being, as a modifi­
detailed statement under QUESTION. cation of an existing being, or merely
2. loosely. to evade the issue. See in statement. 2. logic. the being of
IGNORING THE ISSUE. the copula ("is " "is not " "are " "are
Ref. -Priori Analytics, IT, ch. 16. g g
not") as a si n linkin the �ubject
beginning, n. a real or logical prin­ and predicate in an attributive prop­
ciple that has temporal, positional, osition. See BE; TO BE. Senses 3-6 are
or serial priority over something else, metaphysical senses. 3. the real; any­
but has no influence or bearing on thing real; the existent. Exact state­
the following members in that same ment of what is meant by being runs
set or series of things, propositions, into many controversies. All agree
numbers, or other items; the start that what now exists in itself is real.
or first member in a specified set or But opinions diverge widely about
series upon which the other members what is to be included within the
depend merely for their position in real. Some will include past, futuri­
the group; an opening. bles, and futures within the real.
behavior, n. 1. an act or manner of Some include mere possibles. Ultra­
acting, esp. in the presence of others realists would include universals as
so that the action can be externally such. Many describe being as the
observed; mode of conducting one­ same as substance, essence, or nature.
self. 2. the observable reactions of a Some include and some exclude inten­
sentient organism when stimulated. tional existence. A moderate position,
Some writers on ethics distinguish that may be called existentialist, holds
between animal behavior, human that any whole thing that exists now,
nonrational behavior, and conduct has existed, or ever will exist is
which involves human acts and is entitled to the name of being. Prin­
not called behavior. ciples, parts, attributes, and acts are
strictly regarded as principles of be­
behavorial, ad;. 1. externally observ­
ing rather than beings. The act of
able in a sentient being. 2. concerned
existing, possessed at anytime is the
only with external ways of acting intrinsic reason why anything de­
and with external results, abstracting serves to be considered being. 4. a
from or ignoring norms, values, mo­ being; a single existing unit; that
tives, etc.: as, Machiavelli tended to which exists; that whose perfection
being 31 being

is the act of existing; that to which being-in-another, an accident; a

existence belongs; an existing sub­ modification of a being.
jec t; something existing-in-act. 5. the being in general (common be­
act or perfection that makes the thing ing ) , the being that belongs to and
exist. This is a conceptualized con­ may be predicated of anything real;
struct of being, of the existing. the being in beings; the intrinsic
Being is the first act, the act of reality of anything real; that trait
all acts. See *m QUO EST. 6. be­ which is shared by all real things.
ing as a participle. The exercis­ See sense 3 of main entry. While
ing or possessing of the act of be­ admitting that God exists, some
ing by a real being; existing now would exclude God from common
going on. To grasp this sense, note being since He excels all other be­
that a participle is neither a pure ings and is subsistent being. Com­
noun nor a pure verb, but is like a mon being is a concept that thinks
noun in action: as, living is some real of being after the manner of a thing
organism carrying on an activity of or nature. It is the transcendental
life. See ENTITY, esp. sense 3. being of the metaphysicians.
act of being, the perfection or being-in-itself, a substance.
actuality of existence in a complete being in the nominative sense
being; the esse or "to-be" of a be­ {being taken as a noun), being as
ing; the principle by which a sub­ a subject of predication; a whole real
stance is. The last of the three al­ thing: distinguished from being as
ternative expressions is defensible copula and being as participle. Be­
whether one holds a conceptual or ing as a noun may be a singular
some real distinction between essence being, a group, or common being.
and act of existing in a finite being. being in the participial sense,
See main entry, senses 5 and 6. the act of existing in a being. This
analogy of being, the imperfect sense should always be considered
likeness of things in their being. See in the singular and preferably also
principle of universal ANALOGY. in the present tense; being now
being as being (being as such), going on.
being considered just as being; being being-in-potency: ( 1) a being in
fro m the viewpoint of its being: dis­ some way not actual or not entirely
tinguished from determinations of be­ actual. (2) a potency or potential
ing, particular bein gs, etc. principle in a real being; passive
being-by-another (being -from- potency. (3) a mere possible. This
another; *ens ab alio), being may be understood as (a) a possible
caused by another; caused being; essence, ( b) possible existence, or
cre ature. ( c) a possible existent whole.
being-by-essence (being from­ being-in-real i ty, a real being,
itself; being by-itself; being be­ below.
cause of its own essence), that being of the mind (being of
which exists by reason of its own reason ; *ens rationis ; being in
essence; subsistent in its being. the mind ; being in the soul) : ( 1)
Though such a being is uncaused or an object that the intellect thinks of
uncre ated, uncaused is not the formal after the manner of being though this
note of being-by-essence. See *IPsUM object has no entity in itself or
even cannot have entity in itself.
ESSE.
(2) a mere object of thought, lack­
being of an essence. See *ESSE
ing potency for real existence; a
ESSENTIAE. merely logical being; a mere product
being-in-act, an existing being; a of thought.
fully real being; something existing being-through-itself, a substance.
either outside its causes or uncaused. the cause (Cause) of being,
being being

usually this means God, the proper ture that it can-exist or can be non­
cause of the existent, the cause of existing or be-different than it is in
common being. its present existence; a thing possible
common being, see BEING IN GEN­ to-be and not-to-be. A contingent be­
ERAL, above. ing should not be described as a
concept of being, what is repre­ possible being or as a caused being.
sented in the constructed conception (2) a being contingent in its essence;
that generalizes what is imperfectly a being changeable in its nature, esp.
common to all beings. See BEING IN in its substantial form. See CON­
GENERAL, above. TINGENT, sense 4. (3) that whose
contingent being: (1) a real thing being depends on free choice to be­
that is contingent in its existence; come actual or true. See CONTINGENT,
a being whose essence itself is not sense 6.
determined to be existing or non­ extramental being: ( 1) real be­
existing; a being whose existence or ing. (2) the object of judgment or
extramental reality is indifferent or other knowledge of being.
nonnecessary; a being of such a na- ideal being, intentional being, be-

USAGE in regard to BEING

(Note that the chart does not try to determine whether any
of these usages are true or consistent.)
A. Real Being
1. Divine being; infinite being; being-from-Himself; ens a se; being-by-nature;
unparticipated being; absolute being
Nondivine being; finite being; created being; being-from-another; ens ab alio;
being-by-effect; participated being; relative being

{
2. Act (actual being; being in act)l
Potency (potential being; being in potency)
J. E������ e
self-subsistent Being (Ipsum Esse God)
the ,·

act of
being) existing in an essence as its first act of being (id quo est)

the divine essence (identified with self-subsistent Being)

an actuated individual
whole essence
formal part of the essence

in absolute
state (the
direct uni­
Essence specific abstracted
versal)

{
(thing; finite essence (a logical
in reflex
subject of (somehow dis­ being?)
state (the
being; tinct from act reflex uni­
nature; id of existing) versal)
quod est)
as an individual,
merely possible i.e., this pos-
essence (ob- sible
jectively pos- .
sible) (logical m. absolute state,
being?) i.e., such a
possible

1 See divisions under Ac:r AND POTENCY,

being 33 being

4. Substance (being-in-itself; ens per se) 2

Accident (being-in-another; being of a being; ens in alio)
5. Complete being (a being; a whole; suppositum; ens quod) 3
Incomplete being (an intrinsic principle or part of power of a being; participant
in being ; coprinciple of a being; ens quo)

{
6. Common being (being-in-general)
Predicamental being
Real (individual) being

in its existence
in its essence and properties

{
7. Necessary being in its complete actuation
in its operation (i.e., not free)
in its truth

in existence
in essence (nature)
Contingent being in accidental attributes
in objects of its choice
in duration

8.
Absolute being
{ God (lpsum Esse): the strict sense of absolute substance
anything actual

existence: sc., potency

its extrinsic causes: effect
subject of inherence: accident
Relative being other parts of itself: coprinciple of being
i.e., relative to other finite beings: dependent
mind as knowable: proportionate being
appetite and desires: good
object of cognitive powers: intentional being
9. Simple being
Composite being4
10. Concrete being; an individual existing
Abstract being; the objective concept of common being, of a category, etc.
-----------------------------------------------------·

B. Beings of Reason (Logical Beings)

I. Negations
Privations
Contradictory things; chimeras; impossibles
Logical relations
Mental constructs such as abstractions, reflex universals, classes
Enuntiables of erroneous judgments
II. (This group is disputed. Some would place them among real beings.)
Mere possibles
Mere futuribles (conditioned futures)
Beings that used to exist
Absolute natures (abstracted essences; direct universals)

C. Intentional Beings can include:

All that is certainly real, as knowable, known, or desirable
The merely possibles
The futuribles
The doubtfully real; imaginable, etc.
The unreal (merely logical beings)

2See divisions under CATEGORIES OF BEING.

aSee divisions under WHOLE.
•See divisions under UNITY.
being 34 being

low. This term should not be used of the components of a composite or

for a being of the mind. finite thing. See COPRINCIPLE. (2) a
incomplete being, a principle cause of a being, of any part of a
whereby a thing is. See COPRINCIPLE; being, or of change in a being. See
*ENS QUO. CAUSE. (3) a general truth about be­
intentional (cognitional, ideal) ings: as, the principle of universal
being, the being of an object inas­ analogy of being.
much as it is known and has cogni­ proportionate being, being as re­
tive existence in an intellect; rep­ lated to another being's knowing
resented form: distinguished from power.
natural (physical) being. But logical qualified being, an accident.
being is not meant here. Nor is the real being: (1) an existent thing.
being of the act of knowing meant. To (2) the actual.
say that universals, possibles, moral subject of being, essence; the
persons, and second intentions have potential principle that receives the
intentional being is disputed. act of existence.
logical being, being of the mind, Supreme Being: (1) the being
above. who is first in the order of existence,
necessary being: (1) a (the) be­ best, and most actual; the being with
ing (Being) that of its own nature the finest existence. (2) the being
must exist and cannot be nonexisting with the greatest and broadest au­
nor existing in any way other than thority. Hence, the term usually
as it is; that which essentially exists. names God.
Hence it is a name for God. (2) that truth of being, ontological (meta­
which must be as it is and is un­ physical) truth.
changeable in essence and perfections. univocity of being, being, exis­
It may be an uncaused being or a tence, or essence regarded as in some
caused being that has a fully actual­ aspect identical in all beings or in
ized nature. all except God. Such univocity im­
objective being: (1) being as it plies a different understanding of be­
is independently of our knowledge of ing than the Thomistic view of "that
it. (2) the status of a being as an whose act is existence . "
object of thought or as contained virtual being, the being contained
intentionally in the knower. (3) the i n the power of ·another or in the
objective concept of common being. extension of another (c lass). See
participated being (being-by. VIRTUALITY.
participation): (1) one that shares unqualified being: (1) absolute
in an imperfect and caused way in or simple being. (2) substance.
the existence of the unparticipated REF.-Met., V, ch. 7; VI, ch. 4;
being and that can or does univocally St. Thomas, On Being and Essence,
share perfections other than existence ch. 1, 3; id., Commentary on Aris­
with others in its own class: distin­ totle's "Interpretation,'' I, 5; S.T.,
guished from being-by-essence. (2) a I, 3 a. 4 ad 2; 4, a. 1 ad 3; 5, a. 1
coprinciple of a finite being that ad 1; a. 2; 13, a. 11; 48, a. 2 ad 2;
shares in the act of existence that 104, a. 4 ad 3; 1-11, 2, a. 5 ad 2;
belongs to the whole real thing. C.G., II, ch. 54; E. Gilson, "Notes
possible being: (1) being-in-po­ sur le Vocabulaire de l'Etre," Mediae­
tency. (2) a mere possible. (3) occa­ val Studies, VIII (1946), 150-158;
sionally. a contingent b eing. id., Being and Some Philosophers;
predicamental being: (1) being J. Maritain, The Degrees of Knowl­
in any one of the categories; finite e dge, (tr. of G. B. Phelan), cha p. 3,
being. (2) a thing. sec. 3, nos. 32 f.; W. N. Clarke, S.J.,
primary being, substance. "What is Really Real?" in J. A.
principle of being: ( 1) any OP.@ McWilliams, S.J., Pro gress in Ph;..
belief 35 body

losophy, 61-90; the same reprinted that living organisms do and can
in D. A. Drennen, ed., A Modern originate only from living things. 3.
Introduction to Metaphysics, 448- any theory of the origin of life.
456 and in J. R. Rosenberg, Readings neobiogenesis, the absolutely first
in Metaphysics, 90-97; A. Maurer, origin of primitive organisms from
C.S.B., A History of Medieval Phi­ a present complex organic environ­
losophy, giving excellent coverage of ment. Various possibilities are sug­
views from St. Augustine to Suarez gested: (a) creation of life or of a
on what being is. life principle; ( b) origin from vi­
belief, n. 1. an act of the intellect ruses; (c) spontaneous generation;
moved to assent by the will. 2. faith, (d) cosmozoic origin by transfer of
q.v. English dictionaries often are life from another part of the uni­
misleading on the philosophical and verse; (e) biopoesis, i.e., the natural
theological meaning of this term chemical evolution of life from in­
among scholastics and Catholics. 3. organic beginnings.
Platonism. opinion (pistis). birth control, phrase. I. regulation
believe, v.t. 1. to accept a proposition of the times when a woman can
testified to another as true: as, "I conceive children. 2. usually. con­
believe that God is or that He traception.
created angels." (Lat.: "Credo blame, n. I. responsibility for a fault,
Deum.") 2. to honor the person who error, injury, mistakes, sin, etc., that
makes something known by assent­ has been committed or charged
ing to Him speaking; to give assent against one. 2. an accusation that
for the witness' sake. (Lat.: "Credo someone has committed a fault, er­
Deo.") 3. to have confidence in the ror, injury, mistake, si n, etc. 3. a
existence, goodness, power, provi­ condemning of someone for a fault,
dence, . etc., of the persons and error, injury , mista ke, sin, etc., com­
institutions to whose existence, prom­ mitted or charged.
ises, etc., one assents by the move­ blessedness, n. beatitude; h appiness.
ment of the will: as, "I believe in bodiness (b odiliness ) , n. I. the state
God, my Father." (Lat . : "Credo in or fact of having a body; what it
Deum.") means to be or to have a body. 2.
REF. -S.T., 11-11, q. 2, a. 2, corporeity, q.v.
quoting St. Augustine; Th. Camelot, bodily, adj. I. of, in, or for the
"Credere Deo, credere Deum, credere body. Bodily usua lly connotes the
in Deum. Pour l'histoire d'une human body in English. 2. physical,
formule traditionelle," Revue des organic, somatic, or material: dis­
Sciences PhiJ.osophiques et Theologi­ tinguished from mental or psychical:
ques, XXX (1941-42), 149-156. as, bodily characteristics.
benevolence, n. 1. willing good to body, n. I. philosophy of nature.
another; a kindly disposition to an­ I. an in dividual material substance;
other or others. Beneficence is act­ a real material unit . 2. a living
ing well toward or doing good to body; esp. a human body. 3. the
another. 2. esp., loving another for matter of a living body: distinguished
his own sake and willing h im good from its soul. 4. as a genus. any­
for his sake. See LOVE. thing having or thought to have char­
bind, v.t. 1. to tie or hold together; acteristics proper to matter.
fasten; unite. 2. to restrain. 3. to II. philosophy of mathematics.
impose a duty on or obligate by 5. a material thing or some part
moral law, command, oath, contract, of it , abstractly considered only ac­
etc. See BOND. cording to its quantitative or numeri­
biogenesis, n. I. the origin or de­ cal properties as measurable, etc. In
velopment of living organisms from this mathematical body, the mind
other living organisms. 2. the theory abstracts from physi c al structure,
body 36 bond

qualities, and changes. See second to be considered the material of

mode of ABSTRACTION. what lives; it is the living composite
III. logic. 6. the main part of of matter and life principle existing
the discussion or proof of some as a complete whole.
proposition or the main answer to mathematical body, see main en­
a question: as, the body or corpus try, sense 5.
of an article in Summa Theologiae mixed body, a natural body that
or Scotus' Ordinatio. 7. a collection contains more than one of the basic
of truths coherently related to each material elements. This is not the
other after the manner of the close modem chemical meaning of mixture.
relations of the parts of a natural natural body, a whole material
or living body. substance having one nature; a single
IV. ethics. 8. a group of persons material unit, complete in the order
forming one social whole; a corpora­ of being, essence, and operation: dis­
tion or body corporate by legal con­ tinguished from parts and from arti­
vention regarded as one whole person. ficial bodies. Natural bodies may be
artificial body, a material body living or nonliving.
produced by art, consisting of dis­ quantified body, a body divisible
tinct natural bodies unified not by a into the parts included in it, each
common nature but by a common of which is potentially a unit and
function, relation, or accidental com­ a substance.
bination; artifact, e.g., a house; a body-mind problem, phrase. the
tool. philosophical question, chiefly about
besouled body, a living body, in­ man, whether body and mind are the
formed by a soul. same or different, complete wholes or
body-person, see s.v. PERSON. parts of a unit, substantially or acci­
body politic, a state or its people dentally united, independent of or
established as a political unit. This interdependent or dependent on each
implies that it already has a govern­ other in some or all of their activities,
ment and is not merely in the forma­ able to exist apart from each other
tive process. or not. Since mind is a vague word
corruptible body, a material thing for soul, the body-mind problem is
that can lose its substantial form in the same as the body-soul problem.
undergoing change; esp. a body that bond, n. 1. in general. a substance,
can break down into simpler bodies device, or force that binds, holds to­
or that can lose its living form. The gether, or unites beings or their parts.
term may be extended to artifacts. 2. the unifying principle in an order
incorruptible body, one incapable or arrangement; the foundation of
of substantial change: as in the old the relation of order. 3. the founda­
opinion about the completely actuated tion of any relation. 4. a mode of
heavenly bodies or as is true in being, known as a mode of union,
regard to human glorified bodies in that joins component principles of
beatitude. a being. 5. ethics. a moral factor that
lived body, the body as experi­ unites a subject to a superior's will
enced by one living in it, as known and to the good willed; duty; an
from the inside, as an acting and obligation to keep a law, contract,
moving unit, and as influencing the promise, etc.
world about it: distinguished from bond of conscience, see s.v. CON­
objective body, the external thing as SCIENCE.
studied by science. bond of marriage, the duty of
living (animate, organic) body, a married person to exclusive and
a material substance capable of im­ lifelong union with only one spouse.
manent activity of some kind; an The primary bond is the duty of
org�ni�m. The livin� bodr is not chaste fidelity to the spouse; the
bonurn 37 by

secondary bond or bonds include bravery, n. courage or fortitude, q.v.

common life, mutual support, etc. bridge problem, phrase. 1. in dualist
ABBR.-bd. theory. the question how sensation
*bonum, Lat. adj. or adj. used as n. and intellection, emotion and volition
good, q.v. can be united in man and influence
*bonum publicum, the public each other. 2. in idealism. the ques­
good; the common good; the general tion of the way to unite a perceiving
welfare. subject, at least in its intellectual
ABBR.-b.p. knowledge, with an object existing
*Bonum diffusivum sui, a outside the mind; the question of
maxim, "Goodness spreads itself." the certain existence of an extra­
*bonum honestum, the perfective mental world, esp. of a material uni­
good. verse and its bodies.
*summum bonum, the supreme brute, n. I. a merely sentient sub­
or highest good; the object of beati­ stance. 2. the logician's species, non­
tude. rational animal.
bourgeoisie, n. 1. the middle class. NoTE - Irrational animal is less de­
2. Marxism. capitalists. sirable English.
boundless, the, n. I. numerical or Buridan's ass, phrase. the parable
spatial infinity. 2. the unlimited; the said to have been used by the mid­
positively infinite. 3. Anaximander fourteenth-century nominalist, John
(611?-547 B.c.), the original prin­ Buridan (fl. 1328-1358) to state the
ciple out of which all things are problem of free will. The ass, placed
formed; the primary common mate­ between equally good bales of hay,
rial principle of the universe and all could not determine which to munch
its bodies. and, so, starved to death. The illus­
bracket, v.t. 1. to classify; put in a tration has not been found in Buri­
group; set off (from other groups) by dan's writings.
brackets. 2. to set aside a class of by, preposition. Aristotle called at­
phenomena, beings, or philosophical tention to this preposition in philo­
problems, excluding them from philo­ sophical usage. Its three main uses
sophical study as being irrelevant or
in philosophy are: (1) expressing
not open to philosophy, but neither
agency or means; (2) manner; (3)
affirming nor denying them. Thus
limitation: as act is limited by
phenomenologists (e.g., E. Husserl,
1859-1938) and many existentialists potency, i.e., because of being meas­
tend to "bracket" God. It is a method ured by potency.
of reductionism or simplification of by itself, by its essence.
the tasks of philosophy. Ref. -S.T., I, q. 37, a. 2c.
 c
calculus, n. a method of analysis of of goods. 3. pejorative sense. a
predicates and of propositions, par­ system of private ownership of goods
ticularly when cast into symbolic that strongly emphasizes owners'
form. Predicate calculus studies predi­ rights, control, and profits, harsh
cates for their extension and exist­ competitive conditions, disregard for
ence. Propositional or statement cal­ the rights of the work force, and
culus studies propositions for their nearly complete independence from
truth values, implications, and con­ civic regulation except for the pro­
sequences. tection of owners' rights. 4. the
calumny n. a false statement meant theory, power, interests, economic and
to hurt someone's reputation. Cal­ political interests and methods, legal
umny connotes intention while slander protections of, etc., of private owners
may be accidental. Calumny and of great wealth.
slander are usually oral while libel REF. - B. W. Dempsey, S.J., "But
is written. Don't Call It Capitalism,'' Social
canon, n. 1. a law or body of laws of Order, IV (1954), 199-208.
a church. Both the whole code and cardinal, adj. principal; central. See
any one of its particular provisions VIRTUE.
are named in this way. See canon Cartesianism, n. (from the Latin
LAW. 2. any law or decree. 3. a name, Cartesius). the principles, main
standard or criterion for judging doctrines, or method of Rene
something. 4. an official list: as, of Descartes (1596-1650), French phi­
the books of the Bible, of the au­ losopher and mathematician, or of
thentic works of a philosopher, etc. one of his followers. Cartesian char­
ABBR.-can. acteristics include the initial methodi­
capacity, n. any ability, aptitude, cal doubt about human knowledge,
potency, or power, active or passive. the first certitude in the Cogito, the
See POTENCY; POWER. criterion of the clear idea, the prin­
capitalism, n. 1. a system of private ciple of immanence of the direct ob­
ownership of the means of producing ject of knowledge, innate ideas of
and distributing goods, characterized God and of the infinite, a special
by concentrated individual or corpo­ definition of substance (leading to
rate financing, ownership, and control Spinoza's [1632-1677] pantheism),
of productive goods, by large-scale dualist structure of man, living bodies
and rationalized production, by the regarded as machines, dependence
dominance of the profit motive, and of created essences and of all moral­
by substantial freedom of enterprise ity on the free will of God, and the
with a minimum of state regulation separation of philosophy from Chris­
of ownership, trade, profit, and rela­ tian theology.
tions between management (owners) case, n. 1. an example, instance, oc­
and labor. The system will be de­ currence, or individual event: as, a
scribed a little differently in its suc­ case of courage, a case of some usage,
cessive historical phases. 2. loosely a case of mistaken identity. 2. a par­
and often by Communists. private ticular situation or set of circum­
ownership of goods by anyone who stances in which moral, legal, or
may be regarded as comparatively scientific principles and rules are ap­
wealthy; middle-class ownership; any plied, verified, or misapplied. See
system allowing private profit or look­ CASUISTRY; contingent JUDGMENT. 3.
ing to other than the social values a statement of the facts and circum-

38
casual 39 causality

stances, esp. when presented as evi­ or because they are not looking for
dence. 4. a legal or historical prece­ the fundamental ways of being and
dent for some investigation, action, of predicating. Note, too, that cate­
procedure, or similar decision. There gories are not classifications of words.
are also special grammatical mean­ Artifacts are in the categories only
ings of the word. by reduction. God is in no category,
"It is the case that • • " : (1)
• though He may be called a substance
"There is an actual instance of ... " in a special sense. 2. logic. any one
(2) "It is true that .. . " of the ten supreme genera to which
ABBR. - c.; ca. all predicates of a subject can be re­
casual, adj. happening by chance; ferred or can be reduced; a predica­
resulting from accident. ment; an ultimate or broadest pos­
NoTE - Casual is not to be con­ sible logical class, simplest notion,
fused with causal. or univocal predicate for all genera,
casuistry, n. 1. applied ethical science species, and finite individuals. The
or moral theology, dealing with the names of the logical categories are
correct and prudent use of moral the same as the metaphysical ones;
principles in solving special cases for the ways of predicating are pro­
wherein complex facts and circum­ portional to the ways of being. 3.
stances demand skillful reflection. 2. a heading for systematic arrangement,
any conscientious application of prin­ comparison, investigation, etc. In this
ciples to the decision of singular in­ sense a category may be a much less
stances of good and evil in conduct. extensive group than a supreme genus.
3. blameworthy subtlety in finding 4. something asserted about or
reasons to escape duty in particular charged against a subject. See chart,
situations. p. 40f.
The corresponding adjective is category mistake, the fallacy or
casuistic or casuistical. error of wrong classification, mis­
categorematic { categorematical), taken identity, or misplaced realism
adj. able to stand alone as a com­ of concepts.
pletely meaningful subject or predi­ REF. -Aristotle, Categories; Sim­
cate of a proposition: as, man and plicius, Commentary on the Cate­
ship are categorematic terms. gories of Aristotle.
categorial, adj. of, in, or like a cate­ catharsis (katharsis), n. I. purifica­
gory; pertaining to basic classification. tion and relief of the emotions and
categorical, adj. absolute; free from emotional tensions by contemplation
conditions; positive; direct; explicit. of and participation in the arts. Aris­
categorical imperative, see IM­ totle's Poetics first used the concept
PERATIVE. for the effect of tragic drama. 2. the
categorization, n. 1. knowledge of a alleviation of anxieties, fears, etc., by
universal. 2. grouping of individuals bringing them to consciousness and
into a class. The term has been giving them expression.
adopted from nonscholastic circles as causality, n. 1. the influence of a
an alternative expression for knowing cause being actually exercised on a
or abstracting the universal and for being. 2. the relation of cause to
classifying. effect. The reverse relation of effect
category, n. I. metaphysics. one of to cause is dependence.
the primary modes in which finite modes of causality, the specific
being can exist. Other philosophers ways in which different basic kinds
(notably, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, and of causes exercise their influence.The
]. Stuart Mill) have very different modes are efficacy for the efficient
schemes of categories than Aristotle cause; finality (attraction) for the
has, either because they differently end; guidance for the exemplar; com­
conceive fundamental ways of being munication of its being as internal
causality 40 causality

CATEGORIES (PREDICAMENTS) OF BEING*

a) first (singular; natural; hoc aliquid)

second (universal)
{ gen�s
species
multiple (collective; a group; artifact)
b) simple (subsistent; spiritual; pure form)

compound
{ of spiritual form and matter
of material form and matter
c) living (grades: vegetative, sentient, human, angelic)

{
nonliving (element and compound)

{
1. Substance

{
d) complete (a rui.ture

!
mere thing
whole) suppositum

{
person
prime matter
disposed matter
essential part in matter
substantial
incomplete form separated
from
matter
organic part
integral part

{
----------------------- ------- -- ------------------·
- --

Accidents simultaneous
extension (continuous quantity; size) (dimensive)

2. Quantity
number (discrete quantity)
{ successive (mobile)
contiguous (adjacent)
separated
real
abstracted from sensible qualities (purely mathematical)

dispos1t10ns
. . and hab'its
{ good or bad
. . .
entltatlve or operative
active powers and incapacities (weak capacities)
immanent acts (? )
3. Quality affective quality (sensible or passible quality) and
affection (passion)

{
external shape and mathematical figure
primary and secondary sensibles (old scholastic sense)
primary and secondary qualities (Locke and recent sense)
predicament (contingent)
transcendental (essential; absolute; necessary: not in
a) real
category)
internal divine relations (not in category)

4. Relation moral (rights and duties standing between persons)

. 1
1ogica
{ purely logical (constructs; without real foundation)
with a foundation in reality
b) mutual (both equal and unequal)

5. Action
{ mixed
transeunt (transitive)
immanent (? perhaps a quality)
formally immanent, virtually transitive
*See diagram in E. D. Simmons, The Scientific Art of Logic, p. 60, on derivation
of the ten categories
. (Continued)
causation 41 cause

6. Passion (undergoing action)

7. Place (where) of a bemg

. { proper

{
common
. . at which
8. Time (when) of a bemg
durmg wh'ich
·

9. Posture (internal position; situation; situs; attitude)

10. State (habitus; status)

act for the formal cause; and com­ I. Divisions of sense 1:

munication of its being as subject or active (natural) cause, a nature
potency for the material cause. or form by whose action operations
order of causality: (1) the con­ and perfections arise in its own being.
nection between cause and effect. (2) These immanent acts, acts of doing
the relations of a set of causes and rather than of making, are unlike
effects. ( 3) the subordination of an the effects of efficient causes and un­
analogous inferior cause to a better like formal effects of a formal cause.
being as its higher cause. The active nature's function here is
principle of causality. the main also called improper formal causality.
principle on causality: "No being cause of tru th, see formal OBJECT;
does or can cause itself." There are EVIDENCE; objective CAUSE, below.
a number of variants of the principle composite causes, several causes
according to the mark of dependence of the same type (as several agents
in the effect, e.g., the principle of or several ends) together giving rise
origin of contingent existence; the to one effect.
principle of participation. constituent (constitutive; intrin­
causation, n. 1. the act of causing; sic) causes, those causes which to­
causality. 2. specifically: the act gether make up the internal nature or
of producing something; efficacy; essence of a being; hence, matter
agency. 3. the agent that produces and form. But the term may be ex­
anything. 4. the process or state of tended to mean finite essence and its
being caused. act of existence.
ABBR. - caus. exemplary cause, see EXEMPLAR.
cause, n. 1. general definition apply­ extrinsic causes, the causes that
ing analogously to all types of causes. are outside the result; hence, efficient,
a principle from which something final, and exemplary causes.
originates with dependence; a being final cause, see END.
that in some way directly (positively) formal cause, see FORM.
influences the being or change of
juridic (juridical; legal) cause,
something else. 2. specifically. an
see JURIDIC.
efficient cause: the principle which
by its activity or exercise of power material cause, see MATTER, senses
produces existence, imparts motion, 5 and 6.
or conserves the being of another; moral cause: (1) a free agent. (2)
the agent. In both popular and philo­ an occasion favoring action of a free
sophical usage, the word cause means cause. ( 3) a motive for the action
efficient cause unless context other­ of a free cause. (4) an ethically good
wise indicates. Important facets of act (or agent).
this notion are revealed by studying
motive cause (causality), see
important causal verbs as bring,
sense 3.
make, put, take, etc., in a large
dictionary. 3. the reason or motive for objective (specificative) cause,
some activity, movement, interest of the object functioning to direct the
groups of people, etc.; the final cause. activity of an intentional power to a
See END. definite object or aspect of an object.
cause 42 cause

reciprocal causes, causes of differ­ of the other; it is univocal in nature

ent types that influence each other: with the prior cause; it is connected
as, agent and end; exemplar and end; with or working after or under the
matter and form. prior cause only by chance or by
II. Divisions of sense 2, i.e., of unneeded association with it. Hence,
efficient cause: such a dependent cause is only con­
accidental (*per accidens) cause: tingently connected with the prior
( 1) an attribute of the cause that has one. The relation of a child at play
no influence on the effect or a speci­ to his grandparents' marriage is an
fied feature of the effect; some­ instance. The members in such a set
thing incidental or coincidental to the are said to be arranged in a horizontal
cause or effect but not involved in the series, one that goes back in time,
activity-dependence relationship. Thus historically, along the same line. An
Michelangelo (1475-1564) carved his essentially dependent (per se subordi­
Pieta as a sculptor not as one who nate) cause is one whose present exer­
spoke Italian, though the sculptor cise of causal power naturally (es­
spoke Italian. (2) the agent that re­ sentially) needs the simultaneous
moves an obstacle to the action of an action of another prior cause ana­
essential cause. (3) an accidentally logical in nature to itself. The rela­
dependent cause, below. (4) the tion of pen (instrumental cause) to
cause involved in a chance result. student (principal cause) in writing
analogous {equivocal) cause, a a report is a clear instance. Such a
cause that produces an effect of a set is also called a vertical series, all
nature specifically different from its of whose members in an upward line
own nature. act here and now.
caused cause, a cause whose ac­ dispositive cause: (1) an occasion
tivity (not merely existence or na­ favoring action of a free cause. (2)
ture) depends on a helping higher the prepared material cause or po­
cause; dependent cause. tency on which the agent acts.
cause of being (*causa in esse), equivocal cause: (1) analogous
a cause of existence, new existence, cause, above, esp. if it is also a re­
or conservation of existence in the mote cause in a set of causes. (2)
effect. a common cause. (3) an accidental
cause of change {*causa in fieri), cause; a perfection which is not truly
a cause starting change or imparting causing but is connected with a cause.
motion to an already existing subject. essential cause, proper cause, be­
common (universal) cause, a low.
cause that produces all or many dif­ existential cause, cause of being;
ferent kinds of effects: as, God, the a Creator.
sun, air currents. false cause, fallacy of, any fallacy
cooperative (composite; united} or error in wrongly attributing a
causes, causes that act together in causal relationship: (1) mainly: a
producing a single effect. mistaking of merely temporal pre­
dependent {subordinate) cause, cedence of a condition or occasion for
one that in a set or series of causes the specific relation of efficacy-de­
follows another's action and in some pendence between an efficient cause
way depends on it. An accidentally and an event or change; also known
dependent (per accidens subordinate) as post hoc, ergo propter hoc, i.e.,
cause is one whose exercise of causal­ "after this, therefore because of this."
ity is marked by one or more of (2) considering associated elements in
these characteristics : it does not now an event to be causally related with­
depend on the present activity of the out proper testing for influence and
prior cause in the set, though it may dependence: also known as non causa
formerly have depended on the action pro causa. (3) faulty generalization to
cause 43 cause

A DIVISION OF EFFICIENT CAUSES•

1. First cause

{
Second cause
2. Principal (independent; main)

a) instrumental cause
helper (secondary; cooperator)
Dependent (subordinate)
b) essentially dependent (in vertical series)
accidentally dependent (in horizontal series)
3. Cause of being
Cause of change in being
4. Cause as being (being with power to cause; cause in actu primo)
Cause as causing (cause in act; cause in actu secundo)
S. Univocal
Analogical (sometimes called equivocal)
6. Proper cause (essential; per se)
Accidental cause (per accidens)
{ incidentally connected with the causing
incidentally connected with the effect

7. Transeunt (transitive) cause

{ natural cause (referred to as efficient cause)
intelligent cause (referred to as agent)
Immanent (living) cause (sometimes regarded as active cause, not efficient)
Formally immanent, virtually transitive
8. Immediate (proximate): the cause ordinarily meant in identifying a cause
Mediate (mean; intermediate)
Remote
Ultimate (last; first) cause

9. Adequate
{ a single total cause
cooperating causes
true causes together with conditions and occasions

Partial (incomplete; inadequate)

Exciting cause or last stimulus completing a set of causal factors

10. Metaphysical cause

Physical (natur
l ::: �:=� { E�:
es

t
e
; � :
t
Moral cause i juridical cause
{
l
occasion
nonagency
motive

11. Natural cause

Supernatural cause

12. Common cause

{
universal
.
generic
Particular (singular) cause

a cause. ( 4) taking the exception for ( 6) in reasoning: using a middle term

the typical. ( 5) substituting a single that does not fit in one or other
cause for a complex set of causes. premise. Francis Bacon called false
cause 44 cause

cause the idol of the tribe. *per accidens cause, accidental

first cause: ( 1) the first in any CAUSE, above.
series of causes. (2) God as first *per se cause: (1) proper CAUSE,
cause of all things and as immediately below. (2) immediate CAUSE, above.
operating in all finite causality. (3) physical cause: (1) a natural or
uncaused cause which only the ab­ necessary cause: distinguished from
solutely first cause can be. a free or moral cause. (2) a cause
free cause, an agent acting with operating by use of power rather
deliberate purpose. than by commanding, persuading, etc.
immediate (posterior; definite) principal cause, a cause that
cause, the one in a set of causes works by the power of its own form
that is most directly connected with and makes the effect in some way
the effect. See singular CAUSE, below. like itself. If the principal is also
The remote cause is also called prior an intelligent cause, he acts by his
(to the immediate) and generic. own initiative, formally intends the
independent cause, one with com­ effect, and controls any human help­
plete initiative in starting causal ac­ ers, delegates, and instruments he acts
tion and not subordinate to a prior through or uses for his purpose.
cause and not needing the help of proper (essential) cause: (1) the
causes dependent on itself even if it precise cause required to produce this
uses these. particular type of effect or even this
instrumental cause, a tool or na­ individual effect; a cause having its
tural object used by a principal cause; own special, natural, and immediate
a cause unable to start action but connection with this kind of effect or
applied to action and directed to the with this effect. Principle of proper
purpose of a principal cause and in­ causality: "Every agent produces a
fluencing the effect mainly according thing that is in some degree like its
to the form and intention of the own form"; or: "As a thing is, so it
principal. acts." (2) the immediate cause.
mechanical cause, a cause that pure cause, uncaused cause.
acts like a machine, namely, by transi­ second (secondary) cause, a
tive causal activity and physical trans­ cause dependent upon the first Cause;
ference of energy to the effect so that a created cause; a cause that can
reaction in the patient is measured as specify only the kind of effect but
equal to the action of the agent. not the being of the effect. This last
moral cause: (1) a free cause. definition supposes that God alone is
(2) an occasion favoring the action the proper cause of being.
of a free cause. self-caused (cause of itself;
natural cause: (1) a substance *causa sui ipsius): (1) a free be­
acting according to the innate tenden­ ing causing its own free acts. ( 2)
cies of its nature, i.e., according to an uncaused being, having existence
uniform necessary natural laws. (2) from its own essence or having the
a cause in the natural order of the sufficient reason for its existence
universe and acting without special within itself, not within another pro­
divine help. ducer. This second usage is rare out­
necessary cause, a cause that acts side of Descartes, Spinoza, and some
according to the compulsory tenden­ others; for it contradicts the prin­
cies of its nature, not under the ciple of causality: No being can cause
·

control of its own free will; a na­ itself.

turally determined agent. Even a free singular (particular) cause, the
being may be a necessary cause in immediate individual agent of this
some of its acts, for not all conditions individual effect: distinguished from
for freedom are verified in every act a type of cause needed for such an
of such a being. effect and from a universal cause: as,
certain 45 certitude

Aristotle is the singular cause of the of error because of an active recog­

Politics. nition or reflex judgment that one
uncaused cause, an unproduced has no grounds for doubt. 4. sure­
cause and independent in causing; a ness in the will; confidence; firm de­
cause independent both in being and cision or resolution; unhesitating ex­
in causing; a cause by and of itself; pectation of some event, of some
a pure cause that is in no way an help, of someone's loyalty, etc. 5.
effect or dependent in causing; hence, sureness in the speculative or prac­
ens a-se and agens a-se. tical intellect under the movement of
univocal cause, one that produces the will; conviction or adherence to
an effect specifically like itself: as, testimony or revealed knowledge un­
like begets like. der the impulse of the will; firm
REF. - Physics, II, ch. 3; VIII, faith. 6. the subject's feeling of being
ch. 4; St. Thomas, Commentary on right; freedom from anxiety about
Aristotle's "Metaphysics," V, lect. 3; one's views, hopes, etc.; repose or
S.T., I, 1 04, a. 1; 114, a. 3; C.G., peace of mind. 7. the determinate
III, ch. 1 0, 14; The Principles of or single inclination of a power or
Nature. habit to its own (proper) object or
certain, adj. 1. fixed; determined. 2. end, as set by nature. IV. I n the
sure (to happen); inevitable. 3. sure object. 8. infallible determination
in fact, in evidence, etc.; not to be of the order imposed on things by a
doubted. 4. sure (to get results); guiding author's intelligence; the fixed
dependable. 5. sure (in purpose, con­ natural set of relations of means to
trol); unerring. 6. sure in one's knowl­ natural ends; certainty of past and
edge or conviction; undoubting; posi­ present events and even of future
tive. 7. not specifically described or events; the antecedently necessary;
named but assumed to be known or that which cannot fail to happen. The
assumed to be existing though not philosopher understands this to be
identified: as, a certain person com­ true because the event follows from
mitted this deed. 8. some; more than its immediate causes in a necessary
a little; indefinite in number or de­ sequence. The physicist understands
gree. See particular SUPPOSITION. this to be true because the coordi­
certainty, n. certitude. Some writers nates of the event at time t can be
still hold Newman's (1801-1890) dis­ accurately calculated on the basis of
tinction (An Essay in Aid of a Gram­ an initial system of spatiotemporal
mar of Assent, ch. 9): "Certitude is data. This means that nature is re­
a mental state; certainty is a quality garded as a determinist system.
of propositions." The two words seem Senses 7 and 8 are also spoken of
interchangeable in most writers. as the certitude of order. 9. the
certitude, n. I. In general 1. sure­ sureness of a proposition; the neces­
ness; fixity; determination to some sary ontological truth of the object
definite one. II. I n a cause. 2. the of assent; objective evidence of the
necessary and unchanging activity of enuntiable of a judgment; the ob­
a cause determining the occurrence of jective motive for infallible assent.
definite, fixed results. Ultimately this This term moving judgment to assent
is explained by the infallible foresight is known as objective certitude.
of Divine Providence and the un­ The divisions pertain mainly to
wavering decree of God's will to sense 3 and the degrees of certitude.
follow this providence. III. In the These are the ones of main interest
intelligent subject. 3. sureness of to modern theory of knowledge.
knowledge; firm assent; unconditional certitude by essence, the firmness
assent of the speculative intellect to in the knowing power, esp. in the
the truth or to the evidence of its exemplary knowledge of a maker who
specified object; assent without fear causes things to occur as planned.
certitude 46 certitude

certitude by participation (sec· sarily acting physical objects will

ondary certitude): (1) a sharing of bring about. This certitude cannot
the planned events in the certitude exclude all possibility of error since
of the exemplary intelligence that nature is contingent, many laws are
unfailingly moves them to their end. only statistical and not applicable to
(2) a sharing of the intellect in the minute details of single events, chance
will's firm adherence to belief in the combinations and interferences in na­
witness or revealer. ture do occur. and miracles remain
certitude of the practical intel· possible in some circumstances. ( c)
lect, fixity proceeding from the prac­ moral certitude, certain assent con­
tical intellect in the definite order it cerning human conduct, based on
imposes on things by its direction of men's evident and usual responses to
means to end and of natures and their needs, abilities, habits, and
their powers to proper objects and motivations. This certainty is condi­
specific unchangeable ends. tional because of the freedom of
common (direct; natural; spon· men, the influence of grace on them,
taneous) certitude: (1) certitude of and psychological abnormalities.
the fact without understanding of the free certitude, a firm assent af­
facts. (2) intellectually firm assent fected by the will. Acts of faith, of
that lacks critical and explicit re­ prudential certitude, and merely sub­
flection on the quality of the motives jective certitude will usually be free
for assent. Such certitude may never­ firm assents.
theless be formal certitude. imperfect certitude, see condi­
conditional (imperfect; quali­ tional CERTITUDE, above.
fied) certitude: (1) a sure assent natural certitude: (1) common
that does not totally exclude the CERTITUDE, above. (2) firm assent of
possibility of error though it sees no the intelligence based on evidence
reason for error or doubt under the within the order of nature.
circumstances; hence this refers to objective certitude, see main
moral, physical, and prudential cer­ entry, sense 9.
tainty. (2) a strongly probable perfect certitude: (1) natural or
opinion. philosophical certitude that is formal.
formal (reflex; scientific) certi· (2) metaphysical certitude. (3) certi­
tude: (1) firm assent to the truth of tude possessed in vision of an im­
a proposition with clear knowledge mediately present object.
that the objective evidence excludes philosophical certitude, formal
error and the possibility of error and certitude esp. if reflection not only
the demand for further inquiry; the shows that the motives exclude error
knowledge that some statement is in judgment but also weighs the pro­
true and cannot be otherwise; the portion of the motives to the quality
known infallibility of one's judg­ of firmness in the assent; i.e., it con­
ment. (2) sure knowledge of the fact siders whether the assent deserves
and of the reasons why the fact is to be metaphysically, physically, or
true. Sense 1 is the more used. Such morally certain.
formal certitude is distinguished by probable certitude: ( 1) the con­
its degrees: (a) metaphysical ( ab­ ditional certitude of physical or of
solute; perfect) certitude, infallible moral certitude. (2) prudential certi­
assent, based on a motive that the tude. (3) a strongly probable assent.
mind recognizes to be unqualifiedly ( 4) merely subjective certitude with
necessary so that the opposite of the insufficient reflection on the motives
object of its judgment is impossible. of assent.
( b) physical certitude, a certain as­ prudential certitude (relative;
sent to the laws of physical nature ethical; moral certitude in the
and to coming events that neces- wide sense; morally probable
ceteris parihus 47 change

certitude ) , a firm assent in practical nature. 6. that whose cause is in­

contingent matters, based on evidence determinable or whose outcome is
svfficient to justify the ordinary pru­ unpredictable though intention of a
dent person in acting by this judg­ definite outcome is present in the
ment concerning his own or others' agent; risk; gamble. 7. the coinci­
welfare; sound probable judgment dental, unplanned happening that ac­
that is made after reasonable dili­ companies planned action. 8. mathe­
gence in evaluating evidence and matics. random variation or varia­
probabilities and that is morally well tions; the numerical proportion of
motivated in reaching the practical likely instances in a given number of
decision. times; hence, a number expressing
subjective certitude: ( 1) a feel­ the probability of a specified event
ing of certitude, without even im­ out of a total number of relevant
plicit attention to the worth of the possibilities. 9. an occasion; oppor­
evidence as excluding error and its tunity; opening, esp. if not planned
possibility. (2) willed certitude. See or expected.
senses 5 and 6. Sometimes subjective absolute (pure) chance: ( 1) that
certitude may be transformed into which is not planned, foreseen, or
formal certitude. permitted by any agent. (2) that
supernatural certitude, firm as­ event which no created agent has
sent of the mind to a natural or su­ planned or foreseen.
p ernatu ral truth but given with super­ physical chance, chance in nature
natural help and from a supernatural or in events caused by nature's ac­
motive. The supernatural certitude of tivit ies; an accidental combination of
faith will also require the impulse of natural causes and events. Such a
the free will. See BELIEVE. fortuitous event, usu ally un d esir abl e,
REF. - Posterior Analytics, I, ch. is sa id by Aristotle to be caused by
2; S.T., II-II, 18, a. 4; 70, aa. 2, 3; nature but not according to nature. It
Trutlt, q. 6, a. 3; 14, a. 1; Pope Pius is di st inguishe d from lu ck , a desirable
XII, "Moral Cer tainty, " in T. L. event that is wort hy of intention.
Bo usca r en, S.J., Canon Law Digest: relative chance, an event unfore­
Supplement Through 1948, 224-230; seen by its immed ia te agents; an
F. A. Cunningham, S.J., "Certitude in event following upon the concurrence
St. Thoma s Aquinas," llfodern of or interference between multiple
Schoolman, XXX (1953), 297-324. but unconnected causes; coincidence.
Some problems of the meanings of See sense 7.
certitude can be s t udied in the en­ change, n. I. proper sense. "the ac­
tries s.v. sure in a· large English dic ­ tualization of a being in potency inas­
tion ary . much as it is in potency" (Aristotle);
*ceteris paribus, Lat. phrase. o ther the movement of a movable being
things being equal. inasmuch as it is movable; the pass­
chance, n. 1. th e unforeseen; the un­ ing from subjective potency to act.
intended; an event that lacks a con­ Change, in this proper sense, is from
nection between agent's intention and something to something, from a par­
the actual oc currence. 2. t he seem­ ticular subject to another particular
ing absence of final cause or design. s:Jbjed; it req uires a term from which
Chance does r;ot mea�1 a seemin;:; and a term to which; and it i nvolve s
abs en c e of an efficient cause. 3. the gaining of a new form and the
something said to happen without a privation of an old form. 2. improper
deliberate purpose or \ ii th ou t any (extended) sense. <iny newness in
inteliigent c a use among all it s causes. b<!ing; any o:·;:;in of a c1ifforcnce; h,:,­
See absolute CHANCE, below. 4. the comin3 or cornin�-into-bei!13. See
c:ccidental; ha phaz ar d; random. 5. th e CR;;ATION; MOTION. 3. variety; differ­
irregular or u nusu al in the course of ence; s ubs titu tion.
change 48 change

NoTE - For change as a verb, see but not the soul. See TRANSUBSTAN­
MOVE. TIATION.
accidental change, real change in REF. - Cat., ch. 14; Physics, III,
the accidents of a being, esp. of ch. 1, 2; Generation and Corruption,
quantity and quality. I, ch. 3, 4; Met., XI, ch. 12; XII,
apparent (seeming; extrinsic) ch. 2; St. Thomas' Commentary on
change, a difference in a being but . the Physics of Aristotle, Bk. III in
without any change in the substance, J. A. McWilliams, S.J., translator,
substantial parts, or intrinsic acci­ Physics and Philosophy; id., The
dents of a being; difference but no Principles of Nature.
real change within the being thought
or said to be changed.
intentional change, the change in CHANGE, MOTION,
a knower whereby he gains new MOVEMENT, AND BECOMING
knowledge of an object without pro­
A. Types reduced to categories
ducing any physical change in the
object known and without losing any In the order of substance:
form already in his own knowing 1. Creation
powers. 2. Transubstantiation
local change, passage of a body 3. Transformation: substantial change
from place to place. See MOTION, properly so called
sense 1. a) generation
mechanical change, movement in b) conversion
a machine or like that in a machine; c) decay (corruption; perishing)
hence, quantitative, local, and posi­ 4. Annihilation of being
tional changes of the parts of some­ In the order of accidents:
thing without any internal change in
5. Change of place (locomotion; local
the being of the parts or of the
change): motion in the proper sense
whole.
nominal change, change of names; 6. Change in quantity or extension
a mere change of relation between a) increase (expansion)

the thing named or named differently

b) decrease (diminution; contraction)
c) union with other bodies without
and the one who uses the name as a substantial change
sign for it. The term may be extended d) division into integral parts of itself
to include apparent change. without substantial change
physical change, one in which
7. Change of quality (alteration)
there is gain and loss of some real
a) qualities gained or lost
form, whether substantial or acci­ b) intensity of qualities changed
dental: distinguished mainly from
intentional change. 8. Intentional change (newness without
privation; qualitative)
real (intrinsic) change, change in
the reality or being of a thing by a 9. Change in relationships
loss or gain of some actual form. a) of predicamental relations
substantial change, change in the b) of external relations while the ob­
ject said to be changed remains
substance of a thing because of
the same
change of its substantial form; gen­
c) of name without any change in
eration of a new substance (or of the object named
a new substantial form) and the
perishing of the previous substantial 10. Change in position
form by its return to the passive
a) of internal position of a thing's
parts; of posture; internal rear­
potency of matter. See also immortal­ rangement
ity of the human soul as a partial b) of relative position because of local
exception to this definition because change in other objects ; external
the body, dying, changes substantially, rearrangement of the environment
chaos 49 cinesiological

B. Proper and extended sense of change oneself for God's sake, or to our
Apparent (extrinsic) change: Nos. 9b, fellowmen for God's sake. 3. popu­
c; !Ob; S, 6, 9a (sometimes) lar but disputed philosophical and
Becoming: No. 1 theological usage. the habit or act of
Improper sense of change: Nos. 1, 2, spiritual love of others for their own
4, 8, 9 sake whereby one gives to them what
Mechanical change: Nos. S, 6, 10
is one's own, not merely what is their
Motion in proper sense: No. S
own. See AGAPE; FRIEND; JUSTICE;
Movement: Nos, 3, 6, 7
LOVE.
Nominal: Nos. 9b, c
Real (intrinsic; proper sense): Nos. REF. - Helene Petre, Caritas:
3, S (sometimes), 7, 9a (sometimes) Etude sur le Vocabulaire Latin de la
Charite Chretienne, esp. Partie I.
chaos, n. I. the (almost) unordered chastity, n. the moral virtue that con­
state of the primitive universe; form­ trols the use of one's sexual powers
less, scattered primeval matter; ylem. and desires in accordance with right
2. the hypothetical unproduced and reason. Right reason limits use to
undifferentiated stuff of the universe their natural purposes within the
of long ago, postulated in most mate­ married state. The three modes of
rialistic systems. 3. any great dis­ chastity are virginity, conjugal chas­
order. tity, and widowhood. There is also
ANT. - cosmos; order. a supernatural chastity.
character, n. the habitual moral vir­ choice, n. 1. an act of the will freely
tues and vices of a person, founded selecting particular means to a known
on his dispositions and together dis­ end. See chart of HUMA N acts. 2.
tinguishing his moral personality; in­ any free act; a "free judgment aris­
tegration of a person's nature and ing from reason" (Boethius, 480?-
nurture in his habits and the expres­ 524?); "deliberate desire of things
sion of these in his living. that are in our power" (Aristotle).
characteristic, n. a proper or dis­ See FREEDOM. 3. the will considered
tinguishing trait, feature, part, qual­ according to its power to choose be­
ity, or difference of a class of things tween or among contingent goods.
or of an individual. church, n. an organized religious soci­
acquired characteristic, a modifi­ ety seeking the spiritual good of its
cation in the structure or function of members.
a living body, caused by environ­ ABBR. - c., ch.
mental factors and reactions to these: Catholic Church, the society of
distinguished from hereditary char­ all those who profess the one faith
acteristics. of Christ, partake of the same sacra­
charity, n. 1. the habitual love of ments, and are spiritually governed
someone for the sake of God. Divine by their lawful pastors under one
charity loves men primarily because visible head, the Pope; "the Mystical
God loves His own goodness which Body of Christ, made up of the
He wills men to share in created faithful who are organically united
likenesses of it. Human charity wills in the Holy Spirit by the same faith,
the good to God, to one's self, or to the same sacraments, and the same
fellowmen for the sake of God. government" (Vatican Council II,
Natural love does not will the divine Decree on Eastern Rites, No. 2).
good for God's sake nor the good of Most discussions of scholastic politi­
one's neighbors for His sake. Hence, cal philosophy on Church and state
many prefer to reserve the word mean the Catholic Church.
charity for supernatural love. 2. any ABBR. - C. Ch.
deliberate thought, wish, word, or cinesiological, (kinesiological), adj.
deed that offers love to God for a of movement or change. The proof
reason related to His goodness, to from change to the existence of God
circle 50 class

has been called the cinesiological condition, event, or incidental effect

proof. that attends another fact, event, ob­
circle, n. 1. a fault in reasoning in ject, action, or decision and in some
which the premise (antecedent) and way modifies or determines it to be
conclusion are each, in turn, used somewhat different than it would
to prove each other, though both otherwise be. 2. as moral determinant
require proof. This lack of inde­ of a complete human act. some fact,
pendent proof is also called circular­ detail, condition, event, or incidental
ity and a vicious circle. 2. the fault effect that modifies either the moral
of defining a term by itself or by re­ object or the intending agent, and
peating the term being defined. 3. thereby somewhat changes the hu­
an academic exercise in which a man act.
group of students review a thesis or specifying circumstance, one that
set of propositions in a formal de­ determines or changes the lowest
bate. moral species of a human act. A
Euler's circles, see EULER'S cir­ theological specifying circumstance
cles. affects one's relation to God by deter­
vicious circle: ( 1) circular proof. mining whether (a) the evil act is
See sense 1. ( 2) circular definition: serious or venial or (b) the good
sense 2. (3) a situation in which the act deserves condign or congruent
proposed solution of one problem merit. A moral (intrinsic) specifying
in any field of knowledge gives rise circumstance determines, changes, or
to an additional problem or prob­ adds to the moral class, virtue, or
lems, and the attempted solution of vice, of the act. Thus, cheating, fraud,
the fresh problem brings one back robbery, burglary, and armed rob­
to the first problem; a chain of bery would be different acts of in­
interconnected problems, all of which justice that might each be in a speci­
must be solved satisfactorily if any fic moral class, as they are in dif­
is to be solved satisfactorily. This is ferent legal classes.
somewhat the case in attempting a city, n. 1. in older usage. a city-state;
critique of human knowledege, at an independent city and the territory
least in the idealists' approach. (4) it directly controls. 2. a state, even if
inaccurate usage. the appeal to an large, its people, constitution, govern­
irrelevant infinite series as an explana­ ment, culture, and history.
tion. civil, adj. 1. of, like, or suitable to
circuminsession, n. a theological a citizen. 2. of a community of citi­
term: the reciprocal inexistence of zens, their government, or relations
the divine Persons in each other. The between members of the same state.
term is extended to the inexistence 3. civilized; urbane. 4. designating
of the intellect and will of angels and something that is merely civil or
of men. See BE IN, sense 25. civilly recognized: as, civil law; dis­
circumscription, n. 1. a boundary, tinguished from natural, ecclesiastical,
limitation, or restriction, esp. in place military law. 5. according to Roman
or space. 2. the locally limited pres­ or modern civil (Civil) law. 6. re­
ence of bodies; presence of a body lating to private rights. See civil
in place in such a way that its parts RIGHT.
are dispersed through an area, part civil disobedience, simple non­
by part, and are surrounded by other compliance with civil laws that are
parts, but do not contain and are not or are thought to be unjust.
contained by the other parts. See civilty, n. the art of government;
circumscribed ( circumscriptive; en­ politics.
circled) PRESENCE. 3. the surrounding class, n. 1. a number of people or
substance. things grouped together because they
circumstance, n. 1. a fact, detail, have a like nature, the specifically
class 51 co cause

same form, or certain common traits. of grouping like things in one class
See GENUS; KIND; SPECIES; UNIVER­ according to a common principle and
SAL. 2. a group of people considered of distinguishing them from members
as a moral unit according to their of other classes. 2. the identification
occupational, economic, or social rank of some object as a member of a
or status: as, the working class. 3. recognized class.
a division of persons or things ac­ NOTE - Classification is the re­
cording to grade or quality; hence, verse of division; for it begins with
it is a subdivision within another the individual and moves up through
group: as, all the B students. 4. lowest species to phylum or to su­
biology. the group of plants or ani­ preme genus. Division moves down,
mals having a common basic struc­ splitting the supreme genus into its
ture and ranked between an order branches until the lowest species has
and a phylum. been reached.
the classes, higher social classes; clause, causal, phrase. in a causal
nJ; ng or wealthi e r classes: opposed proposition, the clause giving the
t:"> the masses. reason for the statement in the con­
class consciousness, awareness of nected clause. It is introduced by a
belonging to a certain class in society word expressing cause: as, because,
and sharing its common interests, for, inasmuch as, since, etc. A causal
privileges, burdens, and reputation: proposition is often an enthymeme;
distinguished from personal, national, its causal clause must contain the
and racial consciousness. middle term.
class name, see NAM E. clear, adj. see an English dictionary;
class struggle, the Marxist con­ AB SOL UTE; CONCEPT; EVIDENCE.
ception of the economic and political clemency, 1. the potential virtue
n.
conflict between the exploiting capi­ related to temperance th at habitu a lly
talists (bourgeoisie) and the exploited moderates anger and inclines one to
workers ( proletariat or masses). be lenient in punishing an offender or
highest and lowest class, see enemy; meekness. 2. an act moderat­
supreme and lowest GENUS and ing anger and the desire to reve nge
SPECIES. oneself.
natural class, the essence of a coach-driver theory, a way of refer­
species or an absolute nature when ring to Jean Jacques Rousseau's
directly known. It is distinguished (1712-1778) theory of the social
from an artificial class, which is a contract, comparing the general will's
construct formed of accidental fea­ control of the government to a
tures, not directly known , designating driver's control of his team. As mere
a class name for an artificial group: agents of the people, government
as, toys are an artificial class. officials move, turn, stop, and are
null class, a class having no mem­ dismissed from office at any time
bers; an empty class; hence, a species as the people will.
none of whose members exist. Thus, coactivity, n. 1. the moral power of
since Ockham (1300?-1349?) thinks using force to protect the object of
the divine ideas are nonbeings, with­ a perfect right against unjust attack.
out any positive being before crea­ 2. the property oi a perfect right
tion, he would regard them as a null y;hose perfec tion or completeness al­
class. lows the use of proportion a te force
predicate and subject class, the to protect it against imminent unjust
class (species, kind, group, etc.) attack.
named in the subject or the predicate, cocreated (concreated), adj. see
respectively. CREATE.
ABBR. -cl. cocaus e, n. 1. a cause functioning to­
classification, n. 1. the mental process gether with another cause: said
code 52 command

mainly (a) of cooperating agents; rence of events, ideas, movements,

(b) of matter and form as constitu­ results of independent experiments,
ent causes. 2. coauthor. and other evidence so noteworthy
code, n. 1. a systematic body of posi­ that a positive correlation or causal
tive laws. 2. any set of principles or relationship is suspected. See CHANCE.
of rules of human conduct, or of collective, adj. 1. gathered into a
social conventions. 3. the set of sym­ whole. 2. of, as, or distinctive of a
bols of a specialized or secret style of group whose members act together;
writing: as, of mathematics. common to several or many; joint;
codivision, n. a division of something composite. ANT. - distributive. 3.
already divided, but based on another designating a singular noun that re­
distinct, not parallel, basis of division. fers to a collection of individuals.
coextensive, adj. having equal ex­ ABBR. - coll.; collect.
tension in space, dimensions, time, colligate, v.t. 1. to bind together. 2.
or membership in a class. The trans­ logic; philosophy of science. to find
cendentals are so described. a relation between isolated facts by
cogitate, v.i. 1. to think about seri­ some explanatory principle: as, Dar­
ously; ponder. 2. to know by the win (1809-1882) colligated many
cogitative sense. types of facts in the theory of organic
cogitative sense ( power), phrase. evolution.
the human estimative sense. See combination, n. 1. a uniting. 2. a
r SENSE. being united; a composite unit. 3.
*"Cogito, ergo sum." "I think; there­ what is united or results from being
fore, I exist." This quotation is a united: (a) an association of per­
basic point in Rene Descartes' sons united in a common purpose
(1596-1650) philosophy. It is his or cooperative activity. (b) a thing,
first certain piece of reflective knowl­ chemical compound, series, etc., made
edge that begins to clear away his by parts or units being joined to­
universal methodic doubt. The phrase gether. (c) a logical unit: judgment
and the problems connected with it or construct.
and its method are often referred to combination and distinction, an
as the COGITO. attributive judgment, affirmative and
cognition, n. 1. sentient or intellectual negative: also called composition and
knowledge. 2. the power or process division. See JUDGMENT, sense 7.
of knowing. 3. anything known, esp. come from, phrase. to proceed from
the directly known. in some way; to follow after in some
cognitive, adj. 1. describing or be­ way. Aristotle suggests four mean­
longing to knowledge and the mental ings of the phrase: 1. to come after
order. 2. knowing or able to know; (in time). 2. to come out of the
cognoscitive. preexisting subject (material cause).
cognoscible, adj. knowable; in po­ 3. to come from the power of the
tency to be known; perceptible. maker. 4. to follow an exciting occa­
coherence, n. 1. the quality of being sion. One may generalize the ways
logically consistent; the quality of to include all relations of princi­
mentally fitting together. 2. cohesion piates to principles.
of bodies or of their parts. REF. - Met., V, ch. 24; Genera­
coherence theory of truth or evi­ tion of Animals, I, ch. 18.
dence, the theory favored by idealists command, n. I. having or exercising
and mathematical systems that non­ authority, jurisdiction, or control. 2.
contradictoriness or consistency with issuing an order; directing. 3. an act
first premises or a priori principles of the intellect, prompted by the
and a priori forms of knowing is the will, directing oneself in using one's
only criterion of truth and certitude. human powers or in the carrying out
coincidence, n. an accidental concur- of one's choices and decisions. 4. an
commentary 53 communism

act of the executive will, causing the of being shared, equally or propor­
intellect or other powers to act. See tionally, by everyone or by all to­
list of acts of INTELLECT and WILL. gether. 2. applicable to, belonging to,
5. an act of the third potential done by, referring to, or shared in
part of prudence, ability to com­ by two or more or by all concerned.
mand, directing that the means dis­ Common is not always the same as
covered by good counsel be used. universal. ANT. - individual; exclu­
6. an act of the reason of the su­ sive; proper. 3. belonging to a com­
perior or lawgiver requiring subjects munity. See GOOD. 4. ordinary; usual,
to take definite action to an end. See familiar; widespread; general. 5. in­
LAW. 7. an order; direction; dictate. different to being one or many. See
8. a precept; an order imposed on common NATURE.
a subject for his private good by ABBR.-com.
either private or public authority: communicate, v., usually t. I. to
distinguished from a law, imposed for share with another in the same activ­
the common good. ity, in the same possessions, in the
commanded act, an act fulfilling same advantages, or in the same kind
the command. See senses 3 and 4; of goods and perfections; to have in
HUMAN acts. common with another or others; to
NOTE - There is a famous dispute participate (as one among many). See
between Thomists and others whether PARTICIPATION. 2. to give or impart
the act of command is formally an act being or other perfections to another
of intellect or of the will. Senses 3-6 in some way. Senses 3-5 specify some
above are given in a Thomistic way. of these ways. 3. to share with an­
ABBR. - comd. other as model cause shares its per­
REF. - S.T., I-II, q. 17; 90, aa. fection with its copies. 4. to share
2, 3. its perfections with another as an
commentary, n. a style of philosophi­ agent producing something like it­
cal and theological exposition con­ self in its effects. 5. to unite one's
sisting of a series of citations, notes, being with another and to share in
criticisms, and development of the the perfection of the whole to which
writing of another. Many medievals, it has given its being: said of the
Christian and non-Christian, wrote material and formal causes which
commentaries on various works of share their reality with each other
Aristotle. Commentaries on Peter and share in the existence and per­
Lombard's Books of Sentences were fection of the whole composed by
numerous as it was for long the basic their union. 6. to have what is given
theological textbook. Besides com­ or imparted and to share it with
ments on Aristotle and the Master, others who have received it or, some­
St. Thomas commented on parts of times, also with the giver. 7. to give
Boethius, on Pseudo-Dionysius, on or to give and receive (exchange),
the Book of Causes, etc. Some com­ information, messages, etc., by some
mentaries follow the author line by means. 8. to reveal one's mind, thus
line, severely restricting the com­ sharing one's knowledge with another.
ment to interpreting the meaning of 9. to receive from the good of an­
a writer, with little personal teaching. other: as, to share in another's love.
Others use little more than the order ABBR.-com.
of exposition of the original writer. communism, n. I. in general. any
ABBR. - comm., s. and pl. socialistic theory of the ownership
The Commentator, Averroes (Ibn and control of all capital goods by
Rochd) (1126-1198) so named be­ the whole community or by its politi­
cause of his great commentaries on cal government. 2. absolute commu­
Aristotle. nism, a theory of ownership that
common, adj. I. shared or capable forbids any private ownership, even
community 54 composition

of consumers' goods. 3. Marxist com­ guished from choice, concern, and a

munism. a general philosophical voluntary causing of an action or
theory, technically called dialectical effect. 3. contentment; restful satis­
materialism, with special accent on faction.
questions of public control of capital complete, adj. 1. whole; entire; lack­
goods. Besides its dialectical material­ ing no parts, attributes, perfections,
ism, it is noteworthy for atheism; or operations needed for the fullness
state ownership and control of all of a being's proper nature. 2. perfect;
productive property, finance, and dis­ fully actual.
tribution; the totalitarian power of component, n. 1. a part; constituent;
the state in the revolutionary period; coprinciple. 2. one of the simple
the coming economic utopia when propositions or prime sentences into
private ownership and exploitation of which a composite proposition can
the masses have passed; the interna­ be analyzed.
tional character of political society; composite, adj. 1. constituted by the
and the new socialized man of the natural union of two or more parts,
universal working class (Marxist hu­ principles, or elements. NOTE -The
manism). See MATERIALISM, sense 6. compound is intermediate between
community, n. 1. a group of people the simple and the mixed. 2. joined
living together and having common in­ with another in thought. 3. thought
terests, work, etc.; a society; a com­ of as having parts or distinctions. 4.
pany. A community need not be a collective. ANT. - distributed.
political state or a branch of it. 2. composition, n. 1. a combining of
the people living in the same region parts, principles, or elements into a
under the same laws and rulers. 3. natural unit. 2. the constitution of
the place where such a group of peo­ a being or nature having internal
ple lives. 4. common ownership. 5. coprinciples, parts, or elements; a
sharing (anything) in common; hav­ composite being or compound sub­
ing, using, enjoying something to­ stance. 3. a combining of complete
gether. 6. similarity; likeness; a com­ beings into a new unit. 4. putting
mon possession of some essence, subject and predicate together by
form, trait, etc. affirming one or the other; affirmative
ABBR.-com. judgment, in the logician's sense. See
commutative, adj. exchangeable JUDGMENT, sense 7; COMBINATION
among equals on a basis of equality; AND DISTINCTION. 5. an affirmative
mutually transferable on an equal proposition. 6. any mental joining
basis; reciprocally shared or inter­ together, as in forming construct
changeable. See JUSTICE. concepts, logical relations, joining
comparison, n. 1. an examination and antecedent with consequent, adding
estimation of similarities and differ­ logical parts into a logical whole, etc.
ences. 2. examination of objects pre­ This is logical composition. 7. the
paratory to judgment of their like­ method of synthesis, q.v.
ness, difference, or degree of likeness fallacy of composition and divi­
and difference. 3. the relation of sion, a mistake in using the com­
similarity in things; capacity to be posite (collective) and distributed
compared with each other; propor­ meanings of a term. This may come
tion of things to each other. 4. a
from unclear use; attempted simul­
simile used to explain, accent, or
taneous use of both senses; a change
adorn a likeness between things.
ABBR. - comp.; compar. from one to the other sense in the
complacency (complacence) n. 1. same discourse or proof; predicating
the will's act of simply liking, of of the whole what may be predicated
being pleased with (an object); will­ only of the part, and v ice versa.
ingness. 2. wish; mere wish: distin- real composition, uniting beings
compound 55 concept

or parts of beings into a whole; sources of imperfection in human

senses 1, 3. acts.
metaphysical composition, add­ conation, n. I. a power of desiring, or
ing the metaphysical grades of be­ striving; an impulse to act: distin­
ing to each other to form the con­ guished from cognitive and passive
cept of the species or the metaphysi­ states in an animal or man. 2. the
cal d e finitio n of the species. This aspect of effort and energy in any
name, used by Suarez, is one type conscious activity.
of logical composition. See GRADES. conceivable, adj. that can be under­
ABBc{. - comp. stood, believed, or imagined. The
compo:md, n. I. a composite sub­ conceivable and inconceivable must
s�ance; a natural composite whole; not be limited, by definition, to the
something constituted of matter and imaginable and the unimaginable.
subs'.ant.i.al form. Compound is sel­ conceive, v.t. I. to become pregnant
clom used of the union of essence with; to form a new being in the
m:d act of existence to form one womb. 2. to form in the mind; ap­
being. 2. a material, molecular sub­ preh end an essence. The image of
st<i.nce containing two or more ele­ giving new intentional being is taken
mentary substances united into a from givi ng new physical being. 3.
natural whole. to form in the imagination. This
ABBR. - comp.; cpd. sense is rare in scholasticism. 4. to
comprehend, v.t. I. strict, basic sense. originate an exemplar or plan. 5. to
to possess and include another. 2. express or represent in words. 6. v.i.,
to possess another intentionally; to to form a concept (of). 7. to inter­
understand clearly the meaning of pret the meaning of.
something. 3. to know a thing as concept, n. 1. the intellect's represen­
completely as it itself is knowable: tation in itself of the form or es­
as, God alone comprehends God. 4. sence of a thing; the known intel­
to possess or have attained an end. lectual likeness of a thing or form;
5. to include in its scope or meaning; intelligible species; mental word.
imply. Concept is not applied to sensation
comprehension, n. I. the act of un­ and image. Idea is often used to
derstanding clearly or fully. 2. the mean a concept. 2. the intellect's
essence represented or understood in activity of expressing in itself a
a con ce p t; the sum of notes actually representation of an object; appre­
represented in a concept or defini­ hending, perceiving, constructing, etc.
tion. 3. the intension of a term; the 3. the object or form represented
being or kind of being to which a in the knower's intellect. This may
term refers; the thing or kind of be understood in several senses. See
thing meant. 4. inclusiveness. This OBJECTIVE CONCEPT, below.
somewhat unfortunate meaning tends abstract concept, a representation
to confuse comprehension and exten­ of an attribute of a real subject as
sion cf a t e rm . 5. attainment of a though separated from and subsistent
goal; C:istinguished from effort and apart from, that subject: as, honesty.
hope. ANT. - concrete concept.
compulsion, n. I. the use of force. analogous concept: ( 1) a repre­
2. the fact or state of being physi­ sentation of a form that is imper­
cally or morally constrained to act fectly common to two or more ob­
contrary to one's natural action or jects or natures; hen ce , it is an in­
one's choice; necessitation. See distinct concept. ( 2) mental repre­
FORCE; OBLIGATION. 3. an irresistible sentation of a nature or perfection
impulse to perform an act, usually th:i.t is known, not immediately but
an irrational one. In this psychologi­ by an imperfect comparison with
cal sense, compulsion is one of the some better known nature that is
concept 56 concept

only partially like the object of this an object or of the meaning of a topic
analogous concept. See UNIVOCAL and at the beginning of the effort to study
EQUIVOCAL, below. it, define it, or scientifically under­
clear concept: (1) a concept that stand it. As knowledge progresses,
represents its object well enough that this initial concept is refined into a
it can be distinguished from other discursive, reasoned, or scientific one.
objects. (2) loosely. a distinct con­ objective concept: (1) the ob­
cept (one of the species of a clear ject, essence, or form that is known;
concept). (3) an object well under­ the formal object of the subjective
stood. Usage seems to suggest that concept. (2) the represented object
at times a clear concept merely means or form but considered in its inten­
one that the knower thinks he under­ tional existence or presence in the
stands or that he is satisfied with. knower's intellect. (3) Vasquez
collective concept, a representa­ (1549?-1604) and Descartes. the ob­
tion of all individuals as a group but jective being that the known thing
not of the single members of the has in thought; the objective pres­
group if taken separately. ence of the known thing in the mind;
concrete concept, a representa­ the being that belongs to a being
tion of a nature as an actual subject inside the mind because it is known.
or of an attribute as actually belong­ According to Descartes' principle of
ing to a subject. This need not be a immanency, it is an objective con­
singular concept. cept inside the intellect that man
confused concept: ( 1) indistinct immediately knows rather than the
CONCEPT, below. (2) Ockham (1300?- object outside the mind.
1349?) . a universal standing indif­ ANT. - subjective concept.
ferently for all singulars: as, man obscure concept, one that so
for Tom, Dick, and Harry, etc. weakly represents its object that the
derived concept, one acquired mind cannot distinguish it from other
from other concepts, judgments, rea­ unlike objects.
soning, association, and dissociation. ANT. - clear concept.
distinct concept: (1) so clear a particular concept, a representa­
representation of an object that the tion of a part, usually indeterminate,
mind perceives various attributes or of a class.
notes within the object and thus well proper concept, a representation
discriminates it from other objects. of an object according to its own
(2) Scotus. a representation of the nature and not by imperfect likeness
object so full that one can define to another nature or by indistinct
the nature represented by the concept. community with partially similar
formal concept, subjective CON­ natures.
CEPT, below. scientific concept: (1) one that
immediate (direct: intuitive; has been refined by study, discus­
pnmxtive; original) concept, a sion, and summary of the judgments
representation of the object formed reached about the object, nature, or
by the object's own presence to the form. (2) a concept, esp. a technical
attentive knower without the medium one, used commonly in a special field
of other concepts and judgments. of science.
ANT. - derived concept. simple concept, Scotistic usage.
indistinct (confused) concept, a one that cannot be reduced or broken
representation that distinguishes the down into two simpler ones that
known object from at least some are first intentions related to each
other different objects, but does not other as determinable and determin­
explicitly represent the object's in­ ing. Whether there are any such con­
ternal notes. cepts is debatable.
initial concept, the knowledge of singular concept, one represent-
conceptu al i sm 57 concupiscence

ing a single object, nature, or form, judgment. 2. to form a reflex uni­

or a single group. versal concept of a necessary nature
subjective (formal) concept, the or essence; to form categories in the
concept as such, i.e., as an intellectual mind. 3. to form a construct, usually
representation of the object; the men­ dependent on one or more judgments,
tal act of knowing an object or that does not represent a perceived
essence. See main entry, sense 1. object.
universal concept, the intellectual conclude directly, phrase. to draw
representation of a common form a conclusion in the normal mood of
(genus; species; or attribute) that a syllogism in which the subject of
can be in many individuals in the the conclusion is the minor term and·
same specific (or generic) perfection the predicate is the major term.
and can be predicated of many in­ conclude indirectly, phrase. to draw
dividuals in exactly the same (a uni­ a conclusion, as in the first indirect
vocal) sense. This sameness does not figure of the syllogism, in which the
imply equal individual possession of subject of the conclusion is the major
the form by all members of the term and the predicate is the minor
class. Many distinguish the universal term; in other words, the normal
concept further. A direct universal minor term is predicated of the major
concept represents something (an ab­ term in the conclusion.
solute nature) that can belong uni­ conclusion, n. I. the end or last part;
vocally to many; but it does not at­ close. 2. the last judgment or propo­
tend to the fact that many can or sition in a chain of reasoning. 3.
do have this common form. A reflex the consequent proposition in a syl­
universal concept represents a com­ logism. 4. a final decision or agree­
mon nature, form, or attribute with ment.
explicit recognition that it is a uni­ ABBR.-con.
versal, i.e., that it is common to many concourse, n. concurrence; coopera­
in a class and can be predicated of tion.
many individuals within that class in concrete, adj. 1. that can be per­
a univocal and distributed sense. ceived by the senses. 2. of, belong­
Different shadings of realist and ing to, or characterized by sensibly
terminist doctrines will define the perceptible attributes, things, changes,
universal in various ways according or events. 3. hence, singular or in­
to their views of the reality or un­ dividual, whether material or immate­
reality of universals. rial. 4. also, actual or existent; be­
REF. - J. Maritain, The Degrees longing to some actual individual.
of Knowledge (tr., G. B. Phelan), 5. referring to something particular,
chap. 3, sec. 3, nos. 22-29. definite, or detailed. 6. known or
conceptualism, n. any of the various named as it is in existing objects,
opinions that universal concepts are not represented or named as sepa­
pure concepts, not representing any rated from these objects and given
reality outside the mind and having a detached existence of its own.
no objective foundation in things, ANT. - abstract.
which are exclusively individual; concupiscence, n. 1. the sensitive ap­
hence, any of the various views that petite that seeks and enjoys sensibly
admit universal concepts and some pleasant objects. This concupiscible
meaning to common terms, though appetite is distinguished from powers
reality is utterly singular and in no of sensation, which are cognitive, and
true way common to many. Nominal­ from the irascible appetite. 2. any
ism goes farther by accepting only actual movement or passion of this
names as universal. sensitive appetite, usually accom­
conceptualize, v.t. 1. to form a con­ panied by physiological reactions in
cept: distinguished from making a other powers of the sentient being;
<·oncurrence 58 confused

a sensory desire. 3. strong desire, esp. another proposition or clause neces­

sexual, uncontrolled by or contrary sarily depends; the antecedent or
to reason. protasis in a conditional sentence. The
antecedent (prior) concupis­ consequent clause is called the con­
cence, a movement of the appetite ditioned.
for sensible pleasure prior to delibera­ active condition, one that affects
tion or incitement of the appetite by the agent.
the will. The term is also extended *conditio sine qua non, an in­
co involuntary movements of the dispensable or unique condition with­
irascible appetite. See * MOTU S PRIMO· out which action cannot take place
PRIM I. or legal validity of an act is im­
consequent concupiscence, a possible.
movement of the appetite for sensible passive condition, a disposition in
pleasure after being stimulated or the matter or subject which, through
increased by the will. the matter, affects the form or change.
love of concupiscence, see LOVE. conditional (conditioned), adj. qual­
concurrence, n. 1. a happening to­ ified; restricted; containing, or de­
ge th e r in place or in time. 2. a pendent upon, one or more conditions,
joining together to bring about or whether physical, psychological, legal,
produce something; cooperation. or logical; not absolute; not simple.
*concursus, n. an often-used Latin conduct, n. 1. human or volitional
word for cooperation, esp. for divine acts: distinguished from mere be­
cooperation with a created agent or havior; self-determining action, both
with the human will. elicited and commanded. 2. the pat­
condign, adj. strictly deserved; ade­ tern of such action.
quate; equal to the merit or guilt coafession, n. an external expression
of a deed ; perfectly just. See MEP.IT. of praise, of truth, of belief, of guilt,
ANT. - CONGRUENT. of cooperation, etc.: as, The Con ­
c ond itio n , n. 1. anything required be­ jessions oj St. Augustine.
fore the action, occurrence, continu­ configuration, n. l. the arrangement
ation, validity, success, etc., of some­ cf material parts; physical figure or
thing else; a necessary preparatory shape. See POSTURE. 2. the pattern
stc;), procedure, or authorization. 2. or structure of a whole object as
metaphysics. the real principle, cir­ experienc"d. 3. the actual integrated
cumstance, or set of circumstances experience of man in encountering
that negatively contributes to the be­ sensible objects.
ginning of causal influence by remov­ confirmation, n. 1. an act, fact, piece
ing obstacles or lessening difficulties. of independent testimony, authorita­
A condition m2.y have this relation to tive citation, precedent, expert opin­
agent, form, or end. 3. a disposition ion, or other evidence that makes a
or quality of a thing's being or conclusion stronger. Confirmation us­
manner of acting: as, healthy con­ ually refers to a favorable but not
dition. 4. ethics. one of the factors or a new demonstrative addition to an­
determinants that must be included other proof or to an added con­
in a complex moral principle: as, the sideration that is not built up ex­
conditions for just warfare. 5. a plicitly into a second demonstration.
limitation or qualification attached 2. anything that tends to make a
to an act of one's will, as a contract, legal act more valid.
promise, etc., which would suspend, conformity, n. agreement or corre­
revoke, or otherwise change its ef­ spondence with a standard of
fects if this provision is not met: thought, truth, conduct, perfection,
distinguished legally from cause of etc.; similarity of form to another
consent and mode. 6. logic. a proposi­ form regarded as its measure.
tion or clause on which the truth of confused, adj. 1. disordered; mixed
congruence 59 consciousness

up. 2. indistinct; not sharply defined of one's conduct, either before or

in its parts, outline, or notes. See after acting. 4. improperly. the power
CONCEPT. 3. perplexed in conscience. or habit of moral judging.
congruence (congruency; congru­ binding in conscience, required
ity), n. agreement with what, under under penalty of sin against God if
the given circumstances, is reason­ the duty is deliberately not fulfilled;
able or fitting; appropriateness. The morally obligatory.
morally congruent implies something certain conscience, an antecedent
less exacting than justice. See MERIT. conscience that is prudentially sure
conjugal, adj. pertaining to marriage of its correctness ( truth ) . See pru­
or the relations of the married to dential CERTITUDE.
each other: as, conjugal society. consequent conscience, one's judg­
conjunction, n. a logical operation ment after hls human act that he has
that combines two propositions by or has not followed his antecedent
the connective and. Some writers, conscience; one's judgment of the
however, speak of an alternative con­ conformity or difformity of one's past
junction, designated by "neither . . . acts to one's knowledge of the ap­
nor." plicability of the moral law to the
conjunctive, adj. 1. serving to con­ act at the time that one acted. In
nect; uniting together. 2. united. this sense conscience is spoken of as
However, a conjunctive proposition a witness, a judge, as guilty or in­
forbids a union of two judgments by nocent, etc.
prefixing a negative to the united doubtful conscience, a judgment
subjects: as, "Not both A and B are that one recognizes to be only prob­
presidents." able on the morality of a proposed
ABBR. - conj. act. Speculative doubt concerns the
connatural (connate), adj. 1. be­ theoretical reasons for and against
longing to a nature and existing in the moral lawfulness of an act. Prac­
it from its beginning; congenital or tical doubt concerns an urgent de­
innate; not acquired; present in and cision about one's moral duty to do
operating by natural endowment, or omit a specified action here and
tendency, or need of a nature: as, a now. See PROBABILISM.
connatural right. ANT. - acquired. 2. basic principle on conscience: A
belonging to a perfected nature and prudentially certain conscience is suf­
operating so easily and rightly that ficient for action, is necessary for
it seems to be inborn. action, and must be obeyed whether
conno tation, n. 1. the comprehension it is correct or invincibly erro neous.
of a term; all that is essential to the REF. -S.T., I, 79, a. 13; Truth,
meaning of a word. 2. the implication q. 17, a. 1; B. Haring, C.Ss.R., The
of a term, due to its associations: Law of Christ, I, 141, also cites some
as, home has both denotation and voluntaristic definitions of conscience.
connotations peculiar to itself. consciousness, n. immediate aware­
conscience, n. 1. any act of judging ness of something existent and pres­
between right and wrong in conduct. ent; internal experience of an object,
2. proper sense. the last practical act, feeling, etc., that is either ex­
judgment concerning the moral law­ ternally or internally present to the
fulness of one's human act about to perceiver.
be performed, knowing that this act conscious, the, the contents of
is commanded, forbidden, or per­ one's experience of which one is
mitted. This is antecedent conscience sharply aware at a given moment of
with which the moral principles on attention.
conscience are concerned. 3. a dis­ direct consciousness, immediate
position to judge well or badly, attention to the present object; pure
calmly or anxiously, about matters awareness.
consensus 60 consequent

reflex consciousness, explicit cases only by the stable consent of

awareness of the object in its status the people.
as known or of the self precisely as express consent, an explicit act
knowing, feeling, or willing. See ex­ of accepting definitely stated terms,
ercised and signate ACT. one side of proposed alternatives, stip­
self-consciousness, self-awareness; ulated conditions, etc.: distinguished
immediate intellectual knowledge of from implicit and interpreted con­
one's own acts, one's own existence, sent. Express consent need not be
or of one's self (substance) in its external.
activity; direct attention to something external consent, a commanded
in one's self: as, I know myself to act that uses some outward sign,
be reading by an act of self-con­ e.g., words, signature, nod of the
sciousness. This act may be one of head, etc., to show to another the
direct or reflex, implicit or explicit, internal consent of the will.
conciousness. The term in philosophy mutual consent, the externally
does not refer to the popular sense manifested agreement of two or more
of uneasiness, embarrassment, or pain persons to a common object: as,
in thinking of the self. mutual consent of bride and groom at
consensus, n. widespread agreement a wedding.
in some opinion or stand: as, con­ universal consent: (1) the mor­
sensus to a bill of rights. ally universal acceptance of some
consent, n. 1. a voluntary act in which truth, e.g., of God's existence, of
one agrees to do, approve, permit, freedom of the will. (2) an argument
accept, or reject something. This act founding this truth on such universal
is not always a free one. 2. proper acceptance.
sense as a special act of the will. the REF. on sense 2-S.T., I-II, 15,
act of the will, usually free, following esp. a. 4; 16, a. 2; 74, a. 7.
intention and a general inquiry into consequence, n. 1. result; effect. 2.
the means to one's end, in which a the foreseeable moral results of one's
person either stops further inquiry choices. 3. the objective connection
into the means, accepts the means in between an antecedent judgment and
general or the unique means, approves the implied or derived judgment. 4.
or disapproves the moral or evil qual­ the connection between premises
ity of the means, and decides to pur­ and conclusion in formal and syl­
sue or to desist from the opportunity logistic reasoning: usually signified
to act in this way. See Acts of IN­ by therefore, in consequence, accord­
TELLECT and Will. Compare CHOICE. ingly. 5. loosely. the consequent judg­
3. popularly and often in ethical ment.
usage. choice, with the suggestion material consequence, the medie­
that the goods or means are proposed val logician's term for material im­
to the will and have not been sought plication.
for, and that the will has accepted consequent, n. 1. anything that fol­
rather than rejected them: as, con ­ lows from or after something; a
sent to marry this person, to a sale, principiate. 2. a result following the
to an occasion of sin. 4. loosely. action of a cause. 3. the conclusion
affirmative assent, sometimes implying of an operation of reasoning; the
a free impulse to assent. concluding proposition in a syllogism.
consent theory: ( 1) the ethical 4. the second or dependent member
of a conditional proposition; what
principle that only consent suffices to
follows from the condition if it is
make a contract. (2) political phi­
fulfilled; apodosis; the conditioned
losophy. the theory that states arise proposition.
by consent of the people and that fallacy of (affirming) the conse­
rulers justly hold power in ordinary quent (in sense 4), an illicit con-
conservation 61 construct

clusion in a conditional syllogism, in or connected with the main or

caused either by asserting the conse­ direct meaning; secondary variables
quent in the minor or by denying the attached to the meaning. Verbs, e.g.,
antecedent. signify action, consignijy time and
conservation, n. any act or series of mood.
acts that preserves something in be­ consistency, n. see an English dic­
ing, activity, beauty, goodness, or tionary; COHERENCE.
perfections; any act of guarding, constant, n. 1. logic. a term or symbol
keeping, or saving the being or well­ that has a fixed and unchanging mean­
being of something. ing. 2. a term representing an in­
negative (accidental; indirect) dividual person or thing and referring
conservation, any act that enables to a given nameable individual.
a being to continue to be what and constituent, n. 1. a necessary part,
as it is by removing obstacles to its principle, member, or element in some
duration in being or state of being, whole; an internal, formative part.
by guarding it from harm, and by 2. an integral part of a virtue.
not using against it any power that constitution, n. I. philosophy of na·
would affect it unfavorably. ture, philosophy of man, and meta­
positive (direct; essential; ex­ physics. 1. the internal structure,
istential) conservation, the act of composition, makeup, or organization
maintaining the causal influence of a being, essence, or nature. 2.
needed that another thing may con­ establishing a nature, whether by
tinue to exist. Assistance for its con­ production or by union of matter and
tinuing activity is usually named form. Matter and form are known
concurrence or cooperation. as the constitutive causes. II. politi­
REF. -S.T., I, q. 104, a. 1 (divine cal philosophy. 3. the fundamental
conservation). Jaw of a state, setting up its system
consider, v.t. and i. to think; think of government, permanent offices, way
about carefully; try to understand; of selecting officials, institutions, and
look at a matter earnestly or think guarantees. The Church also has a
it over in order to reach a judgment constitution. 4. the document or docu­
or decision. The word, though used ments, historical events, and pre­
as a synonym for think, usually cedents in which the basic political
means careful attention, deliberate re­ institutions are contained.
flection, or effort to reach a balanced ABBR. - cons.; const.
judgment or right decision after look­ constitutionalism, n. a type of politi­
ing at grounds for and against a cal organization and government
position. One considers before as­ characterized by recognized institu­
senting. tional limits on the scope, tenure,
consideration, n. 1. deliberation; pon­ and mode of exercise of political
dering; thinking about the different authority.
aspects of an object, problem, moral construct, n. 1. something built or
issue, etc.; grasp of a multitude of put together in a systematic way. 2.
data in one apprehension. 2. any in­ an idea, plan, hypothesis, deduction,
tellectual operation; thinking. 3. a etc., resulting from mental operations
reason, fact, motive, etc., that should that combine, select, and interpret
be considered before judging or de­ other known items; a concept syn­
ciding. 4. compensation, as for ser­ thesized from other elements of
vices. 5. in onerous contracts. some­ knowledge. 3. an objective concept
thing of value given or done in ex­ that is not known by experience and is
change for something of value given not immediately abstracted from the
or done by another party to the real, but is made by operations of
contract. imagination and intellect on the basis
consignification, n. a meaning implied of previously known objects. Form-
contact 62 contingent

erly, such a concept was referred to on "philosophical contemplation" and

as an arbitrary, derived, or factitious "Pseudo-Dionysius."
idea. The concept of common being, continence, n. 1. in general. self-re­
of God as Prime Mover and Infinite straint or moderation in regard to
Being are constructs. desires for sensory pleasures. 2. spe­
contact, n. 1. a touching or other cifically. the potential virtue con­
union of two or more substances. 2. nected with temperance whereby a
association, connection with, or in­ person willingly and habitually ab­
fluence upon another or others. 3. stains from venereal use and pleasure.
established communications between 3. as an act. resistance to desires for
persons. sensory pleasure, and especially for
contact of power (virtual ; in­ illicit sexual pleasures.
trinsic; causal contact), the union contingent, adj. 1. that may or
of two substances by the causal in­ may not happen in nature or in na­
fluence of one on the substance of tural bodies. ANT. - the physically
another: as, God is in intimate con­ necessary. 2. hence, the irregular; that
tact with creatures; the soul is in which happens "for the less part";
contact with (contains) its body. the accidental; that happens by
contact of quantity (corporeal; chance. ANT. - the ordered; the uni­
physical; extrinsic contact), the !orm. 3. that can fail to reach its
touching together of the outside parts proper or intended effect: as, a con­
or surfaces of two bodies. tingent agent, effect, or event. 4. that
contain, v.t. 1. to have in it; hold; is actual but of itself can-be or not­
enclose; include. 2. to have the ca­ be or be-other than it is. This is the
pacity for holding. 3. to be equal or sense used by Avicenna (980-1037)
equivalent to: as, measures contain and St. Thomas in the proofs for the
measured parts. See PRECONTAIN. 4. existence of God drawn from the
to hold back or within fixed limits. existence of contingent beings, known
5. to control or restrain one's feel­ as the contingency way. A sign of
ings or their external expression. 6. this contingency is the fact that a
to hold by causal contact. being is changeable in being. nature,
be contained in, see BE IN. disposition, or operation. A conse­
contemplation, n. 1. the act of look­ quence of this contingency is that it
ing at or thinking of something in­ depends on an efficient cause. But
tentiy. 2. simple gaze at evident changeableness and dependence do
truth; either intuition or aesthetic not belong in the definition of the
experience. 3. the act, habit, or way contingent. 5. that may be actually
of life in which one pursues and true or not true; that which is true
ponders knowledge for truth's own dependently upon some condition or
sake rather than for action and use. conditions or only in certain contexts;
4. the life of faith, prayer, study, that depends upon something uncer­
and thought rather than of external tain. 6. hence, more definitely: that
good works; the share of one's time depends on free choic:: to become
given to these interior activities: dis­ actual and thereby true, as, the con­
tinguished from active life. Some tingently future or futurible. 7. that
would include teaching as a contem­ is historically true but not necessarily
plative occupation. 5. some union true. Hence, it is matter for a contin­
with God, esp. by mental prayer or gent judgment. 8. that is marked by
beatific vision. 6. simple, affectionate individual differences and variable
prayer to God rather than prayer in circumstances; the singular and prac­
which reasoning is prominent: dis­ tical as the object of a prudential or
tinguished from meditation. an artistic judgment. 9. belonging to
REF. - "Contemplation," Diction­ an individual but not by necessity of
naire de Spiritualite, Vol. III, sections its specific essence; the fifth pre-
continual 63 contract

dica ble , i.e., the accidental that is quantity ·whose parts or members lie
nonessential to some nature. 10. in ­ immedia tely next to each other with
different or nonnecessary as a prac­ coincid1ng limits. The fact that the
tical means for an agent 's end. Hence, distinct parts may not be discernible
it is an object of a free judgment and is not a defining characteristic.
of choice. dimensive con t i n uum , an extended
R:EF. - S.T., I, 2 .5, a. 3 ad 4; C.G., body or se:ies whose parts exist
•
1� ' �

II, ch. 57, 86, 94. s1mu:caneous1y.

•

continual, adj. 1. h appening again and mobile (successive) c ontinuum ,

a gain ; repeated often; going on over an unbroken whole whose parts fol­
:i long Deriod of time; rapidly re­ low one another, one at a time, but
curring. 2. continuous; going on with­ do not exist simultaneously, e.g., time,
out interruption. In careful usage, r:10vement in s p ace, or the connected
co ntinual (sense 1) is to be dis­ events of history.
tinguished f rom continuous: as in the contra, n. some position, op ini on , testi­
m'.!xim: "Affirmative pre c epts bind mony, argument, or conclusion that
continually but not continuously" ( in is opposite or contrary to one already
L:itin: semper sed non pro semper). stated; con.
coatinu;ty, n. 1. an unbroken succes­ �sed contra, Latin, "But on the
si'm, s e ries , chain of connections, set ' opp osite side." This phrase introduces

of causes a:id e v e n ts, etc. 2. the state the portion of an article in St.
of beings or natures which appear to Thomas' Summa Theologiae that im­
be arranged in an i m bro ken series of mediately follows the list of objec­
progressively greater ix: rfecti on with tions.
no gaps between the members of the contracept:on, n. any act or method
series. But God and creature, reason of human sexual intercourse from
and cogitative sense are said to be ;vhich fertilization of the ovum or
discontinuous. 3. the bw of this un­ conception of a human being cannot
broken pro g r essi on of grades of b ei n gs result; limitation of conception in
in nature. 4. the state or con di t ion of mode or time of sexual relations.
a naturnl body as a con ti nu um , q.v. ar-tifr:�ial contraception, any action
S. the uniformity of natural processes. or use of means in connection with
See UNIFORMITARIANISM. 6. biology. :excEcl intercourse that deliberately
the descent of b o di ly genes, struc­ interferes with the natural sexual act
tures, and functions so that organisms and its natural processes, making fer­
remain the same or nearly the same tilization or conception of a human
as pr ece di n g members or preceding being impossible; popularly, birt h
species. 7. the law of evolution that control. Occurrence of the preventive
lmc·er organisms pass through all in­ action during the fertile or infertile
termediate stages on the way to th e oeriod does not affect the definition.
best, most complicated, and most - natural contraception, prevention
va ri ed higher organis ms . 8. natural­ of human conception by limiting na­
ism. the unbroken and exclusive t11:·al se xua l intercourse to the in­
causality of natures by others natures. fertile period of the woman's men­
with no o utside agent to cause the stn:al cycle; popularly, the rhythm
first origin, e ss e nt i all y new levels of method.
p erf ection . or miraculous exceptions oral contraception, the use of
to the course and evolution of nature; drugs, taken by mouth, with the in­
the self-contained wholeness of the tention of preventing conception.
course of nature. contract, n. 1. natural-law sens e . a
continuum, n. a continuous or un­ free and mutual agreement between
broken extended whole: appl i e d to two or more competent part ies to
bodies, quantities, dim ensi o n s, space, the t ra n s fer of a right or the exch ange
time, and series; any measurable of ri gh t s; the consent of two or more
contraction 64 contradistinction

juridically capable persons to the already indistinctly included in the

same juridical effect. 2. civil-law transcendental or generic concept, e.g.,
sense. an agreement, promise, or set in limiting being to one of the cate­
of promises, usually written, and en­ gories.
forceable at law. See CONSIDERATION. perfect contraction, metaphysical
3. a document or set of documents composition; adding a new and dis­
attesting such a consent to transfer tinct specific difference to the broader
of rights. concept or term.
onerous contract, one in which contradiction, n. 1. the absolute denial
both parties assume duties in ex­ or the complete exclusion of the
change for the rights or benefits opposite as true or as correct; the
exchanged in the contract, e.g., the assertion of the opposite to another's
contract of sale-purchase. Onerous statement, report, inference, etc. 2.
contracts include buying-selling, rent­ inconsistency or discrepancy in things,
ing, work-wages, partnership, agency, attitudes, policies, statement, etc. 3.
brokerage, mortgage, chance (e.g., in­ the relation of contradiction or full
surance; gaming), pension, annuity, opposition between two : (a) the op­
marriage, and treaty. Gratuitous con­ position between absolute natures or
tracts include gift, promise, dowry, absolute forms that cannot be to­
deposit, loan, and borrowing. gether in the same being; (b) the
social contract, the theory pro­ opposition between simultaneous be­
posed in different ways by Thomas ing and nonbeing in the same subject
Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke or real thing; ( c) the opposition be­
(1632-1704), and Jean Jacques Rous­ tween judgments or propositions that
seau (1712-1778) that the civil state cannot simultaneously be both true
arises by a social agreement among or both false; the opposition between
its founding members to confer cer­ propositions on the same subject mat­
tain powers or rights on their rulers, ter that have neither the quantity nor
to thereafter limit their own private quality of the compared propositions
independent action against others, in common; hence, oppositions of
and to take on certain social burdens the A to 0 and E to I types. (d)
in return for similar action on the opposition between concepts and
part of the other members of the terms that have nothing in common
society. Rousseau extends the theory and necessarily exclude each other;
to the relation of the electorate to based on (a), above. 4. a statement
the ruler who is contractually obliged that contradicts itself and is, there­
to do the people's will. See COACH­ fore, meaningless: sometimes called
DRIVER theory. These contractualists a contradiction in terms: as the state­
do not regard the state as natural in ment, Virtue is a form of wickedness.
origin or as having its powers directly principle of contradiction (or of
from God. Hence, it differs much noncontradiction), (1) the law of
from the consent theory. being that a thing cannot be and not
contraction, n. 1. the mental act of be at the same time in the same
restricting the extension of a tran­ respect. (2) the law of thought that
scendental or universal concept or the same meaningful statement can­
term to a class or individual member not be both true and false in the
contained within the wider concept same meaning.
or term. 2. Nicholas of Cusa (1401- contradistinction, n. 1. a difference
1464?). the real narrowing or limiting in meaning of terms or expressions.
of a universal form or essence to 2. a recognition or statement of this
the genus, species, or individual in difference in meaning. 3. a calling
which it exists. of attention to opposed meanings
imperfect contraction, explicita­ of a term as it occurs in differ­
tion; adding a clearer note or term ent propositions of a syllogism; using
contraposition 65 convertible

a parallel distinction of the middle contuition, n. an indistinct intuitive

term so that the conclusion is simply knowledge of an object that accom­
denied. panies a clear immediate awareness of
contraposition, n. an immediate in­ some other object. Many Augustin­
ference in which the subject of the ians, St. Bonaventure, and the ontolo­
inferred proposition is the contra­ gists have claimed an indistinct im­
dictory of the original predicate. mediate knowledge of God when man
contrapositive, usually the propo­ knows being or desires truth or pur­
sition inferred by full contraposition. sues perfect happiness.
full contraposition, inferring a conventional, adj. set up by, depend­
proposition whose subject is the con­ ent upon, conformable to, approved,
tradictory of the original predicate disapproved, or sanctioned by some
and whose predicate is the contra­ human agreement (custom; usage;
dictory of the original subject. precedent; positive law; general con­
partial contraposition, the con­ sent; contract only), but not arising
version of the obverse of the original from nature or natural tendencies.
proposition. conversion, n. 1. philosophy of na­
contrariety, n. the type of opposition ture. substantial change, esp. in in­
standing between contrary things, organic bodies. 2. logic. an immediate
judgments, or propositions. legitimate inference obtained by ex­
contrary, adj. altogether opposite or changing the places of the original
completely different within the same subject and predicate. The convertend
class or series of things, attributes, is the original proposition; the con­
judgments, or propositions; at the verse is the new inferred one. Three
far ends of the same line or diameter; legitimate types are recognized. (a)
hence, diametrically opposed; the re­ simple conversion in which the terms
verse of each other; opposed in such of the original proposition are trans­
a way that the extremes cannot exist posed without changing the quantity
or be true at the same time, but of the proposition; ( b) conversion
either of the extremes or a mean par­ by limitation (conversion per acci­
taking of some of the characteristics dens) in which the quantity of the
of both extremes may exist and be proposition is changed from universal
true. to particular when the terms are
ABBR. -contr. transposed while the quality of the
control, n. I. moral authority to direct original is retained; ( c) partial con­
or govern. 2. the power of the intel­ traposition, q.v. 3. Platonic and re­
lect and will to form and use one's ligious sense. the turning of the mind
intellectual and moral virtues. 3. a and the will from self-interest and
restraint; check; curb. 4. a means of material things to the spiritual and
restraining or regulating; a means of divine.
controlling an instrument, of checking conversion to (reflection on) the
the results of experiments, etc. 5. phantasm, phrase. the turning of the
a standard of comparison or a differ­ possible intellect to the image in the
ent set of tests to verify findings process of moving from one's first
obtained in another way or by other knowledge of the absolute universal
experiments. nature to the definite knowledge of
self-control, interior, free com­ the presented singular material thing
mand over one's own actions, de­ or things possessing that nature and
sires, emotions, enjoyment of pleas­ from which the mind abstracted it;
ure, etc., and their overt expression hence, the process of conceiving the
according to the rule of reason; self­ sensible singular with the help of
management; self-mastery. See CON­ the image.
TINENCE. convertible, adj. interchangeable in
ABBR. - contr. extension or in meaning. This is said
cooperation 66 copulation

(a) of the transcendentals and (b) act could not take place and for
of definitum and definition. which there is no substitute.
cooperation, n. acting, working, caus­ passive (negative) cooperation,
ing, or even deliberately not acting not preventing an act or omission
with another (person or thing) or which it is in one's power to keep
others; joint or concerted operation; another agent from doing or failing
combined effort in doing or producing to do.
some effect; sharing with another physical coope rati o n, acting or
cause in causing something; concur­ working with another by any means
rence; concursus; collaboration. other than those used in moral co­
divine cooperation, God's causal operation; use of natural, nonmoral
help given to the activities (both power jointly with another cause.
doing and making) of all creatures. positive (active) cooperation, ac­
formal cooperation, helping the tually doing something or producing
principal agent in some way and in­ something with another, not merely
tending the same result, good or evil, omitting or not preventing.
that he intends. previous (ante·::edent; prior;
immediate (direct) cooperation, preced ing ) cooperation, activity of
taking part in the very act of another an agent th;i_t moves a dependent
cause; sharing as a direct cause in agent to act; premotion; initiating
the action of another or in the result action and imparting it to another
he produces. agent. Usually, physical prior activity
indifferent cooperation, aiding of the principal cause is meant. Co­
another (free) agent in such a way operation prior to the effect produced
that the helping causality offered and by the united agents is not meant.
given does not compel action of the simultaneous cooperation, acting
free agent in only one direction or or helping while the other agent is
to only one effect; help offered, given, acting or changing or producing some­
and used according to the choice of thing. Molina's theory of God's con­
the one helped. currence with the free acts of crea­
material cooperation, rendering tures is that God's help is physical
some assistance to another but not and moral, indifferent and simultane­
joining in the good or evil intention ous, but not previous and unique
of the other cause or causes. (determined to one). Previous and
mediate cooperation: ( 1) taking simultaneous cooperation do not, how­
part in preparations for some act or ever, always exclude each other.
omission, or helping by concealing universal cooperation , causal help
or protecting after another's act. given in all the activities of all agents.
Mediate cooperation is remote or REF. - S.T., I, 105; Power of God,
proximate as it comes closer and q. 3, a. 7.
closer to direct participation in the coprinciple of being, phrase. a prin­
act of another. (2) giving and pre­ ciple, part, or element within a being
serving another agent's power, re­ that unites with one or more other
sources, or opportunity to act rather internal principles, parts, or elements
than giving any help in a present use to make up the reality of a natural
of its power. whole (natural unit).
moral cooperation, bringing in­ copula, 11. 1. something that connects
fluence to bear on the mind or will or links together. 2. the affirmative
of another agent by persuasion, ad­ or negative link ("is" and "is not")
vice, command, example, ridicule, between the subject and predicate of
threat, etc. This is known as scandal a proposition. 3. any connecting term:
when the influence is toward evil. "as," "and," "or." 4. copulation; the
necessary cooperation, some form sexual mating act.
of help without which the other's copulation, n. the logical property of
copy theory of knowledge 67 corruption

a term added to the meaning of an­ ganism. This is not the same as the
other term; hence, usually naming distinction between the matter of the
an accident: as, pink rose. organism and the soul. 3. a complete
copy theory of knowledge, phrase. or comprehensive collection, particu­
the naive realist way of explaining larly of writings or laws: as, the cor­
knowledge as an exact picture or re­ pus of St. Thomas' works or the
production of the real, caused by the Corpus Juris Civilis, issued by Jus­
action of things on the knower. It is tinian (528-534). 4. the main body
also referred to as a spectral or ghost or substance of anything. 5. the main
theory. part of an article in a work: as, the
corollary, n. 1. a proposition or truth corpus of an article in Summa Theo­
that follows easily from one that has logiae or a Disputed Question, where­
been proved. 2. any normal result of in St. Thomas gives his own opinion,
something else. solution, and reasons for his answer.
ABBR. - corol.; coroll. The corpus begins with Respondeo
corporal (corporeal), n. of, in, on, dicendum, "I answer by saying."
for, produced in, or like a body; ABBR. - corp.; c.
bodily; material. correct, adj. 1. conforming to an ac­
corporation, n. 1. a group of persons cepted standard: as, correct spelling,
legally recognized as a unit, distinct correct manners. 2. hence: proper
from the individuals who compose it, (but not necessarily morally good);
empowered to act as an individual, right. 3. fitting the fact; free from
and having rights and liabilities of its error; true. 4. logically valid; free
own; hence, a legally recognized from logical fault; rightly reasoned;
moral person. 2. any economic, edu­ consistent.
cational, political, charitable, or other ABBR.-cor.
social body with a distinct legal exist­ correlation, n. 1. a close relation; a
ence, regarded as one person with a mutual or reciprocal relation; order.
continuing existence. 3. any of the 2. the degree of relative correspond­
interlocking economic and political ence, as between sets of data from
bodies forming a corporative state, different sources. 3. a bringing into
each being composed of the em­ mutual relation or a calculating of
ployers, employees, and public rep­ the relation between two things, sub­
resentatives in a certain sphere, as jects, sets of events, etc.
in agriculture, the steel industry, etc. ABBR. - correl.
ABBR. - corp.; corpn. correspondence theory of knowl·
corporeity, ( corporality; corporeal­ edge, phrase. the realist view that
ity), n. 1. the fact or state or being, truth consists in some conformity of
or having, a body. 2. bodily substance, mind with reality as it is in itself.
material existence. This theory does not regard knowl­
form of corporeity, a form, re­ edge as a mere passive likeness to
garded as distinct from the sub­ things, as does the copy theory. It
stantial form of a natural or living considers knowledge to be a formal
body, that explains why it is a body sign of things, according to the na­
of this kind whereas the substantial ture of the knower, yet objectively
form explains why it is living or this representing the known when the
kind of substance. The view, appear­ knowledge is true.
ing in Duns Scotus and others, im­ correspondence theory of sensation,
plies the possibility of plural sub­ phrase. the theory that sensations
stantial forms in a natural unit. represent the sensed in some way as
corpus, n. 1. a human or animal body, it actually is in the sensible object.
esp. a dead one. 2. the body as dis­ See primary and secondary QUALITY;
tinguished from the soul of an or­ SENSIBLE.
ganism, especially of a human or- corruption, n. 1. the breaking down
cosignificates 68 create

of a nature or thing into parts; dis­ of the ultimate principles and univer­
solution of a compound. 2. a change sal characteristics of the merely ma­
consisting in the perishing of one sub­ terial universe. This is not the same
stantial form upon the generation of as the Aristotelian-Thomist philoso­
the new form; decay of a substantial phy of nature though there is some
form. Corruption is seldom used for coincidence of topics treated in the
cessation of accidental forms. See two.
chart on CHANGE; IMMORTALITY. cosmos, n. 1. the ordered universe;
ANT. - generation. world order. ANT. - chaos. 2. any
direct (essential; per se; large order, system, or organization.
proper; simple) corruption, the See MACROCOSM; MICROCOSM.
decay of a compound substance or counsel, n. 1. the integral part of pru­
nature from within itself by the dence that seeks, considers, and de­
separation of its essential natural liberates over the right means to a
constituents. good end. 2. the potential part of
indirect (accidental; *per acci­ prudence, known as good counsel or
dens; relative) corruption, the eubulia, that habitually finds the
perishing of a thing or the death of right or proper means to a good end.
a living thing because of the removal 3. seeking and welcoming advice from
or destruction of something on which qualified persons; consultation. 4. giv­
it intrinsically depends for its being. ing advice to another or to others,
ABBR. - cor. esp. to another individual in private
cosignificates (consignificates), n., conference. 5. what is counseled; the
usually pl. words that simultane­ advice given. 6. a direction, recom­
ously have a main meaning and a mendation, or advisory opinion of a
modal or secondary meaning: as, superior that does not bind a sub­
verbs signify action and cosignify ject to its observance. 7. a practice,
time or mood. virtue, or way of life recommended
cosmogenesis, n. the origin of the as better but not required by law; the
nonliving universe; the origin of the better course of action if practicable:
chemical elements and of the present as, the counsel of perpetual virgin­
spatial arrangement of matter in ity. 8. the gift of the Holy Spirit
galaxies, stars, planets, etc. that perfects supernatural prudence
cosmogony, n. 1. the origin of the for excellent acts.
universe; cosmogenesis. 2. the science counterdemonstration, n. a proof to
or theory of the origin of the mate­ oppose the conclusion of another
rial nonliving universe and of its demonstration.
development to the present state of counterevidence, n. evidence for the
world order. This is occasionally other side of a dispute or for an
called cosmism. Biogenesis and bio­ alternative solution.
logical evolution usually are not in­ counterposition, n. an opposed prop­
cluded in cosmogony. 3. any account, osition, stand, or solution: as, real­
even mythical, of the origin of ism and idealism are counterpositions
things. on knowledge.
cosmological (cosmic), adj. 1. per­ courage, n. see FORTITUDE.
taining to the physical order of the course of events, phrase. the usual
universe and especially to the ordered or providential sequence of occur­
causality in the universe. Proofs rences; the natural progress of change
taken from dependent causality and and development in time.
from contingent beings are known course of nature, phrase. see NA­
as cosmological proofs for the exis­ TURE.
tence of God. 2. of cosmology. createable, adj. that can be created;
cosmology, n. in the Wolffian division merely possible.
of philosophy. the philosophical study create, v.t. to make a being com-
creation 69 creationism

pletely from nothing. See CREATION, (2) passive sense. what has been
active sense. made from nothing directly by God
created, produced from nothing. with no intermediate stage of exis­
cocreated (concreated), produced tence.
from nothing together with other mediate creation: (1) God pro­
parts or principles of a whole crea­ ducing things by using created crea­
ture; said esp. of matter and form. tors. This was an hypothesis of some
increated, produced from nothing philosophers. (2) God preserving the
in a creature: as, an accident in a being of creatures and producing
created substance. changes in things already created.
ABB R. - cr. ( 3) anything created by a creator
creation, n. 1. active or causal sense. other than the one God. (4) second
(a) the act whereby the entire sub­ creation; anything caused to be in
stance of a thing is brought from its present state by causes other than
nonexistence to existence. (b) the God. Thus God immediately creates
production of a being from simply each human soul but mediately
nothing preexisting; the production creates each human body today.
of the entire reality of a thing, second creation: (1) divine pres­
namely, its existence, substance, and ervation of created beings and divine
attributes; Productio entis ex nihilo concurrence with the activities of all
sui et subjecti (the famous Latin creatures. ( 2) creatures as modified
formula: "Production of a being by natural changes from their pri­
from its own nonbeing and from no mordial state. ( 3) God's spiritual
subject of being"). 2. passive sense. renewal and justification of the soul
(a) whatever has been produced in of man.
its entirety from nothing. (b) new­ special (fixed) creation, a crea­
ness of being together with a total ture thought to have been originally
relation of this being to God. (c) created by God in the same specific
being after nonbeing. (d) anything nature that it now has. Thus stellar
totally produced and dependent for bodies and their positions, the chemi­
its existence at its origin and through­ cal elements, and all species of plants
out its duration; creatures. 3. the uni­ and of animals have been regarded
verse and all that is in it. 4. the by some as immediately produced by
instant of the origin of the universe. God in their fixed natures, orbits, etc.
artistic creation: (1) the ability In such a nonevolving universe, new
to make new things out of natural elements, new stars and planets, and
objects; creativity. (2) a work of new living species would never ap­
art. pear. See CREATIONISM, sense 2.
evolving creation, creation as REF. -S.T., I, 41, a. 3; 45; Power
open to great changes and to natural of God, q. 3, a. 3.
origin of new species of living things. creationism, n. 1. the doctrine that
ANT. - fixed or special creation. God made all things other than God
See EVOLUTION. from nothing. The integral creation­
first (primitive; primordial) ist doctrine includes these points:
creation, the state of creatures, of that God alone created and creates
the material universe, and of the all that is, freely, in time, and that
earliest organisms in their first mo­ He is really distinct from and essen­
tially dissimilar to created beings and
ment of existence, immediately after
natures. 2. the doctrine of special
their origin from nothingness or from
creation; esp. the theory of the botan­
nonlife. ist C. Linnaeus (1707-1778) that the
immediate creation: (1) active present existing species are identical
sense. God alone directly and exclu­ in number and kind to those created
sively producing being from nothing. by God at the beginning of time.
 creativity 70 cult

The same name would be given to ful reflection, analysis of merits and
cognate theories that deny evolution weaknesses, and objective evaluation
of species but admit there may have of some person, movement, event,
been extinction of some species; or proposition, judgment, etc. 2. of or
that admit that living beings were in the theory of knowledge; per­
not created until some later period taining to the reflective investigation
of development of the universe. of the truth, certainty, objectivity,
creativity, n. I. ability to invent; conditions, and limits of human
originality of imagination, thought, or knowledge.
artistry; freedom in changing the critical philosophy: (1) a phi­
existent. The term is not liked in losophy that evaluates human knowl­
scholasticism because it blurs God's edge. (2) Kant's philosophy.
name as exclusive Creator. 2. novelty critical problem, see problem of
in the evolutionary progress of na­ KNOWLEDGE.
tures. 3. A. N. Whitehead (1861- A BBR cr.
.-

1947). spontaneous and novel produc­ criticism, n. 1. the act or habit of

tion of an event from within a natural making judgments. 2. specifically. an
object. evaluation of merits, faults, and
Creator, n. the Maker of beings from comparative worth: as, art criticism,
nothing; the efficient cause of exis­ literary criticism, etc. 3. a critical
tence in creatures; a name of God philosophy; the philosophical study of
as Author or Lord of creatures, or as human knowledge. 4. an oral or
the Being who is totally different written report or summary of one's
from creatures. evaluative judgments: as, a piece of
creature, n. I. a created being; a be­ literary criticism. 5. textual criticism.
ing produced from nothing; creation scientific investigation of written
in the passive sense. 2. something that documents and texts to discover
exists with total dependence on an­ their origin, original form, history,
other for its existence. etc. 6. historical criticism. application
spiritual creature: (1) an angel. of the theory of knowledge to the
( 2) a human soul as separable or value of testimony and documents
separated from the matter of the as a source of knowledge of the past.
body. critics, n. theory of knowledge. See
credentity, n. 1. the judgment that KNOWLEDGE.
something is believable. 2. the judg­ critique, n. 1. a careful examination
ment of believing. and evaluation of something. 2. in
credibility, n. worthiness of being be­ particular, since Kant's Critiques. a
lieved or accepted as true because careful examination and evaluation
of the witness' knowledge and truth­ of human knowledge in general and
fulness. of the special knowledge of any par­
creed, n. 1. a brief or authoritative ticular field, as of ethics or mathe­
statement of religious beliefs. 2. a matics.
statement of principles, opinions, and �cui bono?, Lat. phrase. I. for what
beliefs on any subject: as, the creed good? to what purpose? 2. for whose
of natural religion. benefit?
criteriology, n. theory of knowledge. culpable, adj. blameworthy: applied
See KNOWLEDGE. to both the agent and the bad act.
criterion, pl. criteria or criterions, culpable in cause, blameworthy
n. a standard, rule, or test for judg­ because due care or prudence was not
ing something; norm; a measure of used to perform or omit some other
competence, correctness, fitness, good­ act or acts of which the present evil
ness, truth, etc., of some thing, act, is an indirect effect. See indirectly
or person. VOLUNTARY.
cr�tical, adj. I. characterized by care- cult, n. 1. worship. 2. a definite form
culture 71 cycle

of religious observances and rites. ventional in origin and now univer­

culture, n. 1. a developing and re­ sally accepted: as, the white flag is
fining of the human mind, feelings, by custom a sign of a noncombatant
taste, character, manners, and social act. 4. a uniform way of acting that
institutions by study, practice, exam­ has become socially binding and now
ple, etc. 2. the result of this cultiva­ has the force of law.
tion of personal abilities and social cycle, n. I. in the philosophy of his·
institutions: refinement; human per­ tory and of culture, from the sym­
fection; civilization; etc. 3. the cus­ bol of the wheel. 1. a complete set
toms, folkways, ideas, ideals, arts, of events and phenomena occurring
instruments, institutions, rites, tradi­ again and again in the same sequence.
tions, etc., of a given people in a 2. the rites, customs, poems, etc.,
given period. that celebrate these events and the
custom, n. 1. an ordinary or uniform heroes in them. 3. the long period
performance of the same act in simi­ of time during which the cycle is
lar circumstances by a group of completed. Hence, this differs from
people. The act, often arbitary in ori­ a concept of evolution and of ever
gin, once had a definite purpose and new progress and from the novelty
was not a mechanical one. 2. a modifi­ involved in using human liberty.
cation or determination of a physical II. in natural theology. 4. the
power, tending to make human action descent or departure of creatures
mechanically repetitive: distinguished from God by creation and the in­
from habit which affects immaterial tellectual creature's ascent or return
powers and heightens freedom; an to God by knowledge, love, and serv­
automatism. 3. common, general, or ice of Him.
traditional usage; use of a sign, con-
 D
Darwinian, adj. n. 1. Pertaining to sexual union due to the married
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) or his partner.
theory of evolution. Its main fea­ decay, n. 1. the substantial change
tures are: ( 1) the tendency of all known as corruption, q.v.; dissolu­
species of plants and animals to vary tion into parts. 2. gradual decom­
slightly and randomly; (2) these position; slow rotting.
variations are or can be handed down decency, n. 1. propriety or modesty
by heredity; (3) they accumulate in bearing, behavior, dress, or speech;
until a new species appears which proper observance of the require­
has variations best adapted for sur­ ments of modesty, moderation, and
vival in the natural environment. good manners. 2. the sense of de­
Evolution reaches a climax in the cency: the integral part of temper­
origin of the human body. The proc­ ance that disposes a person to do
ess is known as natural selection; the the fitting things in regulating one's
result is the survival of the fittest. desires for sensible pleasures and in
REF. - Origin of Species. 2. a per­ moderating the movements of the
son who believes in the theory of irascible appetite.
evolution as proposed by Darwin. 3. decision, n. 1. the settling of a con­
any evolutionist since Darwin's time. test, dispute, or doubt by giving a
neo-Darwinism, later variants of judgment. 2. the act of reaching one's
the theory of biological evolution own judgment on some speculative
which take account of new knowledge or practical matter, connoting some
in genetics, Mendelian laws and pat­ influence of the will to move the
terns of inheritance, the variations in intellect to end its inquiry, hesita­
somatic cells and germ plasm, of tion, slowness in assenting, etc.; final
which only the latter is inherited, consent. 3. the judgment given or
the chemical structure of genes, sud­ reached.
den mutations, etc. decomposition, n. corruption, q.v.
datum, usually in pl., data, n. 1. decree, n. 1. an official decision, judg­
the facts given in experience or gar­ ment, or order of government in the
nered from controlled experiments, Church or State. 2. an authoritative
but considered as the basic phenom­ application of a general law to a
enal evidence from which a person particular case. 3. an authoritative
makes inferences. The facts dis­ interpretation of a law. 4. a settling
covered or the phenomena observed of a dispute about law or practice
become data, e.g., for statistical cal­ by a public official. 5. a theological
culations of frequences. 2. any fact definition of a doctrine, permanently
accepted or assumed; a premise settling a disputed issue. 6. some­
granted. thing unchangeable: as, a decree of
*datur tertium, Lat. sentence. lit., divine providence.
"A third (thing) is given." a solution predetermining decree, the act
of a dilemma that offers a third posi­ of the divine will deciding in advance
what future events, necessary or con­
tion avoiding the difficulties of the
tingent, will come to be and what
two stated extreme alternatives.
their ultimate outcomes will be. The
debt, n. what is due to another in term comes from Scotus. It is much
justice; the just object or act. used in the controversies about divine
marital debt, the cooperation in foreknowledge, certainty of provi-

72
deducti on 73 definition

dence, divine cooperation with free what a term or a construct means.

human wills, and related problems. 2. Aristotle. the predicable that Por­
deduction, n. I. an argument that phyry later called the species. 3.
moves from a more universal premise symbolic logic. an equivalent con­
to a less universal conclusion or oc­ struction or symbolization of a propo­
casionally ton an equally universal sition so that both forms have the
one; reasoning from principle or law same truth function. 4. theology. a
to instance. See chart on INFERENCES. declaration of religious doctrine or
ANT.- induction. 2. perceiving any a condemnation of heresy, made
necessary implication present between solemnly by supreme religious au­
premises and conclusion. 3. a conclu- thority; an unchangeable, infallible
r. sion so reached. decree of the pope or of a general
*de facto, Lat. phrase. in fact; council on faith and morals.
· actual; historical. See *oE JURE. The divisions pertain mainly to
defect, n. an evil; lack of something sense 1.
needed for completeness; a physical accidental (descriptive) defini·
or moral privation. tion, a description of the type of
defense, n. I. a guarding against at­ nature by giving (some of) its unique,
tack; keeping from danger or harm; basic accidents. This substitutes for
protecting. Hence, defense is a type a metaphysical definition when that
of conservation and, sometimes, of cannot be discovered or is not useful
cooperation as well. 2. the fact or for the purpose; and it approxi­
state of being defended. 3. a means mates a physical definition. Note that
of defending or of being defended. it is the set of properties which is
4. supporting one's position, proof, unique.
or conclusion by arguing, by rebut­ causal definition, one telling what
ting objections, by clearing away a thing is by naming one or more
difficulties, or by similar intellectual of its external causes. The internal
activities. 5. vindication. causes are named in an essential
defensive warfare, see WAR. definition. A few celebrated defini­
self-defense, guarding oneself, tions, e.g., St. Thomas' on law, give
usually by physical force, against four causes.
actual or imminent unjust use of essential definition, one telling
force by another. principle of set/­ what the essence is or of what it
defense: Persons and societies have is composed; one stating the absolute
the natural right to defend their per­ nature of a thing; "the essence ex­
fect rights against unjust assailants pressed by a name" (Aristotle). This
in proportion to the necessity of the is at times called a logical or a
measures required for effective de­ logician's definition: (a) A meta­
fense and in proportion to the com­ physical essential definition gives the
parative importance of the right genus and specific difference of a
(good) attacked and the evils in­ nature (i.e., its metaphysical parts).
volved in defense. (b) A physical essential definition
ABBR.- de/. gives the ultimate natural parts of
definiendum (definitum; pl. defin· a thing's nature, namely, its matter
ita), n. the object, class, or word or proximate matter and its form.
to be defined. extrinsic definition, explaining a
definiens, n. the part of a sentence thing by some external circumstance,
that defines the object, class, or word. comparison, moment of origin, etc.
This is also spoken of as the defini­ initial definition, a meaning
tion corresponding to the definitum. stated, assumed, or conceded at the
definition, n. I. philosophy and logic. opening of an exposition or discus­
a proposition explaining in an exact sion for purposes of identification
way (a) what an essence is or (b) of an object, position, or theme.
deformity 74 demerit

intrinsic definition, one that ex­ deism, n. a philosophical position (a)

plains a thing by its essence or in­ holding that reason can prove the
trinsic accidents. existence of God and that He is in
nominal definition, a statement of some sense the cause of the world
the meaning of a word, phrase, or either as Orderer (Aristotle) or as
term by giving either (a) its origin, Creator (Voltaire [1694-1778] and
combination from other words, or some deists) ; ( b) at the same time,
development; (b) a synonym, offer­ denying that God knows and loves
ing one or more words to explain an­ all things, that He provides for and
other word; or (c) general, technical, governs all His creatures, and that,
or special stipulated usage. NOTE - consequent to providence, He con­
A nominal definition does not at­ serves, cooperates, sometimes works
tempt directly to tell what a thing miracles, gives supernatural revela­
is. But real definitions often approach tion, grace, and glory hereafter to
an essence by conceptual analysis of man. Hence, deists admit only a
meanings of words. low grade of natural religion and
operational definition, a descrip­ strongly oppose all supernatural reli­
tion of an agent or object by stating gion. On most issues they are close
how it acts, what it makes, to what to naturalists.
it tends, or how it is ordinarily used. *de jure, Lat. phrase. by right; in
Tools and processes are often de­ accordance with natural or positive
scribed this way. law; juridical.
ostensive definition, a substitute delegate, v.t. to authorize, appoint,
for a definition that identifies a na­ or send someone to act in one's
ture by pointing to an example of stead; entrust to another the power or
it, giving a picture, imitating it, etc. right to govern, vote, enter contracts,
real definition, one that explains etc., as one's agent or representative.
what a thing or nature is, not merely The delegate may have his powers
what a name means; one that de­ by law (ipso jure), in virtue of his
fines a term as standing for an es­ office (ex officio), or by appointment
sence, concept, position, etc. by name (nomine).
stipulative definition, one in which delegation theory, of political au­
a speaker, writer, or group decides thority. See TRANSMISSION theory.
arbitrarily (a) the meaning that a deliberate, adj. 1. of the agent. care­
term or symbol is to carry, or (b) fully reflecting on what is to be
the symbol to be used to define a done or omitted and the motives for
thing. Chemical formulae and mathe­ acting before willing; hence, hu­
matical definitions well illustrate the man; voluntary. 2. of the object
latter type. Whitehead (1861-1947) chosen or done. carefully thought out;
and Russell (1872- ) in Principia premeditated; done on purpose: dis­
Mathematica even speak of a defini­ tinguished from the merely passion­
tion that is wholly of symbols, not ate, thoughtless, hasty, or blind.
of what may be symbolized. deliberation, n. counsel; taking coun­
ABBR.-def. sel before deciding and acting.
REF. - M. J. Adler, The Great delight, n. 1. much joy in possessing
Ideas: A Synopticon, I. ch. 15. some good; a conscious repose of a
deformity, n. lack of conformity to natural appetite in union with its ob­
a standard; abnormality: difformity;
ject or end: as, certitude is the de­
light of the intellect. 2. great pleasure.
disfigurement. See ERROR; moral EVIL.
demerit, n. 1. a voluntary misdeed
degree, n. 1. grade; rank; order. 2.
that offends another and of itself de­
a comparative measure of the inten­ serves some penalty. 2. the liability
sity of a quality. to a penalty for a misdeed that has
ABBR.--d. offended another. 3. the penalty in-
demiurge 75 demon stra ti on

flicted for voluntary offenses to an­ clusion. 3. a correct conclusion

other; penal sanction. (proposition) reached from evident
demiurge, n. a secondary god, crea­ necessary premises. See chart on
tor, orderer, ruler, etc., under the INFERENCES.
one true God. From Plato onward, a posteriori demonstration, a
a variety of philosophers suggest such legitimate argument from evident a
demiurges. See NOUS. posteriori premises, i.e., from prem­
democracy, n. 1. a type of political ises stating effects posterior in being
constitution in which the people by or in time to the cause in the con­
majority rule govern either directly clusion: as, a posteriori demonstra­
or through representatives chosen by tions from dependent causality and
themselves. The degree and manner contingent existence to the existence
of self-government vary widely in of God, the cause.
different democracies. 2. government a priori demonstration, a legiti­
for the sake of the people governed. mate argument from a priori prem­
This view does not suffice for con­ ises, i.e., from premises about some­
temporary views of a democratic thing prior in nature or in time to
state. the being in the conclusion: as, dem­
Christian democracy, a term cur­ onstrations from the cause to the
rent in late nineteenth-century Eu­ effect or from the form to the essen­
rope and adopted by Pope Leo XIII tial properties.
(1810-1903) in the encyclical, Graves *a simultaneo demonstration, a
de Communi (1901), to describe a simultaneo ARGUMENT. q.v.
Christian conception of political soci­ demonstration *propter quid
ety as one directed to and governed (proof by means of causes), a
for the temporal and spiritual bene­ demonstration that gives the reasons
fit of all its peoples and classes. Here for the truth of the conclusion and
the final. cause which and for whom not merely the fact that the con­
is stressed rather than the democratic clusion is true because it proceeds
form of popular consent to the con­ from knowledge of immediate neces­
stitution and the persons of rulers. sary causes to consequences of those
The form of government is indifferent causes; proof of t lJ. e reasoned fact.
provided the rights of public author­ demonstration'( *quia (proof of
ity, of conscience, of private owner­ the fact): (1) a demonstration of the
ship, of the workers and needy are fact but not of the intrinsic reasons
well respected. Christian democracy or necessity for the fact: as, proofs
does not specify any particular rela­ that God exists which tell us the
tion of State to the Church; but it fact that He exists but cannot tell
demands temporal conditions that aid why He exists. (2) a demonstration
a Christian way of living. from a remote cause, yielding a nega­
demonstration, n. 1. the act of tive conclusion.
validly arguing from necessary and direct (proper) demonstration
evident premises to a certain con­ (proof), a correct conclusion drawn
clusion; an act of reasoning from from truths or facts accepted by all
certain premises whose predicates are parties interested in the proposition.
essential attributes; a demonstrated indirect (negative) demonstra­
proof. In practice, however, if the tion (proof) : (1) a proof by con­
premises are evident, the point about
tradiction, showing that the opposite
the necessity of the premises is not
proposition is contradictory in itself
stressed. Scotus calls proof from nec­
essary but not evident propositions or to the evidence. (2) reduction of
proofs from necessary reasons but not the opposite proposition to clearly
true demonstrations. 2. a syllogism false consequences of it, thereby re­
that yields a certain or scientific con- jecting the proposition from which
demonstrative 76 dependent

these consequences necessarily come. to something outside itself: as, a

(3) indirect refutation, not by at­ denominated ACCIDENT.
tacking the opposite proposition as REF. - Priscian, Institutionum
such, but by attacking the reasons Grammaticarum, IV.
for it: as, Aristotle's indirect proof � *de novo, Lat. phrase. I. altogether
of the principle of contradiction ' new. 2. again.
against those who thought motion denotation, n. 1. the extension of a
could not be explained unless some­ term. 2. esp., the reference to the
thing both is and is not. See REFU­ singular objects to which the term
TATION; REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM. belongs rather than to the classes of
medium of demonstration, the things within its extension. 3. the
middle term; the fact, cause, mean­ simple, direct, literal meaning of a
ing, etc., of the middle term or its term, free as far as possible from
referent. connoted meanings and associations.
principles of demonstration: (a) deny, v.t. 1. to form a negative judg­
formal: the rules of argument, of ment or to state a negative proposi­
syllogism, of induction, etc.; ( b) tion. 2. to declare a statement untrue;
material: the content of the evident contradict. 3. to refuse to accept
premises. as true, real, good, right, correct,
demonstrative, adj. 1. pointing to; etc. 4. to refuse (as act of the will).
pointing out; showing clearly. 2. con­ deontological, adj. of, drawn from,
clusive; giving probatory evidence. 3. or referring to duty: as, the argu­
having to do with, directed to, or ment from known obligations is the
characterized by demonstration: as, deontological proof for God's exis­
true philosophy is demonstrative, not tence. Deontology is an infrequent
merely stimulating. name for ethics or that part of ethics
denial, n. 1. a negative judgment or treating the theory of moral neces­
proposition, esp. when made in an­ sity.
swer to another's position, statement, deordination, n. 1. a violation of
proof, etc. 2. a refusal of consent by right reason or of the right order
the will. See SELF-DENIAL. dictated by reason for human acts.
denominated, adj. called after; 2. the quality of evil in an act that
named from: as, a commanded act transgresses moral order.
is denominated free, not because it dependent, adj. I. having or needing
is free in itself, but because of its something other than itself to en­
close dependence on a free act. able it to come into being, remain
denomination, n. I. the act of nam­ in existence, change, or begin to act;
ing. 2. deriving a name from another caused; derived. Dependence is the
name. 3. the name; the name of a formal mark of an effect, as efficacy
class. 4. the class named. is the mark of the agent. The de­
extrinsic denomination: (1) nam­ pendent should not be defined as
ing a thing not for itself but after the contingent. 2. having or needing
another thing to which it is in some the support of an intrinsic coprinci­
way related, as by likeness, union, ple of being to be or to act in some
dependence, origin, etc. Thus related way: as, matter and form depend
things often get their names from on each other. 3. influenced by or
that to which they are related; ana­ conditioned by another in its being,
logous beings are named after the well-being, or activity. 4. controlled
first known analogue of the set. (2) by something exterior to itself; sub­
the name given to and describing ordinate or subject to a greater cause
something in terms of that to which or higher authority; passively sub­
it is related. (3) a name derived ject to another. The control may be
from another name. ( 4) something logical, physical, or moral.
named or classified from its relation extrinsically dependent on mat•
derivation 77 desire

ter, needing, using, or being helped 5. intended finality: distinguished

by matter external to the depend­ from natural finality.
ent being as a condition to prepare argument for design, the demon­
the way for its action, remove ob­ stration for the existence of G<ld
stacles to its action, or supply sensible from the natural order in the uni­
matter on which the dependent being verse. It is more correct to refer to
or principle can act: said of the this proof as an argument to design,
soul's dependence on the body for its for the order observed must be
spiritual operations. proved to be planned.
intrinsically dependent on mat­ designated, adj. I. definitely marked
ter: ( 1) in its essence, needing union out; distinguished from others like
with matter or causal influence from itself: as, prime matter is designated
a body. (2) in action, needing the by its particular quantity. 2. named.
help of some material part, organ, 3. selected for office, rule, etc.
or agent as participant of its action: NoTE- Parker and Veatch suggest
as, human sensation intrinsically de­ designation and designate as modem
pends on material sense organs. substitutes for logical supposition,
derivation, n. 1. the source or origin and for suppose for.
of something, from either a material designation theory, the opinion
cause or an agent. 2. descent. 3. of some political philosophers in
proof (preferred to the word proof regard to the title of ruling which
by some logicians). holds that the people do not make
ABBR. - der.; deriv. supreme political authority and do
derogation, n. 1. a weakening of au­ not receive it from God as its first
thority or of sanctions of a law. 2. subject and then transfer it to a
change of law by abolishing a part body of rulers, but that either God,
of a law. 3. a lessening of another's or some natural fact, or popular
honor or reputation; disparagement; choice determines who shall use a
detraction. power that is created and conferred
description, n. an exposition of a on the state and its government by
thing by naming some of its features God alone.
or actions and contrasting it with desirable, adj. I. that can be desired;
other things rather than by giving an appetible. 2. that deserves to be de­
essential definition of it. sired. John Stuart Mill famously
phenomenological description, di­ confused meanings 1 and 2 in his
rect, noninterpreting report of ap­ utilitarian ethics. 3. good in some
pearances, events, experiences, and way; worth seeking or having. De­
their objects. sirable becomes an occasional syno­
*de se. see * sE, entry c. nym for good. Then it has the di­
deserve, v.t. 1. to have a right to visions of the good, q.v.
because of qualities, deeds, goodness, desire, n. 1. an act of will longing
etc. 2. to be worthy of. 3. to merit. to have or enjoy an absent good. 2.
The word is used for deserving either any appetency, sensory or voluntary,
good or evil return. for good. 3. a tendency or inclina­
design, n. 1. a plan of the structure or tion of any nature or power to a
operations of something to be done good. See APPETITE.
or made; an exemplar; a deliberate elicited desire, deliberate, con­
scheme of order. Design, like plan, scious desire.
emphasizes the intentional aspect of natural desire, a spontaneous ap­
the order, not merely its existence or petency for a good, arising from na­
unity. 2. the thing planned for. 3. ture without special reflection or
the actual working out of the plan; deliberate consideration: as, man's
operative order. 4. purpose; inten­ natural desire for happiness in gen­
tion: as, an act of the will to an end. eral; a desire in nature.
destination 78 determinism

destination, n. the end intended or choice; self-determination. See FREE­

predetermined. Destiny is not used in DOM; DETERMINE. 8. an addition to
scholasticism to mean only what is natural law made by positive law.
inevitable and supernaturally decided See determinative LAW.
upon in advance. It rather expresses determine, v.t. I. to set limits to;
divine direction to the s upr em e pur­ bound. 2. to cause as form, efficient
pose of human life, but within our cause, or final cause. Form gives a
choice or refusal of the means to definite perfection to a passive po­
realize the divine purpose for our­ tency and so removes its indefinite­
selves. See final FATE. ness; it specifies. The agent produces
determinable, adj. 1. capable of be­ one thing in a subject open to many
ing caused; capable of receiving being forms. The final cause directs action
or form; passive; potential. 2. lack­ and change to one fixed good or
ing of itself any definite nature, course. 3. to give a definite meaning
form, quality, moral quality, etc.; to a term or symbol; to add specific
indefinite. 3. capable of being known or individual differences to a class
or being decided. 4. measurable. name; define. 4. to find exact knowl­
determinant, n. ethics. one of the edge of. 5. to come to a definite
factors or elements that influence or solution of a debated philosophical,
give definite goodness or evil to an judicial, or other question. 6. hence,
individual human act. There are to demonstrate a conclusion. 7. to
three of these: (1) the act deliber­ end; bring to an end. 8. v.t. and ;.
ately willed (the object chosen; the to decide; resolve; direct action
end of the act itself; the normal according to a fixed previous decision.
natural result of the agent's action); self-determine, freely to cause
(2) the intention (motive) of the one's own act and choose one's means
agent in doing the act; and (3) in­ to an end. The determined is fixed
trinsic circumstances. Thus, robbery on one, directed to one aim, one act,
of a very poor o ld lady in order to or one effect. The self-determining is
buy narcotics is an act of injustice, not fixed on one before directing it­
with the motive of indulging in the self to one rather than to another;
drug, and with the circumstances of and it is not determined by an out­
force, great need of the victim, etc. side force, but it itself determines
determinate, adj. determined. itself. See FREE, sense 3; FREEDOM,
determination, n. 1. a limiting or sense 2.
limit; setting bounds to; a making determinism, n. the opinion that
definite or marking of something in every effect occurs necessarily and
a definite way: as, quantity is a that nothing is the result of free
determination of prime matter; a causes; the denial of free will.
specifying note is a particular deter­ intellectual determinism, the
mination of a class concept. 2. caus­ view that every act of will necessarily
ing or being caused: (a) exteriorly, follows the mind's judgment of what
by the determination that a purpose is better at the time.
or the definite action of an agent natural determinism : ( 1) the
gives; ( b) interiorly, by form or the view that the human will is com­
new form in a changing thing; hence, pletely determined by human nature
a new modification of a being; an or by environment and is no freer
accidental or substantial form. 3. that than physical bodies. (2) the view
which makes something definite or that the whole universe arose neces­
sure. See CERTITUDE; EVIDENCE. 4. the sarily, not by the free creative de­
master's answer proposed to a ques­ cision and act of God. See also the
tion put by students or other masters. physicist's meaning of physical CERTI­
5. the judgment or decision settling TUDE, known also as empiriometrica ·

a dispute. 6. a firm intention. 7. determinism.

develop 79 difference

develop (develope), v.t. two basic de dialectique chez saint Thomas,"

sets of meanings occur: 1. to cause to Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et
grow gradually in some way; to cause Theologiques, XXXIV (1950), 481-
to become gradually fuller, stronger, 506.
better, bigger, more mature, more dialogue (dialog), n. 1. talking to­
varied, more complex (as in evolu­ gether or exchanging views on phi­
tion), etc.; to advance more and losophy or theology. 2. a style of
more from potency to act. 2. to show philosophical writing that employs the
or reveal by degree. v.i. 3. to come device of conversation to give a
into being; to start acting. 4. to be­ friendly, informal statement of issues,
come fuller, stronger, better, etc. 5. the use of questions and answers to
to become known or evident. develop differences of views, and a
dialectic (dialectics), n. 1. orderly gradually revealed closer agreement
discussion and reasoning about mat­ between the speakers. Famous dia­
ters of general or expert opinion. 2. logues have been written by Plato,
a method of arguing and defending St. Augustine, St. Gregory the Great
with probability and consistency upon ( c. 540-604), Malebranche (1638-
open questions. 3. any logical dis­ 1715) and Berkeley (1675-1753).
course that is not demonstrative; the ABBR. - dial.
portion of logic concerned with ex­ dianoetic, adj; see s.v. KNOWLEDGE.
planation and with proofs drawn from dichotomy, n. a division of a class or
nonnecessary premises. This sense logical whole into two and only two
would also include rhetoric and po­ mutually exclusive subclasses. The
etry. 4. the science or art of logic. Porphyrian tree is a famous example.
5. Socrates (470?-399 B.C.) and dictum, n. I. a formal statement of
Plato. a dialogue discussion, beginning an opinion. 2. the basic statement in a
with opinion and advancing by an mode and dictum. 3. a saying. 4. a
ordered series of questions and an­ formal principle: as, of logic.
swers, as a method of finding the *dictum de omni et nullo, Lat.
truth or discovering a definition. 6. phrase. the rule of immediate in­
Plato. the science of the Forms and ference that declares the relation of
of being, gained by a reflective logical wholes to their parts: What
ascent of the mind from sensible is said of all (of the logical whole)
appearances. 7. Kant. the logic or is said of each of its subjective parts;
epistemology of appearances and what is said of none (denied of the
transcendental illusions. 8. Hegel. the logical whole) is denied of each of its
development of thought, being, and subjective parts.
history by the conflict of opposites dieresis (diaeresis), n. in histories of
(the thesis and antithesis) and their Greek philosophy. 1. distinction. 2.
resolution in the synthesis. 9. Marx. a division. 3. discontinuity.
materialistic conflict of thesis and difference, n. 1. otherness; a lack of
antithesis whereby matter and society sameness or of identity between two
evolve to the final synthesis in the or more. 2. the point, feature, form,
classless, nonpolitical state with opti­ or way in which things are unlike; the
mum economic conditions for all. characteristic unlikeness between in­
dialectical approach to God: (1) dividual persons or individual things
step-by-step reasoning to a knowledge or their parts and principles; the dis­
of God: distinguished from intuitive tinctive and contrasting trait of in­
and mystical ascent to God. (2) dividuals. 3. the predicable distin­
Plotinus (203?-269?). a seemingly guishing one species from another
mystical ascent of the soul to the within the same proximate genus;
Nous and to the One. known as specific difference: as, ra­
ABBR. __; dial. tionality differentiates man from
REF. - J. Isaac, O.P., "La notion brute. 4. an act of perceiving that
different 80 differentia

one is not the other; discrimination; is done without change in its moral
distinction. See note s.v. DIFFERENT. species. ( 3) the difference in the
accidental difference, unlikeness powers or subjects directly affected
in some contingent accident, such as by a virtue: as, the four cardinal
the quantity, degree of quality, or virtues are materially different.
traits unimportant to the matter at relative difference, the difference
hand. See material DIFFERENCE (2). between things or propositions that
essential difference, unlikeness of are relatively opposed to each other.
things in essence or in species so that specific difference, the ultimate
a given perfection (form) is present characteristic that distinguishes one
in one of the compared things and species from another within the same
totally absent from the other; differ­ immediate genus; the distinguishing
ence of kind, not merely of size or part or form of an essential meta­
of degree; hence, an irreducible dif­ physical definition: as, rational in
ference. See essential SUPERIORITY. rational animal. See main entry,
formal (intrinsic; natural) dif­ sense 3.
ference: ( 1) difference in nature, es­ ABBR. - dif.; diff.
sence, or form: distinguished from different, adj. 1. other; not the same;
numerical and material difference. (2) unlike in some way. Used with from.
ethics. the specific moral difference 2. distinct. 3. fully distinct; separate.
that comes from the nature of an 4. various. 5. unlike most others;
act and its necessary relation toward unusual; truly novel.
or contrary to the norm of morality: NoTE - The synonymies given for
distinguished from material, merely the English words, different, dis­
verbal, and theological differences. tinct, disparate, diverse, other, sepa­
( 3) difference derived from the rela­ rate, and various, are not closely
tion of a power or act to different held to in philosophical writing.
proper objects or (in ethical matters) Careful writers honor the distinc­
to different ends. tion made by Aristotle (Met. V,
generic difference, unlikeness be­ ch. 3) that the different have some­
tween individuals and species that are thing in common while the diverse
not contained under the same proxi­ have little or nothing in common.
mate genus. The disparate are too unrelated
genetic difference, difference in to be comparable. A corresponding
origin, cause, or heredity. remark fits the terms difference and
individual (numerical) differ­ distinction. Applied to things, differ­
ence: ( 1) the lack of identity be­ ence stresses the individual or specific
tween two complete units. (2) the unlikeness or special features of a
distinctive note in which two in­ thing; distinction stresses the lack
dividuals of the same species are un­ of unity or the separate identities of
like. See real DIVISION. objects. It is also preferable to regard
irreducible difference, an unlike­ difference as a state of things,
ness so complete and permanent that thoughts, and terms as objects; dis­
the dissimilar natures, principles, tinction as a mental act noting the
parts, or attributes cannot be brought differences. But, in usage, both terms
within the same class or changed to ramble across each other's meanings
make them the same: as, the differ­ because difference grounds distinc­
ence between matter and spirit is tion, so that the two terms are closely
irreducible. associated. One might expect that the
material difference: ( 1) in moral divisions of difference and of division
acts. the difference between omission would be the same or closely corre­
and commission of an act within the lated; but this does not seem to be
same moral species. (2) the differ­ the case.
ence in the method by which an act differentia, n. 1. the specific distin-
dignity 81 discursive

guishing characteristic of a nature; is, not merely its sensible appear­

specific difference. 2. any distinctive ances; hence, substance. The term
characteristic or property, even be­ is much used since Kant adopted it.
tween or among individuals. direct, adj. I. straight or pointed on a
dignity, n. 1. the excellence or worthi­ straight course toward something;
ness of a thing; objective glory. 2. undeviating; uninterrupted. In this
the superior goodness or value of sense, direct is not always the same
one thing when compared with an­ as immediately directed to an end.
other; a higher degree of excellence; 2. immediate; with no being, means,
superiority in goodness: as, the dig­ cause, etc., in between; nearest in
nity of man. 3. an axiom or first self­ causality, contact, kinship, sequence,
evident principle. etc. 3. knowingly sought for; inten­
dilemma, n. 1. a complex argument in tional. 4. immediately following from
which the major premise is a com­ as a natural or normal result of.
pound conditional proposition and directed, adj. related or ordered to an
the minor is a disjunctive (alterna­ end; moved to an end; guided; con­
tive) proposition that either affirms trolled.
the antecedents of the major or directed agency, final causality.
denies the consequents of the major. direction, n. I. guidance, management,
The constructive type of dilemma or control toward a given end. 2. the
affirms the antecedents in the minor act of command. This may be self­
and the consequents in the conclu­ direction or authoritative direction by
sion. The destructive type denies the a ruler, superior, instructor, etc.
consequents in the minor and the discern, v.t. I. to separate one from
antecedents in the conclusion. The the other by the mind; distinguish.
simple type of dilemma gives the 2. to perceive clearly; recognize. 3.
same consequent for each antecedent; v.i., to perceive the difference.
the complex gives a different conse­ discipline, n. The Latin word has
quent for each antecedent. 2. a con­ special historical meaning among
clusion that compels one to accept scholastics. 1. teaching (disciples).
unwanted alternatives or to withdraw 2. the matter taught. 3. a branch or
one's position, objection, etc.; an un­ subject taught. 4. the method of
resolved conflict between divergent teaching. 5. education and formation;
hypotheses to explain a problem. 3. paideia. 6. the act of learning an art
a situation of choice for the will when under guidance of a teacher. In this
one must select between unpleasant sense, it is contrasted with doctrine,
or undesired consequences. the act of teaching.
on the horns of a dilemma: ( 1) discontinuity, n. I. broken succession;
unwillingly faced with harmful ante­ interruption in a sequence. 2. essen­
cedents of a dilemma that one can­ tial difference. 3. essential superiority.
not solve. (2) confronted with an 4. a sharp break in the sequence of
unpleasant set of choices. Datur biological forms; succession without
tertium lets the mind escape from the descent from the earlier form.
horns; a conpromise sometimes effects discrete, adj. 1. separate; not con­
an escape for contending wills. tinuous. 2. composite; made up of
diligence, n. 1. the constant, careful distinct parts. 3. not related as parts
effort that is due in a given situation; of the same unit. 4. careful or dis­
hence, the potential part of prudence cerning in judging practical, contin­
called ability in execution. 2. persever­ gent matters.
ence in bearing trouble in pursuit of discursive, adj. I. logically moving
duty; hence, it is an integral part of from premises to conclusion. 2. of or
fortitude. done by reasoning. 3. thinking in con­
*ding an sich, German phrase. the nected steps and gradually reaching
thing-in-itself, q.v.; the object as it a judgment on a subject.
discursus 82 distinction

ANT. - intuitive. exercise of ownership over property.

discursive power, the COGITATIVE disputation, n. 1. a dialogue between
SENSE, q.V. master and pupil, proposing questions
*discursus, Lat., n. the older Eng­ and replies, difficulties to the teach­
lish translation, discourse, still occurs er's reply and solutions of these. See
in learned articles on the subject. 1. disputed QUESTION. 2. a formal scho­
the movement of reason; the dialectic lastic debate on a given subject or
of gradually learning the truth. 2. subjects conducted according to a
ability to reason or to learn by con­ traditional procedure cognate to that
sidering back and forth, pro and con. of a disputed question.
disjunct, n. a proposition that is a dissolution, n. 1. the breaking down
member of a disjunction. into parts; corruption, q.v. 2. annul­
disjunction, n. 1. the relation of alter­ ling or ending a contract or social
nation, or the nexus, between the al­ unity: as, divorce is an attempted
ternatives or members of a disjunc­ dissolution of an indissoluble mar­
tive proposition. 2. the disjunctive riage.
(alternative) proposition itself. distance, n. 1. the fact of being
strong disjunction, a proposition separated in space or time. 2. the
only one of whose alternatives (dis­ space between two bodies or two
juncts) is true: formula - "not both points of reckoning. 3. the interval
A and B (and C) ..." between two moments of time. 4.
weak disjunction, a proposition the difference or degree of difference
at least one of whose alternatives is between beings; unequal dignity: as,
true, but the proposition does not the infinite distance between God and
indicate whether both are true: for­ men. Hence, the negative way of
mula - either A or/and B. knowing God is also known as the
disparity, n. great inequality or com­ way of distance.
plete difference; unrelated diversity. ABBR. - dis.; dist.
See note on disparate, s.v. DIFFERENT. disteleology, n. a lack of finality; a
dispose of, v.t. to deal with property want of right relation of means to end.
in any way that ownership can be distinct, adj. 1. not alike; different.
exercised: by use, consumption, gift, 2. not the same; other; separate; in­
sale, exchange, rental, bequest, etc. dividual. 3. plain; so clear that the
disposition, n. 1. the state of a sub­ mind marks off characteristic or in­
ject (substance or power) when ready dividuating notes of the object. 4.
to receive a specified form; the definite; unmistakable; sharply out­
tendency of a proximate passive po­ lined. See note s.v. DIFFERENT.
tency toward a proportionate form: distinction, n. 1. the act of making
as, habit perfects the disposition of or keeping distinct; differentiating be­
a human power. This is also referred tween or among things. 2. the act of
to as dispositive cause. 2. a variable the Creator making things of many
or unstable quality of some nature or different kinds; also called the work
power: as, health, opinion, interest of distinction. 3. a special quality of
in today's news. See chart on CATE­ a being or a nature that constitutes it
GORIES of being. These dispositions as, or keeps it, distinct. 4. the act of
are good or bad; active or passive; the mind perceiving or marking off
due; natural or graced. 3. a putting difference among things, formal ob­
in order; placing in the right position. jects, ideas, terms, and meanings of
4. an order: (a) between or among terms; a negative judgment that one
the parts of a composite whole, or is not the other. 5. the differences in
( b) between means and an end, or objects that make them distinguish­
( c) among the steps in a series of able; lack of identity among things,
operations to a single intended effect. constituents, parts, classes, concepts,
See ORDER and its divisions. 5. an terms, meanings, etc. 6. the differ-
distinction 83 distinction

ences in meaning of the same or of ciples, or terms of a real relation.

related terms. 7. a major section or metaphysical distinction, Suares­
treatise of a work: as, Peter Lom­ ian terminology for: (a) virtual dis­
bard's ( 1 100?-1164?) Books of Sen­ tinction or ( b) distinction between
tences is divided into books, distinc­ the so-called metaphysical grades.
tions, questions, and articles in de­ modal distinction: ( 1) the differ­
scending size of units. See note s.v. ence between a being and its modes
DIFFERENT. of being: as, between substance and
The divisions pertain mainly to accidents. (2) the difference between
sense 4. various logical modes of the same
conceptual (logical or mental) dictum.
distinction; distinction of reason, nominal (verbal; merely logi.
a difference made by and dependent cal) distinctio n, a distinction only
on thought but not present in the between words or terms designating
object thought about because of no the same object or concept, without
real plurality or real differences in any difference in the object or con­
the object. cepts or meanings of the different
*distinctio rationis ratiocinantis, terms or names; hence, not even a
lit., a distinction of the reason of the different aspect is here perceived.
reasoner; a distinction perceived or numerical distinction, individual
made only by the thinker; a purely difference.
mental distinction. real distinctio n, a true lack of
*distinctio rationis ratio cinatae , identity between beings or between
lit., a distinction belonging to the their constituents antecedently to and
ratio (intelligible object) or aspect independently of the mind's percep­
thought about; a virtual distinction, tion of the objective difference. See
below. major and minor distinction, above.
*distinctio secundum rationem There is a sharp problem among the
(St. Thomas), a perception of the scholastics about the tests for a truly
difference in the various rationes or real distinction; some rigorously in­
formal objects of the same being or sist on separation or separability. The
nature. This is the mental act cor­ problem of the real distinction be­
responding to the immediately pre­ tween essence and act of existence
ceding distinction in the object. in a finite being or' the· problem ·()f
essential distinction: ( 1) essen­ real composition of these in a single
tial difference. (2) a distinction existing creature is technically a ques­
needed for some purpose, as of or­ tion of what kind of difference is
derly discussion, analysis, etc. actually present between these in the
formal distinction: ( 1) Thomistic finite existing object.
sense. perception of differences in virtual distinction (metaphysical
species or forms. (2) chiefly Scotistic distinction; logical distinction with
sense. a distinction between a thing a foundatio n in reality), a distinc­
and its formality, between a formality tion found by the mind between dif­
and its intrinsic mode, or between ferent aspects or multiple virtualities
formalities of a thing: as, the distinc­ of the same one nature, form, or
tion between the several transcenden­ perfection where the object distin­
tal attributes or between God's per­ guished is actually one and indivisible
fections. Others will call these meta­ but is rich enough to present to the
physical or virtual distinctions. mind various aspects which have dif­
major distinction, a real distinc­ ferent meanings to our way of think­
tion between complete wholes; nu­ ing of them. Examples include the
merical difference. distinction between the transcendental
minor distinction, a real or true attributes, all of which are actually
difference between real parts, coprin- identical with being; between differ-
dist ribu ted 84 divorce

ent divine perfections all of which in verse of classification. Division be­

God are His simple essence; between longs to the extension of a (universal;
the sensitive, vegetative, and rational common) term; distinction preferably
souls in man though man has only one belongs to its comprehension. Logi­
soul. The distinction is intermediate cians will also speak of codivisions,
between a minor real and a purely subdivisions, and cross division. 4.
nominal (purely mental) distinction. a means of separating; boundary,
REF. - Francisco Suarez, S.J., tr. partition, wall, etc. 5. something set
by C. 0. Vollert, S.J., "On the Vari­ apart as the effect of grouping, iso­
ous Kinds of Distinctions" from Dis­ lating, etc.; a class, species, section,
putationes Metaphysicae, Disp. VII; etc. 6. sharing; distributing parts of
F. A. Cunningham, S.J., "St. Thomas some whole.
on Distinction," New Scholasticism, formal division, division based on
XXXVI (1962), 279-312. diverse forms or specific differences.
distributed, adj. said of a term. used See formal DISTINCTION, sense 1.
according to its full extension so that logical division: (1) a separation
the specified term applies to every made by and only in the mind. (2)
member of the designated class; used a breaking of a logical whole into
universally; used in common sup­ its subjective parts of genus and
position. The middle term of a specific difference.
syllogism is distributed when it is ANT. - COMPOSITION; CONTRAC-
used universally at least once. See TION.
fallacy of COMPOSITION. real division, actual separation of
ABBR. -distrib. real things into their real parts : (a)
distributive, adj. 1. shared; assigned into essential physical parts: essen­
or provided equally or fairly on the tial division; (b) into integral parts
same basis of ability, need, merit, or of a continuum: material ( quantita­
title of right. See JUSTICE. 2. distrib­ tive) division.
uted. ABBR. - div.
diverse, adj. different; dissimilar; ANT. -union (not identity).
multiform; varied. See note s.v. DIF­ divisive, adj. 1. distributed; distribu­
FERENT. tive: occurring esp. in the phrase
ABBR. -div. sensu diviso (in the distributed sense:
divine, adj. of or about God; in God, i.e., of each individual in the class)
becoming to God, belonging to God, rather than sensu composito (the col­
directed to God, leading to God, like lective sense: referring only to the
God, predicable of God, proceeding whole). 2. tending to cause disunion,
from God's action, sacred to God, conflict, needless variety, etc.
etc.: as, philosophy is a divine sci­ divorce, n. 1. the dissolution of a
ence; the divine government of true marriage. 2. the lawful or un­
things; authority by di vine right.
- lawful separation of husband and
ABBR.-div. wife; lawful or unlawful release from
Divinity, divinity, n. 1. a name for any one or more of the bonds of
God. 2. the godly excellence of an matrimony between husband and
attribute of God. 3. the study of wife.
God; theology. imperfect divorce, separation of
division, n. 1. physically or mentally the married partners so that the duty
separating some whole (unit) into its of common life and, sometimes, of
parts. 2. a negative judgment. Aris­ support is relaxed, but without any
totle called judgment a composition release from the primary bond of
and division, from the logician's exclusive, lifelong fidelity in use of
point of view. 3. a breaking of large marital rights; hence, separation
classes (supreme genera, genera, etc.) from "bed and board" but without
into smaller groups. This is the re- a moral right to remarry before the
dixit 85 doubt

death of the divorced spouse. state to regulate and appropriate pri­

perfect (complete; full ) divorce, vate property for public use in ac­
the total dissolution of all the bonds cordance with reasonable demands of
of marriage so that both parties are the common good: as, the forced sale
free to remarry. Duties of alimony of land for a new highway is an
may remain. exercise of eminent domain.
dixit, n. a statement made without low domain, the right of using
supporting evidence; a sheer asser­ property, esp. land, for private good;
tion. private ownership.
do, v.t. 1. to act immanently: distin­ dominium, n. ownership or control of
guished from to make, meaning to act property or objects other than a
on another or act transitively; exer­ person or a person's acts or omissions.
cise one's powers; bring about in Dominion is not a good substitute
oneself; work out; work at, etc.; for the legal word and the Latin
carry out; fulfill. 2. v.i., to behave. word dominium; for dominion in
3. be active; be occupied. English implies sovereignty and the
do logic. 1. study the science of the right of jurisdiction over persons
logic. 2. practice logic. rather than control over goods.
do philosophy, think about, study, ABBR.-dom.
discuss philosophy; philosophize. The doubt, n. 1. hesitation of mind in
expression is used analogously to do regard to both sides of opposed
an experiment, do a problem. views; thinking without inclining to
*docta ignorantia, Lat. phrase. lit., assent to either side of a contradic­
"learned ignorance." the negative torily opposed propositions. 2. less
knowledge of God; the knowledge of accurately. opinion; an inclining to
what God is not. See negative WAY. one side but with uncertainty and
The expression is most associated recognized risk of error.
with Nicholas of Cusa (Kues; Krebs; methodical doubt: (1) a way of
Cusanus), (1407-1464), one of whose testing one's certainty about some or
works is entitled On Learned Ignor­ all matters by beginning with a fictive
ance. or pretended doubt; provisional, criti­
doctrine, n. 1. teachings, esp. a sys­ cal doubt of one's certitudes while
tematic body of knowledge. 2. any­ retesting them. (2) the Cartesian
thing taught. 3. the act or art of method of beginning philosophy with
teaching students. See DISCIPLINE. an attempted universal doubt in
dogma, n. 1. a doctrine or belief re­ order to reach certitude.
garded as absolutely true and beyond
practical doubt, uncertainty of
dispute. 2. a doctrine affirmed au­
mind about the prudent or morally
thoritatively but with insufficient at­
right course of action to be taken
tention to intrinsic evidence. 3. a
here and now.
theological doctrine explicitly taught
real doubt, suspension of assent
as integral to the faith, as absolutely
because of known lack of sufficient
and irrevocably sure, and affirmed by
evidence for either side of opposed
the authority of God or of the official
opinions.
teaching body of a religious society.
dogmatist, n. anyone who holds the speculative doubt, uncertainty of
human mind can naturally gain some mind concerning: (a) the truth or
absolute certitudes in . a particular error of some matter not concerned
area, e.g., in the field of natural with action or ( b) the abstract good­
theology. ness, evil, or prudence of some ac­
domain, n. 1. land belonging to a tion that does not presently require
private owner or territory belonging decision before one acts.
to the state. 2. a right to own land. universal doubt: (1) the state of
eminent domain, the right of the suspended assent to any and every
drive 86 dynamism

truth, usually employed as a method­ This sense is only analogous to sense

ical type of doubt. (2) the real gen­ 1. 3. a proper good for a nature;
eral doubt of the skeptic or the nearly something needed by and sufficient
general doubt of the skeptic. for a nature in its constitution or
voluntary doubt: (1) uncertainty powers or ends or means to its
of mind because the will withholds end: distinguished from the gratuitous
assent even in the presence of suffi­ character of the supernatural. See
cient evidence, prudentially adequate NATURAL, sense 7.
reasons, or satisfactory testimony of dulia, n. I. reverence of a servant for
authority. (2) uncertainty in one's a lord. 2. honor or reverence given
hopes or about the reliability of some to the servants of God, sc. the angels
promise. and saints, for the sake of God.
drive, n. an urge onward; an impulse duration, n. I. continuing existence;
to action; tendency or appetency, persistence in existence in spite of
esp. if the basic natural inclinations other changes. 2. continuing in time.
are referred to by this word. 3. the time during which a being,
dualism, n. any view of reality that activity, duty, etc., lasts or is ex­
recognizes two fundamental, irreduc­ pected to last.
ibly different types of beings, natures,
duty, n. 1. in the abstract. obligation;
or operations.
the moral necessity of acting or omit­
Manichaean dualism, the view of
ting some act. 2. in the concrete. the
the Manichees and Albigensians that
act or omission to which one is
good and evil are contrary positive
morally bound. 3. specifically. acts or
types of being, produced by a su­
omissions to which one is morally
premely good and a supremely evil
bound by justice or one of the
being, respectively.
potential virtues of justice: as, duties
moderate dualism, the view that to one's office, family, parents, etc.
in human nature the soul and matter
of the body are really distinct and
ethical duty, a moral but non­
juridical duty; a true obligation but
essentially different yet substantially
not binding in virtue of justice.
united into one man, a body-soul.
psychological dualism (ultra­ juridical duty: (1) an obligation
between equals binding in virtue of
dualism), the view that man is an
natural commutative justice. (2) any
accidental, not a natural, unit, com­
duty binding in justice. (3) a duty
posed of two complete beings, body
corresponding to another's perfect
and spirit. Plato, Descartes, and
right.
others have held some variant of this
conception of man. legal duty: (1) a duty to obey a
theistic dualism, the view that the positive law. (2) a duty binding in
Creator and His creatures are really legal justice only. (3) a duty to obey
distinct and irreducibly different from a penal law.
each other. The doctrines of the anal­ dynamics, n. the forces governing and
ogy between creatures and God and producing activity or change in any
of the divine omnipresence protect area, whether physical, physiological,
theistic dualism from the excessive psychological, moral, political, or some
dualism of deists and semiagnostics. other. See dynamic ORDER; course of
due, n. 1. debt; the objective right NATURE.
(sum, fee, tax, return, service, com­ dynamism, n. any theory of physical
pensation, etc.) payable to another bodies that tries to explain the
in justice; the legal debitum. 2. the phenomena in the universe chiefly or
act of honor, fidelity, truthfulness, wholly by material force or energy
etc., owed to another because of one and denies the reality of extension as
of the potential virtues of justice. different from force.
 E
ec lec tic, n. a thinker who chooses plication of the means by which any
principles, doctrines, or methods from or all aspects of human life and per­
various philosophies, usually without sonality are developed. 2. passive
success in systematizing his views. sense. complete and habitual develop­
economy, n. I. the management of ment in the human recipient of nur­
the property, income, expenditures, ture, training, and formation by other
etc. of a family. 2. the sound manage­ persons. It does not mean merely
ment of property, wealth, etc. of the mental or formally organized educa­
family or household for morally good tion 3. any activity, period, or phase
purposes; economic prudence, a sub­ of giving or receiving care, training,
jective part of prudence. 3. the man­ and formation.
agement of the physical resources, philosophy of education, the
wealth, etc. of a state. 4. an orderly theory, partly philosophical, of the
system of producing, distributing, and purposes of education, of the nature
consuming wealth; the national sys­ of persons as educable, of the rights
tem of ownership and production. to educate and be educated, and of
This may be private capitalism, na­ the responsibility to give education
tionalization, communism, etc. 5. for various human needs and oppor­
an orderly arrangement or manage­ tunities.
ment of the operations of many parts ABBR. - educ.
of a whole: as, the economy of the educe, v.t. 1. to draw out something
universe. 6. hence, order in nature as that was in potency or was latent;
the effect or sign of divine providence bring to its development. 2. to deduce
in the world. 7. God's plan of salva­ from other knowledge. 3. to evolve;
tion for men, through the Messianic become actual.
faith and Mosaic Law in the Old NOTE -To educe is not to reduce.
Testament, through the Incarnation, But there is some relation of ideas
the Redemption, and the Church in between educe and produce.
the New Testament; God's arrange­ eduction, n. 1. the actualization of
ments for man's salvation and union a form out of a subject in which
with God. 8. simplicity; tendency to it had been only potentially; develop­
accomplish the most with the least: ment of a form. This can be under­
as, economy in causal explanations, stood in the active sense of the agent
distinctions, hypotheses, proofs, etc. acting to introduce the form or in
This sense is derived from the way the passive sense of the potency re­
nature functions or is managed. ceiving a form. 2. mentally drawing
principle of economy (also known out the immediate implications of a
as the minimal principle; Ockham's previous judgment. 3. the mental act
[1300-1349] razor; Morgan's canon of deducing. 4. the judgment immedi­
in pyschology; Maupertois' axiom of ately inferred.
least action in physical sciences), the effect, n. 1. result; the new activity
least cause and fewest principles cap­ or product; the term to which of
able of explaining the phenomena or change or becoming; what is made
facts must be accepted as the true or changed; end attained. 2. the con­
cause and principles. There are many dition or fact of still being operative
variants of the formula. See REDUC­ or in force: as, the law is still in
TIONISM. effect. 3. pl. belongings; property.
ABBR. - econ. formal effect: (1) an immediate
education, n. 1. active sense. the ap- and necessary result within a being,

87
efficacy 88 elan vital

fl.owing from the presence of a formal one's own psychical experiences and
cause communicating these perfec­ acts. It seems better not to define
tions to a being, nature, power, or the ego as the soul or the soul as
act. Thus, spiritual powers are formal knowing; but this usage does occur.
effects of the spiritual human soul; 3. psychoanalysis. the part or func­
joy, a formal effect of perfect knowl­ tion of the psyche, developing from
edge; actual extension, a formal efleet the id, having sensory experience of
of possession of quantitative parts. the external world, and consciously
In immanent agents, another explana­ controlling the (instinctive) impulses
tion regards these effects as fl.owing of the id.
from a sixth type of cause, the ac­ incarnated ego, I in my body; the
tive cause. (2) the influence of the organism considered as the conscious
premise as cause of the truth of the I.
conclusion. noumenal ego, the I as an object
indirect (accidental) effect: (1) presented to thought or analysis by
a secondary or incidental result, not an a priori form, but not as an ob­
willed for itself but attending or fol­ ject presented in experience. This is
lowing the foreseen intended effect. originally Kantian usage. See NOU­
See indirectly VOLUNTARY. (2) an MENON.
aftereffect.
phenomenal ego: (1) the I (self)
proper effect, the immediate, par­
as object of experience; the one,
ticular, and exclusive effect of a
individual self as far as it is ex­
proper cause. This may be specific to
perienced. (2) the phenomena of
the kind of cause or individual to
self-awareness as seemingly belonging
the singular cause. Both univocal
to the conscious subject.
and analogous effects may be proper
transcendental ego: (1) the ego
effects.
as beyond mere experience, but known
twofold (double) effect, a com­
another way, whether by demonstra­
bination of results fl.owing from the
tion, by an a priori form, by innate
action of a cause, either simultan­
knowledge, etc. (2) the ego postu­
eously or in dependence on an earlier
lated by transcendental idealism as
effect. Ordinarily, only one of the
the source of unity, universality, and
effects had been directly willed by
necessity, which is not an object of
the agent. The principle of twofold
experience but is over and beneath
effects states the conditions when the
the experienced individual ego.
agent may permit an indirect evil
eidetic, adj. productive of a concept
effect for the sake of the primarily
(idea) ; ideating; intuiting.
intended and proportionate good
effect. eidolon, n. eidola, pl. a phantom;
univocal effect, a result specifi­ mere appearance; image. The Greek
cally like the nature of its cause. atomists explained sensation to be
efficacy, n. the activity of an efficient caused by roving eidola emitted by
cause: its special causal influence; and resembling the sensed object.
activity exercised by one being upon Plato regarded changeable things as
another; application of power to an­ eidola of the Forms.
other. See ACTION; DEPENDENCE. eidos. n. 1. Plato and Platonists. the
efficient cause, phrase. the maker, IDEA; the one, perfect, universal Form
producer, agent. See CAUSE, sense 2; of each kind. 2. E. Husserl (1859-
and divisions s.v., CAUSE. 1938). an essence intuitively known
e.g., abbr. from the Lat. *exempli but not the contingent individual
gratia; for the sake of an example; object.
for example. *elan vital, French phrase from H.
ego, n. 1. the conscious self. 2. the Bergson (1859-1941). the original
conscious and permanent subject of life force; the living developing prin-
election 89 empiricism

ciple active in the genesis and evolu­ scious; deliberate: distinguished from
tion of all organisms. natural or spontaneous.
election, n. 1. choice of means to an elixir of life (*elixir vitae), phrase.
end, made by an intelligent agent. 2. the philosopher's stone sought by
the object or means chosen. 3. selec­ medieval alchemists as a substance
tion of officers of government, etc. by for changing base metals into gold or
vote indicating one's own preference for prolonging life indefinitely.
or the majority's preference among emanation, n. 1. the flowing forth
the candidates. from some source. 2. the coming
divine election, God's choice, par­ forth from a material substance
ticularly of those whom He abso­ (cause) by way of separation. 3. the
lutely wills to be saved; the divine material, substance, or activity that
predestinating will to save. The term comes from such a source. 4. the
is not applied to the free creative act issuing of formal effects from their
that chose to give existence to this formal cause; natural resultance of
universe from all possible ones. the formal effects. 5. the pantheistic
element, n. 1. a primary component view that all things arise necessarily
of a thing, immanent in it, and not out of the substance of God's being,
divisible into other kinds of things; intellect, etc. 6. the dependence of
any basic, irreducible principle, con­ created being, knowledge, truth, good­
stituent, or part of a thing. A com­ ness, and activity on God, conceived
pound or complex thing has elements under the image of descending from
but is not an element. The compo­ God or of leaving God's thought and
nents of a proof, as well as of beings power.
and natures, are sometimes called ele­ eminently, adv. 1. in a higher or
ments. 2. any primary ingredient of better way. 2. in a supreme or even
bodies. 3. any of the four basic sub­ infinite degree. See WAY of eminence.
stances (air, earth, fire, water) that
emotion, n. 1. a strong feeling or
once were thought to constitute all
movement of a sensitive appetite,
physical matter either by themselves
experienced as an agreeable or dis­
or in composition. Thales reduced all
agreeable state, and accompanied by
things to water as the one element;
some organic change. See PASSION,
Anaximenes, to air; Heraclitus, to
senses 5 and 6. 2. a feeling. 3. a
fire. 4. in modern chemistry. any sub­
spiritual affection or sentiment.
stance that cannot be divided into
REF. - G. L. Klubertanz, S.J.,
other material substances except by
The Philosophy of Human Nature,
nuclear disintegration. 5. the primary
p. 2 79, classifies the emotions.
intrinsic causes, sc., prime matter and
empirical (empiric), adj. 1. relying,
substantial form.
based solely on, or confirmed by ob­
REF.-Met., V, ch. 3; VII, ch.
servational experience and experi­
17, near the end; Aristotle, On the
ment. See EXPERIENTIAL. 2. relying or
Heavens, III, ch. 3; St. Thomas, The
based only on practical experience
Principles of Nature.
without support of theory and theo­
elenchus, n. a syllogism that disproves
retical training.
a proposition by proving its direct
contrary. empiricism, n. 1. the opinion that
elicited, adj. 1. performed or done in sensory experience is the only source
the living acting power: as, an elicited of certain knowledge. 2. the opinion
act of the will is the act in the will that sensory experience is the first
itself: distinguished from the innate, source of human knowledge and a
from preparatory stages, and from criterion that must not be contra­
activities, such as commanded acts, dicted by theory.
performed by other powers under the British empiricism, the empirical
influence of the elicited act. 2. con- positions of Thomas Hobbes ( 1588-
empiriological 90 end

1679), George Berkeley (1685-1753), result; the good of the effect when
John Locke (1632-1704), and David the activity has succeeded, the work
Hume (1711-1776). is done, and the intended end has
logical empiricism (logical posi­ been realized.
tivism; logical analysis or ana· existential end, a good implied in
lysts), the general position that only the existence, powers, and tendencies
what is derived from or verifiable by of a real nature: as, self-preserva­
sensory experience is meaningful and tion or beatitude for man: distin­
really to be regarded as knowledge guished from an ideal end which
and as worthy of scientific respect. depends on hypothetical factors such
See principle of VERIFICATION. as human invention or direction of
empiriological, adj. see s.v. ANALYSIS; choice.
KNOWLEDGE. extrinsic end: (1) a good to be
encounter, v.t. to come upon, meet, achieved by a cause for something
face, or experience. This is a modem other than itself. (2) a purpose as­
term for a realistic, personal, and signed to a thing and its operations
live contact with being, difficulties, by another being that controls it
the seeming disorder of the external though the controlled instrumental
world, interior anxiety, other persons cause has no special natural or me­
in their personal states, etc. It need chanical destination for this good: as,
not imply a hostile meeting. use of a light bulb for a game of
end, n. the good for the sake of which toss.
something exists or for which an agent formal end (*finis quo), the act
acts; the objective to which an agent's in which the person possesses and
intention or a nature's activity is begins to enjoy the good sought for.
directed; the reason why an efficient This is occasionally referred to as the
cause exercises its efficacy; the result subjective end in contrast with the
to be obtained; purpose; final cause, end of work, the objective end. See
whose causal influence is to attract formal BEATITUDE.
to its good. The connection of end immanent end, a living good
and good deserves to be kept in mind. aimed at by the living being in act­
See FINALITY; MOTIVE, sense 2. ing for its own sake: as, truth is
end of the act, see DETERMINANT, the immanent end of philosophical
sense 1. reflection.
end of the agent (*finis oper­ intrinsic end, a good within the
antis), the good sought for by an nature of the agent and to which its
agent in doing, making, or changing operations are directed by its own
something; the good as object of natural tendencies. See END of the
intention. See DETERMINANT, sense 2. work and immanent END.
end of the work (*finis operis, means-end, an intermediate end
objective end): (1) the particular in a set of ends; a good that is in
good to which a thing, nature, power, one respect sought for itself and in
or artifact is adapted and which it another respect is a means directed
can achieve by its own operations. to an end beyond itself.
(2) the good for which a living organ natural (proper; specific) end,
specially functions: as, seeing is the the specific good that meets the natu­
end of the eyes. ral needs of a nature and that can
end to be attained (to be ob­ be achieved by its ordinary specific
tained; intended), the final cause in operations.
the true sense; the good whose exis­ objective end (*finis qui): (1)
tence, production, use, or enjoyment the good or object that is sought.
is the object for which activity starts This may be a thing or an activity.
and continues. (2) the end of the work, above.
end obtained, the good of the personal end (*finis cui), the
end 91 end

SOME DIVISIONS OF END

(
1. Objective (the good sought; finis qui)
Personal (the person or being for whose sake the good is sought; finis cui)
Formal (the activity in which the agent obtains the objective end; finis quo)

Adequate (complete)
{ the objective and personal ends together
the highest formal end
a) of a natural object, power, or organ (proper; specific)
2. End of the work (of of an act and its normal effects
the thing; of the of many natural objects together: of a natural system
natural action or (common; universal)
power; finis of an artefact
operis) b) of the process of generating or producing a thing
of the thing generated or produced
a) intrinsic (same as end of work in natural objects,
powers, and acts)
extrinsic (imposed by agent)
sometimes both intrinsic and extrinsic
b) interior (operative)
End (intention) of
agent or maker
(finis operantis) c) directly intended
{
exterior (the work or thing)
actually
virtually
habitually
indirectly intended (in cause)
merely permitted
unintended
{chance
interpretatively intended
End of the user

3. Natural (physical)
{ universal
common
proper
Imposed by will, not by nature alone

{
Imposed contrary to nature
end of the act
Moral
end (intention) of the moral' agent
Supernatural
4. Primary (may be immediate, ultimate, or universal in different relations)
Secondary (related; dependent; intermediate; a means-end to a higher end; incidental)
5. Immediate (proximate; direct)

.
Ultimate (remote)
{
Intermediate (means-end)
relatively ultimate
.
absolutely ultimate (supreme; absolutely first)
6. End to be obtained; to be produced; to be manifested; to be shared; to be
preserved; to be possessed; to be enjoyed
End attained (properly, a result, not an end; terminal end; good in the effect)

person for whose sake a good is however, beyond the needs, powers,
sought or for whose benefit it is and tendencies of a nature as such
intended. and can be gained only with special
supernatural end, a good destined divine helps.
for an intelligent creature that is, supreme end: (1) the highest
energeia 92 entitative

good that any nature can attain. (2) being as such. ens in re, a real
God, the supreme good in Himself being; a thing in nature: distin­
and the supreme good of His crea­ guished from ens in mente, en per
tures; sum mum bonum. se, substance. ens rationis, a be­
ultimate end, the last in any given ing of reason; a being of the mind.
series of goods sought; the climactic ens realissimum, the most real of
good or simple end of the whole beings; the supreme being. This name
series of means and means-end that of God, found in G. Leibnitz and
lead to this good; the highest in any modern rationalists, is infrequent in
given order of ends. Sometimes this the major scholastics. ens ut sic,
is identical with the supreme end. being as such; being insofar as it
principles on the end: (1) prin­ is being.
ciple of finality; see FINALITY. (2) *Entia non sunt multiplicanda sine
priority of the end over the result: necessitate." Lat. sentence. "Beings
the end is the first in intention, the are not to be multiplied without
last in execution. 3. priority of end need." This expression of the princi­
over means: the end is the principle ple of economy, also called Ockham's
and measure of the means. Hence, razor, is especially directed against
end is called the cause of causes, for unneeded distinctions.
it precedes even the principal agent. entelechy, n. from the Aristotelian
REF.-S.T., I-II, 1, a. 8; 2, a. 7; entelecheia. 1. the principle that ful­
3, a. 1. fills, perfects, or finishes a comple­
*energeia, n. the Aristotelian act; mentary incomplete principle. See
actuality. See ACT, sense 1. ACT; PERFECTION. 2. the internal
enjoyment, n. joyful use (St. Augus­ specifying principle that actively di­
tine) ; the pleasure in possessing a rects a nature to its specific good or
good or in attaining a desired end. end; hence, substantial form together
Enjoyment connotes a satisfaction with its proper tendencies. 3. that
less exalted than delight and less keen which contains or realizes an end
than joy. within its nature. See intrinsic END.
Enlightenment, Age of: (the En­ 4. a directive principle that organizes
lightenment), phrase. the interna­ all the activities of a living being to
tional European 18th-century move­ the good of the whole organism: dis­
ment in philosophy, generally hostile tinguished from mechanical finality;
to theology and Christianity, and hence, the vital principle.
tending to rationalism, deism natu­
, enthymeme, n. 1. a shortened syl­
ralism, and radical criticism of con­ logism in which one of the premises
temporary social structures. Hume, or the conclusion is not explicitly
Diderot, Voltaire, and Rousseau are stated. 2. a causal proposition inas­
among its representative figures. much as it is a condensed syllogism.
*ens, n. Lat. being; a being; a sub­ But not every enthymeme is a causal
ject having the act of existing. See proposition. 3. a fallacy occurring in
BEING. an abbreviated syllogism that hides
Ens occurs in many Latin phrases the fallacy of no universal premise,
for beings of di fferent kinds. ens of an unproved or merely probable
ab alio, being-by-another; caused be­ premise not formally expressed,
ing. ens a se, being from itself; or of an equivocal middle term.
self-existent or uncaused being; God. A first-order enthymeme suppresses
ens commune, being-in-general. ens the major premise; second-order, the
entis, lit. "being of a being"; acci­ minor premise; third-order, the con­
dent. ens in actu, act. ens in anima clusion.
(in mente): (1) a being of the mind. REF. - Aristotle, Rhetoric, II, ch.
(2) intentional being. ens in potentia, 21-24.
potential being. ens in quantum ens, entitative, adj. of being; real; merely
entity 93 equity

under the aspect of being: as, the The definition is disputed because
entitative aspect of his act is good some writers confuse epikeia with
though its moral aspect is bad. equity or equity court precedents.
entity, n. I. existence. This is usually REF. - L. J. Riley, The History,
a more abstract term than being. 2. Nature, and Use of Epi,keia in Moral
an actual being. 3. in some Scotists, Theology; S.T., II-II, a. 2 ad 3.
distinguished from ens, a being: en­ epiphenomenon, n. a phenomenon
tity belongs to a being but is not that occurs together with or that
a being: as, the entity of an acci­ seems to result from another phe­
dent or of unformed matter. nomenon; an added or superimposed
environment, n. all the external con­ phenomenon.
ditions, circumstances, opportunities, epiphenomenalism, n. the psycho­
and influences that surround human logical hypothesis that thinking or
or other organisms and affect develop­ mind is a function of the brain, su­
ment or variation. perimposed on and flowing from cer­
enunciable ( enuntiable), n. what can tain activities of the brain, or that
be definitely declared; the formal ob­ thinking observes bodily activities but
ject of a judgment. does not influence them. See PARAL­
enuntiation, n. a declarative sentence; LELISM; REDUCTIONISM.
a proposition. episteme, n. Plato and many others.
epichereme, n. a syllogism that has truly certain knowledge.
the reason for one or other or both epistemological, adj. pertaining to
premises added; hence, a polysyllog­ knowledge or to epistemology.
ism with an enthymeme in at least epistemology, n. theory of knowledge.
one premise. See KNOWLEDGE. The name comes
Epicureanism, n. the doctrine of, or from James Frederick Ferrier, In­
like that of, Epicurus (342?-279 B.c.) stitutes of Metaphysic, 1854.
that the goal of human life and the epoche, n. suspension of judgment
standard of moral goodness consists about all conclusions or about some
in moderate pleasure of the senses and a priori conclusions on some matter.
of cultured living. The term is used by ancient skeptics
epigenesis, n. 1. the unfolding or and today's phenomenologists, but for
development of an organism from different reasons.
seed or from structures in which the equality, n. a state or instance of
mature organism is only potentially being the same as another or others
present; emergent rather than pre­ in some respect (size, amount, de­
formed growth. 2. any of the theories gree, intensity, value, rights, obliga­
that consider growth of an organism tions, possessions, etc.). Philosophers
to be wholly or chiefly developmental: speak of numerical equality, i.e., of
distinguished from preformism. equal fractions of a whole; of pr o­
epikeia (epiky), n. 1. strict sense. portional equality or fair sharing of
a correction of positive law when all on the same basis; of practical
this has been expressed in too uni­ equality or morally the same treat­
versal a form, made by a subject ment provided to similar persons.
who departs from the clear words of REF.- Met , V, ch. 15; N. Eth.,
.

the law, basing his action on the V, ch. 3; Politics, V, ch. 1; VII, ch.
certain or probable presumption that 14; S.T., I, 42 a. 1 c.
the legislator did not intend to in­ equipollent, adj. equivalent in mean­
clude within the law the case in hand. ing, truth, falsity, force, value,
2. a benign and liberal interpretation weight, etc.
of law which makes exceptions ac­ equity, n. 1. fairness; impartial jus­
cording to equity and goodness for tice. 2. legal principles, rules, and
instances not provided for by the remedies, not contained in common
letter of the law. or statutory law, made by rulers or
equivocal 94 esse

judges, that set aside or supplement *esse, Lat. infinitive used as a noun.
the letter and literal application of lit., "to be"; hence, the act of exis­
a law in a particular case in order tence; the act in a being that gives
to preserve natural justice and the existence to the essence; the princi­
common good. See EPIKEIA, which is ple of existence in a finite being:
priv a te interpretation. distinguished from the essence which
REF.-N. E th., V, ch. 10; VI, ch. is the subject of this act; the first
11; Rhetoric, I, ch. 13; S.T., I-II, act of any being. The verbal form
96, a. 6; II-II, 120. esse offers the grammatical advantage
equivocal, adj. 1. having two or more of indicating the activity of a verb
wholly different meanings, with like­ in present time and the predicability
ness merely in the words or sounds of a noun.
employed; open to more than one *esse essentiae, lit., "the being of
interpretation; deliberately vague, an essence"; the being of an essence
misleading, or ambiguous. 2. uncer­ precisely as an essence; distinguished
tain; doubtful (as a result of equi­ from mere being in the mind. The
vocal usage). 3. analogical: as, an term may occur in discussions on the
equi vocal cause; equivocal by de­ nature of the possibles. Have they
sign. In terminology as old as Boe­ some being of their own (esse essen­
thius (480?-524) sense 1 is referred tiae) or are they only terms of divine
to as purely equivocal or equi v oca l thought (esse cognitum)? In Henry
by chance. of Ghent's ( ? -1293) terminology,
equivocate, v.i. to deceive, mislead, esse esse ntiae means a possible being,
or lie by deliberate use of equivocal i.e., the being of a creature's essence
terms or expressions. in the mind of God; an actual being
Erastianism, n. of or like the opinion is esse existentiae.
of Thomas Erastus (1524-1583) that *esse per se: (1) being by its
the state has supreme authority over own essence. (2) substance. (3) some­
the church; advocacy of complete thing absolute and prior to the rela­
subordination of church to state. tive and accidental.
eristic ( eristical), adj. argumenta­ *esse reale, real being: distin­
tive; controversial. guished from being in the soul or in
Eros, n. 1. the god of love: the son the mind. Other equivalents of esse
of Aphrodite in Greek mythology; reale are esse in re, esse in rerum
Cupid in Roman. 2. the symbol of natura, esse naturae, esse naturale,
sensual and sexual love: distinguished esse physicum, esse extra animam,
from agape or charity. 3. self-seek­ esse extra i n tellectum, esse actualis
ing love; unreasonable self-love. 4. existentiae.
( e-) Plato. desire for knowledge of *esse possibile (*esse poten­
a good that is not yet possessed; the tiale), possible (potential) being.
impulse to ascend to higher beings. *in esse, in respect to existence;
error, n. 1. positive difformity be­ occurring esp. in the phrase causa
tween the mind and the object; a in esse, the cause of being: distin­
wrong judgment; believing the un­ guished from causa in fieri, the cause
true; false opinion. 2. a mistake; an of change.
act unintentionally done in an in­ *in facto esse: ( 1) being in fact.
correct way. Thus, error applies to (2) in its complete state; in second
invalid reasoning and slips in mem­ act: distinguished from i n fieri, in
ory; and, as a euphemism, to un­ the process of being changed.
skillful action and to moral evil. *Ipsum Esse, The Existent itself;
substantial error, ignorance or the simply existent; subsistent in BE­
misjudgment concerning the nature, ING; the very Act of Existing; the
main terms, or main motive of a Being whose essence is existence; the
contract. Being who exists by virtue of His
essence 95 essential ism

nature, not by reason of being caused; individual essence, the objective

pure existence. S ee SUBSISTENT b e­ constitution of one real or one pos­
ing; YAHWEH. sible thing.
essence, n. 1. what a thing is; quid­ metaphysical essence, an absolute
dity; the internal principle whereby essence (nature) represented in its
a being is what it is and in which and metaphysical definition that comprises
through which it has its act of exist­ its genus and specific difference; the
ing and specifi c perfections; the com­ body of notes without which such
plete in t ernal constitution of a thing. a thing cannot be conceived; the
Essence should not, by mere defini­ essence of the type or class . A being
tion, be prejudged to be the same as whose simplicity excludes the parts
being, the existing, the possible, the implied in genus and specific differ­
nature, the substance, the form, the ence and whose uniquen ess forbids
mere subject of being. Accidents may putting it in a class is said to have
rightly be said to have an essence. a quasi-metaphysical essence. This is
See chart on Usages of BEING. 2. the divine perfection that seems to
str uctur e. 3. o ften as a synonym or be the most fundamental, the most
variant for substance and for na­ distinctive, to which the other attrib­
ture. 4. meaning; ratio. 5. the main utes are thought of as belonging, and
issue in a question or the main from which the others can be de­
contention or chief reason in the duced. It will be the same as the
solution of a problem. proper name of God.
Divisions pertain to sense 1. physical essen ce, a real essence
absolute essence, the mere essence constituted of real parts, as it is in­
in its pure state, as represented or dependently of man's thought and
representable in an essential defini­ classification of it; the essence pre­
tion that abstracts from its exis­ sented in a physically essential defini­
tence, extension, and individuating tion: e.g., the definition of man, q.v.
notes and presents only its constitu­ specific essence, the distinctive
ent perfection. See absolute NATURE; constitution of a class of th ings; all
direct UNIVERSAL; essential DEFINI­ the reality whereby a thing is a be­
TION. ing of this kind, distinct from es­
abstract essence: (1) the essence sences in all other classes. The specific
represented as a form without a sub­ essence may be either an absolute or
j ect ; the object that is represented a universal essence.

in a n abstract concept. (2) an acci­ universal essence, a genus or

dent represented as not inhering : as species; a class of essences recog­
wh en we think of extension rath er nized as representing what is com­
than of the extended, of a relation mon to many. See reflex UNIVERSAL.
rather than of the related. problem of real composition of
actual (actua ted ) essence: (1) finite essence and act of ex is ti ng:
an individual (physical) essence; es­ see real DISTINCTION.
sence in an existing being. (2) an REF. - On Being and Essence, ch.
essence actuated by or united to an 1-3; and references s.v. FORM.
act of existing. essential, adj. I. of, belonging to,
concrete essence: (1) an essence characterizing, defining, or flowing
of an existing individual. ( 2) an es­ from the essence of something; con­
sence r epresented as a form in a sub­ stitutive. Attributes, accidents, and
ject and as known by a concrete relations are thought of as belonging
concept. to or added to the essence. 2. funda­
divine essence, the essence (na­ mental; basic. 3. necessary, esp.,
ture) of God conceived as somehow intrinsically necessary.
distinct from the divine persons, per­ essen ti al ism, n. a doctrine that being
fections, and external relations. is essence or that the act of existing
essents 96 Euler's circles

is always identified with the actual ethics. 4. the E . Aristotle's Nico­

-

essence. machaean Ethics rather than his other

essents, n. pl. 1. essences. 2. beings. ethical works.
estimation, n. an act of the brute axiological ethics, a method of
estimative sense. organizing ethical topics about the
estimative sense, phrase. see SENSE. good as value: distinguished from
eternal, adj. 1. without beginning, deontological ethics, organized about
succession, or end; ever existing; the good as obligatory, (e.g., Kant),
everlasting. 2. timeless. 3. existing and teleological ethics, organized
throughout all time. 4. forever the about the good as end (Aristotle).
same; unchangeable. 5. hence, ever Christian ethics: (1) the princi­
true: as, eternal truths. 6. always ples of reasoned ethics as clarified,
going on or coming back; perpetual; interpreted, and confirmed by the
in a perpetual cycle; never stopping. Christian moral code and Christian
eternity, n. 1. duration of being with­ tradition guiding natural insight into
out beginning, succession, or ending. morality. Such ethical thinking would,
2. "the whole and perfect simultane­ like Christian philosophy, maintain a
ous possession of limitless life" strict difference between philosophi­
(Boethius [480?-524?]). 3. broad cal ethics and Christian moral phi­
(relative; participated) senses. im­ losophy. See Christian natural LAW.
mortality and eviternity. (2) moral theology.
problem of the eternity of the political ethics, principles of mor­
world: can reason demonstrate or ality about the actions of both rulers
refute the proposition that this uni­ and subjects insofar as they are mem­
verse of creatures originated in eter­ bers of the state concerned with
nity? Can it prove or disprove that right means to the common good;
the universe originated in time, i.e., the ethics of political action.
that it has had a limited past dura­
situation ethics, see SITUATION.
tion?
etiology, n. 1. the discovery, identifi­
REF. - Boethius, Consolation of
cation, or ascription of a cause. 2.
Philosophy, V. prose 6; III, prose 2;
the study of causes or origins.
S.T., I, 10; C.G., I, ch. 15.
*eubulia, Latinized Greek, n. good
ether, n. a substance postulated as fill­
counsel; excellence in inquiry and
ing all space, supplying the fifth ele­
deliberation: a potential part of pru­
ment or quintessence that constitutes
dence.
heavenly bodies, and serving as a
REF. N Eth., VI, ch. 9; S.T.,
medium for transmission of light,
- .

solar heat, etc.

II-II, 51, a. 1-2; 52, a. 1; I-II,
ethics (ethic), n. 1. the philosophical 57, a. 6.
science of the necessary good in eudaemonia, n. happiness, esp. Aris­
human acts; the natural science of totle's conception of it as contempla­
the first principles of obligation in tion of pure truth. The adjective,
human acts; the philosophy of the eudaemonological, is used to name
real goodness and right order of hu­ the proof for God's existence drawn
man conduct; the science of objective from man's natural desires for beati­
tude.
morality; moral philosophy. 2. the
Euler's circles, phrase. the system
moral aspect of a person's conduct
of the Swiss mathematician Thomas
or ideals of living; conduct con­
Euler ( 1 707 1 783) that uses two cir­
-

formed to one's ethical principles and cles to represent the classes of the
prudent conscience. 3. the particular subject and predicate of propositions
code or system of ethics proposed by and combines them in various ways,
a given philosopher, religion, profes­ as by overlapping, inscribing, etc., to
sion, industry, etc.: as Aristotle's indicate relations of subject and pred-
eusebia 97 evident

icate to each other in one or more circumstantial evidence: ( 1) the

propositions. convergence of facts and testimonies
eusebia, n. piety. about a fact toward one conclusion
eustochia, n. 1. sound and quick find­ but without any immediate knowledge
ing of the means to a good end, esp. of or testimony of an immediate
in emergencies when prudent decision witness of the central fact or the
is urgent. 2. ease in conjecturing the whole fact about which one draws a
right middle term in proving or in conclusion. (2) the concurrence of
analyzing proofs. several lines of argument, based upon
eutrapelia, n. the virtue of merri­ apparently unrelated or independent
ment, moderate recreation, or games. data, to the same conclusion: as, the
It is a potential part of temperance. lines of argument from several
evaluation, n. discovery of the worth sources to the fact of biological
or value of; critically judging the evolution of species.
truth of a view, correctness of a extrinsic evidence, evidence based
method or process, or the goodness of on authentic reports of witnesses or
the means to a worthy end. See on experts' judgment, not on one's
VALUATION. own experience, insight, or reasoning;
event, n. 1. a happening; an historical testimony.
actuality; a contingent fact; the intelligible evidence, something
concrete actuality. 2. result; conse­ manifest to the intelligence: distin­
quence. Modern discussion often ac­ guished from sensible evidence, i.e.,
cents the surprising, irregular, un­ something whose sensible properties
usual, humanly uncontrollable, the are manifest to a sense.
raw contingent experienced as an intrinsic evidence: ( 1) evidence
event specially manifesting or elud­ from an object that one knows by
ing Divine Providence. German his own experience, by insight, or by
writers further distinguish the his­ reasoning from his own experience or
torisch event that merely happens insight; an evident object of assent
and the geschichtlich that is humanly that the knower himself understands.
or personally important. See BRACKET. (2) evidence originating from the
evidence, n. 1. any ground or reason thing itself, from the nature of the
for knowledge or certain knowledge. case, from the style or language or
2. in realist philosophy: objective evi­ quotations in a document, etc.: also
dence. sufficient and objective grounds called internal evidence.
for certain assent; the being (reality) subjective evidence, evidence
of a thing made so manifest to the prompting assent because of the
intellect that it compels assent to a clearness of the matter to the know­
true judgment about it, independ­ er's mind or because of his personal
ently of prejudices, feelings, and any satisfaction in the matter.
subjective coloring of the evidence. principle of evidence: Objective
Evidence is not a logical property evidence is the criterion of true assent
of a proposition but a quality of real­ and the motive for certain assent.
ity in the presence of an attentive REF. -S.T., II-II, 4, a. 1, obj. 5
intellect. Evidence for a general truth and reply 5; Truth, q. 10, a. 12;
or proposition, as for the principle q. 14, a. 2, ad 9, 13.
of contradiction, must also be based evident, adj. easy to see or to know;
in a realist philosophy on the evi­ manifest; clear.
dence of being. 3. in subjectivist or immediately evident, directly
idealist philosophy. clearness or co­ perceptible to the knower without any
herence in the propositions about medium of knowing such as testi­
which judgments are made. mony or premises coming between
Divisions of sense 2; also see the object and the knower. See EX­
divisions of EVIDENT. PERIENCE; INTUITION.
evil 98 evil

mediately evident, manifest or evil were contrary or contradictory

manifested by means of testimony, to the good.
previous judgments, middle terms, metaphysical evil, anything finite
special signs, etc.; also called per inasmuch as it is not all good; any
aliud notum. limitation even though it is natural
self-evident (evident in itself; to an individual or nature. This us­
*notum quoad se), usually said of age o f G. Leibnitz (1646-1716) is
the object or enunciable of a proposi­ regarded by scholastics as a mis­
tion rather than of a fact immedi­ nomer.
ately present to the mind: a truth moral evil, pri vati on of rectitude
knowable in itself and needing no in human acts; disorder in the will;
argument to establish it; the content a sin or a consequence of a sin. Some,
(enunciable) of an immediate analy­ including Scotus, hold that moral evil
tic judgment where the inclusion of is not merely privation but is to be
the predicate (attribute) in the sub­ defined as what is intentionally con­
ject or its exclusion from the subject trary to right reason. Maritain (1882-
is clearly true about the being of the ), too, holds for something posi­
subject, without dependence on other tive in moral evil. The divisions of
outside evidence. But some of these moral evil fo llow : evil of guilt, the
truths are not immediately known by sinful choice; formal moral evil in
every one. When understood, any the primary and proper sense. evil
truths are referred to as evident of penalty, a loss of some good or
(known) to us (notum quoad nos). some pain borne, following after evil
evil, adj. 1. lacking something natu­ of guilt. This is evil by denomination
rally due to it; not what or as it from moral evil . formally evil, a bad
should be; defective or excessive in human act; choice of moral evil with
some way; bad. 2. morally wrong; knowledge that the object is forbid­
willfully violating a moral obligation. den. A formally evil act may be
3. connected with the immoral, as by intrinsically evil when the act or
leading to it or resulting from it. intention i n doing it is of its very
evil, n. 1. formally (in the abstract). nature (essentially; necessarily) not
the privation of a good that naturally in conformity with the norm of
belongs to a particular indi vid ual or morals and the eternal law; or ex­
type; the lack of a good that is by trinsically evil when the act of its
nature due to a thing or type. Evil nature is good or indifferent but be­
is not predicated of existence or of comes evil because done with a bad
being as such since every thing is intention or in particular circum­
good insofar as it is. In philosophical stances in which it opposes the norm
usage, evil is far more common than of morals and the eternal law. mate­
bad, badness, etc. The good is often rially evil, something objectively im­
a mean between evil of excess and moral but done in a given instance
evil of defect. 2. evil (in the con­ with out knowledge of its evil or
crete). the subject affected by a under external force without consent .
privation; a real being wanting in seriously (mortally ; gravely)
some perfection or degree of perfec­ evil: (a) a voluntary object or (b)
tion that it should have: as, an evil an act of the will in a matter of so
ruler . 3. anything undesirable or un­ much importance that the deliberate
satisfactory; not regarded as or felt choice o f this object is sanctioned by
to be good. the los s of beatitude.
Divisions of evil are based chiefly occasion of evil, a circumstance
on the absence of the due physical that fav ors evil-doing .
or moral good. But there is not a physical evil: ( 1) privation of a
complete parallel with the divisions natural physical good. (2) loss of
of the good as there would be if some physical good even if it was
evitemity 99 exemplar

not due to a nature or an individual. ary creation, the hypothesis that

( 3) evil other than moral evil. (4) created natures are not fixed but
improper sense. anything painful even have changed considerably since their
though the pain is useful. first creation by the development,
principle of e vil , some being sup­ e.g., of stellar systems, the solar
posed to be the source of all evil. system, the present structure of the
See Mani c ha ea n DUALISM. earth, the origin of life and of many
supreme evil, whatever is re­ new species of living plants and
garded as the greatest evil or great­ animals. See BIOGENESIS; CREATION.
est loss. Different thinkers consider emergent evolution, the origin of
this to be consciousness, death, dis­ new, unexpected things and order in
honor, pain, sin, some species of sin, the universe.
eternal penalty, Satan, or a Mani­ REF. - W. Nogar, O.P., The Wis­
chaean evil deity. dom of Evolution, esp. chap. 8.
problem of evil: can God exist, examp le, n. 1. a real instance; a com­
be infinitely good, or universally parison, fable, or story used as the
provident if there is evil, esp. moral basis for an inductive or for an a
evil, among His creatures? Some­ pari argument. 2. the correlative of
times, this is called the problem of exemplar; what is according to an
suffering; but in the problem so exemplar.
viewed, moral evil is not to the fore. exclusion, n. a logical relation of
REF.- St. Augustine, Confessions, opposition wherein (a) one class
passim; St. T., I, 48-49; C.G., III, cannot rightly have members of a
ch. 6-8; Disputed Quest ion on Evil, different class within it; or ( b) one
q. 1, aa. 1, 4. proposition forbids the simultaneous
evitemity, n. aevitemity, q.v. truth of another proposition.
evolution, n. 1. very broad sense. any execution, n. 1. the use or applica­
unfolding or development; the origin tion of physical efficient causality.
and historical development of any­ 2. production of something according
thing new. Change by degradation is to intention, plan, or specifications.
seldom called evolution. 2. general 3. any carrying out of a plan; action
scientific sense. a one-way, irreversi­ following intention.
ble process in time, going on through­ ability in execution, the potential
out the phenomenal universe which part of prudence that carries out
gradually generates novelty, diversity, good counsel.
greater specialization, and more com­ order of execution, see ORDER.
plex organization among more de­ exemplar (exemplary cause), n. the
veloped units. (Sol Tax, ed., Evolu­ idea that an intelligent agent deliber­
tion After Darwin, III, 107). 3. Dar­ ately imitates in acting or making;
win's (1809-1882) biological evolu­ model. It is also called the extrinsic
tion. organic descent from common form or extrinsic formal cause. It
ancestors with modifications by natu­ functions both as a principle of know­
ral selection. 4. modern biological ing (idea) and of action (related
e volu tion the common process of
. to making).
descent of living things with modifi­ extrinsic exemplar, an external
cations. 5. cultural evolution. the object, person, sketch, etc. that is
continuous and progressive develop­ copied by an artist or agent.
ment of human culture in space and intrinsic exemp lar, the idea in
time, conditioned by the genetic the maker's mind. Idea here may
transmission from man's ancestors. 6. mean both concept and images con­
the law of progressive orderly change nected with it.
combined with continuity, affecting all principle of exemplarism : In
natural objects in the course of time. the complete causality of a being, an
creative evolution or evolution· exemplary cause must be included.
exemplification 100 experience

exemplification, n. presentation of an existent, n. an actual being. See

instance or example of something as divisions of BEING.
evidence, illustration, or concrete ex­ existential, adj. 1. actual; real; of
planation. the concrete existing individual. 2.
exercise, n. 1. actual use of a power; predicating existence. See existential
operation. 2. systematic practice for JUDGMENT. 3. modern existentialism.
development of body, mind, or char­ about human existence, its complex
acter. 3. actuality in the present time; situation, interests, anxieties, in living
explicit actuality of some sort. The personal experience. 4. resulting from
exercise of an act of existence, of a personal choice. This is the German
power, or of a habit is contrasted existentiell rather than existential
with inaction, mere capacity to act, which precedes and does not depen d
intention without action, specification. on personal choice.
implicit and virtual presence, and past existentialism, n. 1. in scholasticism.
or future existence. a metaphysical emphasis on existence
in exercised act (*in actu exer­ and on concrete individuals rather
cito), really present in the very act than on essence, universals, ideas,
or fact, but not explicitly noticed. abstractions, and immutability. 2. in
See *ACTU. recent nonscholasticism. The many
existence, n., see BEING, entry 3. brands of existentialism, ranging from
1. the state or fact of being; exis­ atheist through neutralist and agnostic
tence or the act of existence thought to theist positions, all tend to empha­
about as a quasi-essence and an ana­ size the importance of the concrete
logically common object of thought; ii;dividual and of the existent person,
actual existence as an object of his freedom, and the meaning he must
thought even if the thing thought find for his unique being in his
about is not now existing: called signi­ peculiarly individual psychological
fied existence. Hence, this is a con­ and environmental situation.
struct that generalizes the act of exist­ REF. - R. B. Winn, Concise Dic­
ing as though it were an essence and tionary of Existentialism.
as though it were in some way com­ expedient, adj. 1. useful to bring
mon to all concrete individual exis­ about a desired effect; advantageous·
tents. 2. the act of existing; the act of convenient; advisable. 2. in a deroga�
being; esse. But this is always individ­ tory sense. merely useful for some
ual, is not an essence, and is not result, but not morally right; based
known by a concept. 3. Scotus. the on, chosen for, or affording use, ad­
modality of being that belongs to a vantage, or nonmoral success' but
complete singular essence. 4. Suarez. morally wrong; conforming to some
actual or actualized essence. 5. an ac­ utilitarian norm of morals.
tual being; that which stands outside experience, n. 1. any immediate
a cause; being a subject of, or having knowledge of things or of self; direct,
its own subject of, being. pers?nal knowledge gained by ob­
exercised existence, actual exis­ �ervmg,. p�rceiving, practicing, act­
tence; the fact of present existence; mg, en1oy:mg, or suffering. Classical
the act of existing as it is in a being: empiricists limited experience to
distinguished from signified existence. awareness of sensible phenomena. 2.
intentional existence, the repre­ accumulated practical experience
sentative existence that a being has in about individuals of some class: as
the physician's experience that base�
the knower's cognitive powers. See in­
his judgment of treatment for the
tentional BEING.
needs of this tubercular patient. 3.
natural existence, the existence of any conscious living through or un­
a thing in its own natural being or dergoing an event or events.
in the objective world of the real. external experience, immediate
experiential 101 extension

awareness of objects outside the is done in composition. Instances are

percipient. (a) the mind's attention to the spe­
internal experience, immediate cial meaning of each transcendental
self-consciousness, q.v. attribute as it adds to being and
pure experience, the immediate ( b) the limiting of an analogical
present conscious act and its object, concept to one of the analogues.
considered apart from all other fac­ exponents, pl. the simple propositions
tors of background, interpretation, implied in a complex proposition,
its real and logical meaning, and its known as an exponible.
connections with other things; the extension, n. 1. of a body. the acci­
momentary act of immediate aware­ dent of a body whereby it has dis­
ness. tinct parts side by side of each other
sensible experience, immediate and whereby it can occupy space and
knowledge in the senses or intellect have dimensions; the spread, layout,
of a sensible object. or expanse of a body in space; con­
sensory experience, sentient ex­ tinuous quantity; size. As quantity
perience. is an accident, the adjective extended
experiential, adj. of or based on is more correctly used than the noun
experience; empirical. extension. See note s.v. abstract
experiment, n. 1. a test or trial un­ ESSENCE. 2. of time. the interval be­
dertaken to discover some fact, hy­ tween two moments of time; the
pothesis, truth, or application of a period during which some being, oper­
theory or fact. The experiment is ation, event, or series of events, etc.
a deliberate, controlled, repeatable lasts. 3. of a term. the capacity of a
operation on the same or almost term to include the classes or individ­
identical objects or events. 2. a simi­ uals to which it refers. 4. the objects
lar test to illustrate or teach some or inferiors to which a term can or
fact, hypothesis, truth, or application. does refer.
3. something new and not yet surely ANT. - comprehension or intension
reliable because of insufficient or cur­ of a term.
rent testing. Divisions of sense 1.
experimental, adj. based on, con­ aptitudinal extension, the natural
firmed by, tested by, intended for requirement of quantity that its in­
the sake of, used in, or having the trinsic material parts be arranged out­
nature or properties of an experi­ side one another and thus occupy
ment in progress or process. Experi­ space. This is the reason for the
mental knowledge is more scientific word can in the first alternative sense
than merely experiential because of in 1, above.
the element of control, selectivity, extrinsic (external) extension,
and repeated observation. the spread and position of the parts
explanation, n. 1. a clear, understand­ of a body outside each other in
able statement about some truth, space; hence, size; volume; bulk.
theory, process, or manner in which intrinsic (internal) extension,
an event occurred, etc. Explanation the plurality and distinction of the
need not always be causal. 2. giving integral parts of a body; the definite
the meaning of; interpreting. 3. the order and position of the parts among
meaning of or the reason for some­ themselves and in reference to the
thing. See EXEMPLIFICATION. whole body of which they are parts,
explicitation, n. contraction of a gen­ but abstracting from the place or
eral concept to its inferiors by mak­ space which they occupy. For they
ing more distinct what is actually would have this same order and posi­
but only implicitly contained in the tion in any place or space where they
general concept, but not by adding would be.
a new difference to the concept as virtual extension, in dynamist
external 102 extrinsic

theory of matter. the alleged prop­ areas, periods, percentages, etc., past
erty of unextended, indivisible points or future, in which the argument
or point-forces by which they can probably remains valid: as, predic­
occupy a certain area of space through tions of the winning majority in an
their force and movements but not election or the estimates of the glacial
through the outstretched distinction ages in years.
and position of a body's quantitative extremes, n. pl. I. the outside or
parts. most distant limits or boundaries of
ABBR.-ext. something. 2. the most separated or
external, ad;. I. outside the knower; opposed things, attributes, parts,
existing apart from the mind; ob­ concepts, propositions, etc. in any
jective: as, the external world. 2. common class. See contrary OPPOSI­
originating outside; acting on the TION. 3. the opposite ends of a rela­
patient from without; coming into tion; the subject and term of a rela­
or affecting a being from an outside tion. 4. the opposed vices between
agent, condition, force, stimulus, etc. which a moral virtue is a mean. 5.
See external CAUSE. the term from which and the term
ABBR.-ext. to which in a change.
extramental, adj. being outside the extrinsic, adj. I. external (in both
mind or subject; in some way objec­ meanings of that term). 2. looked
tive; to some degree independent of at from the outside. 3. not inherent;
and distinct from a subject who is not constitutive of; not essentially
related to it by knowledge or ap­ belonging to: as, the extrinsic value
petency.
of popularity to a teacher. 4. inherent
extrapolation, n. a type of probable
but thought of chiefly in connection
reasoning from samples which, using
certain known facts, rates, values, with something outside itself: as,
statistics, etc. estimates other un­ the extrinsically denominated acci­
known facts or results; a projection dents. See DENOMINATION; EVIDENCE;
of an established conclusion into REASON.
 F
fact, n. 1. an individual act, being, sent firmly to all truths revealed by
deed, event, real instance, actual God because of the authority of God
circumstance, etc. Fact indicates the revealing these; "the substance of
individual rather than the universal, things hoped for, the evidence (argu­
and the actual, past or present, rather ment; proof) of nonevident things"
than the possible. 2. the statement (Hebrews 11: 1); i.e. a habit of the
of a thing done or existing either mind whereby eternal life is begun
truly or supposedly. in us, making the intellect assent
reasoned fact, a fact known to to what is nonapparent (St. Thomas)
be true because one has reasoned to or the power to realize the objects
it from knowledge of its causes. See of hope because one is convinced
DEMONSTRATION propter quid and of the existence of an invisible world
quia. (]. F. McConnell, M. M.).
*factibilia, n., Lat. lit., "things mak­ Divine faith is farmed faith when
able." objects to be produced (by it exists in the soul with charity;
art). See ART. formless in a believer who is in the
£active intellect, phrase. agent in­ state of serious sin. Learned faith
tellect. Some writers prefer factive is belief joined with some theologi­
intellect to any other names for this cal understanding, inquiry into the
power since this name indicates the grounds of credibility, and some grasp
function of making the species in the of the systematic connections of doc­
possible intellect. trines.
factor, n. an indefinite word for a REF.- S.T., II-II, q. 2, aa. 1 and
real principle of a result. It may 10; q. 4, aa. 1-2; Truth, q. 14, a. 2.
mean agent, instrument, condition, fallacy, n. 1. an opinion, prejudice,
circumstance, constituent, element, use of language, instance or manner
opportunity, a power, operative habit, of reasoning, various conditions of
motive, etc. observation or of an experiment,
faculty, n. a power (sense 2). propaganda, use of authority, etc.
faith, n. 1. assent of the mind to that is apt to lead oneself or another
something as true on the authority into doubt or error. 2. illogical rea­
of the person declaring it to be so; soning; violation of logical rule, dis­
belief; thinking with assent, i.e., with­ guised under a show of validity;
out clear vision of the thing ac­ sophism. 3. the error resulting from
cepted as true (St. Augustine). See misleading assumptions, influences,. or
BELIEVE. 2. the truth or truths ac­ illogical reasoning.
cepted on the authority of another. formal fallacy, a sophism due to
3. divine faith: (a) as an act. a lack of logical form; faulty con­
supernatural assent by which the struction of an argument. See sense
intellect under the influence of the 2.
will and impelled by grace firmly material fallacy, a sophism in
clings to revealed truths because of the content of terms, propositions,
the authority of God revealing. St. or arguments.
John Damascene calls it an assent NOTE - Specially named fallacies
without inquiry, i.e., without capacity are given in their proper alphabetical
to see or reason from the intrinsic place.
evidence of what is assented to. (b) fallible, adj. capable of being wrong;
as a habit. the supernatural theologi­ subject to mistake, error, inaccuracy,
cal virtue disposing the mind to as- deception, etc.

103
false 104 finality

false, adj. 1. in general. untrue in Philosophy, IV, prose 6; S.T., I, 116,

any way; wanting in conformity be­ aa. 1-2.
tween mind and thing. 2. logically fear, n. 1. the emotion of the irascible
false. the untrue in thought; errone­ appetite in the presence of danger;
ous; mistaken; wanting in conform­ fright; terror. The danger may be
ity of mind to thing. The noun for sensibly perceived as present or near
this is falsity; error. See sense 2, s.v. or, if intellectually perceived, the
TRUTH. 3. morally false. untruthful; emotion is bodily resonance from the
lying; deliberately deceiving; want­ intellectual fear. 2. anxiety, uneasi­
ing in conformity of speech to one's ness, sadness of the will in the pres­
knowledge. The noun for this is false­ ence of intellectually known danger.
hood; lie. 4. ontologically false. mis­ As a basic experience, fear is not
leading or deceiving in appearance; definable in simpler terms.
not being what it seems or pretends For purposes of modifications of
to be; counterfeit: as, a false friend; human acts, note differences between
imitation leather; artificial flowers. acting from fear (antecedent to
This falsity is also called accidentally choice; motivating; causing involun­
false because resemblance or associa­ tariness) ; acting with fear (con­
tion occasions misjudgment of the comitance) ; acting against or in spite
true nature of a thing. 5. incorrect; of one's fear (fortitude).
inaccurate; illogical; misleading. 6. filial fear, fear or awe based on
disloyal; unfaithful. This is a devel­ loving reverence for the one feared.
opment of sense 4. 7. improperly force and fear, see FORCE.
classified or named (because of super­ servile fear, fear and resultant
ficial similarity, etc.) as, fallacy of action based on selfish aversion to
false cause. See s.v. CAUSE. pain, penalty, and danger but with­
REF.-S.T., I, q. 17. out honor, love, or sense of duty.
falsehood, n. 1. lying; telling a lie. feeling, n. 1. an affective sensory ac­
See LIE; FALSE, sense 3. Some do tivity; an act or movement of a
not regard every untrue statement purely sensitive appetite; emotion.
as a lie, e.g., when knowledge is in­ The feeling of itself involves no
communicable or no injustice is done necessary preceding or accompanying
to another by telling the untrue. 2. intellectual or voluntary activity. 2.
the lie or untrue statement told. 3. the power or the act of touching (a
an error; a false belief, opinion, body).
hypothesis, etc. figure, n. 1. the form or arrange­
ment of the terms of a syllogism so
falsity, n. lack of conformity between
that a correct conclusion may be
mind and thing in any of the senses
drawn. The position of the middle
of false.
term is especially to be noticed in
fantasm, n. phantasm, q.v.
any of the four figures. 2. the out­
fancy, n. I. imagination. 2. some act
line of a mathematical body· "that
of the imagination; whim; arbitrary
which is enclosed by one o� more
idea; image; illusion; delusion; etc.
boundaries" (Euclid) (ft. 300 B.c. ) :
fate, n. predetermined and inevitable as, the figure of a triangle; the
necessity; destiny (in some transla­ shape of a merely mathematical body:
tions). contrasted with the quality known as
causal fate, certain and infallible the physical shape or extended form
divine providence; a changeless de­ of a natural body. See quality in chart
cree of God. on CATEGORIES OF BEIN G.
formal fate, the action or meeting ABBR. -fig.
of secondary causes (according to finality, n. 1. activity directed toward
foreseeing infallible providence). an end; purposeful activity; teleol­
REF. - Boethius, Consolation of ogy; directed agency. 2. the direction
finality 105 force

FIGURES OF THE SYLLOGISM

1 2 3 4 (Galen's) indirect
M-P P-M M-P P-M M-P major premise

S-M S-M M-S M-S S-M minor premise

S-P S-P S-P S-P P-S consequent

of a being or activity or set of finished, adj. 1. having obtained its

means to an end. full good; made perfect; completed;
ANT. - chance. excellent. 2. ended; concluded; final.
argument from finality (more finite, adj. having limits in being,
properly: about finality), a demon­ perfection, power, operations, dimen­
stration for God's existence that be­ sions, or duration; bounded; measur­
gins with evidences of activity toward able; not absolutely complete.
regular good results in natural ob­ finitize, v.t. to make finite; to regard
jects; it is also known as the teleol­ as finite even though the being or
ogical argument, the proof from in­ activity thought about is not finite;
trinsic finality, and the proof from to reduce to finite dimensions or qual­
the government of the world. ity: as, a denial of universal provi­
extrinsic finality: (1) direction of dence finitizes God.
a nature or activity to an end out­ firm, adj. I. valid: as, a firm con­
side its own being. (2) direction of tract. 2. certain: as, firm assent. 3.
an instrument to the end of the constant; unwavering: as, a firm
agent using it; imposition of a pur­ decision.
pose upon a thing. (3) extrinsic first, adj. preceding all others in any
guidance of a thing to an end other series; hence: earliest; elementary;
than that to which its natural powers original; primitive; ultimate; best;
and tendencies left to themselves noblest; highest: as, first cause; first
would direct it: as, the use of flowers creation.
to decorate a hero's monument. llux, n. continuous movement, as of
formal finality, a being's conscious a stream; continual and perpetual
and chosen direction of its activity change. The word famously describes
to an end. the principle of Heraclitus and of
intrinsic finality, activity of a some evolutionists that "all things
nature to an end to be achieved are in flux" and nothing at all (be­
within its own nature; hence, natu­ ings, nature, knowledge, or morals)
rally intended immanent activity. is constant.
natural finality: (1) any tendency font (fount; fountain), n. a source;
to an end as found in a natural body origin; beginning; start; first prin­
or in the course of nature, apart from ciple.
free human modification of natures. font of morality, any one of the
(2) the direction of a given type of three moral determinants.
nature or of an individual natural font of truth, any of the basic
thing to an end (a) internal to itself operations by which true knowledge
(intrinsic finality) or ( b) to an end can be gained: immediate sensations,
arising from the natural connection,
apprehensions of essences, internal
interaction, and adaptation existing
between different natural objects and experience, immediate and mediate
forces (extrinsic finality). judgments, etc.
principle of finality: Every agent force, n. 1. strength; power, esp.
acts for an end. physical might. 2. degree of power;
form 106 form

intensity. 3. use of physical power 3. the new internal perfection in any

to coerce a person or overcome a changed thing; in substantial change
thing; violence; effective action this will be a substantial form. 4.
against resistance; compulsion. If the the ultimate internal principle that
use is lawful, this is juridical force. accounts for the specific structure
4. the strength, validity, or persua­ of a being. This meaning is wider
siveness of a reason or an argument. than that used in hylemorphic
5. binding power; legal validity. theory. 5. the original idea accord­
Hence, in force means binding; oper­ ing to which an agent produces
ative; in effect. 6. sanction. something; exemplary cause; extrin­
force and fear: ( 1) unjust use sic formal cause after which the
of force that causes fear in a party intrinsic formal cause is patterned.
trying to elicit a human act. (2) the 6. the internal principle according
impediment to contracts, including to which a specific agent does a
marriages, because of fear brought on definite kind of thing or an individ­
by unjust use of external force ual agent does a thing in an in­
against a contracting party. dividual way; intrinsic tendency (re­
juridical force: ( 1) legal valid­ garded as form); form of the agent.
ity. (2) lawful use of physical force. This notion of form of the agent is
form, n. I. causal meanings. 1. included in the concept of proper
the internal principle that shares its cause.
being and nature with some prime NoTE - St. Thomas in Truth, q.
matter and together with it consti­ 3, a. 1 sums up three causal senses
tutes a natural body with a specific of form: that from which a thing
nature; the constituent principle gets its form; that by which a thing
within a substance that, by sharing is informed; that according to which
its being and perfection with matter, a thing is informed.
actualizes the potencies of matter and II. entitative senses. 7. act in­
together with matter composes a trinsically determining or perfecting
definite material substance or natural some potency. 8. the internal prin­
body; the specific coprinciple of a ciple of specific likenesses and specific
nature that communicates its perfec­ differences. 9. the nature or essence
tion to the indeterminate or less de­ of a thing. In this usage, the prin­
terminate principle and together with cipal essential part, form, is taken
this material substratum constitutes for the whole. 10. the specific
a complete nature; that by reason structure or configuration of a natu­
of which matter is a definite kind ral thing. 11. the outward shape
of nature and has its specific powers (appearance; figure) of a natural
and properties; the first, actual, body as determined proximately by
proper principle by which a natural its arrangement of parts. 12. the
body is what it is; the intrinsic prin­ specific constitution, organization,
ciple that accounts for the specific structure, etc. of an artifact or of
perfections of a thing or contributes a moral unit; the internal charac­
the specifically new perfection to a teristic, bond of union, typical differ­
changing thing; the first act differ­ ence, or special perfection that makes
entiating material essences; formal such an artifact or moral unit its
cause (in the proper sense). 2. an kind of being. This rather broad use
accident, especially an absolute ac­ of form or formal cause must not
cident, as intrinsically determining a be pressed too far, as it is an analog­
substance to a given perfection or ous and weakened meaning of sub­
degree of perfection. This means that stantial communicating form. Thus,
accidents by extension from the pri­ ordinance of reason is said to be
mary sense, substantial form, are the formal cause of a law; repre­
also called forms and formal causes. sentative democracy is the forma/.
form 107 form

cause of a constitution. 13. arrange­ form's sake. 25. a fixed order of

ment; orderly arrangement; the way words; a formula (because it deter­
something is put together. Here, the mines meaning). 26. the words that
idea of constitutive cause is being specify the sacramental meaning of
extended. 14. a disposition of mind the rites of the seven sacraments of
or body that approaches the ideal of the Church: distinguished from the
perfect skill: as, a runner's form. action, materials used, etc. 27. a
III. intentional senses. 15. the ritual or ceremonial way of acting.
concept as representing the intrinsic established by custom or law or code
form in an object and as perfecting of etiquette. 28. a particular kind
the intellect. 16. the likeness of the of a larger group: as, bodies are a
maker's idea of a thing as it is in form of substance.
the actual thing; the principle of accidental form, see sense 2. an
intelligibility in a being. 17. the accident considered as analogous to
perceptible feature or characteristic a substantial form because it inter­
of a beautiful thing. 18. the formal nally perfects a nature that is already
object of an act of knowledge; the substantially complete.
form known; the aspect or ratio a priori form (in Kant). cate­
under which something is considered. gories or modes of thought that
Matter, not being of itself actual, we attribute to the objects of our
is not of itself knowable and cannot sense experience by the a priori psy­
act on cognitive powers. 19. the chological necessity of our way of
end as the extrinsic form of a volun­ thinking although these objects and
tary act because, like a form, it modes are beyond our objective per­
specifies the act and determines a ception of reality: as, the forms
mode of action proportionate to that of space and time, of universality,
end: hence, charity is the form of necessity, cause, etc. These types of
faith and other virtues because it organization that the mind imposes on
directs all virtuous acts to God, the sense presentation include the cate­
supremely lovable end. 20. the like­ gories of the understanding, the sense
ness of anything, esp. its likeness in forms of space and time, and the
knowledge. Hence, sensible and in­ schemata of the imagination.
telligible species are called forms in form of corporeity, see COR­
two senses: (a) as a likeness of the POREITY.
form of the known object, and ( b) form of the whole, the definition
as an accidental new perfection of of a complete nature including both
the knower. See sense 15. substantial form ,and matter. See
IV. logical, grammatical, and ABSTRACTION of the whole. The ex­
other senses. 21. any specific and pression in St. Albert the Great
completing feature of a process of seems to have several meanings:
thinking or of its expression. Thus, form alone; formal essence alone;
the copula is the form of a proposi­ or the whole itself.
tion; the consequence is the form form of virtue: ( 1) the end or
of the syllogism; correct arrangement motive that makes an act precisely
is the form of an argument. 22. good because it specifies the inten­
any of the different appearances of tion. ( 2) charity. See sense 19.
a word as it undergoes changes in informing form: ( 1) a substantial
inflection, spelling, pronunciation, or form present in and actuating matter.
modifications of the base or stem. ( 2) an accident truly inhering in a
23. style as distinguished from con­ substance; hence, esp. quantity and
tent or matter; literary form. 24. qualities.
legal correctness of a document as inorganic form: ( 1) the form of
distinguished from its contents, a nonliving body. (2) according to
terms, etc.: as, let's notarize this for some. the internal principle by which
form 108 form

SOME MEANINGS AND DIVISIONS OF FORM

I. Form as a cause

r f subsistent (separate) { ��:e rated

Platonic

substantial
informing (received)
(strictest sense)
{ inorganic
soul

form of the whole

j form of corporeity ( ? )
l r quantity
t qualities
Internal specific properties
natural
(constitutive structure of in­
tegral parts

{
cause)
figure
sensible
accidental intentional
intelligible { universal
. 1
smgu ar

{ literary form
contractual form
special sacramental form
ceremonial form,
l rite, etc.

exemplar

end
{ intention (end) in moral matters
cha�ity in regard to moral and theological
virtues
External
natural form as remote proper cause of its own tendencies and
of its acts to its own proper end
object specifying intentional form

II. Form as a likeness, as determining conformity

Exemplar for its copies
Ontological truth for logical truth (intelligible form and species)
Logical truth for moral truth
Norm of morality for conduct
Formal object for knowledge and species (formal sign)
Objective beauty for esthetic perception

III. Form as logical determinant

Specific difference in relation to genus or in logical composition
Identifying characteristics for recognition
Bonds between parts of discourse
Correct structure; logical figure
Validity of procedure and inference within an axiomatic (formally logical) system
Subclass

molecular patterns of specific bodies (2) in knower. an intellectual species.

are arranged. See sense 15.
intelligible form: (1) in objects. intentional form: ( 1) a sensible
the intelligible principle, note, or or intelligible species; a cognitive
ratio in the known. See senses 16-18. likeness of the form of an obiect.
form 109 formality

See senses 15, 20; SPECIES. (2) the telligences superior to earth created
exemplar in the maker's thought. forms and put them into matter. A
organic form: ( 1) the substantial cognate idea appears both in the
form of an organism; vital principle; theory of God's illumination of the
soul. ( 2) in an artistic product. a intellect and in the function of the
principle of unity, of correspondence agent's intellect as imparting forms
to life, or of organization and in­ to the possible intellect. 2. to con­
telligibility. See senses 16, 17. tribute in some way to the produc­
Platonic form, a hypothetical sub­ tion, development, or perfection of a
sistent Idea, Eidos, or Model sup­ person or thing. See EDUCATION; ART.
posed to have its own separate exis­ 3. to develop habits. 4. to influence
tence, which is the changeless one of motives. 5. to think of, organize in,
its type and in whose reality and or work out with one's mind: as,
special perfection things in this world form my opinion. 6. to make up; con­
participate in multiple copies of vary­ stitute; build or create out of sepa­
ing degrees of perfection. rate natural, social, or logical ele­
pure form: (1) a subsistent form. ments. Both efficacy and communica­
(2) the essence of an angel. tion of form may be involved here.
separate form: (1) a form com­ 7. to give shape to; put into order.
plete in itself as a substance; an formal, adj. 1. of or in the formal
essence without matter and never cause or nature; according to the
substantially united with matter. (2) definition of; as such: as, formal
a subsistent form. When the subsis­ logic. 2. of or in the form required
tent form had formerly shared its for correctness, validity, etc.: as, a
being with matter, as the human soul formal fallacy. 3. specific; character­
after death, it is said to be a sepa­ istic; definite; determinate. 4. fixed;
rated form. regular; according to pattern or type;
subsistent form: (1) a form that methodical. 5. done according to
can or does exist and act indepen­ strict rules, prescribed legal directions,
dently of matter. (2) a form actually ceremonial instructions, the most ac­
separate from matter. cepted conventions, etc. 6. the same
universal form. see formally UNI­ in kind and effect.
VERSAL; common NATURE; Platonic Formal in s en ses 1-2 often is bal­
FORM. anced against material. In its partner­
principles on form: Form is the ship with the material, formal states
end; or, everything is for the sake or suggests the aspect of the actual,
of form. See HYLEMORPHISM; VITAL­ active, completing, perfecting, deter­
ISM. mining, definite, specific, distinctive,
ABBR. - f. SF is suggested for patterned, organizing, intelligible, su­
substantial form . perior, intentional, and received in a
REF. -Met., VII, ch. 8, 17; S.T., subject. See N. s.v. MATERIAL, adj.
I, 76, a. 1; 77, a. 6, arg. 3; C.G., formal cause, see FORM, sense 1.
II, ch. 68; Being and Essence, ch. formalism, n. the study of and at­
1, 2; Truth, q. 3, a. 1. A. Maurer, tention to pure correctness in think­
C.S.B., "Form and Essence in the ing and in systematic relationships.
Philosophy of St. Thomas," Medi­ formality, n. 1. an aspect under which
aeval Studies, XIII (1951), 165-176. a thing may be or is being con­
form, v.t. 1. to give form as an agent sidered; ratio. 2. a modal difference
does; to produce a form or educe a between aspects or perfections of
form. The proper term for sharing the same person or thing: as, the
form with matter is inform. The one same person acts under one for­
scholastics often quoted Avicenna's mality as president of his company,
expression, "giver of forms," by under another as father of his family,
which he meant that one of the in- and under another as a member of
formalize 110 free

his church; the will under one for­ REF. - N. Eth., III, ch. 9; S.T.,
mality causes, under another gives. II-II, 123.
3. a modal difference between mean­ fortuitism, n. a world view that sup­
ings of the same name, between dif­ poses that natural events, physical
ferent titles of the same person, etc. order, and human success occur by
4. a ceremonial, legal, or social re­ chance not by divine design.
quirement or convention. fortune, n. 1. a supposed power to
formalize, v.t. 1. to give substantial bring good or evil to people inde­
or accidental form to. 2. to treat or pendently of their efforts and con­
think of as a form: as, a formalized trary to their plans and deeds; fate.
ACCIDENT. 2. what happens or will happen to
formally, adv. (often occurring in a person, whether it be good or bad;
the Lat., formaliter). 1. according one's lot. 3. good luck; undeserved
to the definition of a thing; in the success; unexpected prosperity; great
precise or proper meaning that de­ wealth. Unlike chance, fortune would
scribes its specific nature. 2. accord­ be intended by an agent if he could
ing to, like to, or with regard to the foresee and control events.
form or essence; purely according to REF.-Physics, II, 4, 6; Met., IV,
the form. 3. intentionally; deliber­ 2, 3; C.G., III, ch. 92.
ately: as, formally unjust, i.e., ac­ found, adj. discovered; not put;
cording to the definition of injustice hence, existent independently of the
as a deliberate violation of another's mind. What is put into reality is
rights. This applies sense 1 to the projected by the mind; what is found
human act and virtues. is present and accessible to the mind
formed, adj. I. actual; complete or looking for it in the real.
completed; constituted. 2. possessing foundation, n. 1. a base on which
form; having acquired form. 3. something is built; ground; bottom;
trained; educated; developed. support of a structure. 2. substratum;
formula, n. I. the form or essence subject in which. This use resembles
of a thing. 2. the exact definition of material cause. Hence, foundation is
the form or essence. 3. a proposition often contrasted with form; funda­
stating a principle in exact terms. mentally, with formally. 3. the chief
A logical formula states a general constituent; the most important ele­
truth in terms of thought or predica­ ment. 4. the principle on which some
tion; an ontological formula states a system, theory, additional conclusion,
general truth in terms of being. The or application of theory depends; the
principle of contradiction may be main basis of a related set of judg­
presented in either way. 4. modern ments. 5. the evidence that grounds
logic. an expression of relationships an opinion or hypothesis or that
between symbols. But a formula is motivates an assent. 6. the basis,
not a proposition because it does heading, or reason for asserting the
not have truth or falsity until a existence or desirability of a relation,
meaning is attached to the symbols. order, distinction, or division between
ABBR.-/. beings or objective concepts. 7. the
fortitude, n. the cardinal moral vir­ reason why a right exists; hence, the
tue that inclines a person constantly law and the title.
to restrain fear and to moderate free, adj. 1. in general. not forced;
not necessitated physically, psycho­
rashness in the presence of diffi­
logically, or morally; not totally sub­
culties and dangers that confront a
ject to something outside itself and
man in doing good; esp. bravery or purely passive to outside influences;
courage in overcoming fear of the having some capacity for movement
danger of death in the pursuit of and activity of its own. 2. in bodily
moral good. movement, conditions, and qualities:
free 111 freedom

(a) able to move itself In any direc­ PERSON; *suI JURIS. ( b) having a
tion and not merely be moved by an moral right. (c) having the actual
outside force; spontaneous in act­ right to form a state, designate one's
ing: as, free-swimming. (b) not rulers by consent, not be subordinate
bound; not physically confined, im­ to a foreign government, etc.; politi­
prisoned, trapped, etc. (c) unhin­ cally independent. (d) having civilly
dered; unburdened by; clear from: protected rights. ( e) not being a
as, the spirit is free from matter; captive. (/) exempt from various
the anaesthetized are free from pain. civil obligations: as, tax-free.
(d) not held in physical or chemical free act, a human act.
union with another : as free oxygen. free certitude, see CERTITUDE.
3. in spiritual appetite: (a) able to free judgment, freely made deci-
be the cause of one's own act with­ sion. This is one way of translating
out being externally coerced or in­ the famous but difficult formula,
ternally determined to only one "liberum arbitrium. " The expression
object or one course of action; self­ emphasizes the partnership of intel­
determining; able to choose for one­ lect and will in the exercise of free­
self the means to one's own good; dom. One is free to form one's own
able to decide for oneself, unforced judgment, to determine which of one's
by antecedent conditions without or judgments about objects he will act
within one's will. Antecedent condi­ upon, to stop the process of think­
tions are present and influence the ing and turn to willing, and even
will; knowledge and motives are freely refuse to follow what he re­
needed; but these do not force the gards as his better judgment.
will. The will makes a free judgment, free knowledge, the kind of
liberum arbitrium, choosing among or knowledge that makes the exercise of
between proposed objects or actions free will possible; hence, knowledge
to be followed. Hence, the free is of contingent matters and of means
not to be defined as immune from all within one's power.
antecedent conditions or as unlimited free will, the ability of the will
in its range of choice under any con­ sometimes to act freely or to choose.
ditions. (b) using the ability to See FREEDOM, sense 2.
choose. See CHOICE; SELF-DETERMINE. freedom, n. 1. in general. immunity
4. morally unbound: (a) not held from determination or necessitation
by moral necessity to act or not to by another. The meanings of free
act in a certain way. (b) not held apply to freedom as a state, quality,
by purely positive legal obligation to or way in which a being or group
act or not to act in a certain way. acts. 2. of the will. the ability of a
(c) hence, the morally and legally spiritual appetite to remove its in­
permissible and recommended, but not difference to contingent goods and
the required. (d) without moral ob­ means to an end and thus by its own
ligations arising from the effects of volition to determine its action in re­
one's acts: as, free from sin, guilt, gard to such goods; the tending to an
debts, duty of restitution, etc. (e) de­ intellectually known contingent good
clared innocent; forgiven; acquitted; or means in such a way that, even
or having made full atonement. (/) when all the conditions and causes
not owned; not appropriated; as, free for voluntary action are present, the
will can act or not act, can do moral
moonlight. 5. autonomy : (a) having
good or moral evil, or can choose
an end and rights of one's own in
this or that; the internal ability of
regard to the pursuit of one's end; the will, of itself not determined to
not a slave; not owned by another; any one contingent good or means, to
not controlled by another purely or remove its indifference or to deter­
primarily for another's interest. See mine itself by choice or consent to
freedom 112 freedom

one of two or more proposed alter­ the power of immanent locomotion

native objects or courses of action; possessed by a sentient being.
self-determination; absence of both mediate (indirect) freedom, the
external and internal antecedent sharing of another act in the free­
necessity that would compel only one dom of a previous free act; the
action for one good; liberty; inde­ liberty said to belong to a com­
pendence in willing. NOTE - Free manded act.
will is not a power separate from moral freedom: (1) moral lib­
the necessary will. Of the three modes erty; absence of moral obligation.
of liberty mentioned in the second ( 2) permission; authorization. ( 3)
definition in this entry ("the tend­ legal liberty; independence of civic
ing ... "), only the third, known as obligation. ( 4) a moral right. The
freedom of specification, seems to be freedoms of the rights are usually
essential to the existence of liberty. named by the objects which one is
3. a moral right. both immunity from free to hold, claim, enjoy, or avoid:
interference and opportunity for ac­ as freedom of conscience, of speech;
tion if one wishes to act. freedom from search and seizure.
academic freedom, immunity negative freedom, the quality of
from arbitrary interference in inves­ indeterminancy in the will. See entry
tigating the truth about, or in ex­ 2, third and fifth variants of the
pressing one's opinions on, any subject definition.
pertinent to the curriculum and edu­ physical freedom, the ability to
cational interests. move spontaneously by locomotion;
civil freedoms, civil rights. q.v. the state of a body when not physi­
eminent freedom, a perfect free­ cally tied, confined, etc. so that it
dom that does not have to contend cannot move or be moved.
with influences that may lead it to physical freedom, the ability to
choose moral evil; freedom of the power to choose one's own form of
will from a tendency to misuse free­ government and one's rulers, their
dom by not choosing the true good. tenure of office, etc. (2) indepen­
This is also spoken of as freedom dence of subjection to a foreign
of the end attained. See self-realiza­ government, a conqueror, a tyrant,
tion, at end of division of FREEDOM. etc. (3) protection and enjoyment of
freedom of contradiction ( exer· political rights, such as membership
cise), freedom to act or not to act, in a political party, freedom of politi­
to perform or omit an act. See cal opinions, eligibility to vote and
sense 2, second wording of the defini­ hold public office, etc. ( 4) protection
tion, "the tending .. . " of one's rights by fair law enforce­
freedom of contrariety, the abil­ ment.
ity to choose or the act of choosing positive freedom, the quality of
between moral opposites; the choice self-determination in the power and
between moral good and moral evil. act of the will.
freedom of specification: (1) the psychological freedom, the con­
power of the spiritual appetite to stant or occasional immunity of the
specify or determine by and for it­ will from determination to one act or
self which one of two or more alter­ object by the person's interior psy­
native objects it will act for; free­ chological experiences or states that
dom to do this or that or the other. precede the will's own determination;
(2) actual choice of any one between hence, freedom from necessitation by
or among the known contingent means one's images, feelings, impulses,
to an end. knowledge, habits, etc.; absence of
freedom of spontaneity: (1) internal (personal) antecedent neces­
capacity of a body for moving itself sity.
or being moved in any direction. (2) self-determination and self-re-
friend 113 futurible

alization as aspects of freedom, the function of doctors is to main­

the former freedom concerns the tain and restore health; hence, a
progress of man toward his end by desired purposeful activity. 5. logic
choice and use of means; the latter and mathematics. something that de­
concerns the perfection of personality pends on and varies with something
when one has achieved the fruit of else.
the right use of liberty and has be­ emotive and referential func­
come somewhat immune from the tions of words, the purpose of lan­
weaknesses of ignorance, error, un­ guage either to stir feeling or to be
controlled feelings, dependence on meaningful of the real.
others' opinion, undeveloped habits, truth function of a proposition,
changes of mood, etc. Freedom of the dependence of the truth of a
self-realization is perfect only in the statement on objective reality. See
state of beatitude. See also divisions sense 5.
of INDEPENDENCE; eminent FREEDOM. functor, n. symbolic logic. a symbol
REF. - N. Eth., III, ch. 2, 3 at that requires another symbol; hence,
end, 5; Boethius, Majar Commentary predicates rather than substantives.
on Aristotle's "De Interpretatione," fundamentally, adv. 1. as on a foun­
III, Prologue; S.T., I, 83, aa. 1-2; dation; basically; primarily. 2. in
I-II, 13, aa. 1-5; 17, a. 1 ad 2; C.G., source; in principle. 3. in objective
II, 48; Truth, q. 22, aa. 1, 4, 6, 15; reason; on its objective ground: as,
q. 24; V. J. Bourke, The Will in the universal must be fundamentally
Western Thought; M. J. Adler, The in the singular. 4. essentially; neces­
Idea of Freedom, esp. vol. I. sarily.
friend, n. a person whom one knows ANT. - formally; as such; in de­
and loves well and by whom one is tail; accidentally; verbally.
reciprocally known and loved for future, n. 1. what will exist or will
virtuous reasons. happen: distinguished from what can
REF. -
N Eth., VIII, ch. 2, 3;
. hereafter happen. 2. time yet to come.
IX, ch. 4; Rhetoric, II, ch. 4; S.T., absolute future, what shall take
II-II, 23. place or will exist, no matter whether
frustrate, v.t. 1. to cause to have no it depends on a necessary, contin­
effect by preventing a thing from gent, or free cause or causes.
achieving an objective; counteract; conditioned (contingent) future,
defeat; nullify an action. 2. to keep futurible. q.v.
conscious or unconscious desires and free future, a being, act, or event
impulses from being gratified. that will be or occur because a free
frustration of nature, a use of a agent will freely choose it to be or
natural human power in a way that to make it happen.
prevents it from achieving its natural ABBR.-fut.
purpose and performing its natural futurible, n. a conditioned or con­
function; abuse. See CONTRACEPTION; tingent future; an act or event that
UNNATURAL. would come to pass if some free be­
function, n. 1. a natural specialized ing should choose it or should start
activity of any power, organ, or part the chain of events that would in­
of a living body: as, sight is the clude this act or event. It is futurible
function of eyes. 2. a special duty or because it could be in the future;
activity for which one is fitted by it is conditioned because it depends
nature or to which one is bound by on actual choice of a free agent who
his employment: as, the functions of may choose not to do this particular
parents and firemen. 3. any occupa­ thing or act in this particular way.
tion or employment. 4. a special re­ Some think that a futurible implies
sult ordinarily sought in some proc­ more than a possible; it not merely
ess, training, art, or profession: as, can come to pass but would come to
futurible 114 futurible

pass if a free agent realized its po­ ble, one, namely, that will never
tential to existence. In most discus­ exist or occur because the appropriate
sions, a futurible means a pure futuri- free agent will not actually choose it.
 G
Galen's figure, phrase. the fourth fig­ sense 1. 4. qualified (secondary) gen­
ure of the syllogism, reputedly intro­ eration. any coming-into-being of a
duced by the Greek physician and form, including accidental forms. 5.
logician, Claudius Galen, in the sec­ any productive process: as, genera­
ond century, A.D. See FIGURE. tion of steam. 6. the people of a time
Gelasian formulary (formula), span needed to produce a new gen­
phrase. the statement by Pope St. eration.
Gelasius (d. 496) in controversy with human act of generation, human
the Emperor Anastasius of Constanti­ copulation initiated by the will: dis­
nople, who had interfered in appoint­ tinguished from natural process of
ments of bishops: the Church and the generation, the whole physiological
Empire are both powers set up by process or series of natural functions
God, with their independent sover­ taking place within the organisms of
eignties in their own spheres, but man and woman and directed to off­
with priority of the Church in mixed spring. The latter process is not di­
matters because of the higher end rectly controllable by the will. The
of the Church. distinction is needed to decide differ­
REF. - St. Gelasius, "Epistolae" ences between sterility and impotence.
VIII and XII, and "Tomus" in J. spontaneous generation, any hy­
P. Migne, ed., Patrologia Latina, vol. pothesis about the origin of micro­
59. organisms from lifeless matter or of
general, ad;. 1. universal or nearly the spontaneous origin of higher or­
universal; of, for, or applying to a ganisms. The opinion is obsolete since
whole class, genus, race, and its mem­ Pasteur's experiments.
bers. 2. common; widespread; belong­ REF. -Aristotle, On Generation
ing to or shared by many. 3. not and Corruption; St. Thomas, Princi­
concerned with details but rather with ples of !Vature.
main features; hence, indefinite; generic, adj. belonging or referring
merely theoretical and wanting in to a genus and all its members.
specific suggestions. genesis, n. a beginning; origin; crea­
ANT. - particular; local; restricted; tion; first formation; causal process.
minute; specialized; partial. genus, n.; genera (or occasionally
ABBR. - g.; gen.; genl. genuses), pl. I. that part of the es­
generalization, n. 1. the mental act sences of two or more species that
of forming the concept of a class; is common of all members of these
universalizing. 2. the inductive dis­ species; the essence insofar as it is
covery of the definition of a nature. predicable of a number of differing
3. the induction of a general law species or their members; the con­
from known particular instances. 4. stituent note common to two or more
the concept, definition, or law known species, abstracting from their specific
by an act of generalizing. differences. 2. a class containing
generation, n. 1. the origin of a liv­ species of different kinds; esp. a class
ing being from a living being of its
containing species of organisms. 3.
own species; procreation. 2. the con­
loosely. any large class or kind of
ception of a human being. 3. unquali­
fied generation. the coming-into-being things.
of a new substance or of a new sub­ lowest (immediate; proximate)
stantial form. Its most proper case genus, the genus under which species
is origin of the living being, as in are immediately contained as its final

115
given 116 godlike

class divisions: as animal is the of words and other details of a text.

lowest genus of substance. St. Thomas often refers to scriptural
supreme genus, a class of finite commentaries as glosses and chiefly
beings that is contained under no to (a) Walafrid Strabo's (d. 849)
higher genus; a category. Logicians Glossa Ordinaria and ( b) Anselm of
also speak of inferior, subaltern, and Laon's (d. 1117) Glossa lnterlinearis.
intermediate genera. These glosses are not lectures or oral
ABBR. - gen. for sing. and pl. commentaries.
given; the given, adj. or n. 1. stated; *gnome, n., Latinized Greek. I. dis­
definitely mentioned; explicitly de­ criminating judgment in unusual and
clared. 2. concrete; individual: as, difficult cases wherein higher prin -
under the given conditions. 3. taken ciples, and not ordinary rules and
as a premise; assumed; granted. 4. practices, must prevail in a solution;
n., pl. the data. hence, high prudence in counsel. 2.
glory, n. 1. formal (subjective) glory. a brief reflection; esp., a moral
knowledge, appreciation, and deliber­ maxim.
ate praise of excellence; willing pub­ REF. -S.T., II-II, 51, a. 4.
lic recognition of the goodness of gnosiology, n. theory of knowledge.
some person or thing, or of a per­ goal, n. the good as the object of
son's acts and products. 2. funda­ tendency; end; final cause.
mental (objective) glory. the excel­ God, n. 1. common concept. the Su­
lence that is worthy of admiration; preme Being and Supreme Ruler of
the good in a being or nature or the universe. 2. (god). any real or
work considered as the objective rea­ hypothetical being, superior to the
son for rendering formal glory to it world, immortal, and having special
or to its author. 3. a manifestation power over the order of nature and
of the hidden excellence, majesty, or the lives of men. God (god) is not a
perfections of a person. proper name for the one true God
Both formal and fundamental glory since the term has been used for
may be extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrin­ many imagined beings. See divine
sic glory is outside of the being; for­ NAME, two subentries. 3. a scientific
mal when given by some other person concept, suitable for identifying God
or group; fundamental in one's works, when His existence is to be proved.
accomplishments, children, etc. In­ the principle (cause) of all things,
trinsic glory is excellence or praise in distinct from and superior to them.
the glorious being; formal, when the 4. theistic concept, the one Creator
person or group honors its own good­ of all things, intelligent, free, and
ness; fundamental, in the goodness infinitely perfect, who governs all be­
within the person or thing that de­ ings in the universe. 5. revealed con­
serves glory. cept (Trinitarian monotheism). the
divine glory, glory in God, de­ Blessed Trinity of persons (Father,
served by God, or given to God. Son, and Holy Spirit) in one divine
vainglory, an act of vanity; de­ nature (God).
siring or seeking or inviting glory REF. - S.T., I, 39, a. 4; a. 3 ad 1.
that is undeserved, in an excessive godhead (godhood; godship), n. the
manner, on an improper occasion, or state or quality of being a god; deity;
from an unqualified person unable to divinity; what God possesses.
measure the glory merited.
godlike, adj. I. resembling somewhat
REF. - Cicero, De lnventione, II,
the being, perfection, or activity of
55; S.T., II-II, 131, 132; C.G., III,
ch. 29. God. Christian theism uses the term
gloss, n. a note or comment on a text, chiefly of knowledge and love of God;
inserted either in the margin or be­ the Greeks used it of any moral
tween lines, to clarify the meaning virtue. 2. worthy of God; character-
godliness 117 good

istic of God: as, forgiveness miracle

, comes into being when the common
working. good demands it even if the people
godliness, n. 1. a general state of fail to organize or consent.
moral goodness. 2. religious piety; essential good: (1) good because
devotion to God and His will. of its own nature; unparticipated
good, adj. a n d n. 1. in its formal good. (2) a good truly needed by
effect. "that which all things desire" some being or nature.
(Aristotle); the desirable; the object external goods, property com­
of a being's or nature's appetite or pletely outside the owner's own being.
appetites; appetible. 2. in its formaJ, In discussions of the morality of
nature. that which is suitable to a property systems, these are often
being or nature; that which has the distinguished as capital goods, able
reality and the attributes that fit the and available to produce more wealth,
natural demands of some nature; and consumers' goods, things to be
worthy of being desired; a perfec­ used or used up but in themselves
tion of a being or nature; value and unproductive .

the valuable. 3. in its subject. a being internal (intrinsic) goods: ( 1)

or nature in potency to, or having, a those constituting, or existing, in the
perfection fitting to or beneficial to being or nature of something; a be­
it. 4. true; valid; sound. For these ing s own perfections: as, life, fingers,
'

qualities are suitable to reason. knowledge. (2) objects having value

absolute good: (1) what is suit­ in themselves, apart from any effects
able to the being or nature to which they may have.
the good belongs or of which it is legal (civil) good, an advantage
predicated; intrinsic good. (2) divine desired or achieved by law.
good; good by essence; unlimited material good, a good in a body
good. ( 3) necessary good. (4) un­ or its attributes. Material goods may
qualified good. be perfective for a material nature;
apparent good, that which seems useful for others; or pleasurable. All
to be desirable though it actually is material goods are temporal, but
not; that which is judged to be useful some temporal or temporary goods
or pleasant though it is morally evil . are spiritual in nature .

common (social) good: (1) what mixed good, something partia lly
is suitable to the needs and desires of external and partially internal to a
many. (2) a benefit or benefits pos­ being or nature: as, reputation. Such
sessed, or shared in, by many; goods a good implies a relation between the
communicable and communicated to giver and receiver of these benefits
many. ( 3) the w ell being of the
- but belonging to neither alone as an
members of a society; hence, in po­ inherent good.
litical society, the general welfare moral good, that which perfects
or commonweal or national interest. human nature because it is conformed
( 4) goods obtainable only by the to the true moral standard; good in
united action of many persons. A human acts or, secondarily, in the
subdistinction occurs here: collec­ objects of moral choice; what is
tively common goods can be simul­ proper to man as man; what is in­
taneously possessed by a number tentionally directed to a good end;
taken as a group; distrib11!ively com­ deliberate choice according to right
mon goods are immaterial goods reason; the worthy; the perfective
that can be simultaneously possessed good of the rational and free nature
by a plurality of persons without be­ of m an See MORALITY for further
.

coming exclusively any individual's d istinctions.

goods. natural good: (1) what suits a
common good theory, the opinion nature: distinguished from what suits
that the title to political authority a being. Every being is good but not
 118 good

DIVISIONS OF THE GOOD

1. Good in being (transcendental good)

Good in nature (not transcendental)
2. Good by essence (subsistent Good; uncaused; unparticipated; supreme; infinite)
Good by participation (caused; dependent; limited)
3. Absolute (intrinsic; good to and for itself)

{
Relative (extrinsic; good to others)

{
all-perfect; infinite
4. Universal of the universe as a sum of goods
the good in-general
a) collectively common

{
distributively common (shareable)
Common (social)
b) of private societies
of the state (public good)
a) internal; external; mixed goods
Individual b) material; spiritual
(private) c) temporal; eternal

{
d) necessary for life; necessary for status; superfluous
perfective
S. Good as end

{
pleasurable
Good as means (useful)
Good as means-end: perfective and useful in different relations
constitution
proper ac­
physical: according to
cidents and
a being's
operations
natural end
6. Perfective (proper;
befitting)
natural
moral (worthy; noble;
true)
{ intrinsically
extrinsically
legally good (civil: not always morally

{
good)
logically good (sound; valid and true)
supernatural (in source; nature; mode; act; end; etc.)
means to culture
means to political success
Useful (instru­
{
remedial, even though painful
mental) : e.g. . capital goods

{
economic
consumers' goods
to sensory appetites
Pleasurable to the will
to all appetites
7. True (genuine)
Apparent (seeming; false)

every nature is (simply) good be­ due moral good: as, excessive pleasure
cause evil deprives a nature of what or selfish advantage.
is naturally its due good. (2) a merely participated good: (1) a good of
natural good: distinguished from a such a kind that many can or do
supernatural perfection. ( 3) a physi­ have portions of the same specific
cal good that is in conflict with the benefit or perfection: as, all men have
good 119 good

a brain. (2) a created good. (3) a the proper good is not the proper
communicable good. (4) a good ac­ object of a power.
tually shared by many whether singly public good: (1) the general wel­
or jointly. fare of a public society, whether state
perfect good: (1) God. (2) the or church, whether sovereign or de­
highest good or ultimate end com­ pendent. (2) the common or social
pleting a nature. ( 3) any fully ac­ good of a civic community as ob­
tualized perfection of a nature, even tained or obtainable by the use of
though not its highest perfection. common means under the direction of
(4) the perfective good. See PER­ public authority.
FECTION. . qualified good (*secundum quid):
perfective (befitting) good: (1) (1) an incomplete, imperfect, or
something desirable for its own sake somewhat defective good. (2) the
as fully fitting to a nature; something pleasurable or useful but not moral.
to improve or complete the very relative good, something that is
nature of the being that desires it: suitable for another being; good to
distinguished from the merely useful or for others; hence, useful; helpful.
or merely pleasurable good. (2) some­ superfluous good, possessions be­
thing desirable for its own sake by yond what are needed and sufficient
a rightly ordered will; the worthy; for one's life, human dignity, and
the good proper to man and meeting justly acquired status or position.
the moral demands of man's nature. supernatural good, a grace or
perfecting the agent (sometimes divine blessing not due to human
called absolute good), intrinsic to the nature as such in its essential con­
agent doing good: distinguished from stitution, operations, or end.
perfecting the product (also known supreme good: (1) God. (2) God
as relative good), extrinsic to the as the end of man; the supreme end
agent. Compare the distinction of of man.
objects of prudence and art: agibilia transcendental good, the good of
and factibilia. a being insofar as it is actual; hence,
physical good: (1) the perfective such good belongs to any being: dis­
good fitted to a nonpersonal being tinguished from the good of a nature.
or nature. (2) any true good other In the general definition of good
than a moral good. (senses 1 and 2), this is the good
pleasurable good, one that can defined.
give satisfaction to an appetite. true (genuine) good, what ac­
Some distinguish this from the ardu­ tually befits a nature; hence, perfec­
ous good rather than from the be­ tive good and especially moral good
fitting and useful. even though doing the moral good
private (individual) good: (1) may involve loss of other goods.
a good belonging exclusively or prin­ universal good: (1) the all-good
cipally to one person. (2) a good be­ being or nature, God. (2) the good
longing to a small group or private of the universe. (3) the good in-gen­
society. (3) a good obtainable by eral, namely, happiness and the goods
private effort. that give man happiness.
proper good : (1) the moral good useful good, a means or instru­
of man. (2) a good incommunicable ment apt for some purpose, function,
to others and always exclusively per­ or satisfaction; some thing or act
that is desirable not for its own sake
sonal: as, one's own soul. (3) a good
but as a help in the attainment of
peculiar and proportionate to some­
some other good.
thing according to its nature: as, REF. -N. Eth., I, ch. 1, 6-8;
truth is the proper good of the intel­ Politics, VII, ch. 1; S.T., I, q. 5;
lect considered as a tendency. But I-II, 19, a. 5; II-II, 145, a. 3; C.G.,
governance 120 ground

III, ch. 37; G. E. Moore, "The ln­ grace, habitual grace elevating one's
definability of the Good," often re­ being or soul to a quasi-divine plane
printed from ch. 1 of Principia Ethica. of life and charity; and (b) actual
governance, n. the powers, functions, grace, helping and elevating one's
acts, and manner of using governing acts of mind and will. See SUPER­
powers. NATURAL.
government, n. 1. the exercise of REF.-S.T., I-II, 110; 111; C.G.,
public authority over the members of III, ch. 150.
a society for the common good of grade, n. any degree, rank, or stage
the members of that community; in an orderly series or scale of things
guidance of the actions of subjects, whereby they can be or are compared
esp. by the administration of laws. or classified, according to their rela­
2. the moral power or right to hold tive power, quality, size, achieve­
and exercise such authority. 3. the ments, merits, or other perfections.
system of ruling; the constitution; argument to God's existence
established system of public admin­ from the grades of perfection, St.
istration. 4. all persons with authority Thomas' fourth way based on the
to govern others in a state or public existence of different grades of tran­
society: usually regarded as a body scendental or pure perfections.
or class. Scholastic political philoso­ essential grades of being or per­
phy does not identify government fection, analogically inferior and
with the state; for it is only one of better degrees in a set of beings or
the organs of common action. perfections that usually bear the same
immediate government, personal name: as, the grades of life, of modes
direct exercise of authority by the of knowing, etc.
ruler over the subject, as by giving metaphysical grades, the ascend­
commands directly to him and hold­ ing series of natures from species, the
ing him directly responsible to the less universal, to supreme genus, the
the ruler: for instance, God's rule most universal. The descending order
over parents by the natural law. has been called metaphysical com­
self-government: (1) political position.
freedom. (2) the control of one's greatness, n. 1. magnitude. 2. no­
powers by free will according to right bility of mind, character, charity,
reason and the moral law: e.g., in purpose, etc.; excellence. 3. hence,
governing one's temper. magnanimity; heroism. 4. power: as,
shared (delegated; mediate) the greatness of God. 5. importance:
government, rightful exercise of au­ as, of a problem, answer, or moral
thority over a subject by a duly issue.
appointed and empowered minister, ground, n. 1. the lowest part; base
subordinate, deputy, or other helper of anything; bottom. 2. basis; foun­
of the higher (sovereign) authority; dation. 3. the substrate to which
the delegator, then, mediately gov­ things belong. 4. the subject, topic,
erns through the delegated, who im­ or area of discussion. 5. the basis or
mediately rules or commands. reason on which a distinction, classi­
ABBR. - gov.; govt. fication, opinion, or conclusion rests.
REF. -S.T., I, 103, aa. 1, 3. 6. the form or real feature that is
grace, n. 1. in general. a divine favor; abstracted and represented in a uni­
the will of God gratuitously bestow­ versal concept. 7. the reason for as­
ing something on an intellectual crea­ serting that a relation is present be­
ture. 2. theological term often used tween or among the related. 8. hence,
in contrast with nature. a free gift the title to a right; the law and the
of God, excelling any created natural contingent fact on which a right is
reality. The major distinction between based. 9. the primary substance or
graces is between (a) sanctifying primordial being of the world; the
group 121 guilt

source whence all things emanate; the sick. When organized, the group
ylem. 10. semiagnostic and pantheistic is called a corporation. Its directive
usage. the absolute; God as the body is frequently called an indus­
Ground of being. trial council. See corporative SOCIETY.
ground of the soul, see SOUL. guilt, n. culpability for wrong done;
hold one's ground, to keep one's responsibility for a bad act; unfor­
position against objections. given sin.
shift one's ground, to change one's evil of guilt, moral evil: distin­
position, argument, attack, or defense. guished from evil of penalty.
group, n. 1. a number of persons or guilt by association, see ASSOCIA­
things gathered closely together and TION.
forming a recognizable social or arti­ legal guilt, culpability for trans­
ficial unit. 2. a class of persons or gressing a civil or penal law even
things. though one failed to keep the law
occupational (functional; voca­ unknowingly, indeliberately, or with­
tional) group, a natural society of out any moral fault. See penal LAW;
all those engaged in the same kind of OBLIGATION.
employment, industry, or profession, moral guilt, culpability and liabil­
with a common interest in the well­ ity to penalty because of a morally
being of the members' and in their evil deed consciously done against a
special activities: as, doctors, nurses, law that one knew to be binding on
pharmacists, hospital administrators, one's conduct.
and all directly connected with the REF. -S.T., I-II, 21, a. 2.
practice of medicine and the care of
 H
habit, n. 1. a permanent quality that operative habit, a rel�tively per­
disposes a subject well or badly in manent quality added to the power
regard to its being or operations; a and disposition of a rational being
relatively stable disposition of a liv­ and inclining him to perform definite
ing nature or power, inclining it types of acts with ease, accuracy,
rightly or wrongly to some perfec­ and consistency; habitus. Operative
ton or end of either its own being habits imply the control and direction
or another being. The definition first of reason. Hence, they can be truly
distinguishes habit from disposition present only in the intellect or will or
and power. It tries to include both in some other human power of man
entitative and operative habits, good insofar as it can be organized and
and bad ones. 2. the accident of controlled by reason: e.g., motor
having, having on, or having about; habits, habits in the higher senses
the tenth category. See STATE, sense and in the sensory appetites. Sensory
6. automatisms, the constant tendencies
acquired habit, one obtained or in animals to a uniform action, and
developed during the course of life conditioned reflexes are not regarded
by one's activity with a resulting as true habits by scholastic philoso­
modification of one's nature or natural phers; uniformity is not a sufficient
powers. criterion of the presence of habit. To
bad habit, any intellectual or moral prevent confusion with this physio­
vice. logical and psychological conception
entitative habit, one added to the of a habit (a mechanical, unfree,
essence or substantial form of a thing intellectually uncontrolled, neurologi­
rather than to a power to facilitate cal repetition of the same behavior
the power's operation. in man or animal), some writers will
good habit, any intellectual, moral, use only the word habitus for a hu­
or theological virtue. man operative habit. Operative habits
habit of first principles, the may often occur in connected habit
permanent understanding of the pri­ groups in which two or more habits
mary truths such as the principle of form a composite principle of acting
noncontradiction. Also see SYN­ in a special way: as, the habit of dis­
DERESIS. tinctly speaking English or the habit
infused habit, one supernaturally of regularly studying philosophy.
given, not acquired by one's own natural habit, one that originates
efforts; e.g., faith in God. Growth in by natural activity, perfects a natural
these infused habits is possible but power or form or disposition, is
only after they have been given and specified by a natural object, and is
?nly .with cooperating divine help; directed to a merely natural goal.
m this sense, mcrease of the virtue supernatural habit, one better
is acquired. than natural in origin and purpose,
innate habit: (1) one present or coming from God gratuitously and
supposed to be present in a person directed somehow toward God or His
from conception or from birth. (2) service. Often, the habit is also super­
a habit that is almost inborn since natural in mode of action. The theo­
it is acquired very early in life very logical virtues also have an immedi­
easily, and by a very few act;, e.g., ate supernatural object, God in Him­
the understanding of the principle of self.
noncontradiction. REF. - N. Eth., II, ch. 1-2; S.T.,

122
habitus 123 heart

I-II, 49, a. 4, summing up the toward some object or person. 2.

definition; 51, aa. 1, 4; 94, a. 1. See an act of the will strongly disliking
also references s.v. VIRTUE. some object or person and wishing
habitus, n. 1. a human operative habit. evil to the disliked person.
2. the accident known as state, q.v. have, v.t. 1. to possess, hold, or con­
haecceity (hecceity), n. (etymology: tain as a part, member, attribute,
from Lat. haecceitas, "thisness": a relation, related term, or associated
term used by Duns Scotus to describe feature. Having implies a relation
the reason for a being's individuality.) between a subject and an object that
that incommunicable feature of a be­ belongs to that subject in some sense
ing that constitutes it as an in­ of the word belong or of the term
dividual in its class; individual differ­ be in. To have, then, is not simply
ence; singularity. Scotus thinks this the same as to be. 2. to own, control,
is a special mode of being; Thom­ have a right over, actually possess,
ists usually ascribe individuality to or be using some object, as by wear­
the designated matter as its root ing, carrying, or gripping it. See also
in natural bodies and identify es­ OWNERSHIP and the category of
sence and individual in spiritual na­ STATE. Notice also the participation
tures; Suarez assigns the reason to meanings: have part in, have a part
the constitution of the whole concrete of, have part with.
individual. REF. -Met., V, ch. 20, 23.
happiness, n. contentment in the heart, n. 1. any place that, like the
possession of a good; the conscious heart, is near the center: as, the heart
satisfaction of worthy desire; beati­ of the city. 2. anything that func­
tude in some degree. See all mean­ tions in a fundamental way, as a
ings of BEATITUDE. heart does: hence, the central, vital,
harmony, n. 1. a combination of parts or main part; essence; form; the
into an orderly whole. See ORDER; main meaning; the main issue in a
UNIVERSE. 2. agreement in ideas, discussion; the main result. 3. the
views, desires, purposes, actions, etc. human heart considered as the center
See PEACE. 3. a proportionate ar­ or source of emotions, personality
rangement of colors, sizes, shapes, and traits, inmost thoughts, and resolu­
tones that pleases the senses and in­ tions; hence, intention; will; love.
tellect. See BEAUTY. 4. preestablished 4. the human heart considered as the
harmony. a theory of the divinely symbol of the person; personality;
prearranged relation of beings and friend. 5. an admirable or loved per­
events so that the divine plan for son. This usage is often accompanied
the world is infallibly fulfilled. In by an adjective or adjectival phrase
the extreme form proposed by Gott­ specifying the reason for admiration
fried Leibnitz (1646-1716), this or love: as, the sacred Heart of
harmony becomes a form of occasion­ Jesus.
alism, occurring without causal action reasons of the heart (an expres­
of creatures on each other. The mem­ sion from Blaise Pascal [1623-
bers of the universe are like syn­ 1662]): (1) reasons that appeal to
chronized clocks preset by their Au­ the feelings and will, not only to the
thor for a best possible universe from mind; rhetorically strong reasons. (2)
which contingency and failure are hence, appealing to likes and dislikes
altogether barred. This occasionalist instead of to objective evidence. (3)
harmony, applied to man, becomes a giving one's assent because of likes
dualism or a parallelism in which and dislikes without evidence or even
body and soul are synchronized in against the evidence. (4) Pascal's
activity but have no interdependence. sense. intuitive judgments of a man
hatred, n. 1. an act of the sensory of good will in regard to an object,
appetite that feels dislike or aversion truth, or solution of a problem; a
heaven 124 history

well-disposed attitude to consider and of the three orders of angels. See

discover some truth. ANGEL.
heaven, n. 1. the name of the space hierarchy of the intellects: ( 1)
above and about the earth used as a the graded series of the human, sepa­
symbol for (a) God; (b) God's rated, and divine intelligences. ( 2)
providence; (c) beatitude; (d) a the qualitative series of human in­
state of happiness. 2. a theological tellectual activities reaching from
name for the place and state of knowledge of matter to the vision of
supernatural beatitude. God.
hecceity, n. haecceity, q.v. REF. - S.T., I, 108, a. 1; C.G., IV,
henological, adj. explaining by unify­ ch. 11, 75.
ing or unity; one in the source or hierophany, n. a manifestation of the
principle that explains plurality. divine or sacred. See REVELATION;
Hence, it differs from a monistic SYMBOL.
explanation of plurality by some unity historicism, n. 1. a philosophy of
of substance or substratum of all history or a philosophising about his­
things. The term names the proof of tory's meanings, patterns, and ulti­
God's existence and unity from par­ mate trends. 2. a form of evolution­
ticipated grades of being. ism that believes evolution takes
heresy, n. 1. a religious belief opposed place in every material and spiritual
to a doctrine formally declared true reality: hence, also in knowledge,
by a church. An heretical opinion morality, society, law, and religion;
usually implies that it has been it rejects, therefore, everything per­
specifically and officially denounced manent and absolute. One of its
as false to the true faith. 2. loosely. mottoes is: "Man is his history."
any opinion regarded as untrue or history, n. a systematic study of the
fundamentally wrong because opposed records and relics of the human past,
to an accepted or traditional doctrine that tries to present the facts and
within a certain school of thought, their relationships at the level of
circle, or political party. natural causes.
heteronomous, adj. dependent mor­ history of philosophy, the sys­
ally or legally; subject to the govern­ tematic analysis of the origins,
ment or law of another. The term growth, contributions, influences, like­
describes today the ethical view that nesses, differences, successes, strug­
man is subject to a moral law made gles, and faults of the thinking of
and imposed on him by God. philosophers. The biography of the
ANT. - autonomous morality: man philosophers is incidental material;
freely imposing the law on himself their thought is the subject matter of
(I. Kant). Heteronomous is not to be this branch. At its best, the history
confused with heteronymous, which of philosophy goes beyond a record­
refers to differences in names, spell­ ing of the philosophers' views and
ing, meanings, etc. their meaning by striving to evaluate
heuristic, adj. helping to discover or the permanent truth of their findings
to learn, esp. by one's own efforts. and their progress over their prede­
See ANALYSIS. cessors and contemporaries.
hierarchy, n. 1. lit., "holy authority"; history of religions, the record
holy leadership. 2. hence, the degrees of religious beliefs, rites, cultural
of spiritual authority. 3. an ordered practices, movements, and influences.
arrangement of beings, perfections, This record is usually supplemented
offices, or operations of different de­ by efforts to understand the original
grees: as, the hierarchy of the kinds meaning of some rites and by com­
of life, namely, vegetative, sentient, parisons with other religions. This
rational, angelic, and divine. 4. one branch of study contributes factual
hoc aliquid 125 hope

data and suggestions for several phil­ beatitude; man the wayfarer: distin­
osophical topics. guished from homo comprehensor,
natural history, an old term for the beatified man who has reached
the scientific or popular study of God. 2. Gabriel Marcel. man regarded
nature or one of its fields: as, geol­ as a being-in-process.
ogy, plant life, etc.: distinguished *honestas, n., Lat. I. moral honor­
from natural philosophy and from ableness. 2. moral beauty. 3. the
human history. quasi-integral virtue related to tem­
philosophy of history, an inquiry perance whereby a person has the
into the ultimate meaning of human habitual sense of propriety under
life in society as it is historically varying circumstances.
revealed in its changes, progress, ca­ honesty, n. the virtue or group of
tastrophes, cycles, and trends. A virtues associated with one's honor.
theist's philosophy of history must This group positively includes truth­
take into account God's provident fulness, sincerity, fairness, and fidel­
government over man directing tem­ ity; negatively, it requires freedom
poral events to a divine purpose, and from lying, cheating, stealing, deceit,
God's infinite liberty that always and flattery.
leaves some mystery and superna­ intellectual honesty, the disposi­
tural possibilities in God's dealings tion or virtue that respects evidence
with man. By contrast Hegel's phi­ and is willing to be convinced by it,
losophy of history is deterministic; that does not conceal or ignore evi­
Marx's is an economic determinism. dence, and that is unbiased in look­
St. Augustine's City of God is rather ing for and appraising objective evi­
a theology of history centering on the dence.
Incarnation and Redemption and re­ honor, n. 1. reverence or high respect
vealing God's judgment on polythe­ given, received, or enjoyed; glory.
ism and persecution. See RELIGION. 2. an act, award, or
*hoc aliquid, Lat. phrase. this sub­ other sign of respect. 3. good reputa­
stance; a singular substantial thing. tion, esp. for moral conduct: as, on
holy, adj. 1. sacred to God; belonging my honor. 4. faithful adherence to
to God as His own; set aside for moral principles.
God's use or religious use. 2. united relative honor, honor paid because
to God, esp. to the divine will. This of the connection of some object with
is probably the main sense. 3. fre­ a person to be honored: as, relative
quent modern use. the inscrutable; honor is paid to a photograph of one's
the transcendent; the untouchable. parents.
The All-holy, The Holy One, ABBR.-h.
names for God. REF. -S.T., I-II, 2, a. 2; III, 25.
homo, n. (pl. homines). I. man (as hope, n. I. as a passion or emotion.
a species; a universal). 2. (H-) the the feeling of the irascible appetite
biological genus that includes modern that expects to obtain an absent or
man (Homo sapiens) and extinct future good even though it is diffi­
species. cult to get. 2. as a theological virtue.
Homo sapiens, the scientific bi­ the habit or act of deliberately ex­
ological binomial name for man. pecting to attain with divine help a
homonym, n. a word with the same future good related to man's supreme
pronunciation as another but with a good; the confidence of receiving
different meaning, origin, and often a from God both Himself as man's
different spelling: as, dear and deer. beatitude and reward and the means
As equivocal terms, homonyms are man needs to attain God in the
of some interest to logic. future. 3. as a natural virtue: (a) an
*homo viator, phrase. I. man in this act of the virtue of religion: ex­
life, destined for and striving for pecting to obtain God's help to do
human 126 humanism

God's will and achieve beatitude; ( b) completely) considered; rational

as a potential virtue allied to cour­ nature adequately· taken, the whole
age: habitual expectation of overcom­ constitution of man, including soul
ing difficulties in pursuit of the good, and body, all powers and integral
either by one's own efforts or with parts, and the essential internal order
the help of others. among these powers and parts, as well
human, adj. I. belonging to or con­ as all essential human relationships to
cerning man as such. 2. characteristic other beings, namely, to God, fellow­
of human persons either according to men, and material things. This con­
their complete humanity or accord­ cept regards man as a composite unit
ing to the special traits that distin­ in a real universe. Some extend the
guish men from nonrational animals. concept to include the actual his­
3. proceeding from man as rational or torical order as permanently affecting
as rational and free. the conditions in which man lives.
human by essence, belonging to Complete human nature includes the
man's specific form or to the spiritual dignity of personhood but not in­
side of his nature. dividual human differences.
human by participation, sharing human nature specifically con­
in the dignity of man because of its sidered, the rational side of man
union with the spiritual side of man's as man by which he is distinguished
nature, e.g., acts of sensation, ges­ in species from other animals.
tures, erect posture, etc. human nature in its abstract
human act, phrase. an act proceed­ (pure) state, the constitution and
ing from deliberate reason and free status of man, abstracting from his
will; an act performed freely by the historical condition as originally
will guided by the intellect knowing raised to a supernatural life (integral
the end to which the act is directed. human nature before the Fall), as
Note that two powers of man are wounded by sin (fallen or lapsed
involved in this human act. Compare human nature), and as restored to
act of MAN. The object of such an grace by a divine Redeemer (re­
act is often referred to as the volun­ deemed, newly graced human na­
tary, q.v. ture). This purely natural man never
commanded (imperated) act, existed historically, for nature al­
the act of some human power or ways was either better than itself
organ dependent on the will and di­ or weaker than itself. But it is pres­
rected by the act of command to the ent in and assimilated to the re­
will's end. deemed man; hence, pure nature is
elicited human act, the act in real as an aspect of actual human na­
the will itself rather than in powers ture, though it is not the whole truth
subject to the will; the deliberate about human nature's end, constitu­
choice, consent, or intention. tion, powers, etc. in an historical
imperfect human act, one whose sense. The detailed notion of pure
freedom is weakened by preceding or mere nature varies widely as
factors such as insufficient knowledge philosophers conceive different situa­
or hasty deliberation, emotional pres­ tions of man without the modifica­
sures, subconcious memories, habits, tions of habit, civilization, educa­
etc. tion, his own guilt, divine grace,
perfect human act, one performed etc. In the Romantic philosophers,
with full (sufficient) deliberation and pure nature tends to mean unspoiled,
choice. happy, primitive man. See STATE, di­
human nature, phrase. man's es­ visions of sense 3.
sence considered as a principle of philosophy of human nature, see
man's operations. philosophy of MAN.
human nature fully (adequately; humanism, n. I. any fairly complete
 DIVISIONS OF ACTS OF MAN AND OF HUMAN ACTS
I. Nonvoluntary
physical
biochemical
vegetative

sensory
{ .

sensations
{ external
. ternal
m

emotions (sensory passions)

{
muscular
motions
abstractions by agent intellect
spiritual purely intellectual acts (unwilled)
intellectual acts commanded by will, e.g., faith

II. Voluntary tending to the perfect good

loving the perfect good when perfectly known
recoiling from evil known simply as evil
first act in any series of voluntary acts (simple complacency or
i ntention)
necessary acceptance of means in general to an intended end
acceptance of unique means to an already intended end

{
any fully indeliberate (spontaneous) act of will (e.g., aesthetic
joy in great beauty)
sentiments accompanying emotional or free acts
commanded by a prior act of will
a) absolute or primary (not free)
relative
1. intention
b) actual
virtual
habitual
interpreted
choice (election; selection)
consent
command ( ?) (perhaps always intellectual)
use
enjoyment
2. internal (elicited)
commanded (imperate; imperated by intellect or will)
3. fully deliberate (perfect)
partially deliberate (imperfect)
(fully indeliberate under necessary, above)
4. simple (absolute)
conditional (qualified; partially involuntary)
human (free; 5. explicit (said chiefly of intention and authorization)
volitional) implicit
6. valid
invalid (void)
voidable
7. licit

{
{-
illicit
actually
8. good (virtuous)
habitually
a) seriously (gravely)
lightly (venially)
bad (sinful) b) in act itself

{
in intention
in circumstances
indifferent ( ? )
a) condignly
congruously
9. meritorious
b) naturally
supernaturally
blameworthy (demeritorious)
III. Involuntary
(against one's will)
hylemorphism 128 hysteron proteron

theory of the nature, dignity, ideals, things are in some degree alive;
destiny, and worthy treatment of animism (sense 2).
man. 2. any way of acting for what hypostasis, n. a suppositum; subsis­
one regards as true human welfare tent being. Some theological litera­
or perfection. Some of the various ture restricts the term to a person,
types of humanism are named atheis­ excluding nonrational hypostases. Part
tic, Christian, eschatological, incar­ of the turmoil in Trinitarian disputes
national, Marxist, personalist, scien­ arose from the fluctuating meanings
tific, socialistic, and supernatural. of this term.
*hyle, n. transliteration from the hypostatic union, see personal
Greek: matter; esp. formless matter. UNION.
hylemorphism (hylomorphism), n. hypothesis, n. 1. a conditional or
1. lit., "the matter-form" theory; the tentative explanation of observed
Aristotelian theory that every natural facts and their connections with each
body is constituted in its substance other, open to further verification and
by prime matter and a definite form. suggestive of further experiment. 2.
2. fully developed theory. The theory the foundation or supposition upon
that every natural body is composed which an argument is built. 3. the
of two substantial principles, called presumed cause or explanation of a
prime matter and substantial form, given or experimentally induced ef­
related to each other as potential fect. 4. an assumption. This may be,
and actual principles in the order of e.g., a mathematical position com­
essence. The matter explains the fact monly accepted without further in­
that many individuals exist in this quiry or a premise still needing
species; the form puts the being in justification by reduction, evident
its species. The Thomistic variant premises, refinement, or proof of its
of the theory holds that each natural error.
body can have only one actual sub­ hypothesis absurdi, the use of an
stantial form. See VITALISM. The absurd proposition or condition,
theory is extended, with a little modi­ either to illustrate consequences of
fication, to the union of matter and extreme positions or to ridicule the
spiritual soul constituting a single opposition that seems to be holding
human organism. such a proposition.
hylesystematism, n. a theory that unique hypothesis, see uniquely
natural bodies are composed of mat­ PROBABLE.
ABBR.-hyp.
ter (which need not be prime mat­
hysteron proteron, noun phrase, lit.
ter) and an actual plurality of forms,
the latter (before) the former. 1. a
subordinated to and unified by a high­
name for the fallacy of begging the
est form. question. See QUESTION. 2. popularly.
hylozoism, n. the opinion of some the situation of reversed relations;
philosophers and evolutionists that all "the cart before the horse."
 I
I, pronoun. the person speaking or as, the idea of the state; the idea of
writing; the conscious person. See liberty; his ideas on religion.
EGO; SELF; SUBJECTIVITY. Idea may mean many different
I-it relation, the subject-to-object things to modern philosophers though
relation, i.e., an impersonal, scientific, all meanings have some connection
objective relation of a person to a with knowledge. In idealists, it means
natural body, thing, or person. that which is immediately perceived
I-thou relation, the person-to-per­ and which is the medium in which the
son or intersubjective relations of object is indirectly known; or, ab­
knowledge, regard, love, and sharing solute Truth (the absolute Idea) in
between individual persons. This is Hegel (1770-1831); an a priori idea
extended to a relation of the person in Kant; in sensist thinkers, a mere
to a personal God : known as the image.
I- Thou relation. divine ideas: ( 1) the exemplary
id, n. lit., "it" or "the it." In Freudian forms known by God according to
analysis of man. that part, aspect, which He intelligently creates. (2)
or function of the psyche that is re­ the things that God knows other than
garded as the reservoir of the libido Himself; the objects (terms) of the
and the source of instinctive energy; divine intelligence (other than God
the nonrational and even antirational Himself), usually considered in their
id is dominated by the pleasure prin­ precreated state of mere possibility.
ciple and impulsive wishing; the im­ There are many scholastic disputes
pulses are controlled by the develop­ about these ideas, their presence
ment of the ego and the superego. inside or outside God, their kind of
Coordination of this conception with reality, etc. See A. Maurer, C.S.B.,
the nonrational psychic powers of History of Medieval Philosophy, pp.
man and with the psychic effects of 11, 13 ff., 40, 145 f., 173 (St. Thomas:
original sin remains a problem. rightly interpreted?), 231, 275.
idea, n. 1. original, Platonic sense. origin of ideas, the philosophical
a pure form or archetype of its imi­ problem of the source of man's first
tations in natures, existing apart from concepts. Are they innate or acquired;
these copies. This is the Platonic spe­ learned through sensory experience
cies, eidos, and the "ideai." It seems and abstraction, given by divine illu­
to be a real universe. 2. strictest scho­ mination; derived internally from the
lastic sense. the exemplary form or operation of immanent a priori forms,
mental type that the agent deliber­ or known by a separate agent intel­
ately imitates in making something; lect?
the mental model to be copied in the ideal, n. 1. a conception of something
product. See EXEMPLAR. 3. hence, a in its perfect form. 2. a person or
plan; scheme of something to be thing regarded as a perfect model.
made or done. 4. species of a thing 3. a standard or criterion of excel­
known; concept; a thought. See di­ lence; archetype. 4. a goal of excel­
visions under CONCEPT. 5. loose sense. lence to be reached. 5. something
frequent today. any act of knowledge, existing only in the mind. See BEING
even of sensory perception; image; of the mind.
judgment. In the plural: opinions, be­ idealism, n. any of the theories of
liefs, germinal truths, judgments, knowledge that hold some variation
topics of reflection, interest or debate: of the principle of immanence:

129
ideate 130 ideology

namely, that what the mind directly the transcendentals and the identity
knows is the idea of a thing, not of the divine perfections. (2) objec­
the thing itself. Leading idealists in­ tive identity in an affirmative prop­
clude Parmenides (c. 515-450? B.c. ) osition.
among the Greeks; Descartes, first material identity, the union of
of the modems; Berkeley (1685- two or more different perfections in
1753) (acosmic idealism); Kant the same subject.
(1724-1804) (critical idealism or a moral identity, the sameness of a
semi-idealism because the senses society in continuity of purpose,
reach the sensible phenomena di­ mode of government, territory, etc.
rectly) ; Hegel (1770-1831) (absolute over a period of time even though
idealism; pantheistic); Fichte (1762- they are many changes of its mem­
1814); Croce (1866-1952); Royce bers by death, birth, immigration,
(1855-1916). etc.
objective idealism, Plato's con­ objective identity, unity of pres­
ception of changeless, perfect objects ence in the same object, though one
as unique forms or ideas. See EIDOS. is not ontologically the same as the
ideate, v.t. and i. to form an idea or other: as, substance and its attrib­
image (of); conceive. utes together form one object. This
ideate, n. the external object that cor­ is the identity asserted in an affirma­
responds to an idea. Scholastic usage tive attributive proposition.
prefers object, formal object, or personal identity, the persistent
ratio. substantial sameness of the person,
*idem per idem, Lat phrase. lit., the conscious ego, or the soul despite
"the same by means of the same." other changes inside and outside the
The phrase describes: (a) a faulty organism. See SELF-IDENTITY, sense 2.
definition that explains a word by physical identity: (1) sameness of
itself or ( b) a circle in reasoning. substance, constitution, or member­
identity, n. sameness in some respect. ship. (2) sameness of appearance,
See chart on UNIT and divisions of features, or various accidents while
likeness. other accidental changes have oc­
absolute identity, total sameness curred.
of a thing with no change or differ­ specific (formal) identity: ( 1)
ence: as, God before and after the sameness in specific nature or es­
origin of creatures. sence among individuals of a species.
existential identity, the continu­ (2) sameness of its essential nature
ing existence of the same being, self, while the individual undergoes other
or soul. changes in individual characteristics.
intentional identity, sameness or ideogenesis, n. the process of form­
correspondence of the form in the ing ideas or receiving species, esp.
concept with the form in the thing of the primitive ideas that start in­
known. tellectual life.
logical identity, sameness or equal­ ideology, n. 1. the study of the na­
ity of the terms of a logical rela­ ture and source of ideas: a subfield
tionship. within the philosophy of man or the
materially identical, formally theory of knowledge. 2. the doctrines,
different: (1) the same in fact or opinions, system, set of attitudes, or
in the being, but not thought of un­ manner of thinking that characterize
der the same aspect or with the same an individual, class, or party: as, the
distinctness; objectively the same but communist ideology. 3. (usually in
different in the formal object or a condemnatory sense) a set of ideas
definition (ratio) known in distinct (principles) about human life meant
mental acts about the same object. to be used as an instrument for
Leading instances are the identity of practical, cultural, or political ends,
ideomotor 131 ignorance

without much concern for their what he knows or is inattentive, hyp­

grounding in fact, their rationality, notized, drugged, or incapable of us­
their objective truth and worth, or ing his knowledge. 4. involuntary and
their justice to all men. Ideologies inculpable error.
tend to be visionary, antiphilosophi­ affected ignorance, voluntary and
cal, emotional, nonrational, pragmatic, insincere ignorance; deliberate igno­
closed, full of prejudices and propa­ rance, usually kept up from the mo­
ganda: as, Marxism, extreme evolu­ tive of not being impeded in in­
tionism, racism are ideologies. dulging one's desires and violating
REF. - H. V. Aiken, The Age of law; malicious ignorance in one who
Ideology; W. 0. Martin, Metaphysics is conscious that he has insufficient
and Ideology. knowledge to act in a given matter
ideomotor, ad;. of the spontaneous and yet directly wills to remain in
or unconscious movements of muscles ignorance.
in response to an image. antecedent ignorance, ignorance
idol , n. logic. a fallacy. The name preceding and causing the act of the
is taken from the suggestion of a will inasmuch as the act of will (prob­
false god, accepted out of blindness ably) would not have been performed
to, or prejudiced fear of, the truth. had there been prior knowledge of
Francis Bacon's (1561-1626) famous law or of fact.
idols are: idol of the tribe (false concomitant ignorance, ignorance
(cause); idol of the theater (appeal attendant on the act of the will but
to irrelevant authority); idol of the not influencing it.
forum (appeal to public opinion); consequent ignorance, ignorance
and idol of the cave (appeal to in­ that follows an act of the will be­
dividual prejudices). cause one did not wish to know or
*id quod est, Lat. phrase. 1. lit., to take the (ordinary) means to find
that which is. 2. different meanings out; hence, voluntary ignorance.
in different scholastic writers: (a) crass (supine) ignorance, igno­
the essence; the subject of, or co­ rance in one who ought to know
principle with, the act of existing because of his office, profession, or
( b) the supposit. (c) what has or special need of some particular
may have being. knowledge but who carelessly or in­
*id quo est, Lat. phrase. 1. lit., "that differently uses almost no means to
whereby a thing is." 2. the act of obtain the necessary knowledge.
existing. The term stresses existence culpable ignorance, lack of
(est) in contrast to the id quod of knowledge of something one can
the previous phrase; and it indicates know and has a moral obligation
by quo that there may be some dif­ to know. This may be directly willed
ference, at least mental or accidental, (as in affected ignorance) or indi­
from essence in a real finite being. rectly willed (as in crass ignorance
3. form as the act of matter. when one does not will ignorance but
REF.
- A. Maurer, C.S.B., tr. and avoids effort).
ed., St. Thomas' On Being and Es­ ignorance of fact, lack of knowl­
sense, p. 48 note, on views of different edge of a contingent event, circum­
scholastics on id quod est and id stance, person, etc. or simple failure
quo est. to remember a known fact at a time
ignorance, n. 1. a lack of knowledge when knowledge would have affected
(information, etc.) in one who is choice or action.
capable of knowing; nescience. 2. ignorance of law, lack of knowl­
proper sense. a lack of knowledge in edge of the existence, meaning, or
one who ought to know the particular present applicability of a precept of
matter. 3. a lack of knowledge in one law.
who at the moment has forgotten invincible ignorance, an unavoid-
illation 132 imagination

able Jack of knowledge that cannot be sense. the activity of the agent in­
removed in the given circumstances: tellect "lighting up" the essence of a
distinguished from vincible ignorance sensible thing so that it becomes
that can be mastered by normal care, intelligible by the possible intellect.
inquiry, and use of the means avail­ The Thomistic-Augustinian difference
able to the ordinary prudent person. on the source of moral and spiritual
learned ignorance, (1) docta ig­ knowledge concerns the cause of the
norantia, q.v. (2) the awareness by illumination. 5. a truth made known
the learned of their lack of knowl­ or clarified by an illuminating act.
edge. 6. theology. a grace to the intelli­
*argumentum ad ignorantiam, gence, aiding belief in, understand­
the argument based on ignorance. The ing, judgment, or even vision of su­
three forms of this fallacy seems to pernatural matters or, occasionally, of
be: ( 1) claiming that what cannot natural matters that bear on man's
be disproved is proved or true. ( 2) supernatural destiny.
confusing the unproved with the dis­ illusion, n. 1. a false image, concept,
proved. ( 3) believing that silence belief, or opinion that misinterprets
gives consent without other evidence what one is experiencing. Delusion
for the reason of silence or the goes beyond illusion by perceiving
necessity of comment. something not present or by perma­
*ignoratio elenchi, Lat. phrase, nently holding to the unreal. 2. onto­
ignoring the issue; missing the point. logical falsity; an appearance or
ignoring the issue, phrase, a image that misleads.
fallacy in which one establishes some image, n. 1. a representation or like­
conclusion other than the precise one ness of another, esp. if vivid or
to be proved. One may fall into it closely resembling the original. 2.
by failing to define terms and issues a likeness of another that is caused
in controversy; proving too much; by that other and is specifically like
ignoring the co�rectives required in some characteristic of the cause (e.g.,
analogical predication; attributing to its being, nature, operations, appear­
an opponent what he has not claimed ance) : distinguished from trace or
or meant or what is not implied in vestige. 3. the sensitive impression of
his position; evading the point to be an object in one of the internal
refuted. The red herring diverts at­ senses; esp. a sensory likeness of a
tention by presenting a statement, sensible object in the imagination
argument, difficulty, joke, remedy, and known as a phantasm. 4. an
etc. that is aside from the issue. expressed sensible species in any of
illation, n. 1. the act of drawing a the senses, external or internal,
conclusion or inference. 2. the con­ whether this species be present, past
clusion drawn; the inference made. (retained), or now recalled. Scholas­
illumination, n. ( nominally: giving ticism seldom uses image for concept,
light; causing the effects of light. which is purely intellectual and spirit­
See LIGHT.) 1. a manifesting of truth; ual. Moreover, a general or schematic
mental, moral, or supernatural in­ image, one, for instance, that would
struction or revelation. 2. a strength­ identify any automobile, must not
ening of the intellect to know some­ be confused with a universal concept.
thing; giving a power of intellectual imagination, n. 1. the internal sense
insight or even vision. 3. Augustinian that knows absent sensible things but
sense. the function of the divine does not know them as absent from
light (God's intellect acting on man's) the sense. Sensory memory is one
within a human intellect making new of the functions of imagination. The
knowledge, esp. of immaterial things function of recalling or repeating pre­
and of divine truths, possible to a vious sense impressions is named re­
rational creature. 4. main Thomistic productive imagination. Identification
imitation 133 immaterial

of the sensible things as absent is a characteristic of all living beings that

function of the central sense or of they act in and for themselves. 2.
the intellect. 2. the power of forming in idealism. the supposed fact that
new mental images of what is not the object immediately known is in
actually present to the knower by the knower and that this is a medium
generalizing, dividing, and combining quad leading to the knowledge of the
images acquired by any external external object. This principle of im­
sense. This is spoken of as creative manence is insisted on chiefly in in­
imagination. In man, it is guided by tellectual knowledge. The immanent­
intelligence. 3. an act of the imagi­ ist method of knowing must begin
nation. 4. the image received, formed, with beings as already present in the
retained, recalled, or constructed by knowing subject.
the imagination. immanent, adj. 1. present in and
imitation, n. 1. the act or process operative within; indwelling: as, God
of making a likeness of another by is immanent in all things by His
reproducing its form in another kind power, knowledge, and authority. 2.
of potency, matter, or medium. 2. living; originating in and remaining
the deliberate attempt to make one­ within the agent as a perfection of
self like another in conduct, appear­ the agent; describing an activity per­
ance, way of thinking, etc.; following formed by an agent in itself and
another's example. 3. activity that primarily for its own good. 3. pan­
tends to make the agent more like theistic sense. present in the universe
its cause; assimilation: as, all things and operating in it as a real part
tending to the good imitate God. of it or as its form or as the whole
4. taking the role of another, as in universe. ANT. - transcendence. 4. in
a play. 5. the product that is like idealism. present within the knower
another; copy; reproduction; image. as immediate object of (intellectual)
6. a substitute for the original; an knowledge.
inferior substitute; counterfeit. See immaterial, adj. not having matter
FALSE. or the properties of matter; in some
immanence (immanency), n. 1. the way free from matter.

SENSES OF THE IMMATERIAL

I. The noncorporeal (e.g., substantial form as the act of matter)

{
2. The negatively immaterial (immaterial by abstraction of the mind from matter and
represented without matter and material limitations: e.g., good as a quality of
animals)
( power of sensing (which is im-

r partially without matter,

but intrinsically
pendent on matter for
de­
material) needs sensory organ
(material) (e.g., sight)
act of sensing (not restricted to
operation its own form as a merely ma­
terial thing is) (e.g., seeing
3. Beings or forms a flower)
that naturally
are without
matter
r only intrinsically independent of
matter (e.g., human soul, in­
tellect, will, many human
wholly without matter; i spiritual acts)
hence, positively imma­
terial or spiritual intrinsically and extrinsically in­

i
l
I
L
dependent of matter (e.g.,
God's being, angels and their
acts)
immeasurable 134 immutable

negatively immaterial, not hav­ of vastness or almost limitless ex­

ing matter in its abstract state, as it tent; immeasurability. 2. an absolute
is considered by the mind, though attribute of God by reason of which
concretely it may have matter: as, He cannot be limited to, confined in,
being may be sensible being. or measured by any body or bodies
partially immaterial, free from or by their boundaries. A few writers
the limitations and exclusiveness identify immensity with omnipres­
(self-containment) of matter in some ence, a relative attribute that de­
principle or characteristic of its com­ pends on intelligent creation by the
posite being: as, sensory knowledge immense Being.
is unlike matter because it can grasp immortal, adj. 1. deathless; undying;
the sensible forms of other things, free from the potency to decay and
but it is like matter in needing a disintegrate. 2. subsistent forever in
material organ to sense and in being the future; able to live forever in
limited to sensing material phe­ the future because intrinsically inde­
nomena. pendent of the perishable.
positively and wholly immate­ gratuitous immortality, ability to
rial, intrinsically independent of mat­ live forever because of a special di­
ter in its being and in all, or at least vine gift but not because of a natural
some, activities. See DEPENDENT and characteristic of an essence.
INDEPENDENT. natural immortality, the capacity
immeasurable, adj. that cannot be of a spiritual, simple being or form
measured; immense. to live forever in the future because
immediate, adj. 1. in general. with­ by its essence it has no material
out a medium coming between one parts into which to break down and
and another. The medium might be no intrinsic dependence on the matter
a body, an interval of time, a num­ with which it may now be joined.
ber, a cause, a delegated agent, an personal immortality, the capac­
instrument, a book, a mode of union, ity of the individual human being's
an image, proposition, etc. Since soul to survive forever after its crea­
media are various, the meanings of tion. Personal immortality of the in­
immediate are multiple. 2. in direct dividual human body before original
contact; closest; nearest; adjacent; sin and after the general resurrection
alongside. 3. not separated in time; is gratuitous immortality.
instant. 4. next in order or sequence. racial immortality, the capacity
5. intimate. 6. directly related to or of the human race or other species
connected with. 7. directly and by its of organisms to live indefinitely in
own action influencing another: as, their future descendants but not in
the immediate cause. 8. conscious of their own individual being.
(some object) without any interven­ immunity, n. 1. freedom from or pro­
ing object or property or without tection from something. 2. freedom
some other act, species, etc., which of the will from antecedent neces­
helps one to know another being, sity to do or not to do, to do good
event, or truth: as, immediate aware­ or evil, to do this or that. 3. freedom
ness of myself reading; immediate of the person from interference when
awareness of the color of this print. he justly exercises his right. 4. ex­
9. grasped intuitively by a cognitive emption of man in the state of
power; not known by means of rea­ original justice from the need to
soning or testimony; experienced or suffer and die.
directly seen and judged: as, im­ immutable, adj. 1. unchangeable. 2.
mediate judgment. 10. reported by never changing; unvarying; ever the
one who has first-hand knowledge same.
of it. absolutely immutable, unchange­
immensity, n. 1. the fact or quality able under any conditions, influences,
impart 135 imperium

or changes that may occur in other imperative, n. a command; obliga­

beings. tion.
intrinsically immutable, not categorical imperative, an abso­
changeable from within in its own lute command or prohibition of law,
nature. binding all men in like conditions
extrinsically immutable, not and allowing no excuse or exception.
changeable because of changes in The phrase is used originally and
things outside itself, such as new mainly in Kantian ethical theory; by
things to be done or known or made others, as an expression of the uni­
or new influences from its cause. versality and immutability of natural­
impart, v.t. 1. see COMMUNICATE and law precepts. Scholastics prefer the
PARTICIPATE, transitive senses. 2. in­ term, absolute obligation.
fuse. ABBR. -imp.; imper.; impv.
impediment, n. 1. anything that im­ imperfect, adj. 1. not finished; not
pedes, blocks, stops, etc. 2. specifi­ perfect; not fully actual according
cally. a moral or legal obstacle that to its nature; incomplete in some
prevents the validity or licitness of way; somewhat unfulfilled; not fully
some act or of some effects of an possessing its own end. See PERFECT.
act: as, the impediment to marriage 2. still growing. 3. not whole. 4.
arising from a previous, still standing having some unactualized potency. 5.
valid marriage. having a defect, blemish, fault, flaw,
diriment impediment, a previous or error; lacking something that it
act, condition, external circumstance, should have; hence, evil. See EVIL.
defect, lack of authorization, etc. act of the imperfect, see ACT.
that makes an attempted act, esp. a ABBR. -imp.; impf.; imperf.
contractual one, null and void of imperfection, n. 1. any incomplete
effect. Sometimes a nullifying condi­ being; a mixed perfection or mixed
tion is different from a diriment im­ act. 2. any inadequacy, immaturity,
pediment since the genuine act does defect, privation, etc. that marks a
not even occur. thing, nature, act, etc. as wanting
impedient (prohibiting) impedi­ in its full actuality or complete
ment, a previous act, condition, ex­ proper goodness.
ternal circumstance, defect, impro­ imperfections of the human act,
priety, lack of authorization, etc. that any factor that modifies the full or
makes an attempted act immoral or deliberate freedom of the human act:
illegal but not invalid and auto­ as, ignorance, spontaneous intense
matically null. feeling, habit. etc.
natural impediment, one arising negative imperfection, a non­
from the natural law, the nature of voluntary lack of some virtue, degree
man, or the natural order of things of virtue, or detail of virtuous per­
in which man exists. formance.
positive impediment, one arising positive imperfection: ( 1) a
from some just positive law to which chosen less perfect act or state
one is subject. though the more perfect was prac­
impenetrable, adj. describing or hav­ tically possible, even though not obli­
ing that property of quantified mat­ gatory; free refusal to do the better
ter that prevents two or more bodies counseled thing. (2) a cultivated or
from occupying the same place at the voluntary privation of the counseled
same time. good.
imperate (imperated), adj. com­ imperium, n. 1. the act of command.
manded or directed by another power: See COMMAND. 2. supreme power. 3.
as, the muscular act of shaking hands sovereign temporal power: distin­
is an imperate act of the mind and guished from sacerdotium, spiritual
will. power. 4. full legal supremacy shown
impetus 136 impression

in the right of a state to use force impose, v.t. I. to place a duty, bur­
to compel obedience to its laws. den, or penalty on somebody. 2. to
impetus, n. I. the force within a body confer a title or a name of honor.
with which it moves against resist­ 3. to give a name to. 4. to put a
ance. 2. anything that starts activity; meaning on a term; give an arbitrary
impulse; hence, either an efficient meaning or definition to some term
cause or a motive. or concept by way of explaining or
implication, n. I. the act or fact of testing one's position; invent a new
containing, involving, or suggesting term. 5. to transfer a name from
as a necessary part, condition, cor­ one object or concept to another
relative, effect, or logical conse­ analogous to it or in some way as­
quence of. 2. something implied in sociated with the object or concept
a statement, from which an infer­ previously known and named. See
ence may be drawn. 3. the infer­ ANALOGY.
ence show to be logically involved in impossible, adj. that which cannot
or necessarily following from another be; that which must not-be.
fact, nature, statement, etc. 4. the absolutely (metaphysically) im­
logical relationship of propositions possible, that which can never be
considered in themselves. under any conditions because it is
formal implication, the relation intrinsically contradictory in being.
of validity or consistency between relatively impossible, what is ab­
propositions. solutely possible but cannot be or be
material implication: ( 1) the done or be true under the given
truth of the content of what is im­ limiting circumstances. (a) The
plied in or inferred from a proposi­ morally impossible can be done by a
tion. (2) the operation by which one moral agent but rarely, if ever, is
combines two propositions by using done because of the great difficulties
the connective "if . . . , then ..." involved and a lack of motivation
Medieval logicians used the term, to lead a free cause to use his power
material consequence, for the mod­ to overcome these difficulties: as, a
em term material implication. sufficient natural knowledge of God
implicit, adj. I. suggested or to be is morally impossible to most men.
understood though not plainly ex­ ( b) The physically impossible is not
pressed. ANT. - explicit. 2. logically contradictory but lacks an immediate
or naturally included, involved, or physical cause to make it become
contained within, though not immedi­ actual. (c) The impossibility of the
ately evident or formally expressed; simultaneous verification of two op­
hidden within, but essentially present posites, each of which is individually
or emanating from. 3. undoubting; possible, bears no special name.
unquestioning; unqualified. 4. virtu­ REF.-S.T., I, 25, a. 3; Power of
ally existent in another or in an God, q. 5, a. 3.
earlier stage and needing only to be impotency (impotence) n., incapac­
developed: as, the blossom is implicit ity.
in the root. 5. something undeter­ imprescriptible, adj. 1. describing a
mined to which some addition must right or just object of a right that
give determination: as, the species is not subject to legal prescription.
are implicit in the genus. 2. that cannot be justly taken away,
implicitation, n. a mental act or annulled, or lost; inviolable.
method that keeps something im­ impression, n. I. a mental likeness.
plicit: as, the concept of any trans­ The analogy is that the thing known
cendental keeps the differences be­ makes its mark on the previously
tween its inferiors implicit. See AB­ blank but receptive intellect. See
STRACTION without prescission. impressed SPECIES. 2. an act of illumi­
ANT. - explicitation. nating the intellect: as, the im-
improper 137 inconceivable

pression of the natural law on every in a body as its form: as, the soul
human intellect. (or the ego) is incarnate. 3. having
improper, adj. unfitting; not suit­ human nature; being human by as­
able for the person, circumstances, or sumption of the whole of a human
purpose. Applications are to truth, nature. This meaning is usually re­
logic, meaning; morality, modesty; served for the incarnate Son of God.
and taste. Compare meanings 2-7 of incidental, adj. 1. happening or likely
PROPER. to happen in connection with some­
impulse, n. I. an incitement to ac­ thing more important or as a result
tion in an animal or man ansmg of something else; secondary but as­
from an internal state or an external sociated; minor and attendant. See
stimulus. 2. a sudden, indeliberate in­ INDIRECT. 2. casual; accidental; pres­
clination to act. 3. a stimulus carried ent and accompanying something else,
in a muscle or nerve, causing or in­ but not intended or desired.
hibiting action in the body. 4. im­ inclination, n. 1. a bending, leaning,
petus. or habitual tending toward some ob­
imputability, n. the moral condition, ject. 2. a special mental disposi­
quality, or state of being charge­ tion or bias. 3. a liking or preference;
able for an act or its effects. Im­ elicited appetency. 4. the attractive
putability is said more of the act object, action, practice, etc. toward
than of the person; more commonly which one is inclined.
of blameworthy or discreditable acts knowledge by inclination, con­
than of praiseworthy ones. natural knowledge.
*in actu, Lat. phrase. in act; in the natural inclination, a tending to
state of actuality. See *AcTu; *ENS or relation to a proper object (end;
IN ACTU. good) arising from a being's nature
*in alio, Lat. phrase. in another; or natural appetites, without delibera­
inhering in another being. It occurs tion; spontaneous and regular appe­
in naming an accident an ens in tency of a power for its proper object.
alio. incommunicability, n. the uniqueness
inalienable, adj. that cannot lawfully of some being, perfection, etc.; the
be transferred to another or justly incapacity of a being or perfection
taken away except by just public to be shared in by others than the
punishment for proved crime: as, one possessing it; the ontological
inalienable right to life. (not social) aloneness of a person or
incapacity, n. 1. lack of active power, thing. See INDIVIDUALITY; PERSONAL­
ability, fitness, etc. to act; ineffective­ ITY.
ness; helplessness. The ability re­ incomplete, adj. imperfect, senses 1
ferred to may or may not be one and J.
due to a given nature. 2. lack of incomprehensible, adj. 1. that can­
potency to be acted on; indisposition not be understood (because contra­
to be changed or to be changed in dictory, incompatible, etc.) 2. that
a particular way. 3. a natural perma­ cannot be discovered or apprehended
nent limitation in a nature; a com­ by a finite mind by its own power;
paratively weak power: as, low re­ mysterious. 3. that cannot be well
sistance to pneumonia. This is paired understood even after being revealed
with potency as one of the types of to a finite mind; strictly mysterious.
qualities. 4. legal ineligibility or dis­ 4. that cannot be grasped by some
qualification. 5. impotency or im­ particular intelligence; relatively un­
potence; the natural-law impediment intelligible; very difficult.
to marriage arising from male ina­ inconceivable, adj. that cannot be
bility to engage in sexual union. conceived, thought of, or understood;
incarnate, adj. 1. endowed with a beyond thought.
human body; having flesh. 2. present NoTE - Sensists and positivists re-
inconvenience 138 indeterminate

gard anything nonsensible as incon­ union with or from limitation by

ceivable because they equate the con­ matter in one's being or activity. See
ceivable with the sensible or imagin­ IMMATERIAL.
able. intrinsic independence of mat­
inconvenience, n. 1. lack of comfort, ter, the property of not needing mat­
ease, or timeliness; a disadvantage; ter as a cocause of its natural being
difficulty; burden. 2. anything diffi­ or of its action: as, the human in­
cult or troublesome to do, get, get to, tellect is intrinsicaUy independent of
or use; anything whose benefit is matter because its nature is spiritual;
disproportionate to the effort, cost, but in this life it extrinsically depends
etc. required to do or get it. 3. on matter in and outside its human
specifically. a serious burden arising body, e.g., for learning.
from observing a law that under some sovereign independence, full
special circumstances is so heavy or freedom to rule in a complete com­
difficult that it is out of proportion munity. See SOVEREIGNTY; political
to the purpose or good intended by FREEDOM.
the law. 4. logic. an unsuitable rea­ substantial independence, the
son; an unanswered objection or con­ freedom of a substance from a sub­
sequence that weakens the certitude ject of reception or of inherence.
of a conclusion; a needlessly complex This alone does not imply independ­
explanation that does not well fit the ence of a cause, of environment, etc.
problem, situation, or case. independent, adj. I. free; not com­
incorporeal, adj. 1. lacking a body pelled by another; not physically or
or the properties of a body. 2. differ­ morally bound. 2. not subordinate to
ent from the matter of the body and another person, government, or thing;
a body's material characteristics. self-ruling; autonomous. 3. separate
Hence, the incorporeal includes the from another; not bound to or neces­
substantial forms of mere bodies, the sarily related to another. 4. not need­
immaterial vital principles of animals, ing another to be and not supported
and the positively spiritual in intel­ by being in or being a part of an­
lectual beings. See IMMATERIAL. other; subsistent. 5. not a member of
incorruptible, adj. 1. not subject to a group, party, system, etc. 6. not
decay; indestructible. 2. fully ac­ dependent on another or on one's
tualized and unchangeable in sub­ work for a livelihood. 7. self-reliant,
stance or in proper accidents. 3. fresh, or original in one's thinking.
immortal. 4. that cannot be morally indeterminable, adj. not determin­
corrupted, esp. by bribery. able; hence, indefinite; infinite; im­
indefeasible, adj. 1. that cannot be measurable; undecidable.
lost or forfeited for any reason: as, indeterminate (indetermined; un­
the right of conscience even in a determined), adj. 1. not definite,
sentenced criminal remains indefeas­ fixed, or exact in physical limits or
ible. 2. that cannot be made invalid. boundaries. 2. indefinite in its ex­
independence, n. the state, quality, tension or supposition. 3. indistinct;
or activity of an independent being, vague in conception or meaning; not
nature, part, or power; freedom of specified; not determined or con­
a being, nature, power, or part from tained in a category or species by
causal influence or control by another any explicit difference: as, the tran­
and from physical and moral neces­ scendentals are indeterminate. 4. un­
sitation by another being, nature, certain; unsettled; inconclusive. 5.
part, or power. not yet fully formed; still potential;
extrinsic independence of mat­ not completed by a cause, lacking
ter, the property of having no need some perfection. A creature is said to
of matter even as a condition for or be privatively undetermined. 6. irre­
aid to action; total freedom from solute; mentally or voluntarily unde-
indeterminism 139 indifferentism

cided. 7. not internally or externally itself, may either exist or not exist.
necessitated in advance to one form 2. not necessitated to exist, to act
or act; free. 8. hence, variable; sub­ in a certain way, to have certain ac­
ject to chance; awaiting the outcome cidents, to use certain means, etc.;
of chance. 9. incapable of determina­ hence, contingent. 3. what can be
tion or limitation: as, God is nega­ other than it is; capable of being
tively undetermined. different. 4. morally detached; un­
indeterminism, n. 1. the doctrine selfish; emotionally not involved; un­
that the human will in some acts is concerned; not interested. 5. apa·
free to consent or choose, i.e., to thetic, in the Stoic sense. 6. of a
determine itself. 2. intrinsic change­ matter that makes little difference;
ability of properties of natural ob­ unimportant.
jects, esp. on the microscopic level: methodologically indifferent, not
as in radioactive matter and genetic concerned about truth or error in
mutations. The deterministic or mech­ method or practice. A method is
anistic conception of fixed natures judged by its effects or usefulness
thought they had absolutely uniform and correctness, not by its truth or
properties, operations, measurements, falsity.
etc. in every instance and every morally indifferent, in itself con­
particle. taining no generic or specific moral
indifference, n. 1. a lack of deter­ difference; having no intrinsic moral
mination to one act or to one course quality: as, a commanded act. The ex­
of action or to a unique perfection pression describes an act or object
in a being or power that can have of an act in the abstract which, if
other or further determinations; vari­ considered apart from the agent's
ability in a being or power or in the intention in doing or omitting it, is
object of a power's action. 2. in­ neither morally good nor morally bad.
differentism. 3. detachment from (an No scholastics hold that all acts are
object or its opposite) in deliberate morally indifferent in the abstract;
desire or choice. 4. freedom from de­ some hold for some morally indiffer­
sire of selfish gain or from fear of ent acts in the concrete.
present loss to self. indifferentism, n. 1. a view that dif­
active indifference, the permanent ferent opinions, moral standards,
property of internal necessitation policies, political systems, religions,
in a power that can determine itself etc. are just as true or as good as
to one of two or more possible acts each other, or that they are all un­
or courses of action; freedom of the important. 2. unwillingness to com­
will; freedom to choose. mit oneself to any one of competing
moral (ascetical) indifference, or different doctrines, policies, re­
cultivated detachment or unselfish­ ligions, etc.
ness. See senses 3 and 4. political indifferentism, (in re­
passive indifference, the property gard to religions) : ( 1) the civil prac­
of any passive potency whose indeter­ tice of keeping all religions equal
mination is removed by its complete before the Jaw. (2) the constitutional
submission to an agent or agents ex­ theory and practice of freedom of all
ternal to itself. religions and noninterference of the
religious indifference, see INDIF­ state in religious association, govern­
FERENTIS:M:. ment, and practices; civil tolerance of
indifferent, adj. 1. lacking a deter­ religious pluralism without legal fa­
mined quality or perfection; neutral; voritism toward or discrimination
not yet definitely either one of a pair against any religious body or its ad­
of opposites. Thus, an act may be herents. ( 3) the view that religion
morally good or bad; a judgment, in general and any particular religion
true or false; a contingent nature, of makes no difference to the welfare
indirect 140 in dividuation

of the state or of its people. See laic being; a suppositum. 2. a member of

STATE. a class; a numerical unit within the
religious indifferentism: ( 1) a species.
personal or official attitude that all NoTE-This definition does not
religions, despite major differences in define any individual being but the
their doctrines and essential practices, notion of individual found in all in­
are equally good and equally accept­ dividual beings.
able. (2) the opinion that man has no individualism, n. 1. any one or more
obligation from natural or divine­ of the doctrines of classical liberal­
positive law to assent to or worship ism that government in the best state
in any particular religious confession. seeks to do no more than what is
( 3) lack of interest in religion as needed for the protection of in­
something unimportant. ( 4) political dividuals; that individual liberty pre­
neutrality in regard to religion. vails over the common good; that the
indirect, adj. 1. not direct, in any of state exists to help and not regulate
the senses of direct; hence, 2. medi­ private enterprise; and that public
ate. 3. secondary; incidental to some­ policy should be directed to maintain­
thing else. 4. connected with or pro­ ing maximum liberty consistent with
ceeding from something else that is security. 2. selfish disregard for others
directly sought, done, etc.; not or for the community in leading one's
wanted but permitted though fore­ life; lack of social conscience. 3.
seen: as, indirect effect; indirect cultivation of singularity and oddities
scandal. 5. negative in way of acting, of some kind.
i.e., preventing harm by removing individuality, n. 1. metaphysics. the
obstacles to a being or cause or by status of existing as an individual;
not using a power to harm that one separate existence of one being; in­
possesses: as, indirect conservation. communicability of being. 2. psychol­
indisposition, n. 1. a lack of inclina­ ogy. the sum of individual traits that
tion toward, preparation for, or in­ distinguish one being from another.
terest in some form. 2. inability, un­ individuate, v.t. to constitute some­
willingness, or some disqualification thing as distinct from others of the
for doing something or receiving some same species; to be the individuating
perfection. See QUALITY; chart on characteristics of.
CATEGORIES. individuation, n. I. metaphysics. the
indissoluble, adj. 1. that cannot be basic internal reason or reality that
physically or morally broken apart constitutes anything to be this singu­
or destroyed. 2. permanently bind­ lar thing and thereby distinguishes it
ing; ever valid; lifelong. from the universal and from every
individual, adj. I. one; not divided; other individual in its species; the
single; complete by itself; singular. basic explanation why a being is this
ANT. - universal. 2. existing as a being; what restricts specific form to
single, distinct being. 3. distinguished this individual subject having such
from others by special characteristics a form. 2. logic. the recognizable
such as personal traits, features, tone identifying features of each being
of voice, etc.; pertaining to and desig­ and, in particular, of each person,
nating one being, nature, event, group, whereby each individual is recognized
etc., and no other in such a way that to be different from every other.
it cannot be found in its entirety in
principle of individuation, sense
more than one being. 4. of, for, or
1. Scholastic doctors differ on what
referring to a member of a species;
singular. feature of a singular thing consti­
individual, n. 1. a single thing; one tutes it as an individual being. The
whole; a being that cannot be divided main views are: (a) Thomist: mat­
without losing its identity as this ter marked by its quantity; (b)
individuum 141 inference

Scotist: a mode of being added to incomplete induction, a universal

the rest of the being; hecceity; (c) affirmation or negation about the na­
Suarezian: the whole concrete in­ ture or properties of all members of
dividual. a class, based on a limited number
individuum, n. I. the individual re­· of instances.
garded precisely as a unit. 2. a singu­ ineffable, adj. exalted beyond human
lar composite substance. naming and describing; awesome; in­
indivisible, adj. incapable of being expressible; unnameable.
divided; simple; absolutely one. inequality, n. 1. a lack of equality
indivisibles, n. pl. I. simple essences: either as a state or as an instance.
as, of angels. 2. mathematical points. 2. difference or variation in perfec­
induction, n. 1. an argument that tion, size, amount, quality, authority,
moves from a particular premise to a social position, rank, etc. See ANAL­
broad, general conclusion; a mode of OGY. 3. lack of proper proporti on;
reasoning in which one moves from unequal distribution. Hence: 4. un­
experience of individual instances or fairness in regard to rights and im­
particular facts to an inference con­ posed burdens; distributive or legal
cerning the universal subject or class injustice. 5. logic. a certain lack of
to which these instances or facts be­ identity in subject and predicate
long; forming a universal proposition of a modal proposition, e.g., a is not
or generalization on the basis of equal to b; a is greater than b; a is
particulars. 2. the legitimate deriva­ less than b.
tion of universal laws in physical, inessential, adj. unessential.
philosophical, and other sciences from inexistent, adj. 1. nonexistent. 2. be­
the knowledge of individual cases. 3. ing in another by circuminsession..
the conclusion, generalization, law, inference, n. 1. an act of the mind
etc. reached by inductive reasoning. moving from the content of one or
4. abstractive induction. (a) the more judgments to a new judgment
process of thought that derives the connected with the prior one or ones;
premises of a deductive argument. illation; implication. 2. the new judg­
(b) the forming of the definition of ment or proposition so derived from
an absolute nature (essence) from one or more prior judgments or
knowledge of features recognized to propositions; the consequent; the im­
be common to all instances. (c) plied proposition. 3. the property of
intuitive knowledge of the first prin­ connection between related proposi­
ciples of being and of thought. tions.
analogical induction, reasoning immediate inference: (1) an act
from particular instances to other of the mind deriving from the content
particular instances based on re­ of a single judgment another con­
semblances that are presumed to be nected judgment, without the aid of
significant. any additional term or other judg­
Baconian induction, the method ment. Hence, it is not a complete act
of induction recommended by Francis of reasoning. Parker and Veatch, see­
Bacon (1561-1626): the method of ing confusing misunderstanding in
exclusion of dissimilar instances to calling this process inference, suggest
reach a conclusion on agreement in it be named transformation of a judg­
similar instances. See MILL'S CANONS. ment or proposition. (2) the judg­
ment or proposition reached by in­
complete induction, numbering
ference (transformation) . See chart
all instances of a class and noting
for the various types.
features, etc. common to all its mem­ indirect (negative) inference,
bers in order to arrive at a universal any type of indirect demonstration
statement about the members of a or of refutation.
class. mediate inference, reasoning; us -
inference 142 inference

INFERENCES
(including)
ARGUMENT, IMPLICATION, PROOF, REASONING,
REFUTA'IlON, SYLLOGISM

{
I. Immediate Inference
simple
Conversion

{
accidental (by limitation)
partial
Contraposition

{
full
Obversion
Inversion
contradiction
contrariety
Opposition
subcontrariety

{
subalternation
from actual to possible
Possibility
from impossible to nonexistent

II. Mediate Inference (Reasoning)

(A. according to quolity of the proof)
1. Demonstration (certain conclusion)
Dialectical proof (probable conclusion)
2. Concerned with truth of being and nature (intentional)
Purely formal (purely logical): concerned with consistency or validity only
Fallacious
Irrelevant

(B. according to structural form of the proof)

{
{
simple

syllogism
l categorical
complex
a) conditional
disjunctive
hypothetical conjunctive
b) pure
mixed

Direct enthymeme
polysyllogism

{
{
epichereme
Aristotelian
sorites
Goclenian
a) constructive
destructive
dilemma
b) simple
mixed

Indirect (negative)
Informal but reducible to form
inferior 143 infinite

(C. according to method or movement of the proof)

1. A priori
A simultaneo (prior reason)
{ from property to essence

{
A posteriori
from effect (and operation) to cause
2. Deductive
complete (by enumeration of all instances)
Inductive (from
particulars) . 1
mcomp ete
{ perfect
. . .

imperfect (approximation)

3. Of the fact; quia proof; that something is so or exists

Of the reasoned fact; propter quid proof; why something must be so
4. A pari
A fortiori

ing the medium of a middle term or being and of every truly pure per­
its equivalent to reach a new con­ fection of being.
clusion connected with the previous intensively infinite, unlimited in
judgments or premises. the degree with which pure perfec­
inferior, adj. and n. 1. lower in rank, tions are present in it.
place, quality, power, authority, value, mathematically infinite, designat­
etc. ; placed or being below another ing a number of a greater value
or others. 2. contained within the ex­ (positive infinity) or a lesser value
tension of a general concept. 3. sub­ (negative infinity) than any assigned
ject parts; members of a class. 4. number.
subaltern. 5. subjects or subordinates. negatively infinite, unending;
*in fieri, Lat. phrase. 1. in respect to without a start or terminus.
change. See CAUSE in fieri. 2. in the positively infinite, a being posses­
process or state of becoming or sing all pure perfections: distin­
changing. guished from negatively and priva­
infinite, adj. unlimited; unbounded; tively infinite.
immeasurable; inexhaustible. potentially infinite: (1) finite in
absolutely (simply) infinite, un­ reality, number, or series but capable
conditionally or unqualifiedly infinite; of actual or conceptual increase with­
positively infinite; infinitely perfect. out any limit or term; immense: as,
actually infinite, an existing be­ infinite space; infinite time; infinite
ing or perfection with no limits to divisibility of matter; infinite num­
its being or perfection: distinguished ber. (2) indefinitely large. (3) finite
from potentially infinite. in intelligence but capable of receiv­
essentially infinite, infinite by its ing the intentional forms of an un­
very nature or in its essence. limited number of things.
extensively infinite: (1) a reality privately infinite: (1) lacking all
possessing all pure perfections; all­ form but capable of receiving an in­
perfect. (2) infinite in quantity, num­ definite variety of forms: as, prime
ber, or space. matter is privatively infinite. (2)
infinitely perfect, unlimited in lacking boundaries or definite boun­
daries: as, infinite space.
perfection of being and of operation;
relatively infinite: (1) absolutely
possessing every pure perfection in
finite in being and perfection but
every perfect way and in perfect having an indefinite capacity to re­
degree; the absolute actuality than ceive other perfections and enrich
which no greater can exist or be its perfections and to know all forms.
conceived; inexhaustible goodness of (2) the immortal with capacity for
infinity 144 in se

unending existence. ( 3) an angelic act of existence in essence, (c) of a

nature, which is absolutely finite but secondary accident in a more basic
unlimited by matter. one, and (d) of inborn gifts and con­
REF. -J. A. McWilliams, S.J., natural rights in a person.
Physics and Philosophy: a Study of injury, n. 1. an unjust act; unjust
Saint Thomas' Commentary on the treatment; violation of or encroach­
Eight Books of Aristotle's Physics, ment on the right of another against
pp. 8, 135 on all the meanings and his will. 2. physical harm, pain, dam­
uses of infinite; G. F. J. La Moun­ age, or loss inflicted on a person,
tain, "The Concept of Infinite in the property, etc. 3. broadly. an offense,
Philosophy of St. Thomas,'' Thomist, especially involving a virtue potential
XIX (1956), 312-338. to justice. 4. the harm or loss un­
infinity (infinitude), n. the state, justly suffered.
actuality, or fact of being infinite in injustice, n. 1. any of the vices against
existence or in any attribute. the three species of justice. 2. any
influence, n. 1. causality of some act of injustice; an injury. See UN­
kind: applicable to all the causes. 2. JUST.
actual causing. innate, adj. connatural, q.v.
moral influence, the power exerted innatism, n. any opinion that some
on a moral being by authority or human knowledge is innate, not
example. learned, e.g., some of Plato's and
negative influence: ( 1) the re­ Descartes' views.
moving of an obstacle to causal ac­ *in obliquo, Lat. phrase. 1. in an
tion: said properly of a condition. indirect manner; indirectly. 2. (predi­
(2) nonuse of power to impede, dam­ cated) in an indirect case of a noun
age, etc. in a declined language; hence, (predi­
positive influence, actually con­ cated as) belonging to, contained in,
tributing to the origin, existence, joined to, modifying, or receiving
action, change, constitution, preserva­ from, the action of another. See *IN
tion, etc. of something real. RECTO; OBLIQUE. 3. (of a verb) not
inform, v.t. 1. to give form to, in the present tense of the indicative
whether substantial or accidental, in­ mood.
animate or vital; to be the present inordinate, adj. 1. disordered; not
actuating principle of. The adjectives regulated to the right end; not recti­
for this sense are informing and in­ fied. 2. morally excessive; immoder­
formed. The noun is information. 2. ate in some way; not directed to
to tell; give knowledge of something the true end and true nature of man.
to; acquaint with a fact, etc. *in re, Lat. phrase. lit., "in the
infused, adj. 1. received from without, thing," "in the object." Hence, 1.
not educed or formed from within; really; actually: distinguished from
put into; imparted: as, the human mentally, in intellectu. 2. objectively.
soul is infused into the body by its 3. in fact; in one's actual holding:
Creator. 2. received from without by distinguished from in spe (in hope;
divine gift or grace working in the in claim). 4. in the matter (of);
soul, but not naturally developed concerning; in the case of.
from, by, or in the subject or power *in recto, Lat. phrase. in the nomi­
affected: as, infused faith. See ILLU­ native (upright) case; in a direct
MINATION, senses 3 and 6. manner; being the nature of or the
inherence (inhesion), n. existence of same as: used chiefly in describing
a principle of being in a subject. modes of predication and supposition
This is said mainly of the way in of terms. Cases that bend away from
which a modification exists in its sub­ the erect position are said to stand
stance. It is also said secondarily (a) in obliquo.
of form existing in matter, ( b) of *in se, Lat. phrase. lit., "in itself
insensible 145 instrument

(himself, herself, oneself, them­ ally held. 2. in possibility; in expec­

selves)." simply; absolutely; not tation of being- able to fulfill some
merely in some aspect or relation to contract condition at a future time.
another or others; considered in itself instance, n. 1. an example; case; il­
and (usually) apart from special lustration. Instance is preferred to
circumstances, additions, relations, or other synonyms when a person, thing,
mischances. The phrase also occurs or event is mentioned to support or
often as part of the term for sub­ prove a general statement rather than
stance, ens in se (stans). merely to explain or typify. 2. a
insensible, adj. 1. lacking sensa tion step in a process. 3. occasion.
either because the being does not contrary instance, an instance
have sensing powers or has tem­ that tests or disproves a universal
porarily or permanently lost the statement.
power of sensing; unable to feel instinct, n. the internal sense that
sensations. 2. unconscious. 3. not able gu ide s brute animals in performing
to be sensed either because it is not complex acts useful for the preserva­
material or is too small, indistinct, tion of the individual or of the
or so gradually changing that it es­ species. Some writers prefer to reserve
capes perception. estimative power for the power, and
insentient, adj. 1. not sensing; un­ instincts (pl.) for the acts that de­
able to perceive by sense. 2. showing pend on the estimations made by
no signs of sensing: as, plants are this power. The instincts are charac­
insentient. terized by their uniformity through­
In I Sent . • ., abbreviated reference
. out the species, e.g., the tendencies
to a Commentary on Peter Lombard's to migrate, store the same kind of
Books of Sentences, Book I (II, III, food, build nests in the same way.
or IV). Parts of it and of commen­ institution, n. a stable social body,
taries on it are referred to by books organized for a public purpose, under
(Roman capital numeral), distinc­ law, with a recognized structure and
tions (d.), questions (q.), articles means of striving for that purpose:
(a.), and a few special places such as, a state, fire department, traffic
as a prologue ( pro!. ). court, marriage-license office.
insight, n. 1. an act of apprehending instrument, n. 1. a means. 2. a thing
the meaning of, of clearly under­ used as a dependent cause in doing
standing the nature of, or of surely or producing something; esp. a cause
grasping the truth of some principle acting under the influence of a ra­
or enunciable; perception or im­ tional principal agent; a helping cause
mediate judgment of the perceived; directed by another. See instrumental
e sp., understanding of the intelligible CAUSE. 3. a power used by the person
in the sensibly given or in the pre­ for the person's purp oses: as, the
sented phantasm. 2. the power of hand is the instrument of the mind.
looking into things and truths or of 4. a person used by another; a slave.
seeing the law in an instance and See COOPERATION. 5. a tool; imple­
thereby understanding things. See IN­ ment: said esp. of finer tools, musical
DUCTION, sense 4. 3. some truth, instruments, etc. 6. a formal legal
pri nc iple , or aspect of truth that is document.
noticed or grasped by somebody, esp. instruments of action, helps with
if it has escaped others' notice. which we do things; of production,
*in solidum, Lat. phrase. jointly; aids or tools by which we make
as one; sharing responsibility for. things.
insoluble, n. a self-contradictory state­ proper instruments, means or
ment: as, "I am not speaking." tools or de penden t causes fitted for
*in spe, Lat. phrase. 1. in hope; by a special task.
way of a claim to what is not actu- ABBR.- instr.
instrumentalism 146 intellect

instrumentalism, n. the variation of demonstration (because it is an ex­

pragmatism, sponsored mainly by cellent kind of intuitive understand­
John Dewey (1859-1952), which re­ ing). 4. the form of an intellectual
gards knowledge as an instrument of being; hence, in man, the spiritual
life, evolution, and fulfillment of soul. 5. an intellectual substance;
needs and desires. Ideas are regarded a spiritual substance; an angel. 6. any
as plans for action, serving as instru­ human power of the spiritual order;
ments or aids for adjusting the or­ hence, agent intellect, possible intel­
ganism to its environment. This view, lect, or will. 7. nonscholastic use.
like pragmatism's, tends to measure ability to perceive or know: distin­
the truth of knowledge by its effec­ guished from feeling and will; mental
tiveness in desired action. capacity. This usage bypasses the es­
instrumentalist theory of the state, sential distinction between, and essen­
see MACHINE theory. tial superiority of, intellect over
integral, adj. 1. internally belonging sense. 8. a person. 9. the understood;
to or constituting some whole: as, the object of intellect; the intelligible
the organs of the body are integral in act.
parts or integral members of it: dis­ agent (active; abstractive; fac·
tinguished from essential; necessary tive; illuminating) intellect or in·
to the quantity of a body. 2. neces­ tellectus agens, the immediate prin­
sary for completeness; essential to a ciple that makes sensible things to
whole; pertaining to the full perfec­ be actually intelligible; a spiritual
tion of something: as, the integral power having the functions of ab­
parts of a cardinal virtue. 3. of or stracting the form from the material
belonging to human nature before it and singular, of illuminating the sense
suffered losses and weakness from image so that the potentially intelli­
original sin (or other historical de­ gible sense datum becomes actually
privations); "integral nature, a gift intelligible, and of producing the in­
added to nature without which the telligible species in the possible in­
nature is complete in the orders of tellect. Its being and activities are
being and of operations, but is not widely disputed and variously de­
in easy circumstances" - Newman scribed in many medieval writers,
(1801-1890). See HUMAN nature. both Christian and non-Christian.
integrate, v.t. 1. to make whole or discursive intellect, the intellect
one by bringing or adding parts to­ functioning as reason.
gether. 2. to remove legal, social, joined intellect, the intellectual
economic, or other barriers that main­ soul incarnate in the body and func­
tain segregation of social groups, esp. tioning as its form and extrinsically
of racial groups; to unify social depending on the senses in knowing.
groups. 3. to organize the traits of passive intellect, the cogitative
one's knowledge, personality, activi­ sense.
ties, etc., into one harmonious psy­ possible (passible) intellect: the
chological whole. human spiritual power of knowing or
intellect, n. 1. the cognitive act of understanding. It is possible in the
knowing in an immaterial way; hence, Aristotelian-Thomist view because it
apprehension (also called simple in­ is in potency to know but needs actu­
tellect), insight, simple understand­ ation by objects and the agent intel­
ing, or intuition; knowledge of es­ lect; and it is a passive power that
sences and of meaning. 2. the spirit­ is activated by objects.
ual cognitive power; the faculty of potential inteUect: (1) the pos­
knowing in an immaterial way; the sible intellect. ( 2) the intellect in
mental power superior to the senses; its state of potency but not yet actu­
the possible intellect. 3. the habit ally aware of a certain object.
of knowing the first principles of practical inteUect, the possible in-
intellect 147 intellect

tellect seeking knowledge about mat­ simple apprehension or of immediate

ters directly connected with action understanding.
and using knowledge for the sake of speculative intellect, the possible
action; the intellect interested in intellect seeking and considering truth
something that is in some sense just for its own sake and not directly
good, for the sake of guiding human concerned with action about the
activity to obtain and enjoy that truth.
good. principles on the intellect: (1)
separate {separated) intellect: the soul in a way is all things (by
( 1) the human intellectual soul exist­ knowing). (2) the intellect in act is
ing after death. (Separated is pre­ the intelligible (object) in act. {3)
ferred usage in this reference.) ( 2) nothing is in the intellect that was
the human intellectual soul function­ not in some way previously in the
sense. Also see principles on KNOWL­
ing independently of the senses of
EDGE and on SPECIES.
the body. (3) an angel. (4) Aver­ major problems on the intellect
roists. the one agent intellect of in the history of philosophy: (1)
all men. Is the intellect really distinct from
simple intellect, the activity of and really superior to the senses?

SENSES OF INTELLECT, INTELLECTION, Al'o'D INTELLIGENCE

{ ���:�:
1. The power to know in an immaterial way: as distinguished from sense.
(the fundamental sense)
s
(separate or pure intelligences)
2. Intellectual beings
human sou1s
{ joined intellect
separated intellect
r a) preparing for immaterial knowledge: agent intellect
identified with reason: possible intellect
distinguished from reason: pure (simple) intellect
or capacity for intuitive understanding
discursive intellect: reasoning
cogitative sense (passive intellect)
3. Specific intellectual
powers or specific
b) speculative intellect: directed to truth for its own
sake
functions
practical intellect: directed mainly to action or
practice
c) comprising all powers of the intellectual order:

{
intellect and intellectual appetite
referring only to actual cognitive power: possible
intellect
habit of the first principles
synteresis

{
4. A habit in the intellect habitual knowledge of singulars and of one's own
existence
understanding: the gift of the Holy Spirit
any activity of the possible intellect
immediate knowledge of singulars
5 An act 0f the mtellect
intuition; insight; understanding
· ·

the internal word formed by intellectual activity

6. The object as known by the intellect: the objective concept or the intelligible in
act; the understood or immediately known. (Latin usage of intellect-um is cognate
to English use of information or intelligence received.)
(2) How can an intellect (spiritual each man his own agent intelle1
reality) be the form of a body? (3) ( 5) Wh at are the relations of 1
Is the agent intellect really distinct intellect to the will and its freed01
from the possible intellect? ( 4) Has intellection, n. 1. an act of the

SERIES OF ACTS OF INTELLECT AND WILL

{for relationships of terms)

POWERS
OBJECT
Intellect Will Other

Concerning the 1. simple apprehension 2. complacency in the sensory knowl­

end to be of the end to be good; simple liking edge precedes
obtained obtained by me or wish; velleity intellectual
apprehension

3. judgment that this 4. intention to gain the often, attend­

end can be obtained proposed possible ant sensory
by me end and to use the emotions
means to gain it

Concerning the S. inquiry, delibera­ 6. consent to, accept­

means to the tion, and counsel ance of, or approval
end about possible and of the useful means
general means - in general; consent to
leading to discovery conclude the inquiry
of means

7. judgment specifying 8. choice of the apt par­

the apt particular ticular means (or of
means for the end some of them)

9. command to one's 10. active use of means;

powers to use the will executively ap­
chosen means plying the powers to
use the means
(toa. continuing com­ 11. passive use;
mand to use means powers
until end is obeying ex­
reached) ecutive will
in using
means
Concerning the 12. recognition of the 13. joy and quiet in the 14. cessation of
result end attained end attained (use in
effort; rest
a broad sense)

REF. -A. Gardeil, O.P., "Acte or repeated when knowledge or pr

humain," in Dictionnaire de Theologie erences of the will change or vacilla
Catholique, I; 0. Lottin, O.S.B., Where there is a unique means, cc
" Psychologie de l'acte humain," sent and choice coalesce into
Recherches de Theologie Ancienne et single step. Steps 1-8 are known
Medievale, XXIX (1962), 250-267. the order of intention; 9 and f
NoTE-Not all steps occur in every lowing, as the order of executi1
human act; other steps are added
intellectualism 149 intend

tellect; thinking. 2. the process of the intellect. 3. popular sense. clear;

coming to know intellectually; using readily understandable.
the intellect. an accidental intelligible {*intel­
intellectualism, n. I. a doctrine that ligibile per accidens), a form or
regards the intrinsic perfection of note known by the intellect but only
the intellect to be higher than the in or through association with the in­
value of the will and its activities. tellectually perceived accidents of
Hence, intellectual activity would be that form: as, one knows his soul
the highest form of life; beatitude only together with or through knowl­
would formally consist in contempla­ edge of the acts (accidents) of the
tion; the speculative life absolutely soul.
surpasses the practical; wisdom is the essentially (directly) intelligible
supreme human virtue; prudence is (*intelligibile per suam essentiam
first in the practical life; the act of or per se), a nature, substance, or
command is an act of the intellect form, immediately perceived by the
more than of the will; conscience is intellect without the help of per­
chiefly intellectual; liberty is depend­ ceived associated accidents. This
ent on knowledge; etc. 2. in rational­ mode of divine and angelic knowledge
ist and idealist philosophies. the opin­ is ascribed by Augustinians also to
ion that true and certain knowledge man's knowledge of his own soul;
comes from pure reason (and a priori they say the soul is knowable in
forms or innate resources) rather than and by itself.
from sensory origins. first intelligible, being or sensible�
*intellectus agens, Lat. phrase. the being (according to most scholastics).
agent intellect. See first subentry s.v. highest intelligible, God, the su­
INTELLECT. preme object of thought.
intelligence, n. 1. exercise or use of intelligible matter, see MATTER.
the intellect. 2. simple apprehension intelligible in potency, any form
or immediate understanding; insight. or formal object capable of being
3. superior intellectual activity; meas­ intellectually known but not yet
ured and manifested competence in known: distinguished from the in­
using the intellect (or all the know­ telligible in act, a form already known
ing powers) for specified tasks. 4. or a form that has also acquired in­
the ability to think and otherwise tentional existence. A famous axiom
use the intellect in learning, reason­ runs: "The intelligible in act is the
ing, solving problems, guiding self intellect in act": i.e., the thing as
and others, providing for needs, etc. actually known is in the intellect
5. a person of intelligence. 6. a actually knowing it; object and sub­
separate or separated intellect; a ject meet in the species representing
spiritual substance. 7. the gathering the thing.
of news, secret information, etc. 8. purely intelligible, that can be
special and secret information; the known by the intellect but not sensed
things learned by intelligence. or imagined.
intelligibility, n. 1. the property of intend, v.t. The general basic meaning
being knowable by the intellect; on­ of words in this group (intend, in­
tological clarity and openness to the tention, intentional, tendency, etc.)
intellect. 2. (usually with an article). is to stretch out for, reach toward,
the formal object of a thing that is be directed to and, so, related to.
actually being considered by the in­ I. meanings referring to knowl­
tellect; see RATIO, senses 1 and 2. edge. 1. to direct or turn one's
intelligible, adj. and n. I. knowable thoughts to. 2. to refer to an object.
by the intellect; receivable in the 3. to mean; signify; take to mean;
possible intellect. 2. a note, form, or interpret. 4. to plan. This usually
perfection of a being knowable by also connotes some action of the will.
intension 150 intention

II. meanings referring to appe· of an efficient cause to a goal; causal

tency. 5. v.t. and i. to have in effort in a definite direction; intent.
mind as one's aim; to have the 2. the influence of the principal cause
deliberate purpose. 6. to mean some­ on its instrument, directing it to an
thing to be for, act for, or be used for end. 3. the tending of a nature to
(some thing) ; destine; foresee and its intrinsic good by the use of its
will; deliberately provide for. powers in a normal way. This is re­
intension, n. the comprehension of a ferred to as the intention of nature.
concept or term; what is signified; See sense 13.
the essence, form, or notes under­ II. cognitive meanings. 4. an act
stood by the concept or referred to of knowing considered in relation to
by the term. its object, not merely as a subjective
intention, n. See note before INTEND. quality; knowing regarded as being
I. metaphysical meanings con· of and about something. Attention
nected with causality. 1. the direc­ does not state the full meaning of
tion or application of causal power intention. 5. a sign present in the
to producing an effect; the tending mind and referring to an object; the

{
SOME SENSES OF INTENTION

tending to object to be produced or to be changed

1. Intention as cause directing and controlling the instrumental cause to the
purpose of the principal
2. Intention of the Author of nature (formal)
Intention of nature (end of the work); the necessary inclination to its good; the

{
natural intrinsic good of a nature
Intention imposed on nature
3. Intention of any living power to its formal object
cognitive tending to { sensory (in any sense)
4. Intention of an act
of a power
object

desire or appetition
{ intellectual
sensory (in either appetite)
will to end

the intrinsic purpose of a natural body (intention of

{
nature)
first intention
of the intellect
second intention
r a) direct; indirect
b) end which; person for whom
c) morally good or bad
5. Object of intention d) actual
habitual
of the will (motive) virtual
interpretative
e) explicit
implicit

{
f) pure
mixed
of a law or other act of government
as reference to the signified
its meaning
6. Intention of a sign
of a thing
of a name
intention 151 intention

species as related to the object; the itself; a concept of a thing. (2) the
mental representation or cognitive formal object that is directly known.
likeness of something; a concept second (logical; reflex) inten­
viewed as tending to the object tion; intention of logic: (1) an act
known. 6. meaning; the deliberately of knowing something as it is in the
selected or the construed meaning; mind; a concept of a concept; a rep­
the particular sense. 7. the mental resentation in the intellectual act of
connection between the cognitive act what it knows about the way in which
and the thing cognized; the relation it understands things, but not a direct
between the concept and the thing representation of the things. When
conceived. Intention, nevertheless, a first intention becomes the object
also applies to the relation between of attention, it becomes a second
the act of judging and its object. intention. (2) the object as it exists
8. a term as expressing the way in in the knower, e.g., the predicable,
which we understand a thing or the the recognized universality of a
way in which it exists. 9. the object known object, grammatical relation­
or form represented in knowledge; ships, terms, propositions, and beings
esp. but not exclusively, the universal of the mind. See ABSTRACTION of
or common nature as object. This is second intention.
also called logical intention. intention of a name (of mean­
III. voluntary and teleological ing), the object or concept referred
meanings. 10. an act of the will to by a name or term: distinguished
moving itself toward an end that is from intention of a thing; meaning.
or is thought to be obtainable; a intention of universality: (1) a
voluntary decision to do or omit universal concept. (2) the relation
something; a deliberate willing of a of one and the same form to many;
proposed good and a willing of the the common or abstracted nature as
means in view of that good. It is to represented in a universal, esp. a re­
be noted that, technically, intention flex universal, concept. Hence, this
is not choice; one act of the will is a second intention.
intends both end and means; inten­ B. Divisions of voluntary mean­
tion is primarily the turning of the ings.
will toward, or its aspiring for, an actual intention: ( 1) a true,
end. Ethicians, however, often say elicited act of willing an end; the
intention when choice, would be present tending of the will to a
the exact term. See chart on acts specified good. (2) the good being
of INTELLECT and will. 11. the end sought by the present act of willing.
or good proposed for an action; the explicit intention, an act that
object of the will's act of tending; clearly attends to and directly (for­
the final cause; the objective in which mally) seeks a specified good. Often
the will is interested; hence, the end an explicit intention is also exter­
intended, not the end obtained. 12. nally expressed: as at a marriage
as a moral determinant. the end of ceremony. It seems that actual and
the agent. 13. the intrinsic good to virtual intentions are explicit.
which a nature inclines itself in using habitual intention: ( 1) an inten­
its natural powers; the goal of in­ tion that has become a habit: as in
trinsic natural finality. This is a sec­ the virtue of justice constantly in­
ond sense of intention of nature; see clining a person's will to give his
sense 3. due to one's neighbor; a permanent
A. Divisions of cognitive senses. purpose never retracted, either ex­
The divisions of concepts are of plicitly or implicitly, by deliberately
some use for divisions of intention. doing the contrary of what was pur­
first (direct) intention: (1) an posed; the state of pursuing some
act of knowing an object as it is in good: as, the intention of the married
intentional 152 interpretation

state. (2) the good constantly willed dom or accidental. 5. having the na­
by the agent. ture of a sign of another.
implicit intention, an intention in­ See entries using intentional under
cluding some good but not clearly BEING, CHANGE, END, EXISTENCE,
expressing it as its end or fully ad­ FORM, LIKENESS, LOGIC, PRESENCE,
verting to it: as, a student implicitly SIGN, UNION, etc.
intends all the future good that his intentionality, n. 1. relation or orien­
studiousness may bring to others. tation to an object; the property of
intention of nature, see senses 3 being directed from the subject to an
and 13. object (sc., of action, knowledge, or
interpreted intention, the good appetency). 2. the property of having
which another thinks was the inten­ the being of a sign.
tion of one who cannot now declare intentionally, adv. 1. in a cognitive
his intention or the good which is the way; as a sign or likeness of the
nearest substitute for the explicit form known; representatively. 2. de­
actual intention when another's ex­ liberately; purposefully.
plicit intention has become impossi­ interactionism, n. the theory that the
ble of attainment: as, a court's in­ living body and mind (spirit), though
terpretation of a will and its bene­ two different kinds of reality, are
ficiaries or of the legislative intent able to act on each other. See PSY­
of a law. CHOPHYSICAL problem.
order of intention, see ORDER; interior, (internal), adj. of, in, by,
steps 1-8 in chart, Acts of INTEL­ or like the inner or spiritual nature
LECT and will. of a person; hence, private; secret;
primary intention : (1) the first, immanent; deeply personal; pertain­
dominant, explicit intention in a set ing to a person's motives, spiritual
of connected ends. (2) the first bene­ aspiration, love, etc.
ficiary to whose good an act is di­ ABBR.-int.
rected. interiorism, n. a method of reflec­
virtual intention, one whose effi­ tion that begins with close attention
cacy persists at the present moment, to the activities and experiences of
controlling one's present activities, the self rather than with observation
without renewal of the earlier actual of external sensible objects. This
intention. method, dear to St. Augustine, is not
REF.- H. D. Simonin, 0.P., "La the same as the idealists' immanent­
notion d'intentio,'' Revue des Sciences istic method.
Philosophiques et Theologiques, XIX interiority, n. 1. the property or state
(1930), 445-463; A. Hayen, S.J., of being interior. hence, 2. the self­
L'lntentionnel dans la Philosophie de active and somewhat self-sufficient
Saint Thomas d'Aquin, esp. 16, 48- state of a living being; immanence.
50, 161-172, 217. 3. the presence of an intellectual be­
intentional, adj. 1. pertaining to that ing to itself. 4. inner nature; essence.
characteristic of acts of knowledge interpolation, n. a type of probable
whereby they represent things other reasoning that inserts an unknown
than themselves; cognitively referring factor between two known entities:
to things; totally relational "toward" as, reasoning to the former existence
the object; consciously meaning an­ of missing links in the chain of an­
other. 2. of things as known; as cestors of man.
something is in the mind or as it is interpretation, n. 1. an act of ex­
because of the mind's action. This plaining the meaning, force, relev­
latter meaning particularly fits second ance, etc. (of a text, law, conversa­
intentions. 3. deliberate; formally tion, experiment, event, miracle, will,
sought by the will; specifically hu­ etc.). 2. a constructural knowledge
man. 4. planned and willed, not ran- that deduces the meaning, law, or
intersubjective 153 inversion

relation of something from what is its nature; according to its own

observed. 3. evidence of understand­ nature; 2. necessarily.
ing the meaning or weight of some­ introspection, n. 1. a looking into
thing. 4. the result of the act of one's own thoughts, feelings, acts,
interpreting: e.g., the propositions etc.; self-observation and self-reflec­
stating the meaning, critical appraisal, tion; psychological reflection. 2. self­
translation, or explication. examination; self-analysis. 3. careful
authentic interpretation, a con­ or excessive examination of one's
struing of the meaning or a removal conscience after an act has been
of ambiguity and doubt made by an performed.
author, lawgiver, or official inter­ introversion, n. a tendency to direct
preter of a law. one's interests upon oneself rather
broad (extensive) interpretation, than upon external objects, events,
enlarging the area of literal meaning or other people.
and the area of applicability of a intuition, n. 1. the act of immedi­
law, of a favor granted by law, of a ately knowing a present object; vi­
right, etc. sion. 2. the direct apprehension of
customary interpretation, the the truth of some proposition upon
meaning provided by popular practice its presentation to the intellect;
and long usage that has not been knowing without recourse to any
condemned by public legal authority. type of inference. Compare coN­
doctrinal interpretation, the ex­ TUITION. 3. the intellectual virtue
planation or meaning given by the or act of insight, without reason­
learned in a particular subject mat­ ing, into the truth of the primary
ter: as, constitutional lawyers give premises. 4. the instantaneous per­
us a doctrinal interpretation of the ception of beauty when presented.
constitution of the United States but 5. the so-called moral sense or moral
the Supreme Court gives us the taste; immediate knowledge of moral
authentic interpretation. principles or of the moral good and
narrow (restrictive) interpreta­ evil in concrete decisions that a
tion, a limiting of the meaning, force, person faces. This moral intuitionism
privileges, penalties, or persons re­ is seldom admitted by scholastic phi­
ferred to (in a law). losophers. 6. something known or
intersubjective, adj. of or between learned by an intuitive act.
persons considered as subjects; con­ invalid, adj. 1. having no force; in­
cretely, immediately, and mutually re­ correct. 2. having no moral or legal
lated to each other as person with force; not binding; void; null. See
person; personally in contact with ILLICIT.
another person in awareness of each invalidate, v.t. to make invalid; cause
other as persons. An intersubjective invalidity; officially declare invalid;
attitude is contrasted with an objec­ deprive of legal force, obligation, or
tive, scientific, impersonal attitude to right.
a person as to merely one more thing inversion, n. 1. any turning of an
in the environment. order, direction, position, comparison,
intrinsic, adj. 1. pertaining to the proportion, relationship, terms of a
nature of a thing or person; essen­ proposition, terms of a mixed rela­
tial; constitutive. 2. not dependent on tion, word order, etc. to its direct
opposite; a reversal. 2. in particular.
external conditions, circumstances,
an inference or series of inferences
and relations; necessary. 3. inherent;
that finally gives a proposition
not merely extrinsic or extrinsically
whose subject is the contradictory
denominated. 4. contained within; in­ of the original subject. The new
ternal. proposition is the inverse. 3. using
intrinsically, adv. 1. essentially; of a middle term already used by an
invincible 154 issue

opponent to prove the opposite con­ norance in a discussion, thus saying

clusion. This is sometimes inaccur­ the opposite of what one means.
ately called the perfect retort. irrational, adj. 1. main sense. directly
invincible, adj. that cannot be over­ contrary to reason; meaningless; con­
come under the circumstances in tradictory; nonsensical. 2. contrary
which a person finds himself: as, to right laws of reasoning; clearly
invincible ignorance of his danger. illogical. 3. unreasonable; not show­
Invincible does not mean inculpable, ing good thinking in a given judg­
though freedom from blame is a ment or mental process. 4. unable
consequence of invincible ignorance. to reason; nonrational: as, sheep are
inviolable, adj. 1. not to be violated; surely irrational animals. Nonrational
sacred; morally sacred; morally and is preferable in this sense. 5. men­
juridically free from interference. 2. tally unsound.
sharing in the dignity and freedom irreducible, adj. unable to be broken
of the person. 3. protected by law into elements of another category or
and binding in justice so that viola­ species; essentially different; belong­
tion of the inviolable is an injustice ing to completely different classes.
and an offense to the person; that See essential DIFFERENCE; REDUC­
cannot be violated with impunity. TION.
4. indestructible. irritability, n. I. physiological sense.
involuntary, adj. 1. contrary to one's the property in living matter of re­
will or to what would have been acting purposefully to a stimulus;
one's choice under normal circum­ the inherent capacity in an organism
stances. 2. involuntary in a certain to react by adapting itself to changes
respect, as when fear moves the will
in its environment. 2. moral sense.
to act other than it would have if
irascibility; a tendency to be easily
unmoved by the fear. 3. nonvolun­
provoked to impatience, annoyance,
tary; not willed; not under the con­ or anger.
trol of the will; unintended; spon­
isagoge, n. 1. an introduction, as to
taneous. Nonvoluntary is preferred
a branch of study or a major classical
to involuntary in this sense.
text. 2. (I-), Porphyry's (232?-
REF. - N. Eth., III, ch. 1; S.T.,
301 ?) Isagoge. This commentary or
I-II, q. 6, aa. 3, 5.
introduction to the categories of
*ipso facto, Lat. phrase. by the very
Aristotle became a basic book of
fact; by the fact itself; by the act
the medieval schools of grammar
itself; by the mere fact that.
and philosophy in its Latin transla­
*ipso j ure, Lat. phrase. by the law
tion by Boethius.
itself; by the operation of the law;
ism, n. taken from the suffix, -ism.
as an automatic consequence of the
1. hence, a doctrine, principle, theory,
law without judicial sentence apply­
or system whose name ends in ism;
ing the law or its sanction to the
particularly, a philosophical doctrine.
case.
*lpsum Esse, Lat. phrase. The Exis­ 2. an ideology. This is often a dis­
tent itself (Himself) ; the subsistent paraging use for the terms doctrine,
Being. See ESSE; YAHWEH. theory, hypothesis, system, etc. 3. a
irascible appetite, phrase. see sensi­ way of life practicing some philo­
tive APPETITE. sophical views or system.
irony, Socratic, phrase. feigning ig- issue, n. see IGNORING the issue.
 J
Jahve (Jahveh), n. the divine name, and negative judgments ("does not
Yahweh. exist," "is not"). Judgment is called
Jehovah, n. Yahweh, q. v. This older the second operation of the mind but
transliteration of the Hebrew, Yah­ it is not to be understood as m�rely
weh, was used in the King James' an elaboration of the first operation
version of the Old Testament. of grasping an essence. 6. any right
joint, adj. 1. joined in time; con­ intuition or conclusion on any specu­
current. 2. united; combined in some lative or practical matter· hence
unit. 3. common to two or more sound or true knowledge:' as, i�
�ndividual or moral persons in own- my judgment, your roses are the best.
1.n� or acting: as joint ownership, III. logic. 7. the combining of two
Joint responsibility. This is equivalent objective concepts in an affirmation
to the Latin in solidum, q.v. 4. shar­ or the separation of them by denying
ing with some one else. their sameness or relation· an act of
joy, n. 1. the act of the will delight­ the mind assenting to the known
ing in the possession of a loved good. objective identity or difference of
2. less strictly. the glad feeling ac­ subject and attribute. This is the
companying strong hope for a loved Aristotelian composition and division
good. 3. the act of delight in spiritual (union and separation). This defini­
goods which follows charity and is tion tends to an essentialist view of
a fruit of the Holy Spirit. judgment because it arises from an
analysis of the structure of most
judge, v. t. and i. 1. to act as one
propositions. Divisions of this sense
duly authorized to hear and decide a
occur under PROPOSITION.
controversy, contest, or case of law.
2. to form a judgment about some
analytic judgment: ( 1) the act
of the intellect knowing the identity
matter or person. 3. to understand
or difference of the objects or con­
explain, or interpret some truth '.
cepts compared by mere mental in­
event, or result in the light of its
proper principles. 4. to reach a deci­ spection of the content (natures) of
sion of conscience about one's own the subject and predicate. Experi­
act or acts. 5. to evaluate; criticize. ence of the objects and even of their
union or separation in some instances
6. to regard a person as wrong or
may precede the analytic judgment.
guilty; blame.
The Judgment may be immediate or
judg�ent, n. I. ethics. 1. a right
. med!ate. (reasoned). ANT. - syn­
dec1s1on about what is just or equit­ thetic 7udgment. (2) in Kant and
able. 2. a conclusion of conscience.
logical positivists. a judgment in
3. a prudent valuation of a situation
or need and the means to meet it. �hich t�e predicate _is already known
m knowmg the subject. Hence, it is
�· a command of a superior prescrib­ a tautology.
mg or administering justice.
. a posteriori judgment: ( 1) a
II. theory of knowledge and Judgl?ent about contingent, variable,
metaphysics. 5. the mental act of _
or h1stoncal materials. (2) a judg­
affirming or denying the existence of ment whose truth can be known only
a subject or of an attribute as be­ from experience of the thing that
longing to a subject. The attribute is judged.
shows the subject as existing in a ANT. - a priori judgment.
certain way. This definition immedi� a priori judgment: (1) a judg­
ately gives the distinction between ment about necessary matter. Hence
affirmative judgments ("exists," "is") it is usually about essences. ( 2) �
155
judgment 156 judgment

judgment that is or can be for�ed animal's estimative power knowing

by seeing the necessary connect10n concrete sensible good or evil. It is
or dissociation of its subject and analogous to a genuine act of judg­
predicate without prior experience of ment.
the (universal; necessary) identity or objectively indifferent judgment,
difference of the objects or concepts a judgment concerning objects that
contained in the judgment. (3) Kant. are known to be nonnecessary or con­
a judgment about features of things tingent means to the agent's purpose
that are independent of or beyond so that the goodness of the objects
sense experience so that the judgment and the force of the judgment do not
must depend on some a priori form in compel the will to act for or against
the mind of the knower. these alternative objects. A judgment
attributive judgment, one that as­ about the object's indifference allows
serts or denies a predicate of a sub­ play for freedom in the will's action.
ject, e.g., philosophers are thoughtful. practical judgment, a judgment
Such judgments bear on the essence whose subject matter is action or
(definitions), properties, or accide�ts operable objects.
of a subject. But they have an exis­ rash judgment: (1) a judgment
tential element either in supposing ascribing evil or defect to another
that the subject is existing or in person without evidence; unfounded
telling how the subject exists, namely, suspicion of evil or shortcoming in
as existing with this attribute, e�c.
another's acts or intentions. (2) an
Sometimes these are called essential imprudent judgment, made hastily or
judgments; but this name is better impetuously or without sufficient evi­
reserved for definitions and general dence or contrary to available evi­
analytic judgments. dence or on biased grounds only.
.
empirical judgment, one deahng speculative judgment, one con­
with facts of sense experience. This cerned with the truth of its content
is a frequent nonscholastic use.
for truth's sake.
existential judgment, one that
synthetic judgment: (1) a judg­
explicitly declares (a) existence or
ment based on experience of the re­
nonexistence of the subject, or ( b)
lation of its subject and attribute or
existential presence or absence of the
of its subject's existence. (2) Kant
attribute of that subject.
and others. a judgment whose predi­
good judgment: ( 1) correct judg­
cate is not contained in the concept
ment in matters of art. (2) prudent
of the subject. Hence, it is regarded
judgment in morals; prudent valua­
as informative, new, and not tautolo­
tion.
gous.
immediate judgment, one formed
synthetic a priori judgment,
without a middle term, i.e., without
Kant. a scientific, universal, neces­
reasoning; a judgment based on im­
sary judgment about particular, con­
mediate evidence; direct understand-
tingent, unrelated facts of sense ex­
ing of the thing judged. . perience, e.g., a law of physics or a
judgment of assent: ( 1) knowmg
mathematical theorem. The a priori
that one is judging truly and cer­
element is shown in the universality
tainly. (2) a reflex judgment in whic�
and necessity of the judgment; the
one is critically aware that his previ­
synthetic element concerns the facts
ous judgment is true or certain. See
of sense experience.
ASSENT.
mediate judgment, an assent ultimate (last) practical judg.
based on mediate evidence, i.e., on ment: (1) the judgment immediately
testimony or reasoning from other preceding one's choice or decision.
judgments. (2) esp., the judgment of antecedent
natural judgment, an act of an conscience about the moral good or
judicative 157 ius naturae

evil of a proposed act, immediately law itself to the office held by an

preceding the human act. official.
way of judgment, see s.v. WAY. delegated jurisdiction, power to
REF. - N. Eth., VI, ch. 11 (ethical act as agent or representative of a
sense); F. D. Wilhelmsen, Man's higher authority by special grant of
Knowledge of Reality, ch. 7, 10-13 that higher authority and usually only
(epistemological senses). for a specific case or cases.
judicative, adj. describing or related jurisprudence, n. the philosophy of
to judgment, the second type of in­ law and of rights; the science of the
tellectual operation, rather than to principles by which human reason
another type of mental act: as, assent determines what is morally and legally
is judicative knowledge. Judgmental just. The jurisprudence of the natural
is also used. law considers the existence, origin,
jural, adj. relating to law, rights, or scope, and limitations of natural jus­
duties. tice, natural rights, and natural pub­
*jure divino, Lat. phrase. 1. by lic authority. Hence, it is partially
divine law. 2. by divine right. ethics and partially natural political
juridical (juridic), adj. 1. of law. philosophy.
2. of legal justice. 3. of jurispru­ ABBR. - jurisp.
dence. jurist, n. 1. one learned in the law.
juridical action: ( 1) legally right 2. The Jurist: the reference in Summa
activity taken by a juridical cause. Theologiae is to the Roman, Ulpian
(2) an externally signified will to (l 70?-228), cited in the Justinian
found, change, extend, or abolish Code.
juridical relations with another. jus, n. The plural, jura, is not An­
juridical cause, a moral agent who glicized. 1. the law. 2. a law. 3. a
validly (i.e., with lawful right) pro­ right; a rightful or legal power. 4. a
duces some juridical effect. Such a legal principle or rule.
cause may differ from an historical *jus ad rem, Lat. phrase. a right to
or merely de facto cause: as, a legiti­ an object that one does not actually
mate ruler differs from a usurper. See hold but over which one has a
ORIGIN. claim: as, a right to payment of a
juridical effect, a legal result, de­ debt is a jus ad rem.
cision, or consequence binding in *jus gentium, Lat phrase. lit., "law
conscience. of the nations." 1. in Roman law. the
See also juridical DUTY, FORCE, IN­ body of rules and rights for the gov­
STITUTION, OBLIGATION, ORDER, RIGHT, ernment of aliens subject to Rome
SUCCESSION, sense 3, and UNIT. and of the intercourse of Roman
*juris, n. Lat., genitive singular of citizens with aliens; hence, world­
*jus. pertaining to law or right or to wide Roman law; law agreed upon
a subject of rights. among all men. However, even in
*sui juris, Lat. phrase, see *sm Justinian's Code, a consistent mean­
JURIS. ing is missing. 2. St. Thomas. the
jurisdiction, n. 1. the right to exercise secondary precepts of the natural law
official public authority in some ca­ and the rights associated therewith
pacity; rightful public power or its insofar as these pertain to man in
exercise in a perfect society. 2. the civil society. These, of course, become
territory within which some public customary and internationally codified
authority may be lawfully exercised. law. 3. Suarez. unwritten positive law
3. the matters over which some pub­ or customs of all or nearly all na­
lic authority may be lawfully exer­ tions. 4. Christian Wolff (1679-
cised. 17 54). the natural law of nations. 5.
ordinary jurisdiction, public loosely, today: international law.
power that belongs by nature or by *jus naturae, Lat. phrase. natural law.
just 158 justice

just, adj. I. lawful; legally right. 2. both have equal rights and duties in
due to another, e.g., the equal thing exchanging goods. See chart on VIR­
or act in commutative justice or the TUES for the subjective, potential,
proportionate share in other kinds of and integral parts of justice.
justice. 3. deserved; merited; propor­ civic (political) justice, justice
tionate to the good or evil done; cor­ practiced by rulers and subjects in
responding to service rendered. 4. civic or state matters; hence, it in­
right; fair; equitable. 5. impartial cludes elements of both distributive
according to law and fact, without and legal justice within the state and
respect of persons. 6. righteous; of commutative justice between
morally good; morally balanced; up­ states.
right. distributive justice, the constant
justice, n. I. general sense, as a and perpetual will of authorities in a
state of human activity. I. human natural community to give the due
goodness; the virtues and virtuous social good to each and all of the
acts by which a man's actions are members of the community. Sharing
habitually conformed to moral law. or proportion is the key concept. The
See JUST, sense 6, e.g., St. Joseph, debt due is the member's share in
the "just" man. This is somewhat the goods, helps, and services of the
like the justice in Plato's Republic: community on the same reasonable
a general virtue of due harmony in basis of abilities, merits, and needs
all three parts of the soul. 2. the as other members with the same
Stoic balance. 3. Scriptural sense. jus­ abilities, merits, and needs.
tification by forgiveness of sin and legal (contributive) justice: (1)
reception of sanctifying grace. the constant and perpetual will of
II. as a special virtue. 4. the the members of a natural community,
cardinal virtue of justice; the con­ both superiors and subjects, to render
stant will always to render his every its due to the community, especially
right to another. Justice has three by obedience to just laws and rules.
features: its object (the debt; good; The motive is not obedience, but the
right due to another) ; otherness due good of the community. The debt
or distinctness of parties; some due is the community's proportion­
equality in the object due. 5. most ate share of its members' goods and
specific sense. commutative justice: services. (2) justice as prescribed by
the constant and perpetual will to determinative positive law.
render to another independent per­ natural justice, justice according
son his exact due (proper good; strict to natural law. This may apply to all
right). The debt due is my equal's three species of justice, as far as
own good, his strict objective right. these are determined by natural law,
The parties are distinct, independent and to equity.
persons, whether physical or moral, poetic justice, ideal justice in
and moral equals; they are the holder which good is properly rewarded and
of the right and the person with the evil properly punished, as given in
duty to exercise justice toward that some dramas and stories.
person and his right. The equality is social justice: ( 1) any act of
the exact or arithmetical value of the justice practiced by a group. (2)
object of the right, namely, what is any just act that has important social
another's own, no more and no less. effects. These two senses would be­
Hence, this species of justice is called long to any of the three species of
commutative, meaning justice of ex­ justice. ( 3) a disputed fourth species
change, since both parties must give of justice: the constant and perpetual
full value in exchange. This equality will to make material goods, even
is clearly seen in a contract of buying those privately owned, serve the com­
and selling in which buyer and seller mon use of all men. Its object may
justice 159 justice

be considered to be the needs of vindicative (retributive) justice,

each and all in all comm unities, in­ authoritative justice in imposing sanc­
sofar as these can be supplied by tions.
economic institutions. There are many REF.- N. Eth., V, ch. 1-7; VIII,
disputes about the existence, nature, ch. 1; S.T, I-II, 113, a. 1; II-II, 57,
and features of this mode of justice. 58, 61.
state of original and restored
justice, see STATE of integral nature,
STATE of redemption.
 K
Kantianism (Kantism), n. the prin­ kind, n. 1. a class, preferably a natural
ciples, main doctrine, or method of group or division (genus, species, or
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) or of race). 2. a variety; sort.
one of his disciples. The major areas kinaesthesia (kinesthesia; kinesthe­
of Kantian theory concern ( 1) epis­ sis), n. the special sensation of bodily
temology and (2) ethics. 1. Kant movement: as, stretching, changing
emphasizes the critique of human posture, etc. Though loosely included
knowledge in his defense of science in the sense of touch, these sensations
and philosophy against Hume's skep­ are mediated by special nerve end­
ticism. Sense attains phenomena, the ings in muscles, tendons, and joints.
material of knowledge; but the know, v.t. to be aware of something;
noumenon (essence, substance, cause, to have or to come to have an object
etc.) cannot be reached by the in­ present in one's mind; to become the
tellect unless aided by a priori forms. other as other. Knowing means more
These forms are categories or ways than observing, asking questions, mak­
of understanding the real, rather than ing the effort to learn, etc. Many
categories of the real and observed English uses of the word know de­
traits of objects. The antinomies of scribe some particular type of sen­
pure reason indicate that God's exist­ sory or intellectual knowing, e.g., to
ence, man's freedom of the will, and recognize, to be informed, to be ac­
the immortality of the human soul quainted with, to distinguish, to grasp
cannot be proved; yet they are true distinctly, etc. There are well over
and must be presupposed or postu­ one hundred words used among phi­
lated by the practical reason, which losophers to describe or name vari­
overcomes the agnostic tendencies of ous cognitive acts. Knowing is a liv­
pure reason. 2. Virtue and happiness ing activity in the knower, but also an
proportionate to it are the supreme intentional state relating the knower
good; beatitude consists in progress, to the thing known.
not in attaining the highest good; knowingly, adv. 1. with knowledge of
duty is the only moral motive; the what one is doing; with some realiza­
universal categorical imperatives con­ tion of the object or purpose of the
stitute the moral code; but the moral act. See HUMAN act; VOLUNTARY. 2.
order, which is an autonomous moral­ deliberately.
ity, is distinct from the juridic order knowledge, n. 1. any act, process,
(justice and rights), which is a heter­ habit, state, or fruit of mental repre­
onomous morality derived from the sentation. 2. the knowing act. any
law of the state; the person is an act of awareness of self or of
end in himself rather than an end other objects; an immanent activ­
under God; the purpose of the state ity that possesses the form of an­
is the maximum practical protection other by its intentional likeness;
of everyone's freedom. any act (of exterior senses, interior
key, n. some fact, relationship, doc­ senses, or intellect) in which there is
trine, or method that opens to the an intentional union of knowing sub­
mind a path to an answer, solves a ject with known object. As knowing
basic question, removes a serious diffi­ is a fundamental, personal experi­
culty, or leads to a set of related ence, knowledge is usually regarded
answers: as, the doctrine of creation as indefinable; but it can be de­
is the key to the doctrine of divine scriptively distinguished from uncon­
government of the universe. scious states and from appetitive acts.

160
knowledge 161 knowledge

3. a body of facts, truths, reasons, plete knowledge of both God and the
etc., on a given subject matter. 4. universe, never adequate to the ob­
knowledges, pl., kinds of knowledge; ject.
different sciences or modes of learn­ connatural knowledge: ( 1)
ing using different methods and com­ knowledge by natural inclination; af­
ing to different answers in regard to fective, spontaneous, nondiscursive,
different formal objects within the sure knowledge that is prior to or
same material object of thought: as, exceeds reasoned, critical knowledge,
history, psychology, ethics, etc., are e.g., of minimum standards of moral­
different knowledges of man. Knowl­ ity. (2) affective knowledge, i.e.,
edge is divided in many ways: accord­ knowledge by contact with a loved
ing to features of its objects; accord­ object; intersubjective experience.
ing to its origin; its process; its constructural knowledge, knowl­
qualities; its results in the knower; edge by concepts which are inven­
etc. The same act of knowledge may tions of the knowing subject, not
fit into several of the categories. representations of the experienced ob­
abstrac t knowledge: (1) the act ject (which may be beyond experi­
of knowing by abstracting from ac­ ence), e.g., thinking of light as a
tual existence or nonexistence and spreading wave. The act of existing
from individual traits and conditions as abstracted in a common concept
of the object. (2) general truths of being is such a construct or con­
known through abstraction. ceptualization of being.
abstractive knowledge: ( 1) demonstrative (demonstrated)
knowledge of an object by abstract­ knowledge, certain knowledge or
ing from its existence, presence, or judgment obtained by correct reason­
singularity. (2) knowledge by ab­ ing from evident premises. See DE M­
stract, not merely by universal, con­ ONSTRATION.
cepts. dianoetic knowledge: (1) Plato.
analogical knowledge, under­ knowledge of the unchangeable
standing or judging something in­ mathematical objects. (2) Maritain.
directly by comparing it with some­ ontological knowledge.
thing better known that only imper­ discursive knowledge, knowledge
fectly resembles the second object: gained by a set of connected acts;
as, human knowledge of God gained reasoning and its conclusions.
by comparing Him to creatures is divine knowledge: (1) God's act
analogical. of knowing; God's being as conscious
a priori knowledge: (1) knowl­ of Himself and all beings. (2) what
edge that is not learned or acquired God knows. Divine knowledge is
but is possessed prior to experience, usually distinguished according to its
e.g., innate knowledge of God or of objects.
the soul, as some claim. (2) knowl­ empirical knowledge, knowledge
edge that contains an a priori char­ based on experience and experiments.
acteristic, independent of experience, Hence, the term includes experiential
coming from the knower, e.g., Kant's knowledge, i.e., experience and what
a priori forms of cause, substance, is directly founded on experience; and
space, etc. See a priori JUDGMENT. experimental knowledge, i.e., knowl­
conceptual knowledge: (1) knowl­ edge gained through or grounded on
edge of essences, in the first opera­ exact quantitative measurements of
tion of the mind. (2) knowledge phenomena, controlled tests, varia­
through fairly distinct concepts, tions of factors involved in situations
whether these be intuitive or con­ and sequences of events, crucial ex­
structural. periments, comparisons, etc.
conjectural knowledge, Nicholas e mp i r i o l og i ca l (p e r i n o e tic)
of Cusa (1401-1464). our iru;:om- knowledge, the knowledge peculiar
knowl�dge 162 knowledge

to natural sciences and mathematics (1535-1600) and others conceive this

in which objects are known in terms to be a mode of divine knowing that
of their physical and measurable is intermediate (a) between His nec­
predicates: distinguished from onto­ essary and free knowledge and ( b)
logical knowledge. Some understand between His knowledge of possibles
this to be knowledge restricted to by simple understanding and His
phenomena and their measurable knowledge of existents by vision.
characteristics, without knowledge of natural knowledge: (1) knowl­
being, essence, or substance. edge attainable by the activities of
free knowledge, see FREE. ony's cognitive powers without special
immediate knowledge, knowledge divine help. The objects, then, must
of any object directly present to the be within the realm of nature as
knower; knowledge without any effects or causes of nature; the
medium which (medium quod) in­ powers knowing must be natural; and
tervening between subject knowing the way of using these powers must
and object known. Perception, experi­ be natural. This natural knowledge,
ence, self-awareness, intuition, im­ then, excludes knowledge by divine
mediate consciousness, and vision are revelation accepted by faith, by in­
names or types of such knowledge. fused species, by special inspiration,
infused knowledge, knowledge by genuinely mystical gifts, by gifts
through species put by God into the of the Holy Spirit, or by other helps
creature's intellect, independently of of this sort. (2) knowledge gained
its experience of the objects or truths so easily and early in life that it
known. seems to be almost implanted in us,
innate knowledge, (supposed) in­ e.g., knowledge of the first speculative
born, unlearned knowledge. and practical principles.
intellectual knowledge: (1) an negative knowledge: (1) knowl­
act of the intellect; knowing in a edge of what a thing is not, thereby
suprasensitive way. (2) what is known distinguishing it from others. (2)
by the intellect. (3) pure under­ negative judgment; separation. See
standing, without reasoning. SEPARATION; negative WAY.
interpersonal (intersubjective) noetic knowledge, ontological
knowledge, a person's intimate knowledge.
knowledge of a person as a person or nonperceptual knowledge: (1)
as another subject. infraperceptual knowledge, i.e., sen­
intuitive knowledge: ( 1) immedi­ sory abstraction of a sensible feature
ate knowledge; noninferential knowl­ from the whole object experienced.
edge; knowledge of existing sin­ (2) extraperceptual knowledge, i.e.,
gular objects immediately present awareness without concepts; affirming
to sense or intellect. ( 2) pure experi­ what is not perceived. (3) supraper­
ence. (3) knowledge without ab­ ceptual knowledge, i.e., knowledge of
stracting from the singular essence the purely intelligible in the sensible.
of concrete sensible objects. ontological (dianoetic; noetic)
mediate knowledge: (1) usually. knowledge: (1) knowledge of the
reasoned knowledge. (2) any knowl­ being of things, of their structures
edge gained with the help of a as beings, their causes, essence, and
medium between the immediately intelligible relations: distinguished
known and the new judgment. This from empiriological (perinoetic)
sense includes knowledge by faith, by knowledge which grasps only appear­
immediate inference, and by reason­ ances and measurable predicates. (2)
ing. (3) middle knowledge, q.v. metaphysics.
middle knowledge (intermedi­ ontology of knowledge, the study
ate; mediate; *scientia media), of the being and intentional nature
knowl�d�e <;>f th� futuribles. M<:>lina of knowledge rather than a study cen-
knowledge 163 knowledge

tering on the criticism of knowing. ous judgments of taste, of ways of

This is sometimes used as a synonym repairing a fault in a machine's opera­
for theory of knowledge (epistemol­ tions, self-awareness, etc.
ogy). prejudgmental knowledge, cog­
perceptual knowledge: (1) nitive activity preparing for the for­
knowledge of a thing by percepts, mation of some judgment. This ac­
i.e., by concepts following immediate tivity may include exterior and
sense experience of the object. (2) interior sensations, memory, appre­
the total unified knowledge by senses hension, conception, reflexion, com­
and intellect of a sensible object parison, questioning, doubting, ap­
present to the knower. Such knowl­ praising evidence, testing, the process
edge is not abstractive, not judg­ of reasoning that leads to a judgment,
mental, and not constructural. etc. The combining or separating of
perfect knowledge: (1) knowl­ subject and predicate also precedes
edge of the first causes of things and the judgment of assent.
of things according to their causes; proper knowledge: (1) knowing
wisdom. (2) knowledge that is best an object through a species that rep­
in quality and in objects known; resents it as it is in itself, not by
hence, (a) immediate knowledge, a species imperfectly like it. (2) un­
vision or judgment; ( b) absolutely derstanding something through proper
certain knowledge; and ( c) knowl­ concepts of it, its attributes and
edge of God and of other things relations, or by immediate judgment
through their relation to God. When of it present to the intellect.
predicated of a created intellect, per­ reasoned knowledge, judgments
fect knowledge need not be ( d) or constructs reached by reasoning.
comprehensive. Reasoning itself is not knowledge but
perinoetic knowledge, see em­ a process or a way of knowing.
pi.riological KNOWLEDGE, above. See scientific knowledge, science, q.v.
empi.riological ANALYSIS. self-knowledge: ( 1) consciousness
practical knowledge: (1) knowl­ of the self, of its acts, identity, or
edge concerning operable matters or reasoned understanding of the nature
objects and concerning the methods of the self and the soul and its
of doing individual actions and of powers. (2) sound or sincere under­
making individual objects. (2) hence, standing of one's own character, abili­
the arts, practical sciences, and pro­ ties, tendencies, emotional life, weak­
ductive sciences. Practical knowledge nesses, needs, etc.
may be further distinguished into sensory (sensitive) knowledge:
speculatively-practical, i.e., knowing (1) sensation or sensations; animal
what to do and how to do it as a and human knowing in and by the
matter of knowledge, and practically external or internal senses. (2) the
practical, i.e., knowing in order to do sensory component of human (unified
or make this singular thing. sensory-intellectual) knowledge.
preconceptual knowledge: (1) speculative knowledge: (1)
cognitive activity prior to the forma­ knowledge sought purely or primarily
tion of concepts. This may include for truth's sake, i.e., for the sake
sensory knowing, attention, asking of knowing. (2) knowledge of things
questions, and comparing individuals. that the knower cannot affect by his
The activity may be very elaborate, action. (3) knowledge of operable
involving many judgments and im­ matters, for the mere sake of know­
ages, before conceiving constructs. ing the truth about these matters;
( 2) nonconceptual knowledge; instant speculatively-practical knowledge.
recognition or immediate judgment supernatural knowledge: (1) a
without abstraction, without any con­ way of knowing that is not due to
cepts of essences, etc., e.g., spontane- nature or not possible tQ the natural
knowledge 164 knowledge

cognitive power. (2) truths or objects human judgments about extra­

revealed to man which are not due to mental reality are true and certain
nature or not open to natural ways and how this certainty can be
of knowing. They may be supernat­ justified. Even those who deny
ural in content known, in source there is a critical problem will ad­
making them known, in the method mit that this is what the critique
of making them known or in the way would concern. Any other problems
of assenting to them, in the qualities about knowledge may also be re­
of the knowledge, and in the purpose ferred to as the critical problem,
of the knowledge. See FAITH; LIGHT e.g., Is there any a priori knowl­
of glory; supernatural REVELATION; edge? How can a mind move from
MYSTERY. knowing its knowing to knowing
theoretical knowledge: ( 1) things? Can pure empiricism justify
purely speculative knowledge. (2) any generalized or scientific knowl­
(in a derogatory sense) knowledge edge? How can error be explained?
limited to theory, implying little re­ sign of knowledge, a conceptually
gard for experience, for useful ap­ distinct stage or moment in the
plications, or for pragmatic values order that stands among the things
in human life. known when the things themselves
Phrases about knowledge: are known simultaneously in one
branches (fields) of knowledge: act. The term is especially applied
( 1) distinct arts and distinct sci­ in determining an understandable
ences. Each has its own subject order among the objects of God's
matter and usually its own formal knowledge. Thus, God is said to
object; often, too, each has its know His own being in first sign,
own special methods of attaining His imitability by creatures in
its object. (2) an area of knowl­ second sign, etc.
edge, with a common material ob­ theory of knowledge (criteriol­
ject, about which are gathered ogy; critique of knowledge; epis­
truths pertaining to that subject temology; gnosiology; major logic;
from distinct fields of learning, material logic; noetics; ontology of
e.g., the philosophy of religion, q.v., knowledge), the philosophical study
military science, or educational ad­ of the first principles and truth of
ministration. human knowledge; the metaphysi­
degrees (modes) of knowledge, cal science of the being, origins.
typical ways of knowing, more or types, properties, scope, limits,
less different from other ways of proper conditions for, and truth of
knowing, even of knowing the same human knowing. Even within the
object. Examples include the three Thomist realist tradition, this study
modes of abstraction and separa­ is debatably classified as a part of
tion; common, scientific, and phil­ metaphysics, as a distinct branch
sophical knowledge; practical and of philosophy with its own formal
speculative; reason and faith; ex­ object, or as a combination of
perimental and mathematical; ana­ metaphysical, psychological, and
lytic and synthetic; inductive and logical considerations of knowledge.
deductive; analogical and proper; Scholastics heavily influenced by
animal, human, angelic, divine; Cartesian and other idealistic wor­
etc. Some of the ways give better ries about knowledge tend to regard
knowledge than others in the same the subject as a distinct branch
set; in this sense there are degrees whose objective is the critique of
rather than mere modes of knowl­ human knowledge. Its definition for
edge. them would be the reflex study of
problem of knowledge (the crit­ the existence of and conditions for
ical problem), the question whether human certitude.
known 165 known

REF. -S.T., passim in I, qq. 14, known * per aliud (*per medium
16, 85; Truth, q. 2; J. Maritain, quod), mediately known; known
The Degrees of Knowledge (G. B. through something other than itself
Phelan translation preferred); G. Van or other than its own presence to the
Riet, L'Epistemologie Thomiste, for knower, e.g., by an effect of itself,
varied theories of knowledge among
a sign, testimony, etc.
recent scholastics; Barry Miller, The
known per se (*per se nota),
Range of Intellect (for diagrams on
immediately known; an object whose
knowledge).
known, past participle of know, presence is immediately given to the
used as adj. or as noun (the knowing subject; hence, an experi­
known). the object of attention, ap­ enced object or a self-evident propo­
prehension, understanding, or judg­ sition.
ment.
 L
labor, n. see philosophy of WORK. to ends, endings, and results, which
language, n. any sign or set of signs come after all others in a series or
humanly invented and selected in set.
order to show and share men's latent, adj. 1. existing but lying hidden
thoughts and other mental states. or concealed within a person or thing.
The signs may be many sets of 2. present in potency or in an unde­
vocal sounds for human speech; writ­ veloped state. 3. present but not ap­
ten symbols: as, letters, figures, pearing outwardly: as, a latent fal­
musical notation, etc.; color signals; lacy; latent meaning.
flags; gestures; metered records; etc. latria, n. the internal and external
the language of philosophy, the worship due to and rendered to God
common words with a technical re­ alone; divine adoration.
fined meaning or the special words law, n. 1. in general. any rule or stan­
and phrases (terminology) used by dard for any line of activity or con­
philosophers in general or by some duct. 2. an order of means to some
school of philosophers. end, known or knowable by reason.
logical language, a language spe­ 3. any binding constant command of
cially fitted for the purposes of logic; a superior; precept; "an act of a just
hence; a language marked by clear­ and right will by which a superior in­
ness, literalness, and connectedness tends to oblige his inferior to do this
rather than by expressive, emotive, or that" (Suarez). 4. strict, specific
imaginative, suggestive, and persua­ sense: (a) "an ordinance (ordination)
sive qualities. of reason for the common good, made
object language, a language about by one having charge of the com­
objects and the ideas of these ob­ munity, and promulgated" (S.T., I ­
jects; hence, the language that is II, q. 90, a. 4 ). The ordination is a
discussed by metalanguage. command or directive; the commu­
philosophy of language (also nity is a complete one. See ordinance
called speculative or scientific gram­ of REASON; perfect SOCIETY. (b) "a
mar), a study of the causes of lan­ general precept that is just, stable,
guage, of the universal reasons for and sufficiently promulgated" (Suar­
grammatical constructions, and of the ez); (c) "the order of right reason
basic theory of meaning and usage. proceeding from lawful authority for
language game, phrase. the use of the common good" (Pope Leo XIII).
an arbitrary system of symbols and (d) an effective and promulgated
meanings for the experimental study command of reason made for the
of meaning and its qualities; a formal common good by the proper authority
theory with its own symbols (that in a perfect society. 5. a body of
may be words) as an object of study. laws; a code of laws. 6. a sustained
Such a language or code is not a trend to act or develop in a given
current language of the people or of way or a given direction, e.g., evolu­
a special science. Ludwig Wittgenstein tionary processes in nature.
(1889-1951) was one of the leaders canon law, ecclesiastical law, espe­
in this type of study. cially that of the Roman Catholic
last, adj. Though philosophers use Church. It is today assembled in the
last to mean first, most original, Codex Juris Canonici, containing posi­
deepest (e.g., ultimate or last cause, tive church law together with some
God), this usage does not fit modem natural and divine-positive law.
English too well. It is better applied change of law: (1) objective

166
law 167 law

change, a modification in the content moral law, divine positive law, and
-

of the law's precepts and sanctions. laws of physical nature.

A. formal objective change adds to eternal law: (1) "the mind and
or subtracts from the precepts, per­ will of God commanding the observ­
missions, sanctions, procedures, etc. ance of the order of nature and for­
of the law. (a) The lawgiver ex­ bidding its disturbance" (St. Augus­
trinsically changes the law by adding tine, On Free Choice, I, ch. 6). (2)
new laws; by revising constitutions "the exemplar of divine wisdom as
and codes; by extensive interpreta­ moving all things to their due end";
tion; by approving popular customs "the exemplar of divine wisdom as
as binding on all; by subtracting from directing all actions and movements"
the law or the subjects bound by it: (S.T., 1-11, q. 93, a. 1 c.). (3) "the
by dispensation, amendment, and free decision of God's will, laying
repeal (abrogation) of the whole law. down the order to be observed either
( b) Intrinsic change occurs when the generally by all parts of the universe
law becomes harmful to. the common with respect to the common good or
good or generally useless. B. material specifically by intellectual creatures
objective change of law is a differ­ with respect to the common good or
ence in the concrete relevant cir­ with respect to their free actions"
cumstances under which a legal obli­ (Suarez, Laws, II, 3, 5-6). (4) the
gation, act, use of a right, etc. occurs, immutable, effective decree of God
without a change in the law itself. binding the whole universe to its end
Thus, the natural law commands and to the use of the means for at­
modesty, a virtue that naturally taining this end as these are adapted
varies under many types of circum­ to each nature.
stances. (2) subjective change of law. law in the active sense, law as
change in understanding or observ­ it is in the lawgiver's mind (and
ance of the law, without change in will?).
the content of the law itself. law in the passive sense, law
civil law: (1) the positive law of as it is in the subjects, namely, in
modem states or of political sub­ their knowledge of their duties and
divisions having lawmaking powers. rights and in their observance of
(2) Roman law, particularly that the law.
concerning the private rights of Ro­ law of nations (meanings dis­
man citizens. puted) : (1) "*jus gentium," q v. (2)
.

common law, the unwritten law a code of prescriptions for the com­
of a country (esp. of British and mon good, agreed upon by society at
former B ritish territories), based on large and derivable from natural law
custom, general and habitual usage, (F. Vitoria, O.P., c1483-1546).
and the decisions of courts of law. (3) positive international law as es­
This law remains common even after tablished by treaties and decisions of
being codified and formally legislated. international courts.
declarative law, positive law that law in sign, law as given in the
merely restates a precept of natural code; the rules of law as formulated
law. and published in language, customs,
determinative law, positive law legislative enactments, judicial de­
that adds to natural law or defin­ cisions, etc.
itely settles some matter not fully law of nature, (1) usually. physi­
contained or not accurately defined cal law. (2) sometimes. natural moral
in natural law. Determinative law is law.
positive law in its full, proper sense. law of thought, any basic prin­
divine law, any law directly from ciple of knowledge and reasoning,
God: hence, eternal law, natural esp the principles of noncontradic-
.
law 168 law

tion, excluded middle, and the dictum tence and needs. natural law vir­
de omni et nullo. tually considered, right reason with
mixed law, a precept in a com­ its capacity and tendency to know
munity that has both moral fault the content of the natural law.
and temporal penalty attached to its new law (often capitalized like
violation. New Testament), the divine-positive
moral law, a command of reason law promulgated by Christ. Though
binding free beings to observe it called law, it also contains some
under penalty of sin if they deliber­ counsels.
ately violate it; a law binding in old law (often capitalized), the
conscience. (a) directly moral law, divine-positive law that was promul­
a law immediately and uncondition­ gated mainly by Moses; esp. the
ally binding in conscience; a law with ceremonial part of the Mosaic law.
absolute moral obligation attached. penal (purely penal) law, a hu­
Some explanations of penal law at­ man law that does not directly bind
tach to it ( b) an indirect moral in conscience, but may bind morally
obligation to pay a just penalty im­ or purely juridically to acceptance of
posed for violating such a penal rule. the penalty imposed on someone who
See OBLIGATION. violates the law. See disjunctive, hy­
natural law, usually meaning natu­ pothetical, juridical OBLIGATION.
ral moral law, while the terms law physical law: (1) an intrinsic
of nature or physical law or scientific necessarily acting tendency in a natu­
law are used for mere things, (1) "the ral body or other nature to produce
sharing in the eternal law by the ra­ definite effects proper to its nature
tional creature" (S.T., I-II, q. 91, a. in a uniform determinate way and
2). (2) the dictates of right reason measure or by a narrow range of
concerning the necessary order of hu­ determinate means; the sharing in
man nature. ( 3) the universal, prac­ the eternal law by the irrational crea­
tical obligatory judgments of right ture. See uniformity of NATURE. (2)
reason concerning the duties and the scientific or mathematical expres­
rights of human beings inasmuch as sion of the constant way in which
they are human and knowable by natural bodies of the same class act;
the use of right reason. the statistical constant expressing the
Christian natural law, the pre­ average way in which natural bodies
cepts and the applications of the act. ( 3) a sustained trend in things
natural law as clarified, inter­ to act or develop in a certain way or
preted, and confirmed by the truths in a given direction, e.g., the law of
of Christian faith and tradition greater complexity in organic evolu­
guiding reason; natural law as dis­ tion. See main entry, 6.
covered, retained, or applied to new positive law, a reasonable ordi­
problems by reason healed and kept nance of a legitimate superior estab­
from error by supernatural grace, lishing a general and just rule for
and operating within the teaching the common benefit of his subjects
influence of the Catholic Church. and properly promulgating this rule
See Christian PHILOSOPHY. by some external sign. Divine-positive
natural law formally consid­ law is decreed and promulgated by
ered, the body of precepts and God. Human-positive law is decreed
rights that constitute the law; the and promulgated by legitimate human
dictates (judgments) of the law authority in state or church.
concerning natural duties and natu­ principle of law, any of the gen­
ral rights. natural law fundament­ eral rules or precepts about human
ally considered, the objective norm conduct. A primary principle of natu­
of morality; the evidence for the ral law is a simple, almost self­
content of the law in human exis- evident, very broad rule of human
law 169 Jaw

TYPES AND SOME RELATIONSHIPS OF LAWS

1. THE ETERNAL LAW

in God - directs
all creatures
in all their activities,
------- namely ----
---
Angels and their acts •
Man's human acts . �
Mere acts of man, th'mgs,

by by and activities of things

by

'
2. Angelic natural law 3. Natural cmoral) law 4. Many physical laws
(laws of nature)

supplemented by supplemented by supplemented rarely

by

5. Divine
t
positive law
t
Miracles
for angels

(in the

6. Divine positive
for men
church)

law
(in the family)

9. Precepts
of parents, guardians,
and their delegates
;; \ (in the state)

�; kw

a) Primitive
b) Mosaic (Old Law)
c) Christian (New Law) 10 a. Sovereign 11. Associated
states sovereign
c supplemented by states
t

\
7. Canon law supplemented by

supplemented by 12. Local ordinanc L � rders of military

8. Precepts
t � 14. Concordats betwee;'1
officers, etc .

of the Pope, Church and sovereign

local bishops, states
and religious
superiors
--- -------------------

action: as, "Do good, avoid evil." A developed minds readily reason to it:
secondary principle of natural law is as, "Honor parents." A tertiary princi­
closely and necessarily connected with ple of natural law is a precept dis­
the primary principle, concerns an coverable only by complex and subtle
important interest in human life that reasoning, sometimes demanding con­
occurs frequently and is, therefore, siderable attention to circumstances
so abundantly evident that normally and detachment from emotional im-
lecture 170 life

pediments to clear thinking: as, Hence, it refers to a passible quality.

"Banish evil desires." Different au­ libel, n. a written statement injurious

thors extend or restrict each of these to another's reputation.

classes. liberty, n. I. freedom, q.v. 2. a right,
philosophy of law, jurisprudence, q.v. 3. a permission; leave.
q.v. libido, n. I. Freud and psychoanalysis.
ABBR.-l. psychic energy; the drive behind all
REF. - S.T., I-II, esp. qq. 90, 91, human action. 2. sexual impulse; con­
93, a. 1; F. Suarez, S.]., Laws. scious or masked desire. 3. overt
lecture, n. the medieval teaching showing of lustful desire.
method of reading a prescribed text liceity, n. lawfulness; permissibility
with students while the instructor granted by law itself or by legiti­
made appropriate commentary or ex­ mate dispensation.
plication of the text; also, a lesson licit, adj. I. allowed by moral or hu­
period, a lesson, or a written lesson man law or by custom; lawful; per­
using this method. See St. Thomas' mitted; authorized; morally good.
commentaries on Aristotle's works for 2. rightly applying the rules of rea­
an example. soning: as, a licit inference. This
ABBR.-lect. sense, then, means valid, correct.
legal, adj. of, grounded on, authorized lie, n. (a disputed definition): (a)
by, or closely conformed to legal formal speech contrary to one's mind
rules, esp. to those of positive law. or knowledge. (b) deliberately utter­
The broader term, lawful, applies bet­ ing a statement or performing an ac­
ter to the end and principles of the tion with intention to deceive another.
law and to natural law; legal is con­ ( c) a denial of the truth due to
trasted with natural. another. ( d) deliberate speech con­
ABBR.-leg. trary to one's communicable mind.
legalistic, adj. I. stressing the letter See FALSEHOOD.
or technicalities of a law rather than Lies are classified in many ways:
its intent and spirit; emphasizing con­ joking, injurious, helpful to one's self
formity to legal rules above the moti­ without harming another; officious,
vation of moral agents and the good i.e., made to help another without
aimed at by the law. 2. contented desire to harm anyone; material lie,
with external obedience to a law. 3. i.e., merely a false or erroneous state­
tending to make the law itself or the ment; noble lie (Plato, Republic, II
lawgiver's will a more basic norm and III), i.e., told for the good of
than right reason, the common good, the state; this is about the same as
or common need of the members of the political lie told by a public
the community. official for a supposed political good;
lemma, n. a proposition assumed to lies of duty (necessary lies), used
be true and used to support or officially to prevent harm, misunder­
demonstrate a primary proposition: standing, or untimely revelation of
as, a causal clause used to prove a the truth.
major or minor of a syllogism. REF. - St. Augustine, On Lying,
liable, adj. I. morally or legally an­ ch. 4; Against Lying, ch. 12; S.T.,
swerable for one's act and its con­ II-II, qq. 109, 110, 113; A. di Ma­
sequences, esp. if these be penal rino, S.J., "Why is Lying Forbidden?"
sanctions. 2. bound to make good Theology Digest, XIV (1956), 9-12.
any loss or damage that occurs be­ life, n. This term describes first the
cause of a contract. 3. bound to resti­ living acts which we experience;
tution to another for deliberate, cer­ then it is applied, in tum, to the
tain, and actually resulting injustice powers, form, nature, and being that
done to him. 4. likely to suffer from; live; finally, it is extended by meta­
disposed to suffer from; subject to. phor to the lifelike. 1. immanent
light 171 li�ht

activity; activity that begins in the other meanings are attributions or

agent and is performed by the agent metaphors.) 2. a cause of seeing or
for its own interior good; self-per­ understanding; any source of or help
fecting activity. 2. the capacity for to knowledge. 3. the agent intellect in
immanent activity; ability in a na­ its abstractive activity that makes the
ture, form, or power to move possible intellect proximately able to
itself to its own good. 3. the sub­ see or know form in the sensible. 4.
stantial form proper to a nature that the intellect as a power of knowing or
can perform living acts. See vital seeing the truth. 5. knowledge, esp.
PRINCIPLE; SOUL. 4. a nature able clear understanding of something;
to act immanently. This usage is logical truth. 6. public knowledge.
often restricted to vegetative life as 7. the act of illuminating the hu­
other modes of life have names of man intellect. See ILLUMINATION. 8.
their own. 5. the living being; that a manifestation of truth; revealing.
whose act of existence is to be alive. 9. one who reveals or teaches truth.
6. a set or pattern of living activities; 10. knowledge as a guide to conscience
a way of life. See CONTEMPLATION, and moral action. 11. clear evidence,
senses 3 and 4. 7. some activity or the readily intelligible: as, the light
movement that resembles true life. of being. 12. a medium ( quod) of
active life, a way of human living knowledge; evident knowledge lead­
that is mainly occupied in and pleased ing to other knowledge: as, in the
with external activities. light of principles. 13. the method,
book of life, God's infallible aspect, point of view, apperceptive
knowledge of the saved. mass, or formal object su b quo
common life: (1) life spent to­ whereby something is observed,
gether by two or more, sharing home, learned, understood, or interpreted;
goods, companionship, etc.: as, com ­ what helps one know some formal
mon life is the duty of spouses. (2) object of a thing in a certain way
technically, in canon law. living to­ or in a certain degree. Thus, reason,
gether according to the same standard faith, revelation, introspection, ex­
of religious poverty. perimentation, etc. are called lights
degrees of life, the analogical or means of getting evidence. 14.
levels of immanent perfection in the beauty; brilliance; clarity; glory;
ranks of living things, namely, plants, purity; excellent example; etc.
animals, men, angels, and God. according to one's lights, as one's
philosophy of life, the study, by conscience, knowledge of law and
proper philosophical methods, of the fact, religious instruction and beliefs,
origin, nature, purpose, personal and or one's training may direct.
social values, and principal relation­ by the light of, helped to under­
ships of human life. stand or moved to assent by means
principle of life, a soul as sub­ of. See senses 2, 3, 7, 12.
stantial form of a living body. divine light: (1) God's knowledge.
spiritual life: (1) contemplative (2) the divine origin of all knowl­
life. (2) the deliberate pursuit of the edge. (3) special divine help or revel­
life of grace and of communion with ation for knowing anything difficult,
God. hidden, spiritual, or supernatural: as,
REF. - S.T., I, q. 18; C.G., I, ch. the light of the Gospel.
97-98; Truth, q. 4, a. 8. intellectual light: (1) the abstrac­
light, n. 1. the physical being, nature, tive activity of the agent intellect:
activity, or effects of light. For St. sense 3. (2) the intellect as a cause
Thomas, light is an active quality of knowing truth: sense 4. (3) illumi­
of the sun or any self-luminous body. nation: sense 7.
For Robert Grosseteste (1168-1253), light of faith, revealed light, be ­
it is the first form of bodies. (The low; faith as a form of knowing.
like 172 locomotion

light of glory, the supernatural intentional likeness: ( 1) the cog­

disposition given to the beatified that nitive representation of an object in
raises the created intellect to actual the image, concept, or species of the
vision of the divine essence. judgment. (2) the likeness of the
light of reason, natural light, produced form to the exemplar in
below. the maker's mind. See ontological
metaphysics of light, a term for TRUTH. (3) the unity of will (of
the medieval theory of the nature, desire, of love of the same good or
causes, and symbolism of light, and of each other) between those who
for its connection with knowledge and love.
faith. REF- S.T., I, 42, 93.
natural light: (1) reason as a liking, n. complacency.
power of actually knowing; reason limitation, n. 1. the function of limit­
alone, operating without the super­ ing or restricting. 2. an extrinsic or
natural aids of actual grace, faith, intrinsic factor that holds a being,
or revelation. (2) the principles nature, form, power, or operation
known by natural reason considered within a finite measure or degree: as,
as means to other knowledge. (3) a passive potency is an intrinsic
natural evidence. principle of negativity that limits act.
revealed light (light of faith; 3. a being limited; imperfection; in­
light of revelation; supernatural capacity in regard to, or privation of,
light) : (1) the divine grace of faith some specified perfection. 4. ethics.
or any other interior supernatural aid a restricting condition that defines the
to knowledge. (2) the person or per­ situations within which some act may
sons manifesting divine truth: as, be lawfully performed or some right
Christ, the Light of the World. (3) justly exercised. These are said to
the human intellect aided by super­ be three: the purpose of the right,
natural means of knowing and assent­ the title, and the duties to others'
ing to truths. (4) supernaturally re­ simultaneous rights. 5. the statutory
vealed truths. time within which the right of pre­
under the light of, the medium scription or other settlements of
by (or under) which of knowledge; claims by legal action may be in­
formal object quo; see sense 13, voked.
above. link, n. anything serving to connect;
like, adj. similar: either (a) exactly hence, a bond in a relation or the
the same; equal; or (b) almost the relation itself.
same as another in some specified missing link: (1) something lack­
feature, quality, etc. See ANALOGICAL. ing that is needed to complete a
likeness, n. 1. agreement of two or series. (2) specifically. a hypothetical
more in being, nature, form, or at­ animal believed to have existed in the
tributes. See IDENTITY. 2. close simi­ evolutionary process, intermediate be­
larity of one to another. 3. a copy tween the anthropoid apes and man
of another; the result of imitation. (homo sapiens).
See ANALOGY; IMAGE; REPRESENTA­ located, adj. the accident whereby a
TION; SPECIES. body has its being in a place.
chance likeness, a physical simi­ location, n. 1. the presence of a body
larity between objects that have in its proper or particular pl ace 2.
.

neither a common origin nor an ar­ position in space among other bodies.
tistically planned resemblance: as, locomotion, n. 1. local motion; change
likeness in the shape of a head and from place to place; a traversing of
of an egg. some space. This is the most proper
entitative (physical) likeness, a sense of motion. 2. the immanent
similarity between real things or ob­ power of animals and men to move
jects. their bodies from place to place. 3.
locus 173 logic

a potency to be moved from place Aristotelian logic, the doctrines

to place. of Aristotle's Organon. The name
locus, n. (pl., loci). 1. a place. 2. sometimes includes the medieval ad­
a passage from some book or docu­ ditions to Aristotle's logic; this ex­
ment which is being quoted, referred panded Aristotelian logic, prior to
to, or used to authenticate or illus­ development of mathematical logic,
trate a statement. 3. a source from is then referred to as traditional
which one may draw arguments. logic. See old and new logic, below.
*loco citato, Lat., in the cited Modern logicians speak of it as a
place (reference). logic of terms, a class logic emphasiz­
ABBR. - Zoe. cit. ing relation of the predicate to the
*locus classicus, a passage gener­ subject, and a logic of the categorical
ally recognized as having magisterial syllogism.
authority or special value (for origi­ dialectical logic, the part of logic
nality, summation, illustration, defini­ that treats of the theory and prac­
tive answer, etc.), and, therefore, tice of probable reasoning: distin­
often cited. guished from demonstrative logic.
*locus a minori, the rule of cau­ doctrinal logic (*logica docens),
sality used in logic: "What the less the science of logic.
perfect can do, the more perfect intentional logic, a type of logic
can do." that implies a metaphysics of real
ABBR .- l. beings as the objects about which
logic. n. 1. art of logic. the art of one ordinarily thinks in a logical
correct reasoning; "the art directing manner: distinguished from a logic of
reason's own act" (St. Thomas); the a special universe of discourse, e.g.,
art perfecting the intellect for the a logic of pure relations, of pure
act of reasoning; trained ability to symbols, of mathematical symbols
reason with order, ease, and techni­ and equations, etc.
cal correctness; skill in ordering one's *logica docens, the science of
own thinking. 2. science of logic. the logic; pure logic.
practical science of correct reasoning; *logica utens, the art of logic; the
the science of the first principles of practice of logic.
second intentions (conceptual be­ material (major) logic (a dis­
ings); the discovery, analysis, proof, puted and fluid term: distinguished
and correlation of the principles and from formal or minor logic), the
rules for clear, consecutive, and con­ rules and procedures of correct think­
sistent thinking. We may have a ing, i.e., of form and structure in
general logic of the rules and methods propositions and syllogisms, as formu­
for everyday and common subjects lated by Aristotle and Peter of
of human interest; or, we may have Spain's Summulae Logicales (1210-
a logic of particular fields of learning 1278), are often meant by formal
that begin with special assumptions (minor) logic. Material logic may,
and use their own methods and tests then, mean: (a) study of content
for correctness: as, the logic of ex­ rather than logical form; ( b) induc­
perimental sciences, of statistics, etc. tion, the logic of probable arguments,
3. the way a person reasons; instances the logic of scientific methods, etc.;
of sound or faulty thinking. 4. the (c) historical criticism, its rules and
necessary connection of ideas with procedures; (d) theory of knowledge.
events, of preparation with perform­ Some declare that material logic is
ance, of action with effect, of past a contradictory term since logic must
with the present, etc.; the logic of be about form; but the great Mate­
events. This meaning stretches the rial Logic of John of St. Thomas
technical notion of logical connection (1589-1644) makes this an awk­
to the broader notion of relation. ward contention.
logical 174 love

mathematical (symbolic; mod­ correct; well-reasoned; done accord­

ern) logic, a modem type of for­ ing to the rules of logic. 3. habitu­
mal logic somewhat resembling ally right in reasoning. 4. mental or
mathematics in its nonverbal signs purely mental: as, logical being, dis­
and in its methods. It is specially tinction, relation, order, unit. 5.
interested in problems relating to the necessarily connected with some­
foundations of mathematics and for­ thing; reasonably expected to fol­
mulates mathematical theory as an low.
applied logical system, i.e., as one Logos, n. (sometimes, logos for
augmented by further axioms. It is Greek phil.). 1. Greek, esp. Stoic,
formal in the sense that it lacks ref­ philosophy. reason, thought, or wis­
erence to the meaning of the sym­ dom conceived as the controlling
bols and the symbolized propositions power or soul of the world and
(as intentional logic does) and is con­ manifested in human knowledge and
cerned only with correct relations in speech; reason as immanent deity
the statements made about the sym­ in the ordered universe. 2. Christian
bols. It is also spoken of as a logic theology, following St. John's Gos­
of propositions, rather than as a logic pel: the Son of God, the Word, the
of terms or classes. Whether this Second Person of the Blessed Trin­
kind of logic is a further expansion ity, the Wisdom of God. This Wis·
of Aristotelian logic or has any rel­ dom is also present in the universe
evance to strictly philosophical prob­ by divine omnipresence and dwelt
lems is disputed. among us in the human nature of
natural logic, the art of logic Christ.
practiced by one without formal *logoi spermatikoi, transliterated
training in it. Stoic term. See seminal PRINCIPLES.
new and old logic: among the love, n. 1. willing a good to some
medievals, old logic included Boe· one; an act of the rational appetite,
thius' ( 480?-524?) logical commen­ following upon intellectual knowl­
taries and his translations of Aristotle's edge, in which a person likes, de­
Categories and On Interpreta­ sires, gives, or enjoys a good. 2. a
tion. The new logic, later than Peter feeling of strong affection for a
Abelard (1079-1142) and certainly person. This is often an act of the
regnant with Peter of Spain (1210- concupiscible appetite accompanying
1277), included the four other logical an act of the will. 3. attachment
works of Aristotle (Prior Analytics, or devotion to a person or persons.
Posterior Analytics, Topics, Sophisti­ 4. willing to give another the good
cal Refutations) and The Book of that is my own; charity, q.v. 5.
Six Principles attributed to Gilbert strong, often passionate, affection
de Ia Porree {1070-1154). for some person; gratification of
symbolic logic, see m athematical sexual passion. 6. a strong liking
LOGIC, above. for some thing or a strong interest
traditional logic, see Aristotelian in some thing or occupation: as, a
and new LOGIC, above. love for philosophy; delight in a
two-valued logic, a logic that well-liked object, pleasure, occupa­
assumes that any proposition must tion, etc. 7. the person or object
be true or false and sets up truth of affection, attachment, interest,
tables on this postulate. Aristotelian etc. ; the loved or beloved. 8. broad
logic is two-valued because of its sense. a natural or ontological tend­
use of the principle of noncontradic­ ency of a nature or power to its
tion. proper good. See natural LOVE, below,
ABBR.-log. sense 2.
logical, adj. 1. belonging to or used affective love, love with feeling.
in logic: as, a logical technique. 2. conjugal love, love between
love 175 ly

spouses; a love both sexual and (2) any nature's appetency for its
spiritual, exchanging with one's spouse own good. This sense applies even
the good things of the common life to nonconscious natural bodies.
of marriage. produced love, a suggested term
effective love: ( 1) deliberate, for the act of loving that is formed
often, cultivated love. (2) love in the will, analogous to the mental
showing itself in good deeds to word put into the intellect by an
others. act of knowing. See WORD of the
elective love, love of a good as heart.
a means to an end for one's self or self-love: ( 1) willing and doing
for others. good to oneself. (2) inordinate love
love of benevolence: (1) love of self, selfishness, etc.
of a good just for its own goodness. sensible love, desire for, feeling
(2) love of friendship. This love and pleasure in regard to an object
is chiefly intellectual. agreeable to a sensory appetite. De­
love of concupiscence, desire sire for the pleasant good is regarded
for possession of or satisfaction in as a basic passion of the concupiscible
a good for one's own sake; love of appetite.
a person or a thing as something REF. -S.T., I, qq. 20, 60; I-II,
useful or pleasant to the one �oving. qq. 25-27; C.G., I, ch. 91.
This may remain largely at the level l uck, n., see FORTUNE; CHANCE.
of sensory desire.
*ly, old French article meaning
love of friendship, willing the
the. It is used in medieval works
good to another for his own good,
as a substitute for the missing Latin
esp. if this be willed as to one re­
garded as one's equal. article when something specific needs
natural love: ( 1) human love of to be noted or when material sup­
a natural good for a natural motive. position is indicated for a term.
 M
Machiavellianism (M a c h i a v e l- the Socratic method of intellectual
lism), n. the political principles and midwifery. A person already has in­
methods taught by Niccolo Machia­ born knowledge of a topic. The
velli (1469-1527) about the uses questioner or teacher helps him to
of government power, including the give birth to conscious knowledge,
doctrine that the end (sc. the success i.e., to recall what he already knows
of the prince or of the government) by a planned series of pertinent
demands, without morally justify­ questions that gradually refine his
ing, the use of evil means such as answer, set aside false opinions, and
lying and treaty breaking. prepare him to form a true defini­
machine, n. I. an artificial body tion of what he already knew.
made by man as a special instru­ maim, v.t. to deprive a person of
ment or tool having a specific struc­ the use of some necessary part of
ture for a specific purpose and oper­ the body by functionally disabling
ating by local movement of some a pa;t, crippling, or otherwise muti­
of its parts. 2. in mechanics. a de­ lating. The crime of mayhem (mai­
vice that transmits or changes the hem) is intentional maiming of parts
application of energy. 3. something of the body necessary for protec­
like or thought to be like a machine tion or self-defense.
either because it lacks natural unity, major, adj. I. greater in size,
life, will, or purpose of its own, or amount, number, extent, importance,
because it is an artifact made and rank, etc. 2. broader; more inclu­
used by its human master for his sive; wider in extension. 3. consti­
own purpose. See MECHANISM, sense tuting a majority of a total num­
4. ber.
machine theory of the state major distinction, see real DIS­
(instrumentalist theory}, the view TINCTION.
that the state resembles a machine the major: ( 1) the major pre­
in that it is not a natural society mise. (2) less often. the major term
but a purely human institution or of a syllogism.
purely contractual society with the ABBR.-maj.
end, nature, powers, and limits put make, v.t. to bring about a change
upon it by man. in another being external to the
macrocosm, n. the universe regarded agent. In preferred scholastic us­
as the great order embracing all age, making is distinguished from
natures. Man is the microcosm. doing (sense 4), which is immanent
magnanimity, n. the virtue or char­ activity. See an English dictionary
acter of the great-souled man who for meanings of this important
does noble deeds and seeks the causal word.
honors that he deserves for these. make-up, n. 1. the way in which
This virtue, related to courage, something is put together; construc­
marks the Aristotelian hero. The tion. 2. the constitution of a thing;
complex qualities of magnanimity nature. 3. arrangement; static order.
include generosity to friend and foe, 4. disposition; natural or habitual
and absence of all flattery, mean­ tendency.
ness, pettiness, grudge-bearing, etc. malice, n. I. deliberate choice of evil;
REF.-N. Eth., VI, ch. 3-4; S.T., intentional badness; hard, bitter, or
11-11, 129. defiant wickedness. 2. evil intention
maieutic (maieutic method), n. shown by planning to do and in-

176
man 177 manner

tentionally doing something unlawful; glory of God and man's own beati­
malice aforethought (malice pre­ tude. 7. a male person, servant, mem­
pense); hence, evildoing without ber of a military force, etc. 8. the
mitigating factors of ignorance, haste, human species; the human race;
impulse, etc. 3. intense desire to harm mankind.
others. 4. bad will; malevolence. 5. act of man, an action performed
a vice. by or in a human being, but not per­
contrary malice (Scotistic usage), formed freely or in a specifically
deliberate choice of an object known human way: as, hearing loud noises;
to be in discord with human dignity beating of heart. See HUMAN act and
or with the norm of morality. chart on acts of MAN and HUMAN
privative malice (Scotistic usage), Acts.
a good act that lacks even indirect man's nature, see HUMAN nature.
relation to man's end; hence, a hu­ philosophy of man, the study of
man act that is indifferent in the the first principles of the nature and
concrete. unity of man. It is also called the
special malice: ( 1) the specific phiiosophy of human nature; philo­
evil of a given human act. (2) the sophical psychology; even, rational
special or unusual ill will, bitterness, psychology. It has no formal object
spite, cruelty, or other subjective of its own among the branches of
factors that may be involved in some philosophy but combines the ap­
evil act. proaches of the philosophy of nature
man, n. 1. descriptive, phenomenologi­ and of metaphysics in studying the
cal definitions. an animal using sym­ natural life of man. A few would in­
bols; a tool-using animal; a talk­ clude ethics and natural religion as
ing animal; a thinking organism. parts of the philosophy of man.
2. popular definition. a human be­ p owers of man, see POWERS.
ing; a person, male or female. 3. theories on man, see DUALISM,
biological definition. (a) Homo sa­ preestablished HARMONY; HYLEMOR­
piens. Biologically man is in the king­ PHISM; PARALLELISM; MATERIALISM;
dom of animals, the phylum of MECHANISM; VITALISM.
chordata, the subphylum of verte­ mandatory, adj. 1. having the nature
brates, the class of mammals, the of, similar to, or containing an au­
order of primates, the suborder of thoritative command. 2. obligatory;
anthropoidea, the superfamily of required by legitimate authority.
hominoidea, the family of hominidae, Manich aeism (Manichaeanism,
the genus of Homo, the species or Manicheism), n. the philosophical
specific difference of sapiens. ( b) an and theological doctrines of the Per­
anthropoid with four special features: sian Manes (?216-276?), his follow­
erect posture; free-moving arms and ers, and the like doctrines of the Albi­
hands; a large brain capable of keen genses, who flourished in southern
perception, fine judgment, and de­ France from 1000-1300. These in­
cision; and the power of speech. 4. clude the double first principle of
physical definition. a living substance good and evil (light and darkness;
composed of a material body and a spirit and body), the positive reality
spiritual soul as its form; an organism of evil, the evil of matter and of
constituted of a primate body in­ human generation, and the denial of
formed by a spiritual soul as its prin­ personal responsibility for sin. Sts.
ciple of life. 5. metaphysical defini­ Augustine and Thomas Aquinas both
tion. a rational animal; a person battled strenuously against it.
having a body. 6. causal definition. manifest, adj. immediately evident;
a creature composed of a material intuitively apparent.
body and a spiritual soul, made to manner, n. I. a way or method of
the image of his Creator for the doing something or in which some-
manner 178 manner

COMPOSITE LIST OF TERMINOLOGY ON MAN

I. Being and nature

of man
{ a rational animal
a composite unit
an organism
a creature
a person
the �mage of God

Constitution of
man
{ a living body a microcosm
two substantial principles: matter of the body- spiritual
soul as form
the systems (nervous, digestive, etc.) of the body

material
{ matter of the body
disposed matter at time of generation
formal: a spiritual soul
efficient: God as Creator of soul and as uniting it with the
disposed matter
II. Causes of man dependent efficient cause: parents for the disposed matter
exemplary: God

final
{ sharing God's goodness
giving formal glory to God
beatitude
the vision of God

{
physicochemical powers as in any material body
motor powers
nutritive
vegetative augmentative

{
reproductive
sensory

sight
hearing
external resistance of
taste
senses bodies
smell
touch warmth and
cold
balance
sensible pleas­
III. Powers of man ure and pain
internal bodily

[ central (unifying;
common)
states

imagination (including
internal
senses
1 memory)
discursive (cogitative;
human estimative)

{
memorative power

I sensory concupiscible
l appetites

spiritual (in­
tellectual)
{ irascible
agent intellect
possible intellect
will
IV. Properties of man: speech; subject of moral law; social being; political animal
V. Properties of the human soul and of some of its acts: simple; spiritual; immortal;
superior to sense; irreducible to matter; extrinsically dependent on matter; intel­
lectual; free in some acts; incarnate in the body; has rights
manslaughter 179 material

thing is done or occurs; mode of proper education of children. 3. the

procedure. 2. the way a person acts; rite or form used at a wedding.
personal behavior; bearing. Manner Christian marriage: (1) the sac­
tends to accent the personal char­ rament of marriage; the contract of
acteristic in the way of acting; marriage as a sign conferring grace
method, the orderly, logical way; upon the Christian. (2) the married
mode, the customary way 3. the state as reformed and elevated by
usual way of acting; customary or Christ, with specific reference to its
habitual behavior. 4. a distinguished unity, perpetuity, and religious char­
or polished way of acting. 5. (pl.) acter.
social ways; prevailing social cus­ consummated marriage, marital
toms; action according to prevailing union made complete by the first use
social conditions and customs; a cur­ of marriage rights after the wedding.
rent mode of acting. 6. good manners. Marxism, n. a system of thought and
a potential virtue, related to temper­ a technique of economic-political
ance, which constantly inclines a per­ revolution developed by Karl Marx
son to proper external conduct to­ (1818-1883), Friedrich Engels (1820-
ward one's equals. 1895), and V. I. Lenin (1870-1924).
manslaughter, n. unlawful but not See COMMUNISM; SOCIALISM; dialec­
malicious killing of another human tical MATERIALISM.
being.
masses, the, phrase. the common or
working people; the lower social
many, adj. consisting of a large in­
classes: distinguished from the
definite number of persons or things;
classes; the proletariat. This is a
numerous. The characteristic of in­
modern social sense of the many.
definiteness in this word's extension
master, n. 1. a man who rules others;
raises problems in supposition.
one who has authority, control, or
virtu a ll y many, actually one but
power over something: as, the head
having the powers of two or more
of an institution, an employer, an
kinds, grades, forms, or natures. See
owner of an animal, a captain of a
VIRTUALLY.
ship, a victor. The control may be
many, n. and pronoun. a large num­ one of commanding or one of using.
ber of persons or things. 2. a male tutor, teacher, etc. Orig­
the many: (1) the majority of inally, the master had received a
people. ( 2) the people; the multi­ graduate master's degree, entitling
tudes; the masses. ( 3) in contrast him to teach. 3. a teacher of religion,
to the one, as in the problem of the philosophy, etc., whom one professes
one and the many: ( a ) all; (b) all to follow. 4. a person highly skilled
but the one; ( c) all, as like, directed and competent in some art, craft,
to, derived from, or produced by, profession, science, etc.; an expert.
the one. See problem of the ONE and 5. something regarded as having
the many. power or control over a thing or
marriage, n. 1. the act of taking an­ person: as, fear was his master. 6.
other as husband or wife; the con­ (The M-) the honorific name of
tract by which a man and woman with Peter Lombard, Master of the S EN­
juridical capacity mutually associate TENCES.
themselves and are joined together master science, see subalternating
into one principle for acts suited to SCIENCE, sense 3.
the proper procreation of children; material, adj. 1. composed of matter;
the wedding. 2. the state of marriage; consisting of bodily substance; hav­
wedlock; the permanent moral union ing matter as part of itself. 2. in­
of a man and a woman resulting trinsically dependent on matter for
from a legitimate contract of mar­ its being; able to exist only as pres­
riage, for the proper procreation and ent in matter: as, the soul of a dog
material 180 materially

is material; extension is material. 3. reality is ultimately matter and can

of, relating to, inhering in, or taken be explained as a modification or
out of bodily substances; physical; movement of matter. "The real is
corporeal. 4. of the body; of the matter or in matter." It is also called
body's needs, pleasures, changes, etc. materialistic monism. Modern or soft
5. sensual (as a property of animal material admits realities other than
and human material substance). 6. bodies; these arise from, depend
fond of pleasure, comfort, wealth, ma­ totally on, and exist in matter, but
terial goods; worldly. 7. potential (as have no effect on matter. 3. the
matter is potential); indeterminate; philosophy of man. the view that
of, in, or out of the potency; un­ man is entirely material (and tem­
formed; formless: as, material cause. poral), having no spiritual soul,
8. important or essential to the matter powers, activities, or afterlife. 4. eth­
being discussed or to the validity of a ical materialism. any view that ma­
case, document, argument, etc. 9. terial goods and interests are the
relevant to the total object or scope only or the chief goods and goals for
of objects of a power, habit, or act; human living. 5. scientific material­
general; indefinite: as, material ob­ ism. the conception that science must
ject of the intellect. 10. of the con­ restrict its study to material things,
tent rather than of the form and their states, attributes, and connec­
method: as, material logic; material tions. 6. dialectical materialism. the
principle of a conclusion. 11. physi­ technical philosophical name for the
cally occurring but not formally moral philosophy of Karl Marx. It is (a)
because unintentional: as, material a hard materialism; literally, all
cooperation; material sin. things are only matter; but ( b)
NOTE- With the material are as­ dialectical materialism, i.e., matter is
sociated these notions and terms: the intrinsically evolving from thesis to
potential, undetermined, incomplete, antithesis to new synthesis until the
imperfect; passive, the receiving, the perfect synthesis is reached in the
subject; the general, generic, com­ universal economic classless nonpoliti­
mon, indefinite; the limiting; the cal society. The usual doctrines of
changeable; the formless; the un­ naturalism are included: atheism, no
ordered; the perfectible; the unin­ eternal and natural moral law, no im­
tentional. See note s.v. FORM. mortality for the human soul, no true
material, n. 1. what a thing is made personal freedom, etc. A special
of or is thought to be made of; in­ Marxist feature is the economic in­
tegral parts; constituents of a body: terpretation of human history, for
as, raw material. 2. unfinished stuff the pursuit of material goods explains
(fabrics, leather, brick, etc.) from all human social change.
which clothing, etc. may be made. materially (Lat. *materialiter), adv.
3. a material substance; a body; 1. in the matter: distinguished from
material substances generally. 4. a in the form. 2. with regard to the
tool, article, etc. needed to make matter, material substance, potency,
something: as, writing materials. 5. object, or content of something: dis­
(pl.) data, notes, outlines, records, tinguished from reference to the
etc. from which a lecture, report, dis­ form or formal determination. 3. in
covery, etc. may be developed or put a material, physical, or bodily man­
into form. ner. 4. with regard to material
materialism, n. 1. any doctrine or objects, interests, values, etc. 5. po­
tendency that emphasizes matter as tentially; as that out of which some­
the best reality or that limits reality thing can be formed; after the man­
to the material alone. 2. metaphysical ner of the material causes: as, the
(philosophical) materialism. the view nature of a singular thing is formally
that matter alone exists and that all individual but materially universal. 6.
mathematicals 181 matter

in or with reference to the whole noun material. 1. what a bodily sub­

object or whole class of objects: dis­ stance is made of; constituent ma­
tinguished from reference to the terial. 2. the fundamental stuff in all
formal object. See material OBJECT. bodies and of which they are ulti­
7. with regard to what is done but mately composed; what corporeal na­
apart from intention in doing. See tures are made of and which usually
material MORALITY. 8. nonphilosophi­ has such accidents as extension, in­
cal use. to a great extent; sub­ ertia, mass, weight, volume, natural
stantially. changeability, and some perceptibility
materially the same, formally to the senses through its accidents.
different, see IDENTITY. 3. a bodily substance: distinguished
mathematicals, n. pl. the objects from spirit and from the body's ac­
studied in mathematics; objects of cidents. 4. a specified body; a piece
the second mode of abstraction. of organized matter; a corporeal na­
mathematics, n. the group of sci­ tural unit. 5. material cause in the
ences that deal with abstract quan­ strict sense: distinguished from form;
tities, magnitudes, numbers, figures that from which something is pro­
or mathematical forms, their measure­ duced or from which a form is
ment, attributes, and relationships, by educed; the potential constituent
the use of axioms, definitions, and de­ principle of a composite thing; the
ductions, expressed in numbers and passive subjective potency, deter­
symbols. minable subject, or substratum in
method of mathematics, a method which change occurs; the passive sub­
of proceeding from a priori defini­ jective potency which in change is
tions and axioms, by necessary de­ deprived of an old form and receives
duction, to implications and relation­ a new form with which it is united
ships, which are usually expressed in and shares its being, and together
numbers and a technical code of with which it intrinsically constitutes
symbols. The method characterizes one being. Form here need not mean
some of Plato's work, much of only substantial form, for material
Descartes, Spinoza (1632-1677), and cause is not restricted to prime
some idealists. See also mathematical matter. 6. material cause in the broad
LOGIC. sense: (a) that from which something
philosophy of mathematics, the is produced or educed, (b) the sub­
study of the first principles of ab­ ject in which it is or which is acted
stract quantity and its relations, in­ on, or (c) the matter about which
cluding the theory of the nature of some mental, voluntary, or legal ac­
mathematical knowledge and the de­ tion is concerned. 7. any passive
gree of applicability of pure mathe­ potency; the subject or potency that
matics to an imperfectly ordered, has been determined or is to be
changing universe of space and time. determined by causal action; the
matrimony, n. marriage. patient. Everything in potency may
matrix, n. 1. originally, the womb. be called matter: as, the spiritual
2. that within which, or that within soul is in potency to knowledge. See
and from which, something originates, SUBJECT, sense 1. 8. any elements
takes form, or develops. 3. the basic, or members to be determined, united,
primordial world-stuff. 4. a truth table agreed to, or related together by an­
of the interdependent truth functions other factor to be named the form:
of related propositions. as, the matter of a contract is the
NOTE - Geological meanings are object of agreement, sc., the rights
omitted. and duties exchanged; the matter of
matter, n. NOTE -The senses of the a proposition, sc., subject and predi­

adjective material may be more in­ cate; the matter of a syllogism, sc.,
formative than the senses of the the three terms in the premises; the
matter 182 matter

matter of a society, sc., its members; enuntiable of a judgment or proposi­

the matter of a sacrament, sc., the tion.
materials and actions used and given designated ( signate; marked;
meaning by the sacramental form. 9. individual) matter, matter con­
the material of thought or expression; sidered with its dimensions but in
content: distinguished from form, abstraction from substantial form;
style, method, correct procedure, etc. the specified amount or piece of mat­
10. the subject or topic of inquiry, ter in an individual body.
reflection, discussion, concern, action, disposed matter, a material sub­
etc.; thing; object; subject matter: ject that is in proximate potency to
as, the matter of a right; a matter of receive a definite form proportionate
conscience. to its ready dispositions.
common (undifferentiated) mat­ intelligible (mathematical) mat·
ter, prime matter considered as not ter, what is present in sensible things
divided into numerous individual but is not perceptible as sensible and
bodies; the mass of prime matter in changeable; material substance ab­
the universe; the general substratum stracted from all sensible qualities
of all corporeal things. (but not from quantity) and, as such,
contingent matter, a nonnecessary not perceptible by the senses. The
(contingent) truth considered as the mathematical cannot exist without

{
SOME USES OF THE TERMS MATERIAL CAUSE AND MATTER

prime matter

{
as subject of
disposed matter
1. As passive form

{
second matter
potency
(substratum; second matter as substantial change
as subject of
matter in subject of accidental change
change or
which)
privation powers as subject of new acts, habits
finite good as subject of evil

( { elements
raw materials ; natural resources

{
real integral parts of some whole
2. As source objects to be unified
from members of a society
which
terms for propositions
premises for conclusions
logical
rules for a system
individuals for universals
terms of a relation
objects of rights, contracts, etc.
objects of living powers

3. As object or { a) signate matter

matter about sensible matter
objects of perception, abstraction,
which intelligible matter
and scientific thought
b) material object
subject matter
objects of appetitive operations

objects determined by lawmaking

{ subjects of law
acts and omissions re-
quired by law
matter 183 meaning

matter but can be thought of without sensible matter belongs, not to the
matter and as common to many kinds individual, but to the class of bodies:
of bodies. as wood to all trees.
necessary matter, a truth neces­ signate matter, see designated
sary in itself, considered as the MATTER, above.
enuntiable or subject matter of a spiritual matter, the potential
judgment or proposition; hence, ana­ principle in a pure spirit: an expres­
lytic truths, mathematical theorems, sion used by Avicenna and St. Bona­
strictly scientific truths (in the venture to explain the limiting prin­
Aristotelian sense of science). This ciple in a finite spirit. Its function
does not refer to that which neces­ is analogous to that of essence limit­
sarily but consequently is true be­ ing the act of existence in Thomism.
cause of the given evidence to a con­ mean, n. 1. something between others
tingent fact. (known as the extremes) ; an inter­
operable matters, objects of doing mediate size, position, course, method,
and making; hence, end, means, etc. 2. intermediate in nature, quality,
methods, practices, and production. or state between contrary extremes
prime (primary; pure; first) and partaking of some characteristics
matter: (1) the pure passive po­ of both extremes: as, colors in the
tency in bodily substances, having no middle of the spectrum. Hence,
form, species, or privation, and re­ though contradictories have no mean,
ceptive of any forms or subsequent contraries may have many means.
privations; the completely undiffer­ 3. middie; as, the "mean term" of
entiated (indeterminate; unformed; comparison. hence, 4. the middle term
common) basic material of all bodies in a syllogism. 5. either middle term
in the physical universe, subject to in a four-term proportion. 6. the
all changes, informations, and priva­ mean of virtue; the golden mean. the
tions. ( 2) the first intrinsic and po­ moderate and reasonable act between
tential principle of a corporeal es­ opposed vices, as chosen by the prac­
sence; material cause in the most ticed man of virtue; the prudently
basic sense. See Aristotle, Met., VII, chosen way of doing the right thing
ch. 3 for the famous description of in the right manner, in the right
prime matter; id., ch. 10; IX, ch. 1, measure, at the right time, in the right
7; St. Thomas, Principles of Nature. place, and to the proper person; the
proximate and remote matter, mean of reason between excess and
see POTENCY. deficiency. 7. moderation in general;
second matter, matter determined absence of extremism on either side.
and organized by form; a natural 8. the arithmetical average of two
body; a sensible body quantified and or more sums or quantities. 9. the
constituted as a particular substance mean of the thing; the real mean.
by the union of prime matter with the exact object due in commutative
a substa,ntial form; matter as it is justice, neither less nor more. This
when actuated by substantial form. is extended to the proportional mean
Matter in this sense is the subject of or due share, in the other types of
accidents or of accidental forms. justice. 10. the constitutional control
Prime matter is the per se substrate of states by the middle class. Such
of substantial form and privation. control is considered a mean between
Best usage speaks only of second full democracy and monarchy.
matter as . the .subject or material REF.- Met., X, ch. 7; N. Eth.,
cause in which for accidental forms. II. ch. 6, 9; III, ch. 5; Politics, IV,
sensible matter, second matter or ch. 11; S.T., I-II, 64.
bodies with their natural physical ac­ meaning, n. 1. what is meant; what
cidental forms or qualities and, hence, is intended to be or actually is under­
perceptible by the senses. Common stood, referred to, or indicated by a
meaningless 184 mechanism

sign, symbol, name, sentence, clue, in itself and a means to beatitude.

etc. Note that the meaning of terms measure, n. 1. the extent, dimensions,
differs from their supposition. 2. the capacity, intensity, etc. of anything,
intelligibility of relations, esp. be­ esp. as determined by some standard.
tween sign and signified, symbol and 2. the act or method of determining
symbolized. 3. hidden or deeper value; the extent, dimensions, capacity, in­
implied or coming consequence. 4. tensity, etc. of anything. 3. a standard
deliberate purpose; intention. 5. the or unit of measuring. See NUMBER;
good aimed at. UNIT. 4. any standard, norm, or cri­
formal (rational) meaning, the terion of judgment, comparison, or
explicitly intended or understood valuation: as, law is a measure of
meaning: distinguished from symbolic human acts; "God is the measure
meaning which is a vague guide, of all beings" (Plato). 5. an instru­
e.g., in pictorial, storied, or ritual ment or container for measuring
style, of the explicit meaning to be quantity and its properties. 6. a sys­
affectively appreciated. tem of measurement. 7. a definite
meaningless, adj. 1. having no or quantity or amount measured out,
little meaning; senseless; nonsensical. counted, shared, or thought of as
2. logical analysts. not verifiable in measured. 8. a proportion, degree, or
sense experience. Some analysts allow limit: as, all things exist in number,
an emotional meaning to some state­ measure, and degree. 9. a means;
ments but not an intellectual, sci­ step; course of action: as, take
entific, or objective meaning. measures to your goal.
means, n., used as sing. or pl. I. ABBR. - meas.
what an agent uses to produce an mechanical, adj. I. having to do with
effect; that by which something is machines or tools. 2. produced or
made; an instrumental cause; a de­ operated by a machine or machines.
pendent cause between the principal 3. like a machine in structure or oper­
cause and the effect. With reference ations; hence, automatic; very regu­
to the end intended, even the activity lar and repetitive; lacking intelligence
of the principal cause may be con­ and direction of its own; lacking in­
sidered a means to get to that end. ternal unity; lifeless; not working for
2. a useful good. 3. a method or way its own good; showing only change
of doing or making something. 4. the of movable parts with no internal
total set of acts, aids, materials, tools, change. See mechanical CHANGE;
etc. by which an end is gained. 5. MACHINE THEORY of the state. 4.
property, environment, employment, of, in accordance with, or using the
and other conditions regarded as aids principles and terminology of the
to human living: as, governments science of mechanics; hence, refer­
seldom live within their means. ring to motion and force in bodies
extraordinary means (esp. in or explaining other things by such
reference to care of health), a means motion and force: as, some think the
that is very burdensome, intensely brain is just a mechanical device.
painful, expensive, or requiring in­ 5. involving manual or bodily labor:
genious or unusual skill in applying as, the mechanical arts.
it. Availability, possibility, or unique mechanism, n. 1. a machine, esp.
suitableness of a means does not make its working or moving parts. 2. a
it ordinary. system whose parts are put together
means-end, n. some good that in one and operate like those of a machine.
respect is sought for its own sake and 3. a means or set of movements by
is thus an end, while in another re­ which anything physical or mental is
spect it is sought for the sake of done, esp. if the process is uncon­
something else to which it is a means: scious or the reasons for it are not
as, knowledge of philosophy is an end known by the agent: as, dislike of
mechanicism 185 medium

philosophy sometimes is a defense problem: as, The Meditations of

mechanism. 4. any variant of several Marcus Aurelius (121-180) and of
views of the universe, man, and the Descartes. 3. mental prayer apt for
state as being basically constructed personal understanding of some re­
and functioning like a machine and ligious truth, event, moral principle,
its parts: (a) the universe as a whole etc., and its application to one's own
is built as a machine and all its ac­ living. This ascetical sense of medi­
tivity can reductively be explained as tation differs from the more intuitive
mass in motion; ( b) all change in and affective contemplation that
bodies is merely mechanical, i.e., a seeks love and action, as prompted
movement in time and a rearrange­ by the subject of the contemplation.
ment in place of internally unchang­ Thus, a person would tend to medi­
ing parts, with no true novelty; (c) tate on the nature of God but con­
living bodies are only highly complex template Christ's washing of the
machines and all organic life is only Apostles' feet. 4. any form of mental
a variation of the physicochemical prayer. 5. some medieval monastic
machinelike activity of matter; (d) senses: (a) reflecting for practical
the state is a machine in unity, struc­ reasons; making moral reflections.
ture, operation, and end. See MA­ (b) deliberating on a course of ac­
CHINE theory. tion; planned preparation for discus­
mechanicism, n. mechanism, sense 4. sion, lecture, or action. (c) learning
mediate, adj. 1. being between two classic religious texts in order to
others; intermediate. 2. prior to the apply their ideas to oneself. ( d)
immediate in a series of related steps, main sense. learning thoroughly by
connected agents, grades of being, the triple method of active and aloud
positions on a scale, etc. 3. acting reading, thinking of the meaning of
through an intervening agent: as, what has been read, and fixing it in
God's government over children is memory. (e) St. Bernard. reasoning
mediate through their parents. 4. de­ from pertinent principles but directed
pendent upon, or resulting from, in­ to contemplation of the truth
direct or intermediate agency; de­ rather than to scientific knowledge.
rived from another: as, a mediate See SCHOLASTICISM and scholastic
inference. 5. indirect; indirectly con­ METHOD.
nected. REF. - J. Leclerq, O.S.B., The
mediate, v.t. 1. to join (others) to­ Love of God and the Desire of Learn­
gether; to connect in some way, esp. ing.
as an agent acting for the parties to medium, n. 1. a mean; something in­
be joined or brought to agree. 2. to termediate between two others. 2.
be or serve as the medium, agent, something that in some way unites
or mutual friend who brings about the extremes. 3. a means; an agent or
some result, e.g., by carrying messages instrument transferring agency or
from one party to the other, acting force from another higher agent to
as an arbitrator in a dispute, acting the effect or patient, e.g., the medium
as a broker for, substituting for, etc. of light. 4. the material or potency in
Sometimes the verb is intransitive in which an artist works. 5. a surround­
this sense. Also note the large use ing or pervading substance in which
of this word in Hegelian philosophy: bodies exist or move.
mediating or going between the Ab­ medium of demonstration, see
solute and the individual. DEMONSTRATION.
meditation, n. 1. careful and deep medium of knowledge, what is
examination and reflection on some between the knower and the known
experience, problem, theme, event, and in some way assists or brings
etc. 2. a written philosophical treatise about the union of known with
giving one's reflections on some knower. The subjective medium is in
medium 186 memory

the knower; the objective is external world is perfectible and will become
to the knower. The following four better if men bend their efforts to
divisions of the medium of knowledge improve it. As proposed by William
are not uniformly explained by the James (1842-1910), this antipessi­
scholastics. mistic doctrine holds that God is
*medium in quo (in which): (1) finite and not responsible for the im­
the medium in the knower, sc., the perfection of the world. Meliorism
expressed species. (2) the medium fits in easily with evolutionism. 2.
in the object known, i.e., that reality the betterment of human living by
or real note which is the reason why improving health and living condi­
something else is or can be known tions, by better education, by better
simultaneously or successively, e.g., use of freedom to do the good, etc.
God's essence as imitable is the This is an applied humanism.
medium in which God knows simul­ member, n. 1. an arm, leg, other in­
taneously His Essence and the pos­ tegral part, or organ of a human or
sibles; the falsity of one contradictory animal body. 2. a distinct integral
is the medium in which the truth of part of a whole. 3. a logical part or
the contradictory is known. division in some system of classifica­
*medium quo (by which), what tion; inferior; subjective part. 4. a
leads to knowledge of another but physical or moral person constituting
need not be itself known before that or belonging to a society, state, etc.
other object is known, e.g., the im­ ABBR.-mem.
pressed species whereby the knower memorative power, phrase. see
immediately knows the object with­ POWER.
out noticing the impressed species. memory, n. 1. a power or act of re­
See pure SIGN. taining, recalling (recollecting), and
*medium quod (which); * me· recognizing past experiences, past
dium ex quo (from which), an ob­ states, or their objects. Memory has
ject or form, external to or internal the three stated functions. 2. any
to the knower which must be known object, fact, experience, or state that
before it can lead to knowledge of is remembered; all that one remem­
another. bers. 3. an object, souvenir, gift,
*medium sub quo (under which): testimonial, letter, etc. that serves
(1) the light, source, or cause enab­ as a way of reviving the memory of
ling the person to know: as, reason or some person or persons.
revelation. (2) the formal motive of intellectual memory: (1) the
assent. function of the intellect in retaining,
EXAMPLE: St. Thomas in Quod­ recalling, and recognizing past intel­
libetum VII, q. 1, a. 1 calls the lectual or voluntary experiences or
agent intellect the medium sub quo, their objects. This remembered
the intelligible species the medium knowledge may be in the state of
quo, and effects as leading to knowl­ habit rather than of full act: as,
ledge of causes or a contrary as memory of a philosophical lecture.
leading to knowledge of its opposite (2) reason deliberately guiding the
a medium in quo. In the theory of sense memory and recognizing its re­
knowledge, a most important item is called experiences or objects as past.
one's position on the species as a ( 3) objects, words, meanings, etc.
medium quad or a medium quo. See revived and recognized by the in­
IMMANENCE. tellect.
REF. - S.T., I, 94, a. 1 ad 3; sense memory: (1) the function
Truth, q. 2, a. 5 ad 10; a. 6 ad 10; of the human or animal imagination
10, a. 8; 18, a. 8 ad 1; Quodlibetum in retaining and recalling past sensi­
VII, q. 1, a. 1. ble experiences, their images, and the
meliorism, n. 1. the view that the objects of these. (2) the combined
mens rea 187 metaphor

action of imagination and estimative of grace and deserving some super­

power in recognizing past experiences natural reward.
concretely as past (i.e., as familiar or REF.-S.T., I-II, 21, aa. 3, 4;
already known). 114, a. 1; Truth, q. 29, aa. 6, 7.
REF. -Aristotle, On Memory and n;ieta-, Prefix, meaning: 1. changed
Reminiscence. m form or position, altered. 2. after:

*mens rea, Lat. legal phrase. the as, in metaphysics. 3. behind; at the
guilty mind; intent to do evil. ?ack of. 4. b�yond; higher; surpass­
mental, adj. 1. of, in, by and in or mg. 5. superimposed; on a second
for the mind. Mind here usu�lly higher, or later level; on the levei
means intellect: as, mental repre­ of second intentions; duplicating the
sentation of a thing. 2. cognitive. preceding from another aspect. The
3. existing only as an object of the prefix also has special meanings in
mind; having a purely logical status chemistry's terminology.
of being; logical. metaethics, n. 1. normative ethics. 2.
the study of the origin, causes value
merism, n. a proposed substitute for
the theory of hylemorphism that �nd meaning of moral conce ts and
p
Judgments about morality.
would regard complex bodies as a
system of matter and many forms
metalanguage, n. a language about
language; a language of the syntax
or as a structure of the bodies of
of the object language, e.g., about its
its component particles and members;
rules and properties, or about the
hylesystematism.
formation and idioms of the given
merit, n. 1. in general. a good deed
freely done as a service to another
·
word languag�. See ME TA , sense 5;
hence, sometimes called an over­
and of itself deserving something as
language.
its reward. 2. abstract sense. the
metalogic, n. the theory of the lan­
value of a good deed as worthy of
guage of logic.
reward; the title or exigency for re­
metaphenomena, n. pl. the things or
ward. 3. active and concrete sense.
objects beyond, beneath, and above
the good deed done for another. 4.
the phenomena; the metempirical
passive sense. the reward promised,
realities; hence, noumena.
due, or given for the deed. See
metaphilosophy, n. a philosophizing
premial SANCTION.
about the nature, aims, methodology,
condign (*ex condigno; true)
and language of philosophy. The
merit, a good deed that earns a re­
problem of the existence of a Chris­
ward on the title of justice or' in
tian philosophy may be considered a
the opinion of some, at least on the
metaphilosophical problem.
title of fidelity to a promise binding
metaphor, n. 1. a figure of speech
in commutative or distributive jus­
in which one thing is likened to an­
tice. This merit also exactly matches
other different thing by being directly
the conditions of a reward set in
named as if it were that other or
advance.
a member of its class; an extreme
congruent (*ex congruo; appro­ comparison in which a word or
priate; loose sense of) merit, a phrase that is literally and primarily
good deed that is rewardable on used of one thing is applied to an­
grounds less than justice or to a de­ other naturally different thing: as
gree . greater than justice or fidelity philosophy is the uncrowned quee�
requues: as, on grounds of friend­ of natural knowledge. Metaphor dif­
ship, pity, public spirit, recognition fers from a simile which explicitly
of extraordinary service, generosity of states that one is like another not
the rewarder, etc. that one is another. Some meta horsp
supernatural merit, a good deed in the course of time become com­
done with the help of or in the state monplace and then are only second-
metaphysic 188 metapsychology

ary or derived meanings of a word ral theology; (c) theory of knowledge

or term. 2. the extrinsic analogy of or of the being of knowledge; ( d)
proportionality. 3. predication of a the portion of the philosophy of man
term in the sense of an imperfect that treats the immaterial aspect of
comparison. human nature. Metaphysics is also
ABBR. - met.; metaph. known as first philosophy; the divine
metaphysic, n. metaphysics. science; philosophy of being; ontol­
metapliysical, adj. 1. of, having the ogy; wisdom; metaphysic. 2. specula­
nature of, or like metaphysics and tive philosophy in general. (Yet I.
metaphysical thinking. 2. belonging to Kant has a book with the puzzling
or characteristic of being, esp. of be­ title, The Metaphysics of Morals,
ing in general. 3. explaining or solving perhaps in reference to sense 3, a
in terms of being, its first principles, nonphilosophical usage.) 3. the theo­
first causes, structure, or basic cate­ retical principles of any branch of
gories; concerned with ultimate, or knowledge; a study of the founda­
with the broadest, generalizations tions, presuppositions, and first prin­
about things. 4. necessary; without ciples of any given topic: as, the
any possible exception in any being; metaphysics of human rights. This
absolute: as, metaphysical certitude. is not a study of being. 4. popular
5. philosophical. Yet metaphysical is sense. difficult, abstract, subtle rea­
not asserted of logic and ethics. 6. soning, full of distinctions, and more
fond of, devoted to, skilled in the concerned with ideas than with facts
study of metaphysics. 7. very ab­ and objects.
stract; subtle. This development of defensive metaphysics, theory of
sense 1 is often used in a derogatory knowledge when regarded as a de­
sense as needless or useless refine­ fense of the worth of human knowl­
ment or abtractedness. 8. dependent edge in general or of metaphysical
on abstract or a priori reasoning. knowledge in particular.
ABBR. - met.; metaphy. The ad­ essentialist metaphysics, a meta­
verb metaphysically pertains to senses physics colored by interpreting being
2, 3, and 4. as the essence; hence, a metaphysics
metaphysics, n. lit., the treatises of universals, abstractions, categories.
"after the Physics," sc., in the corpus existentialist metaphysics, a
of Aristotle's works as edited by An­ metaphysics colored by the inter­
dronicus of Rhodes (fl. c. 60-50 pretation of being as that which ex­
B.c. ) ; sometimes thought to mean be­ ists; hence, a more realistic, concrete
yond the physical, transcending the metaphysics that is much more de­
Physics in penetration of reality or in pendent on sensible experience and
ascent to the highest reality. 1. the on the act of judgment than essen­
science of being as being; the study of tialist metaphysics which tends to
things from the viewpoint of their be­ the a priori.
ing; the science of immaterial being; ABBR. - met.; metaph.
the branch (or branches) of philoso­ REF. - Met., I, ch. 1-2; IV, ch.
phy that studies the absolutely first 1-2; VI, ch. 1; XI, ch. 7; St. Thomas,
principles of being; the science that Commentary on Boethius' Book "On
"treats of the most abstract aspect the Trinity," q. 5, a. 1; J. Owens,
of being as being and whatever ac­ C.Ss.R., An Elementary Christian
cords with it in the same abstract Metaphysics, 1-13; 365-371.
and knowable aspect" (Suarez). The metapsychology, n. 1. some nonpsy­
branches (parts) of metaphysics are chological study of psychology: as,
referred to usually in terms of con­ a study of its language, a philosophi­
temporary academic courses: (a) cal study of psychological facts and
general metaphysics; introductory purely empirical laws such as scho­
metaphysics; or ontology; ( b) natu- lastic philosophy of man, any theo-
metempirical 189 methodology

retical interpretation of facts about in a developing order as they are

mind, Freud's theorizing about emo­ proved, proofs of positions, refuta­
tion as a discharge of the physical tions of reasons advanced for other
energy in memories. 2. paranormal positions, and defense against objec­
psychology, e.g., the psychology of tions to the position taken by the
extrasensory perception. writer. The major scholastics have
metempirical, adj. beyond or in addi­ also reviewed the history of ideas
tion to the experienced: as, con­ and opinions on the questions they
structs, inferences, induction of natu­ were discussing.
ral laws, and knowledge of the spirit­ R EF.
- Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris
ual are metempi,rical knowledge. (famous passage praising this meth­
method, n. 1. a particular way of od); M. Grabmann, Geschichte der
finding, doing, or making something; Scholastischen Methode.
regular procedure. See WAY. 2. a way scientific method, the group of
of keeping order in a series of oper­ methods used in modern sciences: sc.,
ations so that a definite end may observing facts, controlling experi­
be achieved: as, nature's way in ments, forming hypotheses, collating
evolution. 3. a set of rules helpful data by statistics, measuring quantita­
for seeking truth in some type of tive aspects of reality, forming induc­
learning, in which the starting point tions about laws of natural operations
and the tests for evidence are and expressing these in quantitative
stressed. relations and symbols, applying math­
analytic method, see ANALYSIS. ematical formulae to the measured,
axiomatic method, the use of cer­ and critically testing hypotheses, laws,
tain consistent axioms and definitions and other conclusions. The method
as the basis for a deductive system. stresses objectivity in knowing, the
Cartesian method, see methodical quantitative aspects of phenomena,
DOUBT ; MATHEMATICS. and the a posteriori approach to the
logical method, an ordered series details of nature.
of steps in mental operations in order Socratic method, maieutic, q.v.
to reach valid conclusions. synthetic method, synthesis, q.v.
mathematical method, see MATH­ theological method, a way of con-
EMATICS. necting truths that is common in
rational method: ( 1) a method Christian dogmatic theology, in which
that uses reasoning: the use of logic. the thinker begins with revealed or
(2) probable reasoning; the use of defined doctrines and arranges his
hypotheses, etc. ( 3) a posteriori rea­ materials in an order of descent from
soning. God to creatures and from existence
sapiential method, the way of to substances, then to powers and
knowing proper to intellect, namely, activities. Thus, the Apostles' Creed
by immediate judgment of principles lists doctrines in a theological order,
and judgments of other matters in not in the historical order in which
the light of their first principles; these doctrines were revealed to men
hence, the method proper to meta­ and not in a psychological order of
physics (sc., wisdom: sapi,entia) ; a their appeal or teachableness to the
combination of intuitive knowledge young. St. Thomas' Summa Theo­
and a priori reasoning. logiae arranges the materials in the
scholastic method, the method treatise on man in theological rather
common to many scholastic philoso­ than in a posteriori philosophical
phers and theologians, built around method.
the question or disputed question, Also see IMMANENCE, INTERIORITY,
and marked by exact definitions and REFLEXIVE, REDUCTIONISM, BEHAVIOR­
concepts, division of topics into small ISM, MILL'S CANONS, DIALECTIC.
units, proper arrangement of topics methodology, n. 1. the science of
microcosm 190 miracle

method or of orderly arrangement; tellectual. This neutral character of

the branch of logic dealing with the the word mind, neither defending nor
ways and steps of philosophical and denying a distinction of intellect from
scientific investigation and thinking. sense, is to be noticed in other mean­
2. the method or methods actually ings. 2. collective sense. all conscious
used in learning and testing some fact powers, activities, and states. This
or truth. meaning neither asserts nor denies
microcosm, n. I. a little world; a anything of the substance or form
miniature universe. 2. man as contain­ that thinks. 3. the possible intellect.
ing within himself all levels of finite 4. the intellect in God. 5. memory;
being and life and as able to know recollection. 6. normal intelligence;
all things in the universe. 3. some sanity. 7. a way or tendency in think­
community regarded as an epitome ing: as, the idealistic mind. 8. what
or representative of the world; or one thinks; opinion; view. 9. what
a collection, as in a zoo or museum, one intends; purpose; deliberate de­
representing types from all over the sire. 10. the being that belongs to
world. the mind or the being manifested by
middle, adj. see TERM. consciousness: distinguished from
middle class, the social class or matter; hence, the thinking soul.
economic class between the aristoc­ Many idiomatic English phrases in­
racy or wealthy and the proletariat clude the word mind, e.g., according
or working class; hence, owners of to the mind of; be of two minds;
small businesses, professional and sal­ call to mind; change one's mind;
aried workers, well-to-do farmers, etc. have or keep in mind; know one's
middle way: (1) a moderate mind; make up one's mind; meeting
position between extremes: as, mod­ of minds (in a contract); to my
erate realism in regard to universals mind; etc.
stands between ultrarealism and nomi­ minor, adj. logic. narrower in logical
nalism. (2) a middle social or politi­ extension; less inclusive: as, minor
cal policy, in between old-style capi­ PREMISE; minor TERM.
talism and monopolistic state social­ ABBR.-min.
ism. miracle, n. I. nominal and loose sense.
Mill's canons, phrase. the methods something admirable and rare. Such
of inducing the cause of observed an event may be wonderful to us but
phenomena by testing the hypothesis not wonderful in itself. 2. strict,
of its cause, proposed by John technical sense. a sensible effect oc­
Stuart Mill (1806-1873), A System curring in nature, surpassing the pow­
of Logic, 8th ed., p. 280 ff. The er or course of all created nature, and
methods are known as: (1) the produced by God. Controversies about
method of agreement (F. Bacon's the exact definition of miracles con­
[1561-1626] table of essence and tinue even among those who accept
presence); (2) the method of differ­ them as possible and actual. The
ence (Bacon's table of absence in definition presented seems to be a
proximity); (3) the joint method of moderate position that is justified
agreement and difference: this com­ theoretically by God's free causality
bines methods 1 and 2 (Bacon's table and historically by examples of
of degrees and comparisons); (4) the miracles.
method of concomitant variations; intellectual miracle, one that oc­
(5) the method of residues. curs in the knowledge of a human
mimesis, n. imitation. being: as, an infallible prophecy of
principle of mimesis, " Art imi­ free future events or a sudden gift
tates nature." of understanding of an unknown
mind, n. I. any activity or state of language.
consciousness, whether sensory or in- miracle above nature, an event
mistake 191 mode

or effect supernatural in substance, necessity, or other logical mode. See

which no nature can do. MODE of intention. 3. a special spirit,

miracle apart from nature, an emphasis, tendency, etc. that charac­

event or effect supernatural in man­ terizes certain persons, writers, com­
ner, which nature cannot do in this munities, etc.: as, the intellectualist
way in its usual course. modality of Aristotle; the affective
miracle contrary to nature, an modality of St. Bonaventure (1221-
event or effect supernatural in direc­ 1274).
tion because it is opposite to a natural m ode , n. 1. a manner, way, or charac­
term of action or a natural way of teristic style of being, acting, causing,
acting. knowing, predicating, judging, prov­
moral miracle, one that surpasses ing, etc. 2. a qualification, determina­
the capacities for virtue that man's tion, or modification of a being, term,
unaided powers have. proposition, etc. 3. a degree or state
physical {cosmic) miracle, an of something: as, modes of abstrac­
act, event, or change that surpasses tion; modes of chastity. 4. a method
the power of nature or its course. of acting, arranging, calculating, etc.
REF. - ]. A. Hardon, S.J., "The 5. customary usage; fashion: as, in
Concept of Miracle from St. Augus­ dress, manners, entertainment, etc.
tine to Modem Apologetics," Theo­ Meanings in music and other techni­
logical Studies, XV (1954), 229-257. cal subjects are omitted.
mistake, n. a fault in perceiving, un­ mode of being: {1) a way in
derstanding, calculating, remembering, which something has its being; any
reasoning, interpreting, reading, per­ modification of a being; any deter­
forming a task, etc., usually con­ mination of a being, of substance,
notating that the cause of the mis­ of accident, or of parts of a sub­
take is inattention, carelessness, or stance. (2) an accident. (3) Suarez.
great difficulty. Hence, it softens the an immediate principle that modifies
connotation of blame. a being. (4) Descartes. an inseparable
misuse, n. 1. incorrect use. 2. im­ attribute of a substance, really iden­
proper use. 3. abuse; use contrary tified with the essence of the sub­
to a natural purpose of a natural stance: as, thought is a mode of
power to man: distinguished from spirit, extension is the mode of bodies.
use and nonuse. (5) pantheism. appearances or mani­
mixed, adj. having two or more types festations of the divine in the beings
or modes of being in it: as, mixed of the physical universe.
perfection. Modes of being are distinguished
mixture, n. 1. frequent scholastic us­ as (a) common: the transcendentals
age. a compound corporeal substance other than being; the attributes or
having two or more elements and aspects of reality common to all
forming a new substance: as, sugar. things. {b) metaphysical (Suarez):
2. in chemistry. a piece of material aspects of being distinct from the
combining two or more substances subject by only a metaphysical dis­
that are not united in fixed propor­ tinction (logical distinction with a
tions and do not lose their special real foundation): as, shape is a
separate characteristics in the com­ metaphysical mode of extension. (c)
bination: as, a piece of granite. physical (Suarez): a determination
mobile, adj. 1. changeable; mutable. really distinct from the subject. (d)
2. movable in place, size, or position. physical accidental mode: a positive
modality, n. 1. in general. the fact, immediate determination of a being
property, or state of modifying, quali­ conferring upon the being something
fying, or expressing a mode. 2. logic. over and above its whole individual
the qualification in a judgment or real essence and giving it its last
proposition that states possibility, complete status in existence. (e)
mode and dictum 192 modification

proper mode: a primary division of ess; an analogical sensible compari­

being: as, act and potency, substance son, not necessarily representing natu­
and accident, God and creature, etc. ral objects, but serving as a useful
See chart on Usage of Being. construct in enabling the mind to
modes of abstraction, see AB­ explain and better study nonsensible
STRACTION. properties and activities; a means of
modes of chastity, see CHASTITY. interpreting a scientific hypothesis:
modes of a human act, see modi­ as, a machine used as a model of
fications 0f a H UMAN ACT. an organism or of the state; a bush
mode of intention, the way in used as a model of the variations of
which a term is referred to its object species within a phylum.
or to the state of being of its object: external model, an object, sketch,
as, existing, possible, necessary, miniature representation, mold, etc.
merely mental, etc. to be copied in producing something.
modes of knowledge, kinds, types, internal model, the idea or mental
or methods of knowing: as, popular plan to be followed by an agent.
or learned, scientific or philosophical REF. - F. Suarez, S.J., Disputa­
or theological, etc. tiones Metaphysicae, Disp. XXV and
modes of predication, the way XII, sec. 3.
in which a perfection is declared or moderation, n. the general reasonable
denied of its subject: distinguished mode of action in all virtues con­
from what is predicated. nected with temperance; voluntary
modes of signification: ( 1) modes control of one's actions in regard to
of predication. (2) modes of in­ pleasures and pains according to the
tention. prudential mean of virtue. The doc­
modes of a syllogism: ( 1) any trine on or practice of moderating
valid form in any figure of the cate­ the passions is metriapathy.
gorical syllogism. ( 2) either the affir­ modesty, n. 1. the species of tem­
mative or negative mood of a con­ perance that constantly controls in­
ditional syllogism, known as the ternal and external acts that safe­
modus ponens or the modus tollens. guard chastity; decency and reserve
mode of virtue, see VIRTUE. in bearing, curiosity, dress, speech,
mode and dictum, phrase. in a modal use of imagination, etc. 2. reasonable
proposition, the dictum is the abso­ decorum in external manner before
lute statement and the mode is the and with others, according to cir­
way in which the copula is qualified cumstances of place, time, person,
by an auxiliary or by a phrase stat­ need, and occasion.
ing possibility, impossibility, neces­ modification, n. 1. the act or process
sity, or contingency: as, he can win of modifying being, meaning, law,
philosophy contests, where can is the penalty, responsibility, etc. 2. the con­
mode and the rest is the dictum. dition or state of having been modi­
model, n. 1. exemplary cause or ex­ fied; hence, a mode of being, union,
emplar; the form that an agent de­ meaning, predication, etc. 3. an acci­
liberately imitates in making some­ dent added to or taken from a sub­
thing; the form or idea in whose stance and thereby changing it acci­
likeness something can be made; the dentally. 4. a partial or slight change
cause guiding action according to a in form; the product of a slight
preconceived form or plan. Some call change in a thing. 5. a change in
this an external formal cause. 2. a an organism brought about by its
person or thing regarded as a standard environment and not inheritable. 6.
of excellence and to be imitated. 3. an aggravating or extenuating cir­
a sensible or imaginable representa­ cumstance that intensifies or weakens
tion of an hypothesis or scientific ex­ the perfection of a human act. 7.
planation of some structure or proc- a qualification, specification, or limi-
modus ponens 193 mood

tation of the meaning of a term or ex­ Monad stresses the aloneness or

pression; an incidental term or a uniqueness of an existent suppositum.
mode qualifying a verb. monism, n. 1. any one of the many
*modus ponens (*modus ponendo views that all things are a single
ponens; constructive mood), Lat. ultimate reality or a single ultimate
phrase. the mode or kind of condi­ type of reality, though this reality
tional syllogism in which the minor may show merely accidental or seem­
affirms (posits) the condition and ing modifications, combinations, and
the conclusion affirms the consequent. historical variations of itself: as, ma­
*modus tollens (destructive mood), terialism, naturalism, and pantheism.
Lat. phrase. the mode or kind of 2. any view of the state that thinks
conditional syllogism in which the political unity requires a single, uni­
minor denies (sublates) the condi­ form culture, single type of educa­
tioned clause (consequent), and the tion, or a single political party.
conclusion denies the condition. ANT. - pluralism.
Molinism, n. the view proposed by monogamy, n. the state or institu­
Luis Molina, S.J. (1535-1600) in his tion of marriage in which husband
De Concordia that God foresees fu­ and wife may morally (or also
turibles in His scientia media and legally) have only one marital part­
offers His simultaneously indifferent ner during the lifetime of both part­
cooperation, both natural and super­ ners; the unity of marriage.
natural, to human choice. This work ANT. - polygamy.
set off the controversy De Auxiliis, monopoly, n. 1. the exclusive posses­
primarily a theological controversy, sion or control of goods of a certain
with important bearings on the phi­ kind in a given market, or of credit,
losophy of man and natural theology. labor supply, services, patents, etc.
See BANNEZIANISM; simultaneous CO­ 2. a company, government agency,
OPERATION. union, or combination that has a
moment, n. 1. a very brief period monopoly. 3. a type of goods, credit,
of time; an instant. (But this is not services, patents, etc. that is exclu­
measured as a second or minute or sively possessed or controlled: as, a
part thereof.) 2. a definite point in state monopoly of education (educa­
time or in a series of events; also tional monism) gives a government
the point at which created being and agency the sole right to educate
change began: as, the moment of children.
creation of the world. 3. a logically NoTE - It seems that monopoly
distinct stage or sign in a set of should not be defined in terms of
steps used to explain the seemingly its potential effects in fixing prices,
successive elements in a complex restricting freedom, eliminating com­
many-sided single act or event. See petition, and other injustices.
SIGN, sense 5. 4. importance; great­ monotheism, n. the philosophical or
ness in consequence, meaning, influ­ theological doctrine that there is only
ence, etc. (Special meanings in me­ one God or one Being who is the
chanics are omitted.) divine nature. Monotheism also com­
monad, n. 1. a unit; a simple or in­ monly holds the unicity of God.
divisible unit. 2. an indestructible Christian monotheism is trinitarian,
ultimate unit; an indestructible ele­ holding that there are three Persons
mentary being. 3. in a few scholastics. in the one divine nature. Non-Chris­
God, as the first Unity. 4. Leibnitz tian theism is usually unitarian, hold­
(1646-1716). a single, elementary ing the identity of one nature and
thing, thought of as a microcosm en­ only one Person in God.
dowed with the power of representing mood, n. I. the modality of a propo­
the rest of the universe in itself. 5. sition. 2. an arrangement of the
a complete individual; a suppositum. terms in a syllogism according to
moral 194 motion

their quantity, quality, and position conformity of a person's conduct to

in the propositions composing the the body of moral principles; virtu­
syllogism. 3. a grammatical form in­ ous character. 5. right conduct in
dicating the direct or modified form sexual matters.
of a verb inasmuch as the action or heteronomous and autonomous
state expressed in the verb is regarded morality, see HETERONOMOUS.
as a fact (indicative mood), a de­ natural morality, conformity or
sire, possibility, or condition (sub­ nonconformity to the natural law,
junctive mood), or a command (im­ naturally known; the moral order,
perative mood), etc. known by reason, emphasizing jus­
imperfect mood of the syllo­ tice: distinguished from Christian
gism, any syllogism not in one of (supernatural) morality emphasizing
the four valid moods of the first charity.
figure of the syllogism. objective morality, the conform­
moral, ad;. 1. of or by beings capable ity or nonconformity to the correct
of human acts; pertaining to man as moral standard in a person's act con­
man. 2. able to distinguish between sidered in itself but abstracting from
ethical good and ethical evil. 3. doing the agent's knowledge of its moral
right or wrong voluntarily. 4. virtu­ quality. Thus, theft is objectively
ous. 5. virtuous in sexual matters. 6. evil even though some individual did
dealing with, conformed to, dependent not consider his particular act a
upon, or illustrating the principles of theft.
right and wrong; pertaining to or subjective (formal) morality,
treated in ethics: as moral philoso­ the known conformity or nonconform­
phy. 7. objectively good in an ethical ity of the human act, performed or
sense; the perfective human good. 8. proposed, to the standard by· which
obligatory; binding in conscience: as, its agent judges its goodness or evil;
moral necessity: distinguished from the judgment of the individual's con­
physical. 9. influencing the wills of science about the good or evil of
other human beings by using one's his own act. Like a correct or errone­
own mind and will upon them rather ous conscience, subjective morality
than by physical external action or may or may not match the genuine
inaction: as, moral cooperation. 10. objective morality of the act.
designating the social union of minds mores, n. pl. (mos, sing.). 1. human
and wills of persons. 11. concerning customs; the usual and widespread
the characteristics of human conduct way in which a community of peo­
in almost all people: as, moral certi­ ple act, either rightly or wrongly. 2.
tude; morally universal assent to fixed folkways that are of ethical
God's existence. 12. having about the significance for the common good. 3.
same effect or even a better ethical popular manners or mere conventions
effect on human beings than another that have acquired the force of law
act, event, or outcome that did not in some community.
actually occur: as, defeat sometimes motion, n. 1. strict sense: local mo­
becomes a moral victory. tion. a moving or passage of a body
moral philosophy, see ETHICS. from place to place; local change; a
morality, n. 1. in general. moral good­ rearranging of a body or its parts
ness or moral evil; the quality of in space. 2. rearrangement of the
conformity or noncomformity of a parts within a body: as, the motion
human act or its object to the right of wheels in a clock. 3. broad sense.
standard of humanly good conduct. change or real change; any passage
2. moral goodness; conformity to of something from potentiality to ac­
moral standards. (This sense excludes tuality. See divisions of CHANGE. 4.
moral evil.) 3. principles and stand­ abstract sense. local change or change
ards of moral goodness. 4. habitual in general: as motion in nature.
motive 195 move

Movement or change is used for the ject of intention and is the good ac­
concrete change from a particular tually selected; (c) motive applies
subject to a particular subject. 5. the to the external objects, rewards,
act of moving another; action. 6. an prizes, risks, and sanctions that influ­
inclination or impulse: as, of an ap­ ence action as well as to the interior
petite; hence, a passion. desires of the agent.
natural motion : (1) a motion motive causality, final causality;
whose source is within the moved an END.
thing itself. (2) one that actuates motive of assent, the external
the natural potencies of a thing. (3) cause of assent. In realist epistemol­
one that fits the natural tendency ogy, this means objective evidence.
of a thing: as, the upward motion motive power, a mover; the power
of air is natural. of causing motion. This may refer to
ANT. - violent motion. efficient or final cause.
perfect motion, uniform, circular, motorium, n. I. the whole bodily
and perpetual motion, as in the Aris­ apparatus fitted for or used in loco­
totelian conception of the movement motion. 2. the organ or section of
of the heavenly bodies and of perfect the brain and nervous system that
time. controls voluntary bodily movements;
self-motion: ( 1) motion sup­ that part of the organism or nervous
posedly caused by the moving thing system whose function is movement
as the full cause of its own change. as distinguished from sensory per­
(2) self-perfective activity; an act ception.
of the perfect. See self-MOVING s.v. *motus, n. Lat. sing. and pl. motion;
MOVE; SELF-PERFECTIVE. movement; change.
spontaneous motion: ( 1) a non­ *motus primo-primi, movements
voluntary movement of an organism of the sensory appetites or of the
following upon sensation and sense rational appetite preceding any de­
appetency, directed toward satisfying liberation; purely spontaneous feel­
the desires of that appetite. (2) an ings, desires, and fears. See MOTION,
impulsive, indeliberate act of the will. sense 6.
See distinctions under MOTUS. *motus secundo-primi, semide­
unnatural (violent) motion, liberate movements of the appetites.
movement induced in an object con­ *motus secundo-secundi, fully
trary to its undisturbed natural tend­ deliberate movements of the appe­
encies: as, the upward motion of tites.
heavy bodies requiring applied force, move, v.t. 1. to change the place,
or the pressure of fear bringing the position, acceleration, etc. of some­
will to choose the undesirable. �hing : as, by pushing, lifting, carry­
mg It, _ etc. 2. to start change in
motive, n. I. some known good that
can or does incite an appetite to ac­ another. 3. to keep a thing in mo­
tion. 2. in particular. an intellectually tion. 4. to cause moral action in an­
known good that interests and ap­ other, as by suggesting or persuading;
peals to the will and becomes an ob­ motivate. v.i. or middle senses. 5. to
ject of c�oic�. In philosophical usage, undergo change of any kind, esp. of
(a) motive IS usually applied to the place, position, residence, etc. 6. to
objects attracting a person's act of be set in motion; be in process of
will but it may be appiled to objects change of any kind; P rogress; ad­
.
vance; evolve. 7. to begm to act.
of the sensitive appetites and even
self-moving, able to move itself
to the appetites of a mere animal;
or actually moving itself by its own
( b) motive differs from end, in that power; acting immanently by the
all known alternatives of choice moti­ whole acting on a part of itself or
vate the will but the end is the ob- a part of a living whole acting on
to be moved accidentally 196 mutilation

another part; originating activity the human will in man or the Holy
within itself. Spirit in the soul.
to be moved accidentally (indi­ moved mover, something that is
rectly}, to be changing because of causing motion in another being,
association with something that is though it itself is being moved by
directly moved: as, the soul is acci­ still another being; a dependent cause
dentally moved in place when the actually causing change.
body it inhabits walks to another prime Mover, a first cause origi­
place. nally starting motion or change; the
to be moved essentially (directly), first cause of all change. This is an
to be itself and in virtue of itself Aristotelian name for God: the first
the subject of motion: as, a falling unmoved Mover.
body is moved essentially. unmoved mover, a cause of mo­
movement, n. 1. a moving; a change tion in another or others but which
from a particular subject to a par­ itself is not moved or undergoing
ticular subject. See the note s.v. MO­ change. This term is sometimes used
TION, sense 4. 2. a particular way
as a name for God by those who
of moving; a particular tendency or admit the existence of only one un­
activity. 3. the moving (movable) moved Mover.
parts of a mechanism. 4. an action REF.- Physics, VIII, ch. 5-6;
or series of actions by a person or Met., XII, ch. 7.
group or organized association di­ multilocation, n. the simultaneous
rected to a particular goal: as, the presence of the same body in more
civil-rights movement. than one place.
multipliable, (multiplicable), adj.
movement in the improper
1. that can be many or be found
sense: ( 1) an act of the perfect;
in many: as, one universal form is
an immanent action, as of knowledge
multipliable in many individuals. 2.
or volition; self-motion. (2) the pas­
that can be increased in number, ex­
sage of a created agent from sub­
tent, amount, degree, scope, etc.
stantial act to the accidental act of
multitude, n. 1. a particular number
operating within itself.
of units; the many as contrasted
dialectical movement: (1) the
with the one; hence, transcendental
progress of thought or of argument.
multiplicity. 2. a large number of
(2) the Hegelian dialectical method persons or things, especially if con­
of the movement of ideas and their
sidered as one body or assembly. 3.
projections from thesis to antithesis
a society constituted of many mem­
to synthesis.
bers, each of which is a unit.
temporal movement, gradual mutable, adj. I. that can be changed.
movement of a thing or things in 2. disposed to change often.
time; real change in things measured mutation, n. 1. a causing of change.
by time. 2. a changing or undergoing change.
mover (movent; movant), n. the be­ It is rarely used for local motion.
ing that initiates or continues change; 3. biology. (a) a sudden variation
the external cause engaged in moving in some inheritable characteristic of
or acting on others; the motive an individual plant or animal: dis­
power. A mover may be an efficient tinguished from a variation resulting
or final cause; the commoner refer­ from generations of gradual minute
ence is to the efficient cause. changes. ( b) a mutant or individual
external (outer) mover, a mover with such a variation.
separated from the being that is mutilation, n. I. the act by which
moved. some member, organ, or large part
inner mover, a mover joined to of the body is temporarily or perma­
or dwelling in what is moved: as, nently injured, disabled, made func-
mystery 197 myth

tionally useless, destroyed, or cut off strict mystery, a truth so far ex­
from the whole. Minor damage is ceeding the capacities of human rea­
not usually spoken of as mutilation. son that its full meaning cannot be
See STERILIZATION; MAIM. 2. the re­ comprehended by us nor a natural
sulting bodily injury, loss of a part, proof of its truth be discovered after
or suppression of a function. God has revealed the truth; hence, a
mystery, n. 1. a hidden truth; some­ truth that always remains an object
thing unknown, unexplained, or kept of faith during this life: as, the
secret. 2. a truth or answer to a Trinity of Persons in one God.
problem whose full meaning is not myth, n. 1. Plato. a legend, invented
comprehended: as, the mystery of parable, or allegory used to illustrate
the nature of life. 3. a truth revealed some truth or to provide an analogi­
by God, unknown before its revela­ cal proof: as, the myth of the cave.
tion, and to be accepted by faith 2. history of religions. a traditional
in the authority of God revealing it. story of unknown authorship, usually
4. some matter, the fact of which is involving the exploits of gods and
known, but the reason for the fact heroes, ostensibly with an historical
or its harmony with other facts and basis, and ordinarily serving to ex­
truths is not understood: as, the plain some phenomenon of nature, the
mystery of the way in which God origin of man or of his customs, in­
cooperates with human liberty with­ stitutions, religious rites, etc. Legends
out losing His supremacy or without are unverifiable history but, unlike
impairing human freedom remains myths, have no special explanatory
though the fact of such divine co­ or religious function. 3. some social
operation with true human liberty and political theorists. a popular con­
is known. 5. something sacred (and temporary belief, hope, ambition,
therefore, not to be vulgarly dis­ dream, or social ideal: as, the myth
played, revealed, or used). 6. Gabriel of the omnipotent state; the Nordic
Marcel ( 1889- ). a question myth. 4. a false story popularly con­
about an object in which I am in­
sidered to be true. 5. psychoanalysis.
volved, to which I am present, which
something explicitly unknown or even
is not entirely before me but stimu­
denied but accompanying something
lates me to know: distinguished from
a problem which concerns objects that explicitly known; a subconsciously
lie wholly before me and give rise known and desired thing seemingly
to many inquiries. Mystery in this unconnected with the consciously
sense does not concern the unknow­ known and desired.
able or the totally other.
 N
name, n. 1. grammar. a noun used from a personal or singular name.
as sign of a substantive. 2. logic. a in the name of God: (a) an ap­
term indicating a substance, a class peal to the power, goodness, fidelity,
of substances, or something repre­ etc., of God for help; (b) God's be­
sented after the manner of a sub­ ing, nature, power, or holy will; for
stance. 3. common (class) name. a simpler people formerly thought that
word or phrase by which classes of the name was a substitute for the
beings, natures, and substances and person and that whoever grasped the
the members of these classes are name somehow touched the person
known or referred to. Nominalists himself; (c) by the authority of
and terminists have special difficulty God; ( d) as the representative of
in defining a class name because of God; (e) to the honor of God; in
their theory of the arbitrariness of dedication to God.
universal concepts. John Buridan (fl. ABBR.-N., n. See ATTRIBUTE;
1328-1358), e.g., says a common PERFECTION; affirmative, negative,
name designates the individual consid­ eminent WAY.
ered according to its form. 4. proper nation, n. 1. a community that has or
name. (a) a word, phrase, or title by believes itself to have a common his­
which a person is known, called, or torical ancestry, its own traditions,
spoken of; his own individual sign by distinctive culture, territory, and eco­
which a person is referred to. This is nomic life. In this sense a nation
also called a personal name. (b) a need not have an independent politi­
word that expresses or describes the cal life or be a state by itself. 2.
essence or characteristic perfection of loosely. a political state. Scholastic
an individual; the definition that best philosophers disfavor this usage
fits a being; the defining name. ( c) nationalization, n. the political con­
modern logic. a unique word or de­ trol of a nation's economy wherein
scriptive phrase designating the logi­ private resources are managed by re­
cal subject of a singular proposition. presentatives of the state for the
5. the attribute or perfection named. common good and not by their owners
6. fame; reputation. for private profit. Nationalization,
divine name, either the proper however, is not public confiscation
name of God or a divine attribute of the property and is not turning it
(perfection); a title by which man over to public ownership by purchase.
praises God. The proper divine name *natura naturans, Lat. phrase. lit., "a
is whatever comes closest to being an nature giving a nature (to others)."
exclusive name of God, stating His Idealists (e.g., Spinoza) mean that
individual essence and distinguishing a divine nature gives nature to others
His being or nature from every other by thinking of it. This unusual name
being, and seeming to be a sort of for God expresses His relation to
subject in which the divine attributes creatures in a pantheistic conception
are present; hence, it best describes of His action.
God and serves as a quasi-definition *natura naturata, Lat. phrase. (the
of Him. See IPSUM ESSE; quasi-meta­ counterpart of *natura naturans.) 1.
physical ESSENCE. lit., a nature that has been made a
essential name, one that describes, nature. 2. hence, a created nature; a
defines, or refers to the essence, na­ secondary nature; the nature that
ture, or form (substantial or acci­ arises by divine thought.
dental) of a thing: distinguished natural, adj. NoTE -This word and

198
natural 199 nature

its noun, nature, seem to have four even without the consent of the
basic senses or aspects: constituting people.
nature; produced by nature; directed ABBR.-nat.
to a natural good; conforming to na­ naturalism, n. a label for many varie­
ture. Its antonyms in different con­ ties of philosophical opinion that hold
texts are: artificial or mechanical; these common positions: that the
acquired; human or spiritual; positive realm of physical nature constitutes
or conventional; unnatural; super­ all things; it is unproduced in being
natural; rare or exceptional. 1. exist­ and not dependent on any cause other
ing in, belonging to, forming a part than those belonging to natural ob­
of, or usually found in nature. 2. as jects; nature alone fully explains all
it is in unmodified, original, or first its facts, events, and values; this
nature; native; simple; primitive; not self-sufficiency of nature completely
acquired; not artificially modified, excludes anything belonging to the
damaged, remade, redirected, etc. supernatural (nonphysical) order.
3. existing in or belonging to a Hence, naturalism always is anti­
living being from conception or supernatural. It is usually ma­
birth; innate; connatural; given with terialistic and atheistic. It tends to­
one's nature. 4. arising and follow­ wards empiricism and positivism in
ing from the activity of a nature theory of knowledge. The exaltation
or natures using only their natural of the secular man (humanism), of
powers; produced in and by nature or evolution, and of physical and bio­
in the unbroken course of nature. 5. logical sciences are current in today's
developed or perfected by nature and naturalism, e.g., in Julian Huxley.
fitting natural capacities, tendencies, nature, n. see note under NATURAL.
and needs. Notice the difference here The meanings start in the dynamic
between the naturally per/ect and notion of nature as a principle of
naturally imperfect or primitive in growth and activity. They shift to
senses 2 and 3. 6. the merely physical the condition of things at their natu­
or material: distinguished from the ral start. Then the stream of mean­
human, spiritual, and voluntary. The ing flows to the sum of all natures
body of man is, of course, usually and to their hypothetical source.
considered as a thing of nature. 7. Since nature in the concrete is iden­
conformable or conformed to the tified with essence, the meanings of
natural constitution, powers, needs, essence can be added to those of
and end of a thing; neither falling be­ nature. Some distinctions of nature
low the natural standard as the sub­ from the nonnatural complete the list.
normal, nor opposed to it as the un­ 1. the origin of growing things; na­
natural, nor exceeding it as the preter­ tivity. 2. the essence considered as
natural and supernatural do. 8. bene­ the internal principle of growth. 3.
fiting a thing's substance (nature). 9. the essence of a thing considered as
precivil; prepolitical: distinguished the intrinsic and primary principle
from positive, legal, customary, and of activity and of receptivity, of mo­
conventional. 10. dealing with nature, tion and of rest; the root of pre­
its members, activities, laws, course, determined activity and passivity in
goals, effects, etc. 11. using only the a material substance. Thus either mat­
evidence gathered from natures and ter or form is nature. 4. the form or
"tendency put into things by divine
grasped by natural powers alone.
art so that they are able to act for
natural-juridical theory of the
an end" (St. Thomas, Commentary
origin of authority, the theory that on the Physics). 5. the internal ac­
natural law designates the natural tive principle of the characteristic
leader (patriarch, military leader, movements of any body, living or
etc.) as the first head of a new state, nonliving. 6. the intrinsic part of the
nature 200 nature

essence regarded as the first principle nature as such and only as such a
of the proper operations of a thing; nature; the absolute essence; what
the substantial form; hence, Boe­ belongs to a finite type of being,
thius' definition, "nature is the spe­ abstracting from its existence, from
cific difference informing (i.e., giving individual differences among those
its form to) each thing." 7. the primi­ who share that nature, and from the
tive condition, usual spontaneous way numbers who may have that nature
of acting and being acted upon, and in specificaJly the same perfection.
relations of physical objects prior to Some caJI this the common nature.
development and modification by See direct UNIVERSAL and direct uni­
man: as, wild nature. This meaning versal CONCEPT.
may be applied to human nature be­ according to nature: ( 1) con­
fore its personal and cultural train­ formable to nature, not surpassing it,
ing. 8. hence, raw materials before not being an exception to it, and not
modification by human tools: as, a falling short of it; suitable to a na­
bench is by nature wood: nature as ture. (2) normal in the course of the
distinguished from art and artefacts. activities and changes of physical
9. what belongs to a thing from its objects, or usual in human customs.
origin; native endowment; inherent by nature, inherently; in virtue of
gift, disposition, abilities, tendencies, its nature alone; according to its
needs. 10. what is due to a thing nature, not according to anything
to complete its nature or essence. See specially done or given to it. Aris­
NATURAL, sense 7. Perfected nature is totle explains that a natural body,
referred to as second nature. II. the as a whole, is by nature or has a
totality of objects in the universe; nature.
the whole physical universe as al­ common nature (variable mean­
most unmodified by man; the spatio­ ings) : ( 1) the absolute nature. ( 2)
temporal system of all phenomena; the specific essence recognized as a
the changeable cosmos. 12. everything species common to many; see reflex
as it is, independently of human in­ universal CONCEPT. (3) Scotus. the
telligence. 13. a postulated force, real nature of a finite thing that is
agent, or principle immanent in formaJiy distinct from the individual
physical bodies, regarded as making, and from the universal, is indifferent
controlling, vivifying, or guiding the of itself to singularity or universality,
universe in some way: as, "mother is potentiaJiy universal and, prior to
Nature." A cause of the world out­ the operation of the mind, grounds
side the universe would, in this sense, real relations between individuals.
be supernatural. 14. the essential con­ contrary to nature: ( 1) alto­
stitution, distinguishing qualities, basic gether opposite to the being, activi­
characteristic structure and shape, de­
ties, mode of action, power, order,
fining features, etc., of a natural or end of a particular nature, or of
body. 15. the specific essence. 16. spe­ natures generally. (2) using a human
cific difference or form. 17. a distinct
natural power against the good of hu­
species. 18. the substance of a thing. man nature. See UNNATURAL. (3)
19. the normal or characteristic be­ freely acting contrary to the order of
havior (actions and reactions) of a
right reason, especiaJiy in matters
thing as showing its nature. grossly violating natural tendencies
above (and beyond) nature, bet­
and purposes.
ter than anything natural in its origin,
course of nature, the long, con­
being, powers, activities, end, or
means available for that higher end; tinuing series of operations in the
preternatural or supernatural. physical universe by which changing
absolute nature, the constitution natures are preserved and make prog­
of a thing according to its kind; a ress; the dynamic interacting order
nature 201 necessary

of physical bodies over long stretches Platonic form. (3) the universal,
of time. absolute or reflex, that is formally
due to nature, whatever belongs universal by act of the agent in­
to the essence of any individual crea­ tellect.
ture or to the whole system of na­ REF. - Physics, II, ch. 1; Met.,
tures either in origin, constitution, V, ch. 4; Boethius, Liber de Persona
operations, or end: as, the ability to et Duabus Naturis; St. Thomas
reason to God is due to human na­ Aquinas, On Being and Essence, ch.
ture, but not the ability to see God 1, 3; S.T., I-II, 85, a. 6; III, 2, a. 1;
in Himself. C.G., IV, ch. 35, 41; Truth, q. 13,
human nature, see H UMAN. a. 1, replies; Quodlibetum VIII, a. 1;
individual (particular) nature, C. S. Lewis, Studies in Words, 24-
the concrete internal principle of ac­ 74; J. A. Weisheipl, O.P., "The Con­
tion or passion in an existing in­ cept of Nature," New Scholasticism,
dividual; individual essence; any at­ XXVIII (1954), 377-408, and some
tribute as it is in an individual. additions passim in Vol. XXIX.
moral nature: (1) a nature hav­ necessary, adj. NoTE -The many
ing intellect and will. ( 2) the quality turns of meaning and of thought
of moral good or evil in a human for the terms necessary and necessity
act or, by denomination, in its fall into these main headings: neces­
object. sary in being; in activity; by conse­
order of nature, see natural ORDER, quence; as part to complete a whole;
senses 2 and 4. as means to the end of a nature or
philosophy of nature, the science power. I. that which must be, be as it
of the first substantial principles of is, and cannot not-be; not contingent
natural bodies; the philosophical in being. ANT. - contingent. The per
science of movable things in as far se necessary Being has uncaused
as they are movable; philosophical necessity of His being. The per aliud
physics. See COSMOLOGY. necessary has a caused necessity of
physical nature, (usually) a mate­ being. 2. that which is incapable of
rial or bodily thing, type, or uni­ generation or decay or internal
verse. change, once it exists; immutable.
principle of uniformity of na­ ANT. - intrinsically changeable. 3.
ture, see UNIFORMITARIANISM. that which must act as it does and
second nature, habituated nature; which under the given conditions
fulfilled nature. See main entry 10. cannot act otherwise; forced; unfree.
specific nature, a nature regarded ANT. - variable; free; chance. 4.
as a type; the kind of thing some­ morally obligatory on free will; bind­
thing is; specific essence. ing in conscience 5. legally prescribed
state of nature, see HUMAN NA­ or forbidden; demanded by effective
TURE. law. 6. emanating from or following
a thing of nature, a natural ob­ essence: as, an essential property or
ject; something with a nature at least inseparable attribute of a subject. 7.
partially material and subject to ma­ invariable and unavoidable in follow­
terial needs as a member of the whole ing from the physical laws of a na­
physical system of things: distin­ ture; spontaneous, automatic, and in­
guished from the spiritual, graced, herent. 8. logically implied in the
and divine as having some independ­ antecedent or premises: as, a neces­
ence of physical nature. sary conclusion. 9. transcendentally
universal nature: (1) the uni­ related to another so that its being
verse of natural bodies. (2) what is and nature cannot continue to be
supposed to be in its own nature without this relation. ANT. - predica­
one and common to many, as a mental. IO. inescapable; what must
necessity 202 necessity

be borne: as, death; sanctions for an act, event, or result is, in itself,
a law. 11. indispensable; uncondition­ antecedently contingent.
ally required as a means to an end: consequent necessity: (1) some­
as, the necessaries (necessities) of thing necessary only after the fact
life. 12. absolutely true and uniquely or event, not because the nature of
true, either because it is intrinsically God or the nature of things or the
so or because it is an historical fact. uniformity of natural operations or
See antecedent and consequent NECES­ the intrinsic intelligibilities of truths
SITY. 13. imperatively required and require it to be so; something de
absolutely desirable as the fixed im­ facto necessary because it is so, but
posed end of human nature and of not predetermined, e.g., free choices
the will: as, happiness in general. or miracles, having occurred, are
ANT. - contingent; optional; free; consequently necessary in their truth.
indifferent. ( 2) conditional necessity.
necessary Being. See main entry essential necessity: (1) the neces­
1, and BEING. The divisions of neces­ sity of an unchangeable real essence.
sary are about the same as those of (2) the necessity of the properties
NECESSITY. The adverb necessarily ap­ of a specific essence. ( 3) the neces­
plies esp. to senses 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, sity of the universal or absolute na­
and 11. ture and the definition of the type
necessity, n. 1. in general. the charac­ of essence.
teristic, condition, or state of some­ existential necessity, see NECES­
thing whereby it must be as it is and SARY, sense 1.
cannot not-be or be otherwise than as extrinsic necessity, necessity
it is. Something here may mean a springing from a source outside the
being, nature, essential attribute, ac­ constitution of a thing; hence, a
tivity, result, duty, logical implica­ necessity coming from dependence on
tion, or object of a judgment. 2. a cause or external direction to a
compulsion or force. 3. the condi­ fixed end.
tion of being subjected to force; hypothetical necessity, see condi­
complete and fixed determination to tional NECESSITY.
only one state of being or to only intrinsic necessity, necessity de­
one course of action or one outcome. pending on something internal to the
4. obligation, moral or legal. 5. great nature of a being; hence, springing
and pressing need; esp. in the plural, from a thing's matter or form, or its
pressing need of means which one internal conditions of operation, or
cannot supply for oneself and by its natural tendencies to its proper
one's own unaided efforts. object.
absolute necessity: (1) the neces­ logical necessity: (1) the neces­
sity proper to uncaused Being. (2) sary connection of premises with a
intrinsic necessity. (3) metaphysical single valid conclusion, or of ante­
necessity. cedent with consequent. (2) the nec­
antecedent necessity, that which essary truth of the consequent propo­
must be, must act in a given way, sition, in view of the antecedent.
or must eventuate even before it has metaphysical necessity, a neces­
existed, acted, or happened because sity to which there can be no ex­
of its necessary dependence on some­ ception at any time anywhere in any
thing else that is necessary: usually instance; the impossibility of being
applied to acts, facts, and results. otherwise under any conditions so
conditional necessity, any neces­ that even God cannot cause an ex­
sity that depends only on the sup­ ception; absolute necessity, independ­
position that a certain condition is ent of all conditions or possibilities
verified, e.g., that a free agent does of change or difference.
not act otherwise or interfere. Such moral necessity: (1) moral obli-
 TYPES OF NECESSITY*

{ { .
Basis of Members
division

absolute
from. its own ma-

{
proper
Intrinsic ten�l cause
(physical;
from its formal
natural)
cause
Source
a) physical (natural)
moral

{
Extrinsic
b) because of power of agent
because of direction to end

{
a) uncaused Being
Absolute possibles
(metaphysical) b) positive (must be)

{
negative (cannot be; impossibles)
a) physical (proper)
moral
Degree b) to status
Relative (of
ordinary necessity
caused being)
serious neces�ity
to existence .
extreme (critical)
necessity
Conditional (antecedently contingent)

{
---------------------------------
----

rea !
{
Antecedent (de jure; predetermining)
Relative causal logical
priority and of being or act or
Consequent (de facto,· by supposition;
dependence re ult
by determination of the a ctual fact) �
of histon'cal truth
-------------------------- - --------- -
existential

essential
{ '. n constit �tion

Real

operational
{ m properties
in activities
in objects of poweri
in results
relational
Object Possibles

Moral (obligation)
{ natural law
positive .law (legal { of means

Logical
{ necessity)
of connection
of consequent (by
of precept

implication)

* See a different chart on necessary and contingent by J. Maritain in R.

Brennan, O.P., Essays in Thomism, p. 32.
necessity 204 negation

gation, q.v. (2) a conditional neces­ tion to do or omit some act, im­
sity dependent on the common and posed by natural or moral law, but
constant abilities and dispositions of which is not an indispensable means
moral (human) beings so that oppo­ to beatitude. Hence, invincible igno­
site conduct is practically impossible rance of it does not exclude man
to men, yet actually possible under from the love of God; or the precept
unusual conditions of heroism, malice, may, absolutely speaking, be changed;
etc. See moral CERTITUDE; moral or some excusing causes are accept­
MIRACLE; moral IMPOSSIBILITY. able to the lawgiver: as, the precept
natural necessity: (1) a require­ of attending holy Mass on Christmas
ment rooted in nature; essential nec­ day.
essity. (2) also called physical neces­ negative necessity, impossibility;
sity. the necessity of causal action the condition of what cannot be;
and effects in the nonvoluntary oper­ what is absolutely excluded.
ations of natural bodies; the com­ physical necessity: ( 1) natural
pulsory, invariable, regular action of necessity, sense 2. (2) (pl.) either
physical bodies: as the necessity of bodily needs or material goods needed
the laws of nature. This necessity is for obligatory spiritual activities. In
conditional, depending on God's will solving some moral problems about
to cooperate in the usual way with commutative justice, distributive jus­
natural causes; it may at times de­ tice, and charity, this necessity is
pend on the play of chance and non­ distinguished: (a) ordinary necessity,
interference by human free wills. See a need or needs usual and wide­
physical CERTITUDE; UNIFORMITARI­ spread among men that can be met
ANISM. in due time by normal care, effort,
necessity of the end, the absolute and supplies; hence, poverty or scar­
need of the good for which a nature city. ( b) serious necessity, an urgent
exists and to which it has inborn need of some good that is important
tendencies as its only proper per­ but not as basic or scarce or as im­
fection. mediately pressing as extreme need.
necessity of means, an absolute (c) extreme necessity, an urgent pres­
moral obligation to use specified ent need of obtaining or protecting
unique means to attain a necessary human goods (material or spiritual),
human good; this implies inevitable whose want or loss involves great
loss of the end even if the means sacrifice, great risk to life or equiv­
were not used because of invinci­ alent goods, or great risk to obtain­
ble ignorance: as, personal contri­ ing beatitude. (d) necessities of one's
tion is necessary for forgiveness of status, goods not needed for the life
serious personal sins: distinguished and health of one's self or depend­
from necessity of precept. ents, but required or useful for main­
necessity of the means, the need taining one's justly acquired present
of a nature or of a will for the only status of prosperity, public leader­
means that can lead to a necessary ship, etc. See main entry, 5.
end or to an already firmly intended relative necessity, a need or obli­
end. gation that is less than absolute, e.g.,
necessity of object, an object that I must pray oftener; I must read
the intellect judges, rightly or more philosophy.
wrongly, to be indispensable, or to negation, n. I. a judgment that di­
be the only one available, or the vides (separates) predicate from sub­
only one related to the person's in­ ject; a judgment that denies the
tention so that the will cannot freely identity or union of subject and
select between alternative contingent predicate. 2. a proposition that ex­
objects or goods. cludes predicate from subject. 3. an­
necessity of precept, an obliga- swering "no." 4. a lack or absence
negative 205 nominalism

of something regarded as positive. and those strongly influenced by him,

This is not a privation unless the as Porphyry (232?-301?), Proclus
positive characteristic is due to a na­ (410-485), Pseudo-Dionysius (end
ture; careful usage does not confuse of fourth century A.o. ) , St. Augus­
negation with privation. 5. a limi­ tine, John Scotus Eriugena (c. 810-
tation. 870), and others.
way of negation, see WAY. Neo-Scholasticism (New Scholasti·
negative, adj. 1. containing, express­ cism), n. the revival and develop­
ing, or implying a denial; saying ment of scholastic philosophy begin­
"no." 2. separating existence or at­ ning in the nineteenth century and
tribute from a being that is thought officially recognized by Pope Leo XIII
·of in a judgment. 3. denying to, or in the encyclical Aeterni Patris, Aug.
dividing, the predicate from the sub­ 4, 1879.
ject in a proposition. 4. opposite to *ne quid nimis, Lat. phrase or sen·
something considered positive in tence, lit., "nothing in excess": the
character; hence, among other mean­ maxim of moderation and of pru­
ings: missing; absent; wanting; weak dence, originally used by the Latin
or weakening; evil; limiting; nonex­ poet, Terence.
isting; passive; nonapparent; con­ nexus, n. a connection or bond be­
tradicting the opposite; uncoopera­ tween two or more persons, things,
tive; etc.: as, negative evidence, nega­ parts, terms, propositions, etc.
tive atheism, negative symptoms, *nihil, Lat., n. (also *nil). 1. nothing.
negative results. 5. merely not act­ 2. a mere trifle in value or import­
ing or not acting harmfully when ance.
one could do so: as, negative con­ nihilism, n. 1. a denial of or tendency
servation of forests by careful camp­ to deny all truth, to reduce reality
ers. 6. denying the limitation in to illusion, or to reject all customary
something finite. This double nega­ moral or religious doctrines. 2. a
tive results in something positive, as revolutionary doctrine or movement
infinite, immaterial, immortal; yet the that urges the destruction of all so­
mode of thinking remain negative. cial, political, and economic institu­
ABBR. -neg. tions now existing to make way for
negativity, n. 1. a quality in a being new institutions. 3. a term for Stoic,
or in a principle of being that limits, Hindu, Buddhist, or other pantheistic
restricts, or reduces the perfection views about the extinction of individ­
of a complementary richer being or ual existence and desires in reunion
principle of being: as, matter's rela­ with the pantheistic whole, Brahma,
tion to spirit or passive potency's supreme spirit, etc.
relation to act. 2. a psychological or noetic, adj. mental; cognitive; exist­
social trait in persons who ignore ing in, beginning in, or characterizing
or oppose suggestions and seem ha­ the intellect.
bitually to be noncooperative. noetics, theory of knowledge.
nescience, n. a lack of knowledge nominal, n. 1. having the nature or
that one is not obliged or expected properties of a noun. 2. explaining
to have; simple ignorance. This is a name: as, explaining transference
not a privation and not an error. of meaning in analogical names. 3.
neobiogenesis, see BIOGENESIS, sense consisting only of a name; existing
3. in name only; having the nature and
Neoplatonism (Neo-Platonism), n. properties only of a name. See NOMI­
1. any revival or development of NALISM; nominal DISTINCTION.
Platonic doctrine in metaphysics, nominalism, n. any of the various
theory of knowledge, or ethics. 2. positions that universals are only
esp., the principles, main doctrines, names, useful in language, that uni­
and method of Plotinus (203 ?-279?) versal concepts lack any objective
nonbeing 206 note

meaning, and that reality is so radi­ nonvoluntary, adj. 1. not acting with
cally and completely singular and in­ the will; not desiring, not choosing,
dividuals so disconnected that there not consenting, etc. 2. not having a
is no real foundation for a true uni­ will; unable to will. Nonvoluntary is
versal concept. The name nominalist not to be confused with involuntary.
tended to be applied in later medieval norm, n. 1. a standard, model, or
writers to Ockham's followers, e.g., to measure of activity, degree, or com­
Gabriel Biel (1425-1495). See TER­ parative success. 2. a rule of action.
MINISM; problem of UNIVERSALS. 3. specifically. a criterion of truth;
nonbeing, n. 1. nothing; the non­ a means to discern true from false.
existent. 2. some philosophers, how­ 4. specifically. a measure of moral
ever, have described God as non­ goodness; a standard for distinguish­
being, meaning a Superbeing not con­ ing, classifying, and otherwise rating
tained in common being. good and evil in human acts and
noncontradiction, n. an absence of their objects. This is usually referred
contradiction; compatibility; coher­ to as a norm of morality. It may
ence. Some writers speak of the prin­ be manifestative, i.e., making the
ciple of noncontradiction because the standard of conduct known; oblig­
principle of contradiction forbids con­ atory, binding man to follow the
tradictions. standard; constitutive, giving the in­
nonmoral, adj. not connected with trinsic reason in the nature of the
morality; apart from the moral; not act why it is good or evil or indiffer­
moral and not immoral; amoral. ent; exemplary, giving a model of
nonrational, adj. without reason. Ir­ the standard in living conduct. It may
rational often means contrary to be ultimate (original) or proximate
to reason. · (derived), i.e., closely connected with
nonsense, n. words or signs used with the act or objects to be morally
an untrue, unreasonable, foolish, or evaluated.
merely emotional meaning or with negative norm, a control against
no meaning at all; the meaningless. error in conclusions.
What one regards as meaningless de­ positive norm, a way or guide
pends on one's theory of knowledge leading to the discovery of truth,
and of meaning, as the principle of confirming known truth with new evi­
verification of logical positivists dence, pointing out hidden relations
shows. between known truths, or giving new
*non sequitur, Lat. phrase or sen­ insight: as, depth psychology posi­
tence. lit., "it does not follow." lack tively influences the evaluation of
of connection with the evidence; an some human acts.
immediate inference or a conclusion normative, adj. applied to certain
that does not flow from the evidence, sciences: having to do with setting
proposition, or premises advanced in up norms; nomological: as, logic and
its favor. Though the fallacy may ethics are normative studies.
be material or formal, the chief modes notation, n. 1. a system of signs or
are formal: namely, false conver­ symbols to represent words, proposi­
sion, illicit process, and fallacy of the tions, relations, numbers, musical
consequent. tones, etc. 2. the use of such a sys­
ABBR. - non seq. tem of signs.
nontheism, n. negative atheism. logical notation, the use of signs
nonuse, n. not applying some thing and symbols to stand for the parts
or power to action or exercise. Un­ and relations of terms, propositions,
less there be a duty to act or to etc. See Appendix: Logical Notation;
use the power, such nonuse even ANNOTATION.
when willed is called volitional or note, n. a knowable or known form
simply willed rather than voluntary. (attribute; ratio) of an object; the
nothing 207 numen

formal object of a given knowing act. Plotinus. the world of ideas known
The term seems to be post-Thomistic by and identified with Nous. 2. Kant;
in origin. fairly common today. an object of
analogous note: (1) a form that thought, not of sense perception;
two or more simultaneously share in an object understood by the intellect
an analogous way or degrees. (2) the but beyond the power of the senses
indistinct formal object of an analo­ alone to present to the intellect:
gous concept. thus, substance, soul, cause, God, are
formal note: (1) the specific, ex­ noumena: distinguished from phe­
clusive, differentiating part or prop­ nomena.
erty of a thing or of a known nature. nous, n. I. mind; intellect: distin­
(2) absolute nature. guished from nature and the non­
theological note, the expert esti­ cognitive and the sensory. 2. Aris­
mate of the degree of certainty or totle. the mental function of under­
probability in a theological doctrine standing or immediately knowing;
or proposition. See QUALITY, sense 5. intuitive intelligence. 3. Plotinus.
nothing, n. 1. not real; a thing that (N - ) the first emanation from
does not exist. 2. nonexistence. 3. any the One above all being; an equiv­
thing and every thing incapable of alent of the Demiurge of Plato or
existing; an impossible thing. of the Logos of others.
notion, n. 1. a concept; the knower's NoTE-Nous has special mean­
act of mental apprehension. Philoso­ ings in various Greek philosophers
phers rarely use notion to mean the (e.g., Proclus) and in Greek-writing
note or thing known; to mean desire Stoics (e.g., Marcus Aurelius).
or intention; or to mean vagueness now, n. the present time; the present
in knowledge, as popular English instant or moment. The now of time
often uses this word. 2. theology. is said to be moving or flowing. The
a property by which the divine per­ now of eternal truths and abstrac­
sons are identified and distinguished tions is static. The now of eviternity
from each other. There are, in St. is lasting but irregularly changing.
Thomas' opinion, five, expressed by The now of God's existence is un­
abstract terms: innascibility and pa­ changing but active.
ternity in the first Person, sonship number, n. 1. a plurality of units
for the second Person, passive spira­ measured or measurable by some
tion for the third Person, active suitable unit; hence, a sum, collec­
spiration for the first and second tion, quantity, amount, set, etc. See
Persons together (S.T., I, q. 32, discrete QUANTITY. 2. a measuring
c. 3). unit that serves as a definite base
*notum in se (*notum quoad se), common to the many who are to
Lat. phrase, (something) known in be measured by it. See UNIT.
itself; immediately known or know­ ABBR. - n.; no.; num.
able. See SELF-EVIDENT. numen, n. divinity; the Holy One.
*notum nobis (*notum quoad nos),
Lat. phrase, (something) known to
This word, taken from Roman my­
us; actually known by us. thology, was adopted by Rudolf Otto
noumenon, n., noumena, pl., from and many others as a neutral word to
the Greek, the known, the object of identify God. The corresponding ad­
nous, i.e., of mind or thought. 1. jective is numinous.
 0
oath, n. an act calling upon God or good sought by appetite. 6. the good,
some revered object in support of moral or not moral, sought in choice;
the truth of one's statement or of the end of the act; the natural term
the sincerity of one's promises. The of the elicited act of the will. This
definition also presents the difference is the first determinant of a concrete
between an assertory and a promis­ moral act. 7. the just thing; that
sory oath. A promissory oath is to over which a person has a right. 8.
be distinguished from a vow made in a contract. (a) the purpose of the
to God. contract. (b) the rights and duties,
obedience, n. 1. actual and usual acts and omissions agreed upon that
observance of the commands and constitute the substance of the con­
prohibitions of a law or the laws to tract. 9. the recipient of causal ac­
which one is morally or legally sub­ tion; the patient. From another point
ject. This is mainly obedience in of view, the patient is called the sub­
execution or the performance of what ject or substratum which receives the
interior obedience (sense 2) directs. form; but as the opposite of the
2. the special potential virtue, related agent, it is referred to as object. 10.
to justice, by which one constantly a mere thing; a person or personal
wills to do his duty to superiors by states treated as mere things. See
fulfilling their commands and pre­ OBJECTIFY, senses 2 and J.
cepts from the motive of respect for The divisions pertain mainly to
their moral right to command. If the senses 1-3.
public official or laws of the state adequate object: ( 1) the complete
are obeyed for the sake of the com­ or best object that will fully satisfy
mon good, this is an act of legal a power: as, God is the beatifying
justice. 3. following the tendency object of the human intellect and
natural to a being: as, all bodies will. ( 2) the sum of all those things
obey the law of gravity. in which the formal object can be
object, n. NoTE -The notion com­ found. (3) the proportionate or con­
mon to most uses of the term object natural object.
is that which lies on the other side connatural (most natural) ob­
of, over against, outside of, opposite to ject, see proportionate OBJECT, below,
a subject from whose point of view sense 1.
the object is the other. 1. any thing direct (immediate; per se) ob­
or feature of a thing to which action, ject, that to which a power is first
thought, feeling, or willing is directed. related in any series of objects to
2. any type of thing to which a liv­ which its activity can extend and
ing power is directed or which it through which it reaches other ob­
seeks. 3. what is known, desired, etc. jects. An indirect object is one
by cognitive or appetitive powers or reached by a power through the
by their acts. Note that a thing medium of another object by de­
becomes an object by being known, pendence on or association with that
not by any change in itself. To play prior object. The direct object is
upon the relation of subject and ob­ not always identical with the formal
ject, Maritain calls the knower a object which; for direct and indirect
cisobjective subject and the known objects refer to the sequence in the
as a transsubjective object. 4. the objects of acts of a power rather than
essence represented in knowledge; the to the kind of object attainable by
content of thought. See jormal OB­ a specified power; and an indirect
JECT, below. 5. end; final cause; the object is a formal object of an act.

208
object 209 object

See divisions of SENSIBLE and of of intellect the source or power that

VOLUNTARY. shows the way to the object to be
first object of the intellect: (1) known: as, reason or revelation
what is chronologically first known (faith). See LIGHT. (3) in regard to
by a human mind. (2) the most per­ acts of will. the source and type of
fect object knowable. (3) that to motivation that impels to the object:
which the human intellect is directed attraction of a natural good or the
by its very nature; proportionate impulse of divine grace and super­
(connatural) object. This is the es­ natural charity
sence of sensible things, according to material object: (1) the indeter­
Thomists. minate (general) or the whole object
formal object when (*quod): presented to a power, habit, or act.
formal here means special, definite, This total object contains many for­
exclusive, proper, peculiar. Formal mal objects or particular features
and material objects often mean the that may fall under the action of
formal and material aspects of the different powers, habits, or acts, or
same object. References to formal that may come to the attention or
object without further qualification attraction of the same power at dif­
mean the formal object which (not ferent times. (2) the whole range or
the formal object under which). (1) extent of the objects (things; na­
the particular perfection, selected tures) in which the formal object
ratio, or characteristic within the can be found: as, all colored lighted
complex whole of the material object things are the material object of
that a power, habit, or act actually sight. ( 3) of a science. (a) its sub­
attains or to which it is immediately ject matter, q.v. This is also called
directed. (2) for cognitive and appe­ its specific object because it differs
titive powers. the typical perfection from the subject of other sciences.
in an object which a power primarily In this sense, subject (matter) and
(directly and naturally; essentially; object are not opposed. (b) the sum
per se) attains, to which it is by its of all possible propositions that can
very nature adapted, and by means be learned about the subject matter
of which it reaches other aspects of of a science. (4) a mere thing; some­
the material object presented to the thing capable of being owned.
power. NoTE - object has a special sense
NOTE - In sense 2 the object or in Kant.
perfection is typical of or common moral object (object of the act;
to all acts of that power, not re­ end of the act) : distinguished from
stricted to a particular act as in end of the agent. See main entry 6.
sense 1. Thus, red may be the for­ primary object: ( 1) what is both
mal object of a given act of sight; the direct and formal object of an
the colored is the formal object of act: as, God's essence is the primary
the sense (power) of sight. object of God's knowledge, and God's
formal object by which (*quo) : infinite goodness the primary object
(1) for sciences. the special princi­ of God's love. (2) a primary quality
ples, appropriate methods, type of (for external sensory knowledge). See
reasoning, directions for constructing QUALITY.
figures, special instrumentation, etc. proper object, NoTE- Usage is
by which a given science attains its fluid and seemingly inconsistent; but
special object of study and develops it does not appear to be used for ob­
its body of conclusions. This is for­ jects of acts: ( 1) the formal object
mal (a) because it is special to the of a power. (2) the connatural ob­
science and ( b) leads to the formal ject or proportionate object of a
object quad of the science. See ME­ power, sense 1, below. (3) of a
DIUM sub quo. (2) in regard to acts science. the material object as speci-
object 210 object

fied by the formal object: as, the mal object found in any thing that
material object of the science of a power is fitted to attain primarily,
ethics is human acts; the formal ob- easily, and best under the natural
ject is obligation; the proper object normal conditions for its operation;
is human acts insofar as they are connatural object, i.e., the one to
obligatory. which a power is naturally best
proportionate object: (1) a for- suited. (2) an object actually related

SOME USES OF OBJECT AND SUBJECT

Usage Antonym

OBJECT
in
Grammar The noun or substantive to which the action of Subject
the verb is directed or which is governed by a
preposition

Metaphysics End (purpose; objective) Means

Recipient of causal action (patient) Form or agent
Material thing Person

Theory of The known or knowable, as other than the act of Subject

knowledge knowing and related to it (percipient)

Philosophy That to which the acts of a power are directed Power, habit,
of man The term of any vital tendency tendency, and
act

Ethics End (purpose) Means

Object of choice (the voluntary) The human act
The just thing (matter of a right) Subject (holder)
of a right
----------------------·
-------------------------------

SUBJECT
Logic The term in a proposition about which predica­ Predicate
tion is made
The inferior of a universal concept or term The universal
nature
Subject matter of a science, argument, discourse, Form?
etc. (content)

Metaphysics Substance Accidents in

subject
Potency as substrate Act
First term of a relation (referent) Referend
Theory of Conscious being; a knower; a knowing power; Object known
knowledge the I or knowable;
the it

Philosophy Substrate (potency) for change Form or agent

of nature
Philosophy The self The outside
of man world
The power receiving a habit The habit

Ethics The moral agent What he does

Holder (subject) of a right Just thing (ob-
ject; matter
of a right)
The person under authority Ruler (superior)
object 211 objectify

ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOME DIVISIONS OF

OBJECT OF KNOWLEDGE

an act of seeing
Type of Object the sense of sight
a Iiving frog
possible intellect

1. Material material bodies a living frog all beings

2. Formal quod actual color green being (the
intelligible)
3. Proper colored things green in a frog's the being in any
skin being
4. Connatural ? ? essences of material
(propor- things
tionate)
5. Adequate anything with figure, size, move- everything about
visible color ments, as well as every being
the primary sen-
sible of color
6. Formal quo light with no the light at the time natural intellectual
special optical of seeing the frog activity or super-
aids natural assistance
or both ; evidence
7. Primary actual color of green some sensible thing
surfaces: the that is first
sensible per se known
8. Secondary the quantitative the shape, dimen- all beings, sensible
accidents and sions, swimming and spiritual, real
movements movement, etc., and possible and
known by the of the frog merely logical
outline of
color

to a power or act. (3) an object object; one mediately attained. (2)

that under the given set of conditions a secondary quality of sensory per­
does not exceed a power's capacities; ception. (3) objects known and loved
as, color is an object proportionate in addition to the primary object:
to good eyes in sufficiently bright as, creatures are secondary objects of
light; God in Himself is a propor­ divine knowledge and love.
tionate object to the human intellect principle of specification, "The
filled with the light of glory. formal object immediately specifies
The Scotistic distinction between powers, habits, and acts."
a natural and voluntary object best ABBR.-obj.
fits under this notion of a propor­ REF. -S.T., I, 1, a. 7; 1-11, 57,
tionate object. A natural object causes a. 2 ad 2; Commentary on Boethius'
knowledge necessarily by its presence "De Trinitate," q. 1, a. 3.
because it is what it is; the object objectify, v.t. 1. to make an object
and the knower are naturally fitted by projecting from the mind, spirit,
to meet. A voluntary object causes or Absolute. The thing known, loved,
itself to be known by willing itself or said to have existence would not
to be known, not just by its presence; be an object unless made into an
hence, it is contingently known. God object by the subject. 2. to treat a
is a voluntary object in the beatific person impersonally, objectively, sci­
vision. entifically, as distinct from my self
secondary object: (1) an indirect and my experience and my personal
objection 212 obligation

relations to him as a person; reduce having or keeping an objective atti­

persons, personal states, and interper­ tude to reality, events, claims, etc.:
sonal relations to the status of mere as, the objectivity of an impartial
objects, ignoring their unique existen­ judge or of a trained scientist. 4.
tial character. 3. to treat a person as exclusion, as far as possible, of per­
a thing without rights or as a mere sonal and artificial interferences with
utility. The corresponding noun is nature and history in gathering and
objectification. interpreting data; exact regard for
objection, n. a reason to the contrary; the integrity of the objects and facts.
a difficulty proposed against an ex­ obligation, n. 1. ethics. the necessity
planation, proof, or conclusion. imposed by a superior on a subject re­
ABBR.-obj. quiring him freely to obey a law or
objective, ad;. 1. of or in the object; other command; a duty. 2. that to
apart from, distinct from, opposite to, which a subject is bound by his su­
or outside the subject or his act in perior; the acts and omissions di­
regard to its object; transsubjective. rected by law or precept. 3. that to
See note under OBJECT and defmi­ which a contracting party binds him­
tion, sense 3. 2. reflectively con­ self. 4. logic. the agreement between
cerned with the object and its disputants to discuss and try to
characteristics in its own reality answer each other's arguments.
and critically detached from personal absolute obligation, a duty bind­
prejudices, likes, dislikes, expecta­ ing all men in the same matter, al­
tions, and other affective states; im­ ways, in every condition of human
personal or scientific in attitude to­ nature. See categorical IMPERATIVE.
ward, and in study of, things; moved directly moral obligation, a duty
to judgments only by evidence pre­ binding in conscience to do or omit
sented by the things themselves. 3. the acts specified in the law or pre­
of or in things themselves, prior to cept. An indirectly moral obligation
and independently of the mind's con­ binds only to accept the justly im­
sideration of them; actual; real; on­ posed penalty for not observing a law
tological; grounded in reality: dis­ or precept.
tinguished from the merely logical disjunctive obligation, a duty
(mental; subjective). binding in conscience to obey the
ABBR.-obj. law either by doing (or omitting)
objectivism, n. any philosophical doc­ the legally specified act or at least
trine that maintains the ordinary by accepting the justly imposed
capacity of the human intellect to penalty for breaking the law. Dis­
have some certain knowledge of ob­ junctive obligation is one hypothesis
jects external to the knower. The to explain merely penal law.
history of philosophy presents many hypothetical obligation: ( 1) a
differences in objectivism: about what duty imposed with this condition that.
objects can be known, how well, how if the subject is justly sentenced
immediately, and by what mental for violating a law, he must in con­
powers and processes. science accept the imposed penalty
ANT.-subjectivism. even though the violation of the law
objectivity, n. 1. the state of a thing was not in itself evil. (2) any duty
in its own reality, independent of the that arises not from the natural
mind or will of a subject other than necessity of right reason but only
the author of a thing. 2. conformity from a special free act of a superior
of mental representation to the ob­ by way of purely positive law or
ject known; knowledge measured by precept. ( 3) additional duties freely
the object; certitude proportionate to assumed by a subject of law: as, by
objective evidence; the intentional vow, adoption of children.
reference of knowledge to things. 3. juridical obligation: ( 1) juridical
oblique 213 one

duty, q.v. (2) a purely legal necessity by a private person for his own good.
that carries no threat of moral of­ 2. occupancy; renting, leasing, buying,
fense against God if neglected. and dwelling in a building. 3. em­
positive obligation, a duty whose ployment; business; vocation.
immediate source is a positive law; Ockham's razor, phrase. the rule of
hypothetical obligation, sense 2. economy, often attributed to William
oblique, adj. see IN OBLIQUO. Ockham (1300?-1349?) though it his­
obversion, n. an act of immediate in­ torically antecedes him, that beings
ference that retains the subject and and distinctions are not to be multi­
predicate of the original proposition plied without need: or, plurality is
(the obvertend) and adds appropriate not to be posited without necessity.
negatives to reach a proposition (the office, n. 1. a duty binding on or
obverse) equivalent to the original in assigned to someone as a part of his
meaning; inferring the negative coun­ authority, position, or work. A few
terpart of an affirmative proposition famous ethical treatises have the title
or the affirmative counterpart of a De Officiis. 2. a service performed,
negative proposition. EXAMPLE: "No intended, or to be performed for
philosophers are reasonable" (Obver­ another. 3. a position of authority or
tend) becomes "Every philosopher is trust, in state, church, banking, etc.
unreasonable" (Observe). The verb omega, n. I. the last letter of the
is to obvert. Greek alphabet. 2. the end; the su­
occasion, n. a circumstance, external preme end; (0-) God.
to the agent, that favors the present omission, n. 1. failure to perform
action of a free cause; a special op­ one's duty; neglect, intentional or
portunity for a particular act or deed; otherwise, of an action to which one
an accidental cause, i.e., a circum­ is bound: distinguished from com­
stance associated with causality: as, mission. 2. in law. nonfeasance, i.e.,
parties at holidays are occasions of failure to do what duty requires. 3.
intemperance. An occasion is one anything lawfully forbidden, excluded,
type of real principle. An occasion or not done.
of evil is not always a temptation ANT. - commission.
to evil. omniperfect, adj. all-perfect.
be an occasion, give scandal or omnipotent, adj. almighty; all-power­
good example. ful; having causal ability to make
take occasion, use an opportunity; any or all things that are intrinsically
choose an opportune or favorable possible. Some wish to restrict omni­
time. potence to the actual power God has
ABBR. - occas. shown in creating all. This display of
occasionalism, n. any doctrine hold­ power, in their eyes, does not show
ing that finite beings in all or some infinite power. Hence, omnipotence
specific activity (as, knowledge) do would not be the same as limitless
not cause results or interact with each might.
other, but that God alone causes all omnipresent, adj. present every­
on occasion of the nearness, union, where; being simultaneously wherever
etc., of the seemingly causally related there is being; in all places at once.
objects, partners, pairs, etc. See one, adj. 1. what is undivided in itself
HARMONY, se nse 4; ILLUMINATION, and distinct from every other. This
sense 3. is transcendental oneness. See UNIT
occupation, n. 1. an act of taking hold for divisions. ANT. - many. 2. the
of and making unowned or abandoned same. 3. designating a property that
property one's own. As a title, occu­ is a sign or effect of unity: hence,
pation must be effective by physical whole; singular; individual; separate
or legal act, not by mere intention. from others, etc. 4. (n.) the first
Occupation is appropriation if done whole number; the first cardinal num-
ontic 214 opinion

ber designating a single unit of its confused with the ontological argu­
kind. This mathematical sense of one­ ment which is an act of reasoning to
ness is not transcendental and is uni­ God.
vocal. 5. indicating the standard for ontology, n. the science of being as
measurement of anything quantita­ being. The term was first used by
tive: as, one gallon; one year. Jean-Baptiste Duhamel (1624-1706),
The problem of the one and the a scholastic, in his Philosophia Uni­
many: This many-sided problem tries versalis. C. Wolff (1679-17 54)
to reconcile unity and plurality as adopted and spread the term. Some
seemingly opposed features of reality, scholastics do not wish to use ontol­
of knowledge, of human nature, of ogy as a synonym for metaphysics
political society, etc. Is reality one because of its misuses by semi­
or many things? Is there one or are scholastics and nonscholastic writ­
there many basic kinds of things? Is ers. Many writers distinguish on­
there one or are there many sources tology (being of things), phenome­
of things? Has reality none, one, or nology (appearances of things), mean­
many kinds of changes? Is knowledge ing (reference of thought and lan­
of the universal valid? Can it repre­ guage to things), and psychology
sent both one and many? Is knowl­ (internal experience of things).
edge all of one kind or of many open to, phrase. See an English dic­
kinds? Does the knower know him­ tionary.
self or other many things or identify operation, n. 1. activity; the second
himself with the other in some way? actuality of a power. There seems to
Is man one unit or a composite or be a preference for operation to de­
a plurality united accidentally? Is note immanent and immaterial ac­
he different from or the same as tivity and for action to denote
other natural bodies? What is the transeunt, productive activity. This
relation of the person to the society? would be parallel to the distinction
Is the person or the common good between doing and making. 2. any one
primary? What unity can belong to of the three typical activities of the
the plurality called a society? In re­ mind, sc. apprehension, judgment,
gard to philosophy itself, the mind reasoning. 3. a direction, signal, or
asks whether there can be only one symbol for changing the parts of an
or many true philosophies. equation, formula, set of propositions,
ontic, adj. of being and its proper­ etc. See appendix, LOGICAL NOTA­
ties; ontological. TION. 4. a manipulation, change, sub­
ontogenesis (ontogeny), n. the bio­ stitution, etc., made in a proposition:
logical development of a single living as, conversion. 5. an act of surgery
being; the life cycle of an individual with or without instruments, espe­
organism: distinguished from psycho­ cially on a human body.
logical and phylogenetic development. ABBR.-op.
ontological, adj. of, in, founded on, operator, n. 1. an agent, active
or referring to being; actual; real; faculty, or operative habit. 2. a term
existent or about the existent: con­ or symbol in logic or mathematics
trasted with the mental, merely logi­ denoting or directing, some change,
cal, and verbal: as, judgment is onto­ substitution, or transformation of the
logical in nature. quantity of a proposition or formula.
ontologism, n. a philosophical opinion opinion, n. 1. assent to one side
that the human mind's first knowl­ mingled with doubt (fear) that the
edge is an immediate, at least indis­ other side could be true; assent that
tinct, knowledge of God and that all is not firm because one recognizes
other things are known in some de­ that the motive of assent does not
pendence on this primitive knowledge certainly exclude the truth of the
of God. This position is not to be contradictory proposition; an ex-
opportunity 215 opposition

pressed preference for a view that sion of the simultaneous truth be­
lacks certainty or common agreement. tween propositions on the same sub­
Mere doubt inclines to neither side. ject that have neither quantity nor
2. a conclusion resting on a probable quality in common; hence, the full
or dialectical proof. 3. am ong Greek opposition between universal affirma­
philosophers generally and among tive and particular negative or be­
medievals who adhered closely to tween universal negative and particu­
Aristotle's theory of science. knowl­ lar affirmati. :! on the same subject.
edge of contingent facts or their re­ In the square of opposition, this is
lationships, of individuals, accidents, A-0 and E-1 opposition. ( b) contrary
and practical things to be done. Sci­ opposition, the exclusion of the simul­
ence, a higher grade of knowledge, taneous truth between a universal
knows universals, necessary sub­ affirmative and a universal negative
stances, and their necessary relations. proposition on the same subject mat­
opportuni ty, n. 1. metaphysics. a ter. This is A-E opposition in the
favorable occasion for the action of a square. (c) subaltern opposition,
free cause; an opening. 2. ethics. the relation of inclusion and differ­
power or freedom for something. This ence between a universal and a par­
positive aspect of a right is con­ ticular proposition that deal with the
trasted with immunity or freedom same subject matter and have the
from something or from some inter­ same quality. It is A-I or E-0 differ­
ference. ence on the square. ( d) subcontrary
opposi te, adj. l. placed or set against opposition, the difference between a
another or each other in balance, particular affirmative and a particular
contrast, direction, disposition, office, negative proposition dealing with the
views, allegiance, etc. See OTHER. 2. same subject and predicate. It is
hostile; resistant; conflicting; clash­ 1-0 opposition on the square. Since
ing with another. 3. very different; both subcontrary propositions may be
exactly contrary. 4. in some way ex­ simultaneously true, this is not a re­
cluding each other in truth, meaning, lation of exclusion.
correctness, etc. privative opposition, the differ­
opposition, n. 1. the state of being ence between having and not having
very different from, set against, stand­ (a) the same due natural character­
ing on the other side of, or excluding istic or ( b) a due part or feature of
another. Opposition may be between an artifact.
beings, concepts, terms, meanings, modal opposition, the difference
judgments, and propositions. Usually, between propositions on the same
consideration is given only to logical subject matter which usually have
opposition which lies between propo­ the same subject and predicate but
sitions having the same subject mat­ whose nexus is qualified by opposed
ter; for the other types of opposi­ modes. Thus, the opposition between
tions, e.g., between beings or between necessity and impossibility is con­
being and nonbeing or between con­ tradictory: as, God must be good vs.
cepts ·and terms, will appear in our God cannot be good.
judgments and statements. 2. the re­ relative opposition, the difference
lation between propositions that can­ between the extremes or the con­
not be true together. This does not nected members of a relation and be­
apply to subaltern opposition. tween compared degrees of the same
logical opposition, any difference actuality or perfection ; as, between
in quantity, quality, or both quantity cause and effect or between the best
and quality, between propositions that and the worst philosopher.
treat of the same subject and predi­ square of opposition, a schematic
cate. Four types are named: (a) arrangement of the contrasts and re­
�ontradictory opposition, the exclu- lationships of logically opposed propo-
optimism 216 order

sitions about the same subject mat­ actual order, a really existing
ter. The symbols of the opposed order, not one merely planned or
propositions are put at the four possible or desirable.
corners of a square. artificial (mechanical) order, an
optimism, n. 1. the doctrine of G. order imposed on things by free hu­
Leibnitz (1646-1 716) that this is the man action; a rearrangement of na­
best possible world that God could tural objects in human production;
make. This doctrine is called absolute order like that within a machine.
optimism. 2. a doctrine that denies ascending order, the movement of
the fact of evil, calling it illusion. 3. thought from effect to cause.
relative (scholastic) optimism. the cosmic order: (1) world order.
opinion that this world is relatively (2) order in nonliving natures.
best for God's purpose in creating it. descending order: (1) the move­
option, n. 1. a choice. 2. a right to ment of thought from the prior to
choose something. 3. something that the posterior; a priori thinking. (2)
is, has been, or can be chosen. 4. descent, q.v.
a philosopher's initial selection of dynamic order, an order of activi­
problems, positions, and data for his ties that maintains the unity of the
investigation and reflections; a selec­ order during change and progress in
ton among probable opinions within space and time.
a systematic framework. extrinsic order, an order imposed
ordained, adj. ordered. on natures from without their own
order, n. 1. the arrangement of many natures; a unification imposed on the
things into some unity according to many by an agent who uses and ar­
some principle. 2. a unifying relation ranges already existing but unrelated
among many things. 3. the sequence natures; artificial order.
of acts, steps, events, members, ranks, intrinsic order, a unity that de­
etc., in a connected series or set: as, velops from the very nature of the
chronological order; order of business. ordered multiplicity.
4. the total set of such acts, steps, juridic (juridical) order: (1)
degrees, ranks, etc. 5. any methodical the order of justice or of rights
succession, harmonious relation, regu­ among men; the total system of the
lar arrangement, or repeatable cycle. types of justice, including the laws,
6. the allotment of each thing to its duties, titles, rights, objects of rights,
proper place, rank, or value; the and persons concerned; the body of
relative place or rank in which some­ rights and duties which justice grants,
thing is or ought to be: as, necessary imposes, protects, and sanctions. (2)
goods are of a higher order than the body of positive rights and duties
luxuries. 7. the class or level of per­ established by positive or human­
fection within a being: as, the po­ positive law.
tency-act structure of a finite being logical (mental) order, correct ar­
refers to composition in the order rangement of concepts, language,
of existence, in the order of essence, propositions, arguments, numbers, and
in the order of operation, etc. 8. one other mental entities; order in
of the nine grades or choirs of angels. thought.
9. a group of people striving for a metaphysical order, the necessary
common good; an organic, natural relationships among beings.
group. 10. a command or request of moral order: ( 1) the proper direc­
a superior. tion of human acts to man's end. (2)
The divisions pertain to the first the conformity of human acts to the
five senses or to variations of sense 1. right norm of human conduct and to
The chart on UNIT and, to a degree, the eternal law. (3) the relations
the chart on END help a student to between moral causes and effects, be­
group these divisions. tween moral purposes and the means
order 217 ordinance of reason

thereto, between duties and rights, ably the two leading types of order.
between parts or social members and order of specification, the rela­
the whole, etc. tion between a power or its act and
natural order: ( 1) an arrange­ the formal object that determines
ment intrinsic to things, belonging to what definite action it takes. See
them inherently, and developing from objective CAUSALITY.
the very natures of the things within physical order, natural or artificial
which or among which the order is order present among or between mere
found. (2) what is due to a particular things or their parts.
nature's constitution, powers, natural political order, order of the social
activities for its natural end, or what parts of the state to the social whole,
is similarly due to the sum of all of subjects to superiors and officials
natures: distinguished from the gra­ and vice versa, of political institu­
tuitous and added character of the tions and policies to the purpose of
preternatural and supernatural. ( 3) the state, etc.
the order in the whole of nature; the public order, a state of peace and
arrangement and adaptation of na­ general observance of law; the in­
tural objects to the good of the whole stitutions and regular provisions for
of nature and the general bene­ the common good.
fit of the parts or members of the real (actual; ontological) order,
natural system: as, the order of many an objective arrangement of many
particles and forces to circulate air things into some real unity.
and water over the earth. ( 4) the social order: ( 1) order in society
regular course of nature. achieved by the practice of distribu­
ontological order: ( 1) an order, tive and legal justice. (2) any order
necessary or contingent, between be­ that affects a number of people: as,
ings or between their constitutive the social effects of economic order;
principles and parts. (2) real order. the order intended by social justice;
(3) the hierarchy of beings and per­ etc.
fections. structural (static) order, right
order of causality, see CAUSALITY. arrangement of parts for the good of
order of execution, order in mak­ the whole to which they belong and to
ing or in carrying out an intention each other, abstracting from minor
wherein means precede the end ob­ changes that do not modify the struc­
tained. ture.
order of exercise, the order in supernatural order, the sum of
the use of a power or in its applica­ the gifts of God that surpass the
tion to its function; the relation be­ capacities and due needs of man's
tween the power and the cause or
mere nature. See SUPERNATURAL,
stimulus setting it into action: distin­
guished usually from order of specifi­
sense 2.
cation. ABBR. - o.; ord.
order of intention, the order of ordered, adj. I. related (to). 2. di­
planning in which end precedes selec­ rected (toward an end). 3. arranged;
tion and use of the means for that organized.
end. See chart on series of acts of ordinance (ordination) of reason,
INTELLECT and will. phrase. a command of (right) reason
order of means to end (teleo· made by due authority. This implies
logical order), the organization or reason in two senses; the act of rea­
direction of the right and opportune son giving the directive to the end
means to the proposed purpose. and the reasonableness or rightness
Teleological order and structural of the determined means that fit the
order (of parts to whole) are prob- end to be obtained. See LAW.
ordination 218 ownership

ordination, n. 1. relation (with to). terests), historical (de facto events

2. ordinance, an ordering. and persons), and juridical (by
organ, n. 1. nominally, a tool or in­ right) origins. The last of these three
strument (of the living body). 2. any is the proper philosophical question.
part of an organism composed of problems on origins, see cosuo-
tissues having a specialized structure GENESIS, BIOGENESIS, EVOLUTION,
and adapted to performing some CREATION, AUTHORITY.
special natural function or functions. other, adj. 1. different, distinct, or
3. a part, office, or institution of the separate from another that is referred
state or the government, established to, in either number or kind. See
to perform special tasks for the com­ something (an other thing) as a
mon good: as, the judiciary is an transcendental. 2. the object con­
organ of the state. fronting the knowing subject: as,
organic, adj. 1. of, in, or from an knowledge is awareness of the other
organism or organ. 2. like an organ­ as other. Here other is a pronoun.

ism in structure of specialized parts, the wholly Other, a modern name

special functions, and unity. See for God, stressing His real distinc­
QUASI-ORGANIC. tion from and exalted superiority
ABBR.- org. over creatures but tending to an
organism, n. 1. an organized living agnostic loss of all analogy between
body, vegetable, animal, or human; creatures and God.
a whole living substance having di­ otherness, n. 1. difference; distinc­
verse organs, all of which exist in tion; diversity; separation. 2. multi­
dependence on the living whole and plicity; plurality.
act primarily for the good of the ought, often used as a noun. obliga­
whole; a living body with one vital tion; duty; moral necessity.
principle unifying its multiple organs own, v.t. to possess some material
and activities. 2. something resemb­ good; have rights of proprietorship.
ling an organism in specialization, one's own, rightfully and exclu­
complexity, and unity. Those who sively belonging to the self. See SUI
hold that the state or the universe is JURIS.
actually an organism (sense 1) are ownership, n. the right to control or
often named organicists. dispose of a material object in one's
organon, n. 1. a method; means; interest in accordance with law;
system of inquiry. 2. cap. the collec­ dominion.
tion of Aristotle's six logical works. direct ownership, a partial owner­
3. Francis Bacon's (1561-1636) ship in which one has a right only
Novum Organum. over the substance of the object
origin, n. 1. strictest meaning. (a) possessed.
the principle from which another indirect ownership, a partial own­
proceeds without causal dependence ership in which one has the right only
on that other. The theological use of of use, usufruct, etc., of a thing while
this term helps explain the origin of ownership of the substance is retained
the second and third persons in the by another; as, a tenant has indirect
Most Blessed Trinity, where the prin­ ownership over a house while the
ciple has no priority of nature or time landlord owns the house itself by
over the principiate. ( b) a proces­ direct ownership.
sion of this kind. 2. any basic cause plenary ownership, the permanent
or source. 3. coming into existence; right to control the substance, use,
beginning to be. 4. an explanation of and fruits of a material thing in one's
the start of anything. In some own interest in accordance with law.
problems of the beginning of states, title to ownership (to property},
authority, and laws we distinguish the contingent fact that confers on
genetic (psychological and social in- this definite person, corporation, or
ownership 219 ownership

society the right to a definite ma­ tion of unowned goods, production,

terial good or body of goods. Some invention, accession, prescription, con­
titles are creation, effective occupa- tract, inheritance, and restitution due.
 p
palingenesis, n. 1. an additional birth; Cretan that all Cretans are liars; ( 3)
regeneration; reincarnation. 2. the the card of Jourdain on one side of
doctrine of successive births; metem­ which was written "On the other side
psychosis. of this card is written a true state­
panentheism, n. a modified pantheism ment," and on the reverse ''On the
that holds the world to be in God as other side of this card is written a
a part, though not as the whole, of false statement."
His being. parallelism, n. any one of the theories
panpsychism, n. the view that all that physiological processes and
things, whether individually or col­ mental activities in man occur as
lectively, are in some way alive, have simultaneous variations or as oc­
a soul, and have psychological proper­ casions for each other's simultaneous
ties; hylozoism. existence but without any causal re­
pantheism, n. any variation of the lation or interdependence of body
view that all things are divine or that and soul or of these bodily and
God and the universe are identical. mental processes. See preestablished
para· (par·), prefix: meaning 1. by HARMONY. The commonest variation
the side of; beside; alongside of; of the view is psychophysical paral­
aside from; to one side; by; past; lelism which may hold either (a)
beyond. 2. in various scientific and that mind and body are really setia­
medical terms. secondary; derivative; rate, not a substantial unit, and not
modifying; abnormal; like a purer causally interacting, or ( b) that mind
type or form. and body are really the same and
parable, n. a short, simple, usually only mentally distinct so that physio­
allegorical story from which a lesson logical (neural) and mental states are
may be drawn; myth. merely two seemingly different ways
parable of the invisible gardener, in which the one organism simul­
the story of a garden, showing both taneously acts.
order and disorder, care and neglect, paralogism, n. 1. reasoning contrary
but whose gardener is never seen at to the rules of logic. 2. a formal
work: used as a basis for discussing fallacy in syllogistic reasoning.
whether God does or does not exist, paranormal, adj. other than normal;
especially by logical analysts. not ordinary; occurring alongside the
paradox, n. 1. a statement or con­ normal.
clusion that seems contradictory, fool­
parapsychology, n. the branch of
ish, or unbelievable but that may be
psychology that investigates para­
true. 2. a self-contradictory state­
normal psychological phenomena as
ment; hence, a false statement. 3.
telepathy, extrasensory perception,
something contrary to common ex­
etc.
perience or having seemingly contra­
parsimony, n. 1. a tendency to spend
dictory qualities: as, a miracle to
the minimum; unusual, even unrea­
naturalists' view of the uniformity of
sonable, economy. 2. the tendency
nature. 4. a person inconsistent in
of nature to get maximum effects with
character or conduct.
least expenditure of energy.
famous paradoxes in logic and
philosophy: (1) Zeno's paradox of canon of parsimony: ( 1) the
the hare and the turtle whom he principle of economy. See ECONOMY.
should never be able to overtake; (2) the rule of some logicians, esp.
(2) the saying of Epimenides the of analysts, that all unverified and

220
part 221 participation

unverifiable statements are excluded metaphysical part, an aspect of a

from scientific affirmation. real whole or real essence: as, man's
part, n. 1. any component, constituent, whole nature is animal yet not merely
element, member, branch, division, animal; animality is referred to as a
piece, or portion of a composite metaphysical part, for it does not
whole. Parts connote equal or com­ fully define man.
parable portions of a thing. See organic part: ( 1) a distinct organ
chart on UNIT; composite UNIT. 2. belonging to a living whole. (2) a
a share belonging to or given to some member needed for a natural social
one. 3. a party in a contract, con­ whole: as, a parent in the family
troversy, etc. or a lawmaker in a state.
The following divisions belong to parts of the soul, a permanent
s ens e 1. power, class of powers, or a perma­
essential part, one of the coprin­ nent feature of one of the powers
ciples needed to make up a composite of the soul: as, the vegetative, senti­
nature or essence; hence, prime mat­ ent, and rational parts; the cognitive
ter and substantial form. Some may and appetitive parts; the higher and
extend this meaning to include es­ lower parts of the soul.
sential logical parts, below. potential part (of a virtue), see
entitative parts, the essence and VIRTUE.
act of existence as basic components quantitative part: (1) a part of
of a finite being. the quantity or extension of a body.
integral part: ( 1) a material part (2) a detachable part of a body
necessary to make a complete body having actual extension. ( 3) an in­
of a definite nature; a quantitative tegral part, in senses 1 and 3.
or quasi-quantitative part which, to­ signate part, a material portion of
gether with the rest of the parts, add an individual body but considered in­
up to the whole. (2) a piece having dependently of any form or any modi­
the same nature as the whole to which fication by a form other than quan­
it belongs or from which it has been tity.
cut off. (3) a piece needed to con­ subjective part: ( 1) a member
stitute a complete artifact or belong­ within the extension of a class; one
ing to the complete artifact: as, an of the inferiors. (2) a complete
engine is an integral part of an auto­ species of any one of the cardinal
mobile. ( 4) any condition, disposi­ virtues to which it is related as to its
tion, or act needed for the perfec­ genus.
tion of a cardinal virtue, though not substantial part, an incomplete
all of these are required for the exist­ substance: mainly said of essential
ence of such a virtue in the soul. parts, but applicable to integral parts
Some of these are known as quasi­ in senses 1 and 2 and to organic parts.
integral parts. REF. -Met., V, ch. 25; VII, ch.
logical part, the genus or specific 10; S.T., II-II, 48; III, 90, aa. 1-2;
difference as parts constituting the C.G., II, 72; Commentary on
logical whole, which is the species or Boethius' Book "On the Trinity," q.
its definition. 5, a. 3.
material part, an integral part not participate, v.i. to have or take a
contained in the definition of the part with others (in some causal ac­
whole body and presupposing the tivity, benefit, perfection, service,
whole essence: as, fingers, feet, hands. duty, etc.); to share with one or more
Without these parts the body can in something; communicate. It does
continue to exist. Hence, unlike es­ not mean give or cause a share.
sential and integral parts, they are participation, n. 1. any participating
not needed to constitute the whole or taking part; the act, fact, state,
body. etc., of having or doing something in
participation 222 pass i o n

common with others; sharing with Appendix I on the vocabulary of

others (in a communicable perfec­ participation.
tion). 2. partial, imperfect, and anal­ particular, adj. 1. referring to a part
ogous possession of the being, nature, of a whole. 2. referring to, or in­
attributes, or functions of another cluding, a part of a logical whole;
superior being. referring to, or including, some, but
NoTE - The philosophically rich not all, members of a class. 3. predi­
word, participation, plays upon con­ cated of some, but not all, members
cepts, effects, and causes of having of a class, and usually in an in­
a part in some larger whole. As definite way without specifying who
there are many parts to a whole, these members are.
there are many participants of a ABBR. - part.
whole; each participant has only some passihle, adj. I. that can feel. 2.
of the whole; it is one of many; that can suffer pain. 3. that can
it is finite. The shareholder is not that be sensed, esp. by the sense or senses
perfection; it is not the subsistent that report organic pain. 4. that is
perfection. Thus, only God is sub­ changeable, esp. easily changeable;
sistent existence, subsistent life, etc. passive.
Meaning 1 may refer to univocal passihle quality, see QUALITY.
sharing with one's equals in a per­ passion, n. I. any reception of a
fection or a good; but meaning 2 is perfection or privation of a form;
reserved for analogical sharing. This the gain and loss of forms in the
analogical likeness further connotes being undergoing change; change
( 1) a produced likeness to the original named from something extrinsic, sc.,
possessor of the perfection and (2) its efficient cause; the accident of
grades of that perfection even among being acted upon by another. This
the sharers. See ANALOGY of partici­ is the sixth category. 2. a passive
pation; GRADES of being; participated power that must be moved to ac­
BEING, CERTITUDE, GOOD. tivity by another agent: as, sight
participant, one of many who must be stimulated by a colored ob­
have a participated perfection. ject of a certain intensity. 3. an act
participation in the eternal law, of a passive power. 4. any immanent
sharing in the eternal law as being act that occurs after the reception
a part of it present in the creatures of another being's influence on it.
subject to it, as caused by and de­ 5. any emotion; an act of a sensory
pendent on it. Thus, the natural appetite. 6. an intense emotion or
moral law participates in the eternal impulsive movement of a sensitive
law; human authority participate s appetite accompanied by noticeable
through the law in divine authority. organic change: as, in rage, fear, or
principle of participation: "Every sexual drive. 7. a disordered affec­
participated being and perfection tion or unruly movement of a sensi­
analogically resembles and is caused tive appetite, connoting moral dan­
by the Being (and Perfection) by ger or the effect of moral fault; un­
essence." controlled desire. This is the Stoic
proof from participation, the sense of passion and the one often
proof that God exists grounded on found in ascetical literature. Senses
the grades of being and pure per­ 6 and 7 may be called passionate acts.
fections. 8. suffering; great suffering; the ex­
REF. - St. Thomas, Commentary perience of losing a suitable form
on Boethius' "De Hebdomadibus,'' and enduring the presence of an un­
lect. 2 on the meanings and uses suitable one: as, passion of Christ.
of the term, participation; L.-B. 9. a transitory sensible quality that
Geiger, 0.P., La Participation dans la moves or is moved by a sensitive
philosophie de S. Thomas D'Aquin, appetite; an affection; a passible
passive 223 penal

qua lity : as, blushing 10. the object

. curity for all, treating subjects as
of any strong desire or sensitive minor dependents even when treating
movement. 11. a property or attri­ them well, and demanding submission
bute that can be predicated of some­ to government care of them without
thing. Scotus, e.g., calls the trans­ any voice of the subjects in decisions
cendental attri butes ( on e, true, good) concerning their welfare. 2. a policy
transcendental or convertible pas­ of owners and managers shown to
sions of being; the fi rst divisions employees that resembles government
of being ( nec essary-possible, act-po­ paternalism.
tency, etc.) he calls disjun ctive or patient, n. 1. the subject of change;
alternative passions of being. the subject acted upon by a cause
master passion, the emotion or or being determined to receive a
group of emotions that seem to new form; the subject of the being
dominate one's condu ct or lead to of a passion in sense 1. 2. a mate rial
undesirable conduct. cause inasmuch as it is the deter­
principal passions, those move­ minable su bject of change. 3. a per­
ments of sensitive appetites that pre­ son needing or receivi ng medical or
cede other emotions and lead to nursing care or treatment.
other sensitive feelings known as patriarchal theory, phrase. see NATU­
consequ ent passions; the basic acts RAL juridical theory.
of sensitive appetites that arise im­ peace, n. l. "the tra nquillity of order"
mediately from the essential re lati on (St. Augustin e) ; the calm and con­
of this appetite to this kind of object. tented order of justice; well-ordered
These are usually said to be love and union of wills. 2. freedom from war
hate. There are a number of ways or civil strife; freedom from public
of organizing the relation of the pas­ disorder, injustice, conflict, and ter­
sions to love and hate as basic ones. ror. 3. freedom from private dis­
REF. -S.T., I, 79, a. 2; 97, a. 2; agreement or qu arre ls; concord; un­
1-11, 1 5, a. 5; 22, aa. 1, 3; 41, a. 1; troubled harmony of. wills. 4. interior
59, aa. 2, 5; Truth, q. 26, a. 1-3, 5; peace. calm and joy of soul in the
Power of God, q. 7, a. 11. loving possession of a good, free
passive, adj. l. that which is in po­ from uneasy conflict in mind, from
tency to be per fe c te d or determined uncertainty, and from further intense
by some other agent; per fectible by effort to get or keep the good. 5. the
a form; potential. 2. acted upon, but fruit of the Holy Spirit consisting in
inactive; inert; of its elf unable to the contentment that flows from
act or move; receiving. 3. describ­ charity. 6. a treaty that ends war.
ing the su bject of a verb that re­ REF. - St. Augustine , City of God,
ceives the action denoted by that XIX, ch. 13; S.T., 11-11, 29, aa. 1-2.
verb. 4. not opposing; unresisting; peirastic, n. and adj. the use and
submissive; patient; undergoing: as, criticism of examination arguments.
passive scandal. 5. refusing to com­ These reason from premises that are
ply with a law, tax, etc., imposed by accepted by the answerer and are
government but avoiding all nonvio­ commonly known by persons familiar
lent acts: as, passive resistance. 6. with the subject under discussion.
negative; inactive; neither helping penal, adj. 1. of, for, or constituting
nor hindering though one could do punishment, especially that estab­
either: as, passive cooperation. lished by law. 2. prescribing or spe­
ABBR. -pass. cifying some definite punishment: as,
paternalism, n. l. the political theory a penal code; penal sanctions. The
or practice of governing a state in pu nishmen t or penalty may be loss,
a manner resembling a father's rela­ suffering, fine, imprisonment, etc. 3.
tionship to young children, e.g., by making a person liab le to pu nish­
state provision of cradle-to-grave se- ment: as, for an illegal disturbance
people 224 perfect

of the peace. 4. purely threatening process of knowing immediately, esp.

punishment but not implying moral as this process includes the sensory
guilt for nonobservance: as, a penal origin of this knowledge. 6. a judg­
law. ment resulting from perceiving: also
people, n. see SOCIETY. known as a perceptual judgment.
per, prep. I. through; by means of; aesthetic perception, the immedi­
by; by virtue of. 2. for each; for ate unified knowledge of a beautiful
every. 3. as a Lat. preposition, it object. See sense 2.
occasionally has other meanings than extrasensory perception (ESP),
these two Anglicized ones; e.g., on awareness of distinct, hidden (yet
account of; as the result of; after sensible) objects without any known
the manner; with respect to. sensory contact of the percipient
*per accidens, Lat. phrase, used with the object perceived.
adjectivally or adverbally. lit., "by perfect, adj. I. complete in all re­
(by means of) an accident." 1. acci­ spects; whole; good; excellent; most
dental or accidentally. 2. contingently. excellent; having all the actual quali­
3. indirect or indirectly; secondarily; ties and good attributes that are
incidentally. 4. by chance; apart from proper to its nature or type. 2. com­
intention. 5. irregularly; unpredict­ plete in some given respect or spe­
ably; actual or true only in individual cified kind of reality. 3. actual; fully
or special instances. actual. Hence, the maxim: A thing
ANT. - per se. is perfect insofar as it is actual.
*per aliud, Lat. phrase, used adjec· 4. fulfilled; finished; actualized; total.
tivally. lit., "through (by means of) When, however, we say that God
another (thing)." 1. mediate; indi­ is perfect, we cannot mean that He
rect. 2. not self-sufficient. has filled up something lacking or
perceive, v.t. 1. to grasp mentally; finished something previously unde­
observe; know immediately. 2. esp., veloped. But sense 3 fits God. 5. lack­
to become or he aware of by one of ing nothing in regard to its nature,
the external senses. operations, needed means, or proper
percept, n. 1. an immediate concept; end. 6. fulfilled and at its best be­
an act of perceiving; expressed spe­ cause it has attained its proper natu­
cies. 2. the object immediately known ral end. 7. morally good; most noble.
in sense perception; the objective 8. self-sufficient; independent, as, per­
concept that originated through sense ject society. 9. without potency; with­
perception. 3. idealism. the sensation out any unfilled potency. 10. with­
or sense impression that is noticed out qualification or restriction; pure.
by the mind. See *MEDIUM QUOD. 11. completely correct or accurate;
perception, n. 1. the immediate exactly copying or representing; to­
knowing of something without or tally conformed to a specified stand­
within the knower; consciousness; in­ ard: as, a per/ect image; the per/ect
tuitive knowledge. 2. the total uni­ truth.
fied knowledge of a present sensible act of the perfect, see immanent
object or set of sensible objects as ACT.
grasped by the senses and intellect all-perfect, all-good; having all
operating together. 3. awareness real pure perfections.
through or dependently on the ex­ infinitely perfect, unlimited in
ternal senses. Whenever perception is perfection. See INFINITE.
referred to, sensory activity is al­ universally perfect, all-perfect.
ways partly present. Perception seems ABBR. - per/.; pf.
to be incorrectly used of abstractions, perfect, v.t. 1. to bring to completion.
of constructs, etc. See perceptual 2. to make better: as, habits perfect
KNOWLEDGE; APPERCEPTION. 4. the nature. 3. to actualize either as for­
ability to know immediately. 5. the mal or efficient cause of the perfected.
perfection 225 perfection

Immanent activity perfects the agent or infinite perfection of God. (2) any
itself; hence, it is an act of the per­ divine attribute thought of as (vir­
fect. Transeunt activity perfects an­ tually; formally; mentally) distinct
other; hence, it is an act of the from other divine attributes.
imperfect. The adjective for all equivalent perfection, a change­
senses is per/ective. able perfection that may be trans­
perfection, n. I. the act or process formed into another state: as, water
of fulfilling, improving, or completing in the states of ice, liquid, and vapor;
a being's actuality. 2. the state of a power in electrical energy and local
real being that is completely good motion.
(a) in all respects or (b) in some infinite perfection, the unlimited
specific good. Perfection is the Aris­ reality or goodness of God in (a)
totelian entelecheia, a filling up of being, or ( b) any divine attribute.
what was incomplete. Hence, it cor­ mixed ( qualified; nonpure; im­
responds closely to the notion of act pure) perfection: ( 1) a reality or
and of form; like these terms, it is good whose nature (concept; defini­
relative to potency in all beings other tion) always includes potency and im­
than God. 3. the goodness or actual­ perfection: as, sensation; reasoning.
ity that a being has or is; any good (2) a pure perfection existing in a
or act in a being; some definite act, mixed way, i.e., combined with and
good, or reality belonging to a be­ limited by potency: as, human free­
ing, suitable to it, and thought of as dom.
mentally distinct from other perfec­ moral perfection: ( 1) holiness.
tions present in that being; a good (2) excellence in some moral or
attribute actually present in a being. theological virtue, esp. in charity.
Hence, we speak of a single being participated perfection, a good
as having many perfections. 4. the or act belonging to a thing as caused
most excellent state of a being when by and received from another, im­
it actually possesses all the perfec­ perfectly possessed, analogous to the
tion proper to its nature, powers, highest perfection of its type, and
activities, and end. Most of the shared with others in its own genus
divisions of perfection follow the or species: as, human life. See partici­
divisions of act or of attribute: pated ACT; PARTICIPATION.
first and second act (read: perfec­ pure perfection, a reality or good
tion); mixed and pure act (read: whose nature (concept; definition)
perfection); entitative, essential, does not state or imply any potency
eminent, operational, radical, attri­ or imperfection. An absolutely pure
bute (read: perfection). A few di­ perfection excludes any potency, im­
visions are added that usually ac­ perfection, or limitation: as, sub­
company the term per/ection. sistent existence. Other pure (simple;
absolute perfection: ( 1) un­ simply pure) perfections will be
limited perfection. (2) a perfection united with potency in creatures and
that belongs to a being within itself be free of all potency in God: as,
rather than in its relations to an­ knowledge; love; power to cause.
other being: as, strength is an abso­ transcendent perfection: ( 1) an
lute per/ection of a strong being, absolutely pure perfection. (2) a pure
but use of strength in causing is a perfection existing in an eminent or
relative perfection. absolutely pure way: as, knowledge
analogous perfection, one that is in God.
imperfectly alike in different beings degree, grade, or level of per­
or that is possessed in essentially dif­ fection, the rank of analogous per­
ferent degrees by classes of beings: fections measured by the degree of
as, being; life. their essential act and potency: as,
divine perfection: (1) the total the degrees of life.
period 226 person

line, order, or type of perfection, relationships, etc.; by itself alone. 8.

the class of act or the aspect under by intention. 9. direct or directly.
which a given whole is be�g con­ 10. sufficient in itself. 11. rare. sub­
sidered: as, the order of existence, sistent; in a subsistent way. See per
of essence, of operations, of accidents, se CAUSE; ENS per se; SENSIBLE per
of end, etc. See s.v. ORDER. se; per se OBJECT.
REF.-S.T., I, 13; 73, a. 1; Duns *per se primo, Lat. phrase. properly
Scotus, Opus Oxoniemse, I, dist. II, and primarily. The phrase is used to
q. 3, ad 3. . . describe the connatural or proper ob­
period, n. 1. aev1ternal durab?n· 2. ject of a power.
the interval between changes m the perseity, n. 1. the fact or status of
activity of a pure spirit; an indefi­ being a substance, i.e., an ens per
nite portion of duration. se. 2. the formal note distinguishing
ABBR.-per. substance from accident, sc. inde­
Peripatetic, adj. from the Greek pendence of a subject of inherence.
"walk around." of the philosophy, See INDEPENDENCE; INHERENCE, the
doctrines, method, or followers of formal note of accidents.
Aristotle·' Aristotelian. Aristotle used persistence, n. 1. continuous exis­
to walk about the Lyceum with his tence; conservation in being; dura­
students. tion. Also see SELF-IDENTITY. 2.
permit, v.t. 1. to allow; let; consent continuance in some activity. 3. con­
to. 2. to authorize; license. 3. to tinuance of an effect after the re­
tolerate though not necessarily to moval of the immediate stimulus: as,
approv�; not to hinder though one the persistence of the organic effect
foresees (evil ' crime, violation of law, on the retina after seeing a strongly
event, etc.) and could hinder the lighted object.
foreseen evil; foresee, not intend, yet
person, n. 1. an intellectual supposi­
physically not prevent what one ab­
tum; an intellectual hypostasis; "an
solutely could prevent: as, God per­
individual substance having a rational
mits evil.
nature" (Boethius [480?-542?]); an
*per posteri us, Lat. phrase used
individual intellectual substance that
adjectivally and adverbially. sec­
is complete in itself, uncommuni­
ondary or secondarily; relatively; in
cated, and existing for itself (i.e., sui
a later or derived sense or manner.
juris). Because of Trinitarian and
*per prius, Lat. phrase used adjec­
Christological controversies and be­
tivally and adverbially. primary or
cause of man's interest in himself as a
primarily; in a primary sense: as,
person, this definition has been one
substance is being per prius.
of the most debated in Christian
per se, phrase. lit., "by (by means
thought. Boethius' definition, so much
of: through) itself (himself, herself,
used in the Middle Ages, needs so
themselves)"; often Anglicized,
much interpretation that, after strug­
though not in all its combinations
gling with it in Part I of the Summa,
with (Latin) nouns. 1. by itself; be­
St. Thomas practically abandoned it
cause of itself; by reason of what
in Part III. S.T., III, 16, a. 1 dis­
it is in itself. 2. by means of itself;
tinguishes suppositum and hypostasis
by its own action. 3. in itself; in­
from person. 2. a human or intelli­
herently; intrinsically. 4. by, or in
gent being: distinguished from a
virtue of, its own nature; essentially;
mere thing or nonrational animal; a
substantially; by its very reality. 5.
singular (individual) man, woman, or
according to its own essence or na­
ture. 6. as the consequence of its own child. It is the name of unique hu­
essence or nature. 7. simply; abso­ man dignity. 3. the self.
lutely; all by itself; in its own nature body-person, a person having a
apart from its accidents, aslioci11,til,ms1 body of his own; a person who is
personal 227 pessimism

an organism: distinguished from pure belonging to, or characterizing a hu­

spirit. See incarnated EGO. man soul or the soul of a specified
common person: (1) the person human being.
as defined, in which the notion of personal identity, see SELF IDEN ­
-

person belongs to all persons. (2) a TITY.

person in society. personal union, see UNION.
moral (corporate) person, a so­ personalism, n. any doctrine or cor­
ciety or corporation of persons hav­ pus of doctrines that emphasizes the
ing a common purpose, common excellence, uniqueness, rights, or in­
duties and rights, and legally recog­ terpersonal relations of a human be­
nized and treated as a single moral ing: contrasted with doctrines that
person. This added moral personality submerge the person under the state,
does not extinguish natural individual totally subordinate him to the masses
personality in the members of the or the race, or that treat the person
group. as one more object to be impersonally
natural (individual) person, an studied. Personalism, however, is not
individual intellectual suppositum: as, individualism. The views of Jacques
I, you, he, etc. Maritain and E. Mounier have been
public person : (1) a moral person described as personalism.
having recognizable public status. (2) personality, n. I. technical scholastic
an official of a society acting in a sense. the subsistence proper to a
public or official capacity. person; that perfection whereby an
principle on predication: "The intellectual nature is unshared by the
nature, its parts, powers, actions and being of another; that form, mode
passions, accidental attributes, merits of being, relation, etc., that explains
and demerits belong to and are predi­ (in different theories) why rational
cated of the person." substance is complete as a person.
REF. - Boethius, De Duabus Na­ 2. the property or fact of being a
turis, III; S.T., I, 29; 30, a. 3; III. person, or of being this person. 3.
2, aa. 2-3; 16, a. 1; 35, a. 1; C.G., personal identity; personal individ­
IV, ch. 38, 41; M. Bergeron, "La uality with its total set of traits
Structure du concept latin de Per­ and differences from other persons.
sonne," Etudes d'Histoire Litteraire 4. the sum total of the actualities
·et Doctrinale Du XI/le Siecle, series (perfections) and potencies of a given
2, pp. 121-162; R. Garrigou-La­ person; hence, one's physical, mental,
grange, O.P., The Trinity and God and emotional traits, habits, qualities,
the Creator, commentary on S.T., I, and their external expression. 5. the
q. 29, in Chapter 9. psychophysical abilities and unique
personal, adj. 1. of, belonging to, patterns of behavior whereby a per­
characterizing, proceeding from, or son gives his own special exterior
for the use of, a specified person. expression of himself when associat­
2. exclusively individual; private; ing with other persons.
one's own; intimate; individually dif­ pessimism, n. 1. a view that regards
ferent; peculiar: as, personal iden­ the world as principally or wholly
tity; personal belongings. 3. charac­ evil in its being, origin, and destiny.
teristic of a being inasmuch as he 2. a view that maintains the positive
is a person. 4. of, like, or truly hav­ reality of evil in this world and of
ing the nature of a person, i.e., of a first real principle of evil. See
an intellectual and free individual MANICHAEAN DUALISM. 3. a view that
being: as, a personal God. 5. done denies or weakens the providence of
in person or done by the person, and God and His control over the seem­
usually to or with other persons. 6. ing independence of evil in nature
of immediate relations between or and in human life. 4. a view that
among persons; intersubjective. 7. of, human li fe is essentially painful, pur·
petitio principii 228 philosophical

poseless, or even destructive. 5. a nonphilosophical science. 3. the dis­

theological view that regards human ciplined effort of recognizing and de­
nature as essentially sinful, at least scribing the immediate content of
since the fall of Adam. 6. a view one's awareness, as these phenomena
that the main need and function of are given in external and internal
the state is to prevent and suppress experience, in cognitive or appetitive
human evildoing; hence, a view often operations, at the sensory or intel­
implying that the state is more a lectual level. There are also meanings
result of sin than a natural state peculiar to Kant, Hegel, and above
of man. all to Edmund Husserl (1859-1938),
*petitio principii, Lat. phrase. the the founder of the modem school of
fallacy of begging the question. See phenomenology. For him phenomena
QUESTION. seem to mean essences immediately
phantasm (fantasm), n. 1. a sensory given to knowledge or appetite.
image of a real object. 2. an image phenomenon, n. (pl., phenomena).
remaining in the imagination. See 1. any fact, object, change, or fea­
IMAGE, sense 3. 3. the sensory image ture of things that is apparent to
in the human imagination as related the senses and can be objectively
to the activity of the agent intellect described; what appears as the basic
and to the origin of the species in content of perceptions; the matter
the possible intellect. 4. an imaginary coming to the senses from the out­
appearance; a purely fanciful or il­ side world. 2. (pl.) the appearances
lusory image. 5. unrestrained activity or immediately observable features
of the imagination. 6. a deceptive of an object of experience: distin­
likeness of something (implying in­ guished from the reality or thing
distinctness of or confusion between in itself, sc. the noumenon. Many
somewhat like or associated images); writers limit the conscious apprehen­
hence, the accidentally false. sions of experience to the sensory
phantasy (fantasy), n. 1. the imagi­ order. The phenomena do not include
nation or fancy. 2. an image in the substance, form, force, soul, end, or
imagination; phantasm. 3. the se­ the laws by which the phenomena
quence of images in a daydream. occur. 3. (pl.) the apparent accidents
phenomenal, n. 1. apparent or per­ of a thing; the appearances. Some
ceptible to the senses. 2. belonging restrict this meaning to the per se
to the sensible accidents of an object. sensibles.
3. of, or constituting, a phenomenon. philosopher's (philosophers') stone;
phenomenalism, n. any variant of (*Lapis Philosophorum), phrase.
the theory that the only real things 1. a substance sought by alchemists
or the only surely knowable things in the belief that it would change
are the phenomena. The philosophy base metals into gold or silver. Before
of David Hume (1711-1766) is no­ chemistry became a distinct science,
tably referred to by this name. alchemists were regarded as natural
phenomenology, n. 1. a science or philosophers; many used the word
the branch of any special science philosophy in the titles of their works.
that deals with the accurate obser­ 2. power and freedom to change or
vation of phenomena and the collec­ save the world. 3. the symbol of
tion of these for scientific study: such power and freedom. 4. a sym­
distinguished from a science of being bol for perfect knowledge of God.
and from scientific interpreting of philosophical (philosophic), n. 1. of
phenomena by causes, correlations, philosophy; belonging to, coming
and laws. 2. a method of attending from, consistent with, or related to
to, fully describing, and classifying philosophy. 2. of a philosopher or
phenomena before attempting their of a specified philosopher; devoted
explanation in a philosophical or to philosophy; of, like, suited to, or
philosophico-religious 229 philosophy

expected of a philosopher; in accord whether named by their formal ob­

with a philosopher's teachings, meth­ ject or subject matter, are entered
ods, or system. 3. of a philosopher's under the name of that object or
mentality; reflective and critical; in­ subject matter. See philosophy of
quiring into and explaining by basic ART, MAN, NATURE, RELIGION, etc.
causes and principles; calm, emotion­ Christian philosophy: (1) a phi­
ally controlled, and reasonable in losophy that keeps the orders of
time of difficulty because of one's reason and of Christ's revelation for­
attitude to the passing and secondary. mally distinct but considers the Chris­
philosophical physics, see P HYS­ tian revelation to be an indispensable
ICS. aid to reason's study of the natural
philosophical psychology, see order. This implies a recognition of
philosophy of MAN. (a) the formal distinction between
ABBR. - phil.; philos. nature and grace and ( b) their inter­
philosophico"religious, adj. philo­ action. E. Gilson's conception of
sophical and religious; combining rea­ Christian philosophy just given is not
son and revelation. the only view (and definition) possi­
philosophy, n. 1. nominally and orig­ ble of the intrinsic character of Chris­
inally. a love of wisdom, i.e., the tian philosophy See also Christian
eager pursuit of the best form of natural LAW. (2) a philosophy that
knowledge. 2. the collection of those regards revelation and Christian theo­
sciences in which natural reason seeks logical certainties as a negative norm
an understanding of all natural things that reason ought not violate; a phi­
by a knowledge of their first real losophy that deliberately never of­
and first mental principles; certain fends against Christian orthodoxy.
knowledge of all things according to critical philosophy (criticism),
their causes. Philosophy is a group any philosophy, idealist or realist,
of sciences, some of which are specu­ that maintains philosophy must begin
lative and some practical. Philosophy with some truth in the mind and
is a science in the Greek sense of from the mind, i.e., that philosophy
necessary and demonstrated knowl­ must start by reflecting on the cer­
edge. 3. metaphysics. See META­ tainty of the mind's own operations;
PHYSICS and its branches or divisions. an examination of human knowledge
4. a philosophy; the philosophical to determine its a priori conditions,
principles, doctrines, and method of forms, certitudes, etc., which precede
a specified philosopher or system: experience.
as, Duns Scotus' philosophy. 5. a divine (heavenly; spiritual) phi­
book, treatise, course, etc., in some losophy: (1) an old usage for theol­
philosophical branch or topic. 6. ogy, esp. patristic and monastic
loosely. the basic principles of any theology. (2) the monastic life or
branch of learning or of an institu­ way of Christian living.
tion: as, the philosophy of the press. first philosophy: (1) Aristotle
7. a way of living according to reason and St. Thomas. metaphysics, includ­
or also according to higher religious ing natural theology. (2) Francis Ba­
principles and truths; a lived wisdom. con (1561-1626). the study of the
NoTE -A proper division of the common axioms and the transcen­
branches would distinguish them by dental conditions of essence. For him.
their respective formal objects. But metaphysical investigation of formal
various considerations of bookmak­ and final causes is a part of natural
ing, teaching, and correlating parts philosophy. (3) Descartes. the be­
of philosophy lead to many other ginnings of philosophical certitude;
ways of dividing and combining the hence, the methodic doubt and
distinct branches of the subject. Most the foundations of the theory of
of the branches of philosophy, knowledge. Thus, its subject matter
philosophy 230 physics

is the human mind and some of its ophy, philosophical branches that
knowledge, as, of God and the general consider beings and their order as
axioms. they are in themselves, pursued from
moral philosophy, ethics. The the desire to know the truth. This
tendency of Stoics was to regard type of philosophy includes meta­
ethics as philosophy itself, and as physics and its branches, theory of
both an art and science. See Seneca, knowledge, the philosophy of nature,
Fragment 17. of man, of mathematics, and the
natural philosophy: (1) the phi­ auxiliary subject of the history of
losophy of nature. (2) occasionally. philosophy.
philosophy: distinguished from theol­ systematic philosophy, an orga­
ogy which is a divine philosophy and nized study of the principles, doc­
a more than natural knowledge. (3) trines, and method of some philoso­
in the Renaissance (before natural pher, philosophical school, or branch
sciences and the philosophy of na­ of philosophy as presented by a
ture became distinct). sciences de­ philosopher or school.
pendent on experiments; "experi­ a subject philosophy, a philoso­
mental" philosophy. phy of an individualistic type that
an object philosophy, a philoso­ begins by noting one's own aware­
phy about the universe, its structure, ness and moves from the study of
and causes; hence, a philosophy di­ one's subjective states to what is
rected to the study of things presented involved in my thinking, willing,
in knowledge. freedom, being, etc. St. Bonaventure's
ANT. - a subject philosophy. is one philosophy that is so described
an open philosophy, a philosophy when he starts from his own certain
ready for development by new facts knowledge of God rather than from
and ideas and perfectible by the su­ objects that may lead him to God.
pernatural, rather than one fixed in ABBR. - phil.; philos.
a rigid system or limited by the phronesis, n. 1. practical wisdom; dis­
insights and biases of mere reason. crete judgment in practical matters
a philosophy of philosophies, a or concrete moral duties. 2. Plato
philosophical study of philosophy, its and early Aristotelian thought. meta­
method, conditions for success, values, physical speculation. 3. Stoic. moral
and the reasons for the common insight: Stoic equivalent of prudence.
interests and diverse answers of REF.-N. Eth., VI, ch. 3-4; John
philosophers. Henry Cardinal Newman, Essay in
political philosophy, politics, Aid of a Grammar of Assent, chap.
sense 1. 9, sec. 2; W. Jaeger, Aristotle, 371 f.
practical philosophy, the branches physical, adj. 1. of, in, from, or for
that study the ordering in man's a natural body or all natures; natural.
acts: hence, (1) logic (order of men­ 2. of, in, by, or for the material
tal acts); ( 2) philosophy of art or corporeal as different from the
(order in productive acts); (3) ethics mathematical, mental, moral, spirit­
(order in human acts); (4) politics ual, or supernatural. 3. pertaining to
(order in human governing and social or according to the physical forces or
organization of the state). laws of physical nature. 4. external
scholastic philosophy, scholasti­ and sensible. 5. concrete and singular.
cism, sense 2. physicist, n. an old term for a physi­
second philosophy, usually means cal philosopher or student of the
the philosophy of nature. philosophy of nature.
social philosophy, the study of physics, n. the original term for the
the social nature of man and natural philosophy of nature; philosophical
social institutions. physics; the philosophical study of
speculative (theoretical) philos· nature or of change in nature; second
physicotheological proof 231 Platonism

philosophy. See NATURE. Hence, the of methods and schedules of acting,

title of Aristotle's work: Physics producing, governing, or attaining
means such a philosophical science. some objective. 3. design. But design
ABBR. -phys. may be preferred to stress skill in
physicotheological proof, phrase. a method of accomplishing a purpose
proof directed to demonstrate God's rather than the more intellectual ele­
existence from some instances of ment of ordering.
natural order in the material universe. divine plan : (1) the order of
The name seems often applied to the universe as seen or foreseen in
William Paley's (1743-1805) way of the mind of God. (2) divine provi­
treating this proof. dence. ( 3) any part of the divine
*physis, n. The Greek word for nature, plan or method of reaching a divine
transliterated into Latin and English. end: as, the divine plan to redeem
place, n. 1. where something is; an men and glorify Christ through His
occupied spot; the position of a body Passion.
in relation to surrounding bodies as Platonism, n. the principles, main
determined by their distance and di­ doctrines, or method of Plato ( 427-
rection. This is place as such; sense 347 B.c. ) , or of one of his followers,
2 pertains to the category, placed. or of a Platonic school. Well-known
The image of a receptacle or con­ Platonic views include: the continua­
tainer affects many conceptions of tion of the Socratic interest in man,
place ever since Plato's Timaeus. 2. knowledge, and moral issues; the
the accident whereby a body exists use of the dialogue, myth, and maieu­
in a place; the accident following tic method; the reality of the Ideas
upon the fact that an extended body (Forms, Universals) and the imper­
has a setting relative to other bodies. fect imitative nature of plural, chang­
Also see LOCUS and many meanings ing natural objects that participate,
in an English dictionary. in an unspecified way, in the Ideas;
common place : (1) the universal the One, elsewhere the Good (or
place or space where all bodies are Fair-and-Good) as the supreme Idea
contained. (2) the general position (Being?); the dualism of body and
of a body with respect to more dis­ soul in man, of sense and intellect;
tant bodies. the distinction between certain knowl­
internal place, the space contained edge of the Ideas and mere opinion
within the outside boundaries or sur­ about singular physical objects; the
faces of a body considered as the doctrine of reminiscence of innate
receptacle of the body's entire ideas that were possessed in a former
volume. life; spirituality and immortality of
proper (external ; designated ; the human soul but proved circularly;
exclusive; special) place, the sur­ providential order over the world;
faces of the bodies surrounding a the world-soul animating all and mak­
material thing and in immediate con­ ing the universe a sort of single liv­
tact with the contained body; the ing animal; intellectual determinism
surfaces of the containing body or in morals; a divine standard of hu­
bodies considered as immovable and man conduct; a Utopian idea of the
immediately contiguous to the body state (republic), dedicated to justice
located there; the definite place where or goodness, whose rulers must be
each individual or its bodily parts philosophers; advocacy of a totali­
are and no other body is; a body's tarian policy of the state, including a
own place. monopoly of education and com­
plan, n. 1. an outline; diagram; draft; munistic training of the youth of the
map; etc. 2. the deliberate scheme ruling class for public service in order
of the order for making, doing, or to prevent human selfishness; a theory
arranging things; a foreseen program of purely intellectual friendship or
pleasure 232 political

Platonic love; and the condemnation osophical) pluralism. (a) the view
of art and fiction as lying. that there is an irreducible plurality
REF. - F. Astius, Lexikon Platoni­ of beings, principles, and substances,
cum (in Greek and Latin). and a plurality of kinds of these.
pleasure, n. I. conscious satisfaction ( b) the opinion that there may be
or rest of a sensory or intellectual more than one true (or highly prob­
power in having or using a good able) explanation of a specified area
proportionate to it and following from of philosophical study within the
its operation in regard to that good; same basic philosophic pattern: as,
a pleased feeling in consciously hav­ the Augustinian and Thomistic views
ing present a good desired, hoped of the origin of intellectual knowl­
for, needed, etc. 2. satisfaction in edge, the several views of the rela­
the right function of an organ or tions of philosophy and theology, or
power in regard to its natural good the intellectualistic and voluntarist
object; contentment in a perfect theories of law. 3. the doctrine of
operation of a power whereby it plurality of forms actually simultane­
possesses a present good proportion­ ously existing in man. 4. social (poli­
ate to itself. 3. a movement of the tical) pluralism. (a) the doctrine that
soul as a whole to a conscious sensi­ the state is constituted of many sub­
ble or intellectual experience of con­ societies, each of which has a limited
tentment in its state of being. 4. one's autonomy of the state. Horace M.
wish or choice. 5. gratification of the Kallen is credited with this term for
senses; sensual indulgence. 6. the his theory of ethnic (cultural)
object or good that evokes the ex­ pluralism in 1924. See SUBSIDIARITY;
perience of satisfaction; pleasurable organic STATE. ( b) the political theory
good. Pleasure is to be distinguished and practice of allowing the activities
from happiness. of more than one political party.
REF. - N. Eth., X. ch. 1-5; S.T., (c) the political theory and practice
I-II, qq. 31-33; Thomas Dubay, that keeps the state fully distinct
S.M., "An Investigation into the from the Church and tolerates the
Thomistic Concept of Pleasure," free exercise of more than one reli­
New Scholasticism, XXXVI (1962), gion in the state, without govern­
76-99; Walter Kerr, The Decline of mental opposition to any religion.
Pleasure, ch. 5. poetics, n. I. the literary criticism
plenitude, n. fullness; completeness; of poetry. 2. the theory of poetry.
abundance. 3. ( P-), Aristotle's treatise on poetic
principle of plenitude or quasi­ drama, treating of tragedy, imitation,
perfection: "The universe contains probability, and necessity in charac­
all degrees of perfections of beings ter and events, the hero's virtue and
and numerous varieties in order to flaws, catharsis, etc.
better manifest and share the divine poiesis, n. lit., "making." the mental
goodness." process of artistic invention or pro­
plenum, n. 1. space conceived as filled duction: an act of the habit of art:
with matter: distinguished from the distinguished from techne.
vacuum or void. 2. the atomists. the REF. - M. J. Adler, "Creation and
real material that moved through Imitation: an Analysis of Poiesis,"
empty space and by chance organized Proceedings of the American Catholic
the cosmos. Philosophical Association, 1935, 153-
pluralism, n. 1. in general. any doc­ 174, and passim in many parts of his
trine or practice that admits more A rt and Prudence.
than one form, one type, one social political, adj. I. of, concerned with,
body, or one system of something: or characterizing the state, its govern­
opposed to absolutism, monism, total­ ment, or the conduct of public affairs:
itarianism, etc. 2. metaphysical (Phil- as, political ethics. 2. having a definite
politician 233 posit

governmental organization; constitu­ form of civil government. 3. a free

tionally established. civil society with an organized govern­
political activity, human acts con­ ment; the constitutional type called
cerned with the common good of the political rule by Aristotle; the hu­
state. manly correct form of popular gov­
political philosophy, politics, ernment in which all citizens in some
senses 1 and 2. way share. 4. any organized public
ABBR. - pol.; polit. society. 5. the administration of a
politician, n. 1. a human being re­ state.
garded as a naturally political animal, polyandry, n. the status or institu­
i.e., as naturally made for life in the tion of simultaneous marriage be­
state. 2. a person actively engaged in tween one woman and more than one
politics; a person engaged in or skilled man.
in party politics. 3. a person seeking polygamy, n. the status or institution
or holding political office. 4. a person of multiple marriages by the same
seeking or using a political office for person. If the marriages are simul­
personal or partisan advantage: dis­ taneous, the two forms of polyandry
tinguished from a statesman who and polygyny may be regarded as di­
seeks the true common good. 5. a visions. If the marriages succeed one
student or scholar of political philoso­ another by desertion or attempted
phy or of political science. complete divorce, the polygamy is
politics, n. 1. political philosophy; the called successive.
science of the first principles of hu­ polygyny, n. the status or institution
man principles of human organiza­ of multiple marriages between one
tion and activity for the public man and more than one woman.
temporal good; the philosophy of the polysyllogism, n. a serial or cumula­
state. It is usually regarded as a part tive argument in which the conclusion
of ethics. Some writers, however, re­ of one syllogism is used as the prem­
gard political philosophy as a mere ise for a second syllogism. See
branch of political science. Theories SORITES; EPICHEREME.
on political philosophy are mentioned polytheism, n. 1. a belief in more
under their special names in this Dic­ than one god. 2. the practice of wor­
tionary. 2. the art of organizing and shiping a plurality of gods.
governing a sovereign civil commu­ Porphyrian tree, phrase. a dichoto­
nity for the public temporal good. 3. mous division of substance, arranged
political activity, affairs, issues, par­ somewhat like a branching tree, sug­
ticipation, and methods. 4. human acts gested by Porphyry of Tyre (232?-
explicitly directed to the common 301 ?) in his Isagoge, which is an in­
good of the state by free persons. 5. troduction to Aristotle's Categories.
political opinions, policies, or rela­ The tree is presented in many logic
tionships. 5. (P- ) , Aristotle's work books, e.g., in E. D. Simmons ' The
on political philosophy in eight books. Scientific Art of Logic, 51 .
Politicus is an alternative name for pose, v.t. 1. to put forth; lay down·
Plato's The Stateman. assert as a claim, argument, etc. 2. t �
ABBR. - pol.; polit. propose a question, problem, diffi­
REF. -P. Woelfl, S.J., Politics and culty, objection, etc. 3. v.i., to assume
Jurisprudence, sec. 1, 5-6, defining or maintain a mental attitude or a
politics. physical position or a manner of
polity, n. I. originally, a social or acting for some intended effect.
sociomoral way of life. 2. the con­ posit, v.t. 1. to set in place; put into
stitution or organization of a public position; situate. 2. to lay down as
society and its government, whether a basis for discussion or argument;
state or church; a type of political accept as true or as granted or as a
constitution, system of offices, etc.; point of departure in a discussion or
position 234 positivism

controversy; set down as a fact or interpretations; authoritatively de­

assume as a truth; affirm and continue cided. 5. certain; settled in mind;
to affirm. 3. to stipulate. 4. to elicit strongly confident of the truth of
or perform an act. one's opinion or conclusion. 6. affirma­
position, n. 1. a placing of something. tive; accepting or agreeing to. 7.
2. a positing of a proposition or absolute; unqualified; stated or af­
thesis; affirmation. 3. the proposition, firmed without hesitation or qualifica­
thesis, view, or stand taken, even if tion; independent of relations and
it be only conditionally taken for circumstances. 8. actual; real; genu­
purposes of testing or debating. This ine: distinguished from methodical
somewhat resembles the arithmetical or pretended: as, positive doubt. 9.
method known as the rule of trial and existent; active; characterized by the
error. 4. the logical duty or task, as presence, rather than by the absence,
agreed with a disputant, to sustain of certain attributes; as, the positive
the truth of a declared proposition. influence of a cause; positive results
5. a way; method. 6. the affirmative of an experiment (not merely no
way of coming to know God's perfec­ answer). 10. adding to; tending in
tions. 7. posture; the relative order the direction of the better: as, p osi­
between the integral parts of a whole; tive changes in government. 11. mak­
the ninth category. 8. the common ing a definite or constructive con­
or proper place where a body is; tribution: as, positive comments. 12.
location; site; station. 9. one's rank or directly corresponding to an original,
status in society, government, busi­ model, criterion, etc.: as, positive
ness, etc., relative to the rank of likeness.
others. 10. a post of employment; ABBR.-pos.
office; job. positivism, n. 1. in general. any
a pure position, a thesis, theory, philosophical system or position that
etc., that is unqualified, highly sim­ regards only the sensible, the particu­
plified, and usually extreme, exhibit­ lar (singular), and the experienced as
ing no modifications required by ex­ real and holds that only the knowl­
perience, criticism of philosophers, edge of such facts is certain. It is
or suggestions from the history of closely related to empiricism, sensism,
philosophy, e.g., Heraclitus' (5th cen­ and agnosticism. 2. Comte. the philo­
tury B.C.) position that all things are sophical view that human knowledge
always changing; political absolutism. is limited to phenomena and their
positive, adj. 1. late Lat. usage. added observable relations and is essentially
to nature and not knowable from relative to the knower's ability and
natures. Hence, 2. resulting from development. See RELATIVISM. 3.
human voluntary intervention in na­ juri dical (legal) positivism. a type
ture; set down by authority, human of jurisprudence that derives all law,
agreement, custom, or merely human justice, rights, political and legal sys­
law; conventional; arbitrary; volun­ tems, and all duties purely from the
tarily imposed; artificial; noninher­ actual laws made and enforced by a
ent: as, positive law and rights; posi­ human community or its courts. 0. W.
tive order. ANT. - natural. 3. factual; Holmes is an American jurist of this
historical; a posteriori; based on, or school. 4. moral positivism. any ethi­
supposed to be based on, sensibly cal doctrine or system that holds all
evident facts; grounded on experience moral values, laws, rights, duties,
of the real; empirical: as, positive virtues, etc., to be purely historical
proof, positive science. ANT. - a and conventional facts. This denies
priori; essential ; intrinsically neces­ intrinsic and natural-law morality but
sary. 4. definitely set; explicitly laid does not deny morality. Some posi­
down; so precise and detailed that it tivists derive morality from the pure
admits of no questions or variable will of God, others from the will of
possession 235 potency

the rulers of the state, others from much as its constituent notes re­
custom, others from social change. semble the divine essence and do not
possession, n. 1. ownership. 2. con­ contradict existence or each other.
trol; mastery; influence. 3. anything See senses 1 and 2.
possessed within or without oneself. posterior, adj. later; following after;
See BE IN ANOTHER, senses 14-17; coming after in order; subsequent;
HAVE; OWN. secondary.
ABBR. - pos.; poss. ANT. - prior. As this is the correl­
possibility, n. capacity to be, be done, ative of prior, the seven senses of
be changed, be selected, be true, etc.; prior give us the seven senses of
potentiality. posterior.
metaphysical (essential; intrin­ *post hoc, ergo propter hoc, Lat.
sic; absolute) possibility, capacity phrase. lit., "after this, therefore
of a being, essence, event, etc., to be because of this"; the fallacy of false
since it is not contradictory. cause.
moral possibility, capacity of an postpredicament, n. one of the classes
activity to be or be done because the of terms discussed by Aristotle in
act or event is within the ordinary his Categories (ch. 10-15) after the
capacities and effective motives of treatment of the predicaments: sc.,
free (moral) agents. opposition (privation; negation), si­
physical possibility, capacity of multaneity, priority, posteriority,
something to be, be done, be made, movement, possession, etc. They arise
or happen because created causes can from a comparison of the categories
do, make, or change it: as, the physi­ with each other.
cal possibility of reaching the moon postulate, n. 1. a primary truth of a
in one day. Physical and moral pos­ given branch of knowledge but de­
sibility are extrinsic possibilities. See rived from another branch of knowl­
POSSIBLE; IMPOSSIBLE; POTENCY. edge: as, the principle of noncontra­
possible, adj. and n. 1. that can be; diction is postulated by all subjects
that can exist; that can be or become except metaphysics. 2. a basic self­
actual; being in passive potency; po­ evident principle necessary for the
tential. 2. that does not exist but beginning or development of a given
could have existed in the past or can science. 3. a proposition assumed to
exist in the future. 3. (pl.) the objects be true without proof but used as an
known by God as ways in which hypothesis that may be true. 4. a
creatures can imitate His infinite es­ prerequisite. 5. an unprovable, but
sence; the divine ideas. Each of these seemingly necessary, presupposition
objects is a possible. A mere or pure of the practical reason: as, Kant's
possible is any one of these that postulates of God's existence, freedom
never shall have existence. 4. in some of the human will, and immortality of
scholastics. essence regarded as non­ the human soul. 6. some nonscholas­
existing. 5. that can be, dependently tics. an axiom or explanation that is
on an immediate cause, on permis­ willed to be true or effective. 7. an
sion, or on other circumstances; assumption of an argument, based
hence, that can occur, be done, be on prejudice and not examined for its
made, be changed, be known, be objective evidence.
loved, be acquired, be used, be chosen, posture, n. (as the ninth category),
etc. Possible in this sense is extrin­ the disposition of the parts of a body
sically or relatively possible. 6. that in place; the way a thing is in place,
can happen; that may or may not be; with its arrangement of its own
that can-be or can not-be; hence, parts among themselves; carriage;
contingent. bearing; position; situs: as, sitting,
intrinsically (absolutely; essen· bent, crouched, front, bottom, etc. See
tially) possible, that can be inas- POSITION, sense 7.
potency 236 power

potency, n. 1. capacity of any sort; subject in which change occurs; the

capacity of or in a being to be, to material cause. (2) the capacity to
act, or to receive. In this sense, receive being or form, to be acted
potency includes both active and pas­ on, or to be modified.
sive potency. 2. capacity to be in some proper potency, a potency proxi­
way the first source of change. 3. mately disposed to receive some spe­
the real principle in a compound be­ cified act; an immediately propor­
ing or mixed act that is the passive tionate potency.
principle, receptive of the act, and proximate potency: (1) active
limiting it in the concrete; hence, sense. the power ready to act because
material cause in the wide sense. 4. all conditions required for action are
the perfectibility of a being; the un­ verified. (2) passive sense. the sub­
developed capacity of something to ject together with the conditions
become some act. proper for receiving some specified
See chart on ACT and potency for act or form.
divisions. pure potency, passive potency con­
active potency: (1) the principle sidered just by itself, without any
of change or of acting upon another act; hence, either (a) prime matter,
inasmuch as that is an other thing; or ( b) a mere possible.
a principle of efficient action on an­ subjective potency, a passive po­
other; ability to make. (2) a power; tency in a subject that already exists
ability to do; a principle of acting on or has some other actualities.
or in itself. Both these senses are acts supernatural potency: (1) active
rather than potencies. sense. a power to act, exceeding what
actuated potency, a potency that is due to nature: as, the habit of
has been fulfilled by its proper act. charity. (2) passive sense. obediential
being in potency, see BEING. potency.
in potency, in a state of receptiv­ REF.-Met., V, ch. 12; IX, ch.
ity or changeableness or perfectibil­ 1-3; XI, ch. 9; S.T., I, 25,' a. 1;
ity; potentially, not actually (such III, 1 1, a. 1; Power of God, q. 1,
or such). in contradictory potency, a. 1; Principles of Nature; E. Mc­
that can either have or not have a Mullin, "Four Senses of 'Potency,'"
certain perfection, form, or attribute. in id., ed., The Concept of Matter,
entitative potency, the subject re­ 295-315.
ceptive of the act of existence. potential, adj. having a capacity; be­
natural potency, a capacity pres­ ing in passive potency; possible but
ent in and proportionate to a nature. not yet actual or not fully actual;
obediential (supernatural) po· undeveloped; unfulfilled; still per­
tency, the potency to receive a mi­ fectible in its own nature.
raculous or other supernatural per­ potential being, see BEING in po­
fection that exceeds the natural ca­ tency.
pacities of a thing or its natural potential parts of a virtue, see
mode of action and passion. PART; VIRTUE.
objective potency, the capacity of potentiality, n. 1. the possibility of
a merely possible being to be created. becoming or of changing; the prop­
operative potency, an active erty or state of perfectibility. Though
power to do or make something: as, an abstract term, it is often used
the intellect is an operative potency interchangeably with potency. 2. un­
to know. developed ability or talent. 3. un­
passive potency: (1) the princi­ used efficacy or opportunity.
ple in a thing that receives change power, n. 1. in general. ability to do
from another inasmuch as it is an­ or make; capacity for acting. This
other thing; any modifiable (deter­ may refer to physical, mental, volun­
minable) principle in a being; the tary, moral, political, religious, etc.,
power 237 power

power. 2. a principle of acting upon dominative power, a moral au­

something else; an active potency. thority to command subjects in an
3. a faculty of a living being; an imperfect or dependent society for
immediate principle by which a na­ the common good or for their private
ture is directly, essentially, and per­ good: as, parental right over chil­
manently ordered to a definite opera­ dren's education is dominative not
tion or to a particular function: as, jurisdictional.
hearing is a power of animals. See generic power, a class or group of
terminology on MAN. 4. the capacity powers: as, sense means all powers of
to exert physical force or energy; the sensory order.
might; strength. 5. actual use of abil­ habituated power, a power per­
ity to do or make something; the fected by operative habit or habits.
principle from which the effect im­ infinite power, unlimited and in­
mediately precedes. Hence, it is a exhaustible power to act or make.
cause causing, a cause in act. 6. moral instrumental power, the power
authority to control, govern, or other­ natural to an object but reduced to
wise influence persons. 7. (pl.) the serve as an instrument or means of
sixth of the nine orders of angels. another finite agent. In this sense,
absolute power: (1) ability to it is said that all natures are instru­
act, make, or rule, considered as re­ ments of the divine power that uses
stricted only by absolute possibility each according to its nature.
and impossibility but not by wise memorative power, the special
plan, by other virtues of the holder internal sense that retains past judg­
of power, or by the good of others. ments of the estimative sense for a
For the voluntarists, this means ab­ future recall. It is regarded as a sense
solute will, checked only by the distinct from the imagination acting
principle of contradiction, i.e., by the as sense memory.
truly impossible. In God's case, ab­ natural power: (1) the power be­
solute power is distinguished from longing to a thing according to its
ordinary (ordinate) power which constitution; the ability of a thing
creates in wisdom and love and to act according to its nature for
rules by an eternal plan of provi­ specific good in its own special way.
dence. ( 2) alleged unlimited civil (2) power in, or due to, a nature:
sovereignty, uncontrolled by constitu­ distinguished from obediential and
tional limitations or considerations of active supernatural power. (3) a
the common good of the people. power belonging to plants: distin­
active power, a faculty that im­ guished from powers of beings who
mediately influences its object. control their own movements. See
affective power, a sensory appe­ APPETITE.
tite or the spiritual appetite. passive power, a power that is
cogitative power, the human esti­ set into action by the influence re­
mative sense. ceived from its object. This may be
cognitive power, any faculty of true even of a living power, e.g., of
sensory or intellectual knowing. the human possible intellect.
directive power, a spiritual or powers of man, the specific abili­
moral power to guide consciences. ties or faculties of man regarded as
This will include the authoritative in some way distinct from his human
right to declare the moral princi­ substance or his soul. Some so-called
ples and issues involved in temporal powers of man, e.g., speech, are a
and political matters. In this way it group of habits using several natural
has a relation to the temporal power powers for a complex activity. See
of a spiritual authority. sense 3.
discursive power, the human es­ moral power, a right.
timative sense. sovereign (supreme) power, su-
powerful 238 preamble

preme social authority in the uni­ tained by, action or exercise; gained
verse, in an independent state, or in by experience. 2. usable; useful;
the Church. meant for use. 3. concerned with the
spiritual power: (1) a power that application of knowledge to useful
performs spiritual acts and has no ends and concerned with action as
bodily organ or material principle the object of the knowledge: dis­
in its being: as, the human intellect tinguished from contemplative and
or will. (2) social authority in a speculative. 4. concerned directly with
spiritual or religious society, exercis­ the good or noble for man rather
ing jurisdiction or dominative power than with the true. 5. devoted to
in spiritual or moral matters for actual practice; practicing. 6. effec­
spiritual ends, e.g., a bishop's power tive in ordinary or daily matters. 7.
to direct consciences for the salvation actually so in practice even if theo­
of the souls of his subjects. retically, legally, etc., it is not or
temporal power: (1) authority should not be so or is unexpected
over persons in temporal matters for according to set standards; factually
some common temporal good. This true. This extends sense 1 when ex­
is direct when it is immediately over perience clashes with theory or
persons in matters of temporal wel­ prophecy.
fare when no religious or moral prin­ practice, n. 1. a frequent or usual ac­
ciple may be involved: as, the state's tion; a usual method of proceeding;
right to make voting laws. It is in­ custom; convention. 2. repeated phy­
direct when the power is immediately sical or mental action to form a habit;
spiritual and moral but has secondary training or exercise to improve an
temporal effects resulting from the operative ability or skill. 3. an
use of directive spiritual power. This acquired habit. 4. the exercise of a
terminology, however, is not uni­ habit: as, the practice of religion or
formly explained or used. See direc­ charity. 5. the doing of something;
tive POWER, above. (2) power over the applying of theory to action or
property; ownership. to helping others. Practice (often re­
ABBR.-pr. ferred to as praxis) is thus opposed
powerful, adj. having power; full of to theory or seeing truth. 6. the exer­
power; mighty; influential. cise of some profession or occupa­
all-powerful: (1) having causal tion. 7. Averroes and Ockham. (a)
ability to do anything good that is an operation of any power. (b) an
not self-contradictory. (2) exercising operation that is conformed to judg­
universal and immediate divine caus­ ment and is chosen.
ality on the being of all that exists. ABBR.- prac.
infinitely powerful, having un­ pragmatism, n. any tendency or sys­
limited causal ability· to make any­ tem in philosophy that seeks to test
thing good in an unlimited or all­ truth by practice, use, future use­
perfect way. It does not mean that fulness, or by whatever are regarded
infinite effects proceed from such as practical results. The most famous
power. pragmatist remains the American,
practicable, adj. 1. the possible or William James, 1842-1910.
relatively possible; that can be readily preamble, n. an introduction; pre­
done or produced under the prevailing liminary fact, event, study, discus­
conditions and circumstances and with sion, truth, etc. Scholasticism espe­
available means. 2. that can be put cially uses it in the expression "pre­
into practice; feasible. See *AGil!ILIA. ambles of the faith," the historical
3. usable; useful. and philosophical intellectual presup­
practical, adj. NoTE - all senses are positions of a learned faith.
connected with action or exercise and REF.- G. de Broglie, S.]., "La
their effects. 1. of, shown in, or ob- vraie sens de preambula fidei,'' Gre-
precept 239 predicate

gorianum, XXXIV (1953), 345-388, predetermine, v.t. to decide (will) in

summarized in Theology Digest, VII advance how a future contingent
(1959), 47-52. event must occur by one's use of
precept, n. 1. a command of a supe­ power, restraints, helps, etc., so that
rior to a definite subject, regulating no other event can occur. The expres­
his act or omission. In this sense, sion, predetermining decree (of God),
a precept is not a law because it is probably originated with Duns Scotus.
not a general rule for the common predetermination, physical, phrase.
good; and precepts may be given in the kind of physical cooperation with
private societies. 2. any general rule a dependent cause known as physical
or command of the law: distinguished premotion by which a predetermining
from the whole corpus of laws. 3. decree can be infallibly and efficaci­
a maxim or rule of conduct. ously carried out. See PREMOTION.
affirmative �or negative) pre­ predicable, n. 1. any one of the five
cept, a rule of law commanding (or relations in which a universal term
forbidding) some action. may stand toward the subject of
primary, secondary, tertiary pre­ which it is predicated. In Aristotelian
cept, see natural LAW. logic these relations are species (defi­
preceptive, adj. directly command­ nition in Aristotle's language), genus,
ing and of itself binding in con­ specific difference, property, and con­
science: distinguished from coun­ tingent accident. The term probably
selled, merely directive, and penal. comes from Porphyry (232?-301?).
See penal LAW. 2. something that can be (truly)
precontain, v.t. 1. to have in ad­ predicated of another.
vance: as, a cause in its power pre­ REF. - Topics, I, ch. 5, 8.
contains all possible effects of the use predicament, n. a category, q.v. The
of its power. 2. to .have latent: as, adjective is predicamental: as, predi­
the seminal principles precontain fu­ camental being; predicamental rela­
ture mature growth. tion.
predefinition, n. 1. an idea eternally predicate, v.t. 1. to affirm as a prop­
in God's mind of a thing that will erty or attribute: as, we predicate
be created. 2. specifically. the divine goodness of God. 2. to use a term
direction of an intellectual being to as a predicate: as, God is good. 3.
its future supernatural end. to imply or connote as preceding,
predesignate, v.t. to prefix a sign of attending, or following: as, maturity
logical quantity: as, all, some, no, predicates moral struggle. 4. to assert
etc. because of definite evidence, not
predestination, n. 1. the eternal di­ gratis. 5. v.i., to make an affirmative
vine foreordination of all temporal statement.
things to their existence and ends; ABBR.- pred.
hence, the infallible eternal decree of predicate, n. 1. logic. something
divine providence and government. affirmed or denied of a subject in
2. the eternal decree of God in re­ a categorical proposition. Hence,
gard to the degree of beatitude and predicate terms are usually descrip­
reward that each person will actually tive words or phrases designating a
gain or lose, as known and in some property of a thing or person. ANT.
way willed by God prior to the ac­ -subject of a proposition. 2. gram­
tual activity of man. This theological mar. the word or words stating some­
term implies many doctrines on grace thing about the subject of a sentence
and salvation. Unsettled disputes or clause; the word or words that
treat of the way in which God so talk about the subject; the linking
knows and wills man's destiny in view verb and its complement (sc., ad­
of man's freedom to accept or reject verbial modifiers and object) in a
grace. sentence or clause. 3. metaphysics.
predication 240 predication

an attribute belonging to a substance direct predication, using a predi­

or considered as belonging to a sub­ cate to mean that it is the same as
ject. ANT. - substance; suppositum. the subject or substance of which it
See ATTRIBUTE for divisions. 4. hence, is predicated: as, "John is a man"
the name or sign of this accident or shows man directly predicated.
attribute as applied or applicable to eminent predication, attributing
11 subject. See NAME. Many divisions a perfection or name to some subject
of terms fit predicates, e.g., a univocal in a richer and fuller meaning than
predicate is one, all instances of which to inferior, analogous, and produced
belong to the same species or genus. subjects to which the perfection of
DICTUM: "Predicates are taken for­ the same name is ascribed. Hence,
mally; subjects, materially." it is an analogous and often a causal
ABBR.- pred. predication.
predication, n. 1. the act of affirming equivocal predication, attributing
some attribute or perfection of a the same name to two or more sub­
subject. 2. the act of naming some­ jects in totally different meanings;
thing as possessing some act or per­ the use of equivocal terms.
fection; the act of attributing an act essential predication: ( 1) affirm­
or perfection to something. 3. the ing that the predicate is identical
act of assigning something to a class with the essence of the subject. (2)
or giving it the name common to affirming that the predicate is neces­
members of a class. 4. the use of sary to the subject, as its essence,
a predicate; the way in which a as contained in the subject, or as an
predicate is used. 5. receiving a clas­ essential property flowing from the
sification, name, or predicate. 6. a essence of the subject. (3) affirming
predicate. Since speech follows that the predicate belongs to the sub­
thought and thought depends on be­ ject by nature, originally, and in full
ing, the divisions or modes of predi­ perfection. (4) affirming that the
cation follow man's way of thinking predicate is the logical whole of which
of things and follow the modes of the subject is a logical part: as,
being of what is predicated. The "Man is an animal," where animal
terminology on the divisions or modes is the genus of man.
is not fully settled among the au­ formal (proper) predication, af­
thors. firming that the perfection is present
accidental predication: (1) af­ in the subject in a strict sense, liter­
firming the predicate to be an acci­ ally, in its absolute nature, or accord­
dent of the subject. (2) affirming the ing to the whole of its definition.
predicate in the way in which an This still allows for univocal or
accident is affirmed of its substance. analogous predication, for essential
(3) affirming the predicate to be out­ (sense 3) or participated predication
side the essence of the subject. In of the same perfection.
this way Avicenna has affirmed that improper predication, attributing
the act of existing is an accident the perfection to the subject by a
of a finite nature. (4) affirming that figure of speech or by a relation to
the predicate is extrinsic to the be­ it or by association with some other
ing of the subject or merely related connected attribute, though the sub­
to it by some association. ject lacks that perfection as such;
analogous predication, attributing hence, equivocal and metaphorical
a perfection to each of different sub­ ·predication. See extrinsic ANALOGY.
jects named by the same predicate *in quale predication (Scotus'
in senses partially the same and par­ usage; lit., predication in regard to a
tially different; using the same name qualification or modification), a pred­
for several objects but with a mean­ icating of a specific difference or of
ing somewhat different for each. an accident. The predication of the
predication 241 preformation

specific difference is further called that a symbol is a subject of being

in quale quid or in quale sub­ or represents it: as, "his soul was
stantiale. It is an essential predica­ night." Hence, it is an analogical and
tion of an essential qualification of usually metaphorical sense.
the species. The predication of a univocal predication, attributing
proper or contingent accident is a the perfection named by the predicate
nonessential predication, also called to two or more subjects in a com­
in quale accidentale. pletely same meaning.
*in quid predication (Scotus' us­ virtual predication, attributing
age), a predication of some perfec­ the predicate to a subject as to the
tion or name as substance or as sub­ efficient cause which can or does
sisting, even if it is not a subsistent produce it, but not necessarily mean­
thing. Such predications appear as ing that the causing subject has that
nouns like man, animal, humanity, perfection in the formal sense in
sweetness, etc. which the effect has it. Hence, an
necessary (per se) predication, analogy of attribution or of causality
affirming that the predicate ( a ) is is present.
necessarily implied in the subject: as, REF. -S.T., I, q. 13 (for divine
in an analytic judgment, or (b) re­ names); 16, a. 6; On Being and Es­
quires such a subject as its distinc­ sence, ch. 3, near end; Peter of Spain,
tive subject: as, snub is said only of Summulae Logicales.
nose. predict, v.t. foretell; make known be­
oblique predication, attributing forehand, usually on the basis of in­
the predicate to the subject as in­ formation now on hand from which
hering in it, as possessed by it, or as a deduction can be made; state that
a part belonging to the whole subject. something will or probably will be.
participated predication, affirm­ predisposition, n. 1. making (some­
ing the predicate as belonging to the thing) receptive or susceptible be­
subject by participation, i.e., as be­ forehand. 2. previous tendency; pre­
longing to it but not as its own pared inclination; advance readiness.
essence, not uniquely, and not in an preexistence, n. 1. the existence of
uncaused way. See essential PREDI­ one before another: as a cause usu­
CATION, sense 3. ally preexists its results. 2. a preced­
prior and posterior predication ing existence or life: as, in the
(*per prius and *per posterius), opinion of those who hold transmigra­
predicating a term as belonging to tion of souls. 3. intentional preexis­
the subject as a class or as an in­ tence. the existence of things in the
dividual. The universal is here con­ mind, plan, or intention (will) of
sidered to be prior. their author prior to their physical
primary predication, using the existence in the product.
predicate named to refer to a sub­ preference, n. See CHOICE; RIGHT;
ject as having the perfection origi­ OPTION.
nally, in an unqualified sense, fully, preformation, n. 1. an earlier or
etc.: as, being is primarily predicated previous formation. 2. any one of the
of substance, secondarily of accidents. theories that the full-grown living
predication of the divine names, organism and all its parts are present
affirming or denying perfections or in miniature or in particles in the
attributes of God as their subject. earliest stage of life; hence, the
relational predication, affirming affirmation that the adult is already
something as a relation of or as re­ formed in the germ cells and that
lated to the subject; giving the sub­ there is no true development, forma­
ject a relational name: as, cause is a tion, eduction, or evolution of some­
relational name of God. thing new; mere growth in size or
symbolic predication, affirming new position of the already formed.
prej udge 242 presence

prejudge, v.t. to judge beforehand, his philosophical reflection on it: as,

prematurely, without all the evidence, prephilosophical knowledge of God's
on unfounded suspicion, independ­ existence.
ently of evidence, in the face of prescience, n. foreknowledge, partic­
contradicting evidence, or according ularly of free future or futurible acts
to preconceived opinions and preced­ and the merits or demerits of these
ing feelings without attention to the acts.
evidence for one's judgment. prescind, v.t. 1. explicitly to exclude
premise (premiss), n. 1. any previ­ something from the mind's attention;
ous statement that serves as a basis detach mentally. 2. loosely. to ab­
for argument or discussion following stract. Abstraction simply attends to
it. 2. one of the propositions in a what it considers without formally
syllogism or polysyllogism that pre­ excluding from a concept the other
cedes the conclusion and from which features which the concrete object
the conclusion should be drawn. of attention really possesses. Prescis­
major premise: (1) in a syllo­ sion is a more analytic process.
gism: the proposition that contains prescission, n. 1. the mental act of
the major term or term of greatest prescinding. 2. the objective concept,
extension. (2) often. the first prem­ ratio, or meaning resulting from this
ise. This usage is more apt for hypo­ mental act.
thetical syllogisms. imperfect prescission, see AB­
minor premise: (1) the proposi­ STRACTION without prescission.
tion that contains the minor term or ANT. - contraction by explicita­
term of less extension. (2) often. tion.
the second premise. perfect prescission, a complete
subsumed minor premise, in a mental separation of one abstracted
polysyllogism, the premise that con­ formal object from another so that
tinues the argument after a first or the one neither actually nor implicitly
intermediate conclusion has been includes the other: as, the concept
reached. See SUBSUMPTION. of the genus excludes the concepts
premotion, n. causal action impelling of the specific differences.
another cause to act and exerted on presence, n. 1. the fact or property
the dependent cause prior to its own of being in, of being located near, of
action or, if the secondary cause be being here or there. The now of
a free being, prior to its active self­ time is spoken of as the present
determination (choice). rather than as presence. 2. the way
moral premotion, moral coopera­ in which a thing is in another, near
tion influencing another agent to act it, distant from it, etc. 3. the im­
in a certain way by appealing to mediate surroundings that are in
knowledge and feelings: as, by advice, close view. 4. a person's bearing,
encouragement, warning, etc. personality, appearance, dignity,
physical premotion, actual ap­ pleasing deportment, etc. 5. an in­
plication of power to make the de­ fluence felt or known to be operative
pendent agent act (move) as the within or nearby. See CONTACT of
principal forces it to act: as, a parent power. 6. immanence. 7. close union
pushing a child's hand in drawing. of one with another. 8. relevance to
Physical premotion is the means by a contemporary person, problem, or
which physical predetermination is in­ cause. See BE IN.
fallibly assured. The modes in which beings are
prephilosophical, adj. preceding phil­ present are referred to as follows:
osophical thinking or knowledge but circumscriptive (circumscribed;
dealing with the same subject matter encircled; local ; quantitative)
that philosophers treat or that an presence, the natural way in which
individual thinks of before and after bodies are contained and located in
presence 243 presuppose

space whereby each part of a body own bodily being and extension.
occupies its own place distinct from sacramental presence, the way
that occupied by other parts and in which a body is supernaturally
excluding other bodies from that place present after the manner of a spirit's
while it is there; each part, there­ definitive presence. Thus, the Body
fore, has one restricted or circum­ of Christ in the sacrament of the
scribed location. Eucharist is present definitively, not
definitive (diffinitive; operative) circumscriptively by parts outside of
presence, the way in which a spirit parts, in the consecrated species.
or the soul of man is in a body presentation, n. 1. anything actually
whereby it is active in the whole present in consciousness at a given
of the place occupied by the body moment; the object as presented to
on which it acts, is not limited to the mind. 2. the image as set before
spots or a portion of the body, is the memory or the agent intellect.
not spread out in the exten5ion of presentationism, n. any epistemologi­
the body, and is not measured by cal or psychological view that the
the space occupied by that body or mind, when perceiving, is directly
its parts; presence of the whole aware of an external object here
(spirit or spiritual form) in the whole and now in its presence, without
extended body in which it acts and any intervening medium ( quod) :
in each part of the extension of the contrasted with theories that the di­
body or of its place. rectly known object is immanent or
formal ( quidditative) presence: that the object is represented by a
( 1) true presence according to its likeness of itself which must be first
form. (2) the presence of the essence known before the external object is
or quiddity itself; the fact of being known. This last view is called repre­
present according to its proper nature sentationism or representationalism.
or definition, not by simile, imagina­ This theory holds that though ideas
tive fiction, etc.: as color is formally wholly or partly copy objects, the
present in a complexion. objects only give occasion to know­
intentional presence, the way in. ing them and are known by the
which the known or desired is in the ideas as media quae.
cognitive and appetitive powers; esp., presumption, n. 1. the taking of
being in the mind: contrasted with something for granted, usually on
physical or natural presence. the basis of probable evidence in
multiple presence, the simultane­ its favor and the absence of proof
ous presence of the same substance to the contrary: as, the presumption
or soul in two or more places dis­ that every man is honest. 2. the
tant from each other. thing (e.g., fact, law, validity of an
omnipresence (repletive pres­ act, title, state of character, genuine­
ence), being everywhere in all bodies ness of a document, etc.) that is pre­
and all parts of them; unlimited pres­ sumed; supposition. See ASSUMPTION.
ence in space; a presence filling all Rules of probabilism are to some ex­
space. tent concerned with these presump­
per accidens (indirect) pres­ tions. 3. a ground, reason, or evidence
ence, the presence of something in for presuming the probability of
a definite body or place because of something. 4. in law. an inference that
its union or connection with some­ a fact exists, based on the proved
thing else: as, my soul is indirectly existence of other facts. 5. overbold­
present in this room because my ness; confidence without a sound
body, to which my soul is united, basis. 6. assumption of a right or
is in this room. authority without title or permission.
per se (direct) presence, the presuppose, v.t. 1. to suppose or as­
presence of a being according to its sume beforehand; take for granted.
preternatural 244 principle

This term, wider than presume, usu­ primary (prime ), adj. See FIRST.
ally connotes a lack of evidence or ABBR. - prim.
a neglect of examining evidence avail­ primordial, adj. first in time; exist­
able for what is thus taken for ing at or from the beginning; origi­
granted. 2. to require or imply as nal. See CREATION; YLEM.
a preceding condition: as, a careful principiate, n. that which proceeds in
reading of St. Thomas presupposes some way from another (i.e., from
a knowledge of Latin. its principle).
preternatural, adj. I. differing from principium, n. 1. a principle. 2. at
or beyond the natural; out of the the medieval University of Paris: the
ordinary; paranormal. The preter­ first lecture of a graduate bachelor
natural is intermediate between the whom the university rector had ad­
natural and supernatural in substance. mitted to teach theology.
It is not due to nature alone but principle, n. I. that from which some­
yet not needed for a supernatural thing in some way follows; a being
purpose; some preternatural phenom­ or truth from which being, change,
ena do not need or cannot have God knowledge, or discussion, respectively,
as their sole immediate cause, e.g., starts. 2. any cause. (For cause is
some occurrences at spiritistic se­ the main type of principle.) 3. any­
ances. thing that is in any way first even
prevenient, adj. coming before; an­ if it has no connection with later
ticipating and preparing for. The members.
word is often used of divine action analytic p rinciple, an analytical
in the natural or supernatural order judgment that serves as a premise
that occurs prior to human choice or for proof or as a means of inter­
human response to a divine impulse. preting other truths as well as facts;
price, n. 1. money, goods, credit, etc. a general truth in which the attribute
asked for or given for something; (predicate) unconditionally is con­
the valuation of goods in compari­ tained in (or excluded from) the
son with each other or in comparison subject's nature (ratio): as, the prin­
with a monetary standard; cost. 2. ciples of noncontradiction and pro­
value; worth. 3. the cost in life, portionate causality.
labor, care, sacrifice, etc. that is entitative principles, the essence
needed or given to obtain some ad­ and act of existence as coprinciples
vantage, benefit, victory, etc. of finite being.
first principle, a principle that
ceiling price, the highest price
does not come from another princi­
allowed by law for some basic com­
ple; one that has no prior principle
modities.
in its own series. An absolutely first
just price, a price in which com­
principle has no prior principle in
mutative justice is observed in the
any series to which it belongs: as,
equality between the goods and serv­
God is the absolutely first principle
ices exchanged by buyer and seller.
of being.
market (conventional; prevail­
formal principle: (1) logic. one
ing) price, the price set by com­
of the basic principles or rules that
mon estimate of the worth of goods
justify the validity of all reasoning:
or services so that people usually
as, the principle of noncontradiction
offer to sell and are ready to buy at
and the dictum de omni et nullo. (2)
that price in a given market.
philosophy of nature. the form in a
minimum price: (1) the lowest natural unit.
price that will be just to the seller logical principle: ( 1) a principle
or to his competitors. (2) the lowest of knowledge; a truth from which
price allowed by public law. other truth proceeds; a source of
ABBR.- pr. knowledge or a cause of thought.
principle 245 prius

These include definitions, signs, ques-­ 10; S.T., I, 33, a. 1; 42, aa. 2-3;
tions, problems, sources of truth, Power of God, q. 10, a. 1, c. and
axioms, norms, premises, bases of ad 9, 10; The Principles of Nature.
division, etc. (2) a rule in logic. (3) ABBR. - prin. (s. and pl.).
a methodological principle or rule prior, adj. 1. being or coming before
of procedure special to a science. another in some way; of a principle.
material principle: (1) logic. the 2.
prior in time. earlier; previous;
premises that supply the content for former; antecedent; preceding others
a given conclusion or from which the in time or sequence of changes. 3.
consequent proceeds. (2) philosophy prior in nature. being before another
of nature. the material cause, po­ in existence, essence, attributes, rela­
tency, or substratum. tions, set of causes, etc.; more basic;
ontological principle, a real prin­ nearer to the source; as, the abso­
ciple. See below. lute in being is prior to the relative;
principle of division, the basis, cause is prior to the effect; act is
characteristic, or foundation on which prior to potency; substance is prior
a division or a classification is made. to its accidents. The fallacy of false
principle of law, a general rule cause confuses temporal priority with
or precept of conduct. See LAW for natural priority. 4. prior in origin.
divisions. preceding another as its source but
real principle, a principle from not as its cause. This applies to
which being proceeds; a being from the order of the Persons within the
which another being or modification Most Holy Trinity. 5. prior in excel­
of being proceeds in some way. Real lence. the better or the best; the
principles include beginning, founda­ chief; the most important; higher in
tion, origin, occasion, condition, cause right, sovereignty, rank, etc.; the pre­
of any type, and elements of com­ ferred. 6. referring to the primary
position. analogue in a set of compared per­
seminal principle ( s ) , the seeds fections or beings. 7. logically prior
of all things; material elements, as (prior to us) : (a) known before
they were originally created by God, another: as, a premise; (b) better
containing all forms and future de­ known; (c) nearer than another or
velopments of bodies in a virtual or others to the first member in a list,
latent state while awaiting favorable series of ideas, set of propositions,
circumstances before these imperfect etc.
forms grow into mature bodies. This absolutely prior, absolutely first;
Augustinian borrowing from the prior in act or existence to any other
Stoics' seminal reasons (a) is an being.
alternative for substantial change demonstration from prior rea­
that brings truly new act and new son, see DEMONSTRATION a priori.
form into being; (b) does not apply ontologically prior, before others
to the human soul since it is ad­ in nature, origin, excellence of being,
mitted to be created from nothing or in time.
and is not in the seeds; (c) im­ prior in generation and time, this
plicitly holds that secondary causes is said of potency, the imperfect,
cannot produce form but only modify and the agent; for these precede the
form. form and the effect though the agent
vital principle, the principle of need not always precede the effect
life; the substantial form of an or­ in time.
ganism; the substantial interior source prior in itself, naturally prior;
of the life of a plant, animal, or man; objectively preceding.
soul or psyche. See VITALISM. REF. - Categories, ch. 12.
REF. - Met., V, ch. 1; St. Augus­ prius, n. I. something prior; some­
tine, De Genesi ad Litteram, VI, 6, thing presupposed for the action or
privation 246 problem

explanation of something else. 2. a when it assents to a proposition with

condition, habit, disposition, or form a motive that it recognizes is short
in the subject that is presupposed to of evident and does not exclude the
true acquired knowledge. possibility that the opposite proposi­
privation , n. 1. the lack of a good tion may be true. See DOUBT; OPIN­
that is due to a nature; evil, in its ION. 2. some proposition that is prob­
formal characteristic; a want of some­ able; hence, neither impossible nor
thing needed, desirable, or previously certain. 3. mathematical probability.
possessed. Privation is distinguished the ratio of the number of favorable
from mere negation, i.e., simple ab­ (expected) instances to the total num­
sence of something not due to or ber of possible instances. This prob­
not needed to a nature. AN T. - ability is quantitative, measurable,
goodness. 2. as a principle of change: and objective. See CHANCE. But in­
(a) the fact that a given form does ductive probability, e.g., of a law of
not actually exist in a potency or nature, is a subjective estimate, not
subject though it can naturally be without some evidence, of the truth
in it. (b) the removal or loss of a of a statement.
form previously possessed by a chang­ probable, adj. 1. that can be pru­
ing or changed object. ANT. - pos­ dently expected to occur or can be
session. 3. the lack of the usual believed to be true on the basis of
necessities or comforts for living; a incomplete evidence that does not
state of need. 4. loosely, not philoso­ exclude the possibility of error in the
phically. a mere absence of some assent or belief. 2. credible. 3. uncer­
good. tain but not unreasonable in assent.
privat ive opposition, see OPPOSI­ 4. sufficient to establish opinion (in
TION. assent) or acceptability (in the prop­
REF. - for sense 2. - St. Thomas, osition). 5. in the 13th and 14th
The Principles of Nature. centuries: able to be proved; deserv­
privilege, n. lit., a private law. 1. a ing to be tested for its demonstrabil­
right, favor, congruent reward, or ity or certitude.
exception to an obligation, that is uniquely probable, acceptable as
granted to a person or group but true because this (hypothesis) alone
not to all in the community. The is available to explain facts of a cer­
legal device for this grant is some­ tain kind, though the hypothesis is
times a special legislative act known not truly proved and may even be
as a private law. 2. a precarious or unprovable: as, the hypothesis of
nonjuridical right. 3. a basic civil some evolution of organisms is
right or civil liberty; a citizen's legal uniquely probable today even though
opportunity. 4. a special honor given methods of evolution are more chal­
to a select one or few persons. lengeable.
probabilism, n. the ethical doctrine REF. -Th. Deman, "Notes de
that in an insoluble practical doubt Lexicographie Philosophique Medi­
concerning merely the lawfulness of evale: Probabilis," Revue des Sci­
an action that is urgent, the moral ences Philosophiques et Theologiques,
agent is free to follow any truly XXII (1933), 26�290.
probable opinion on the morality of ABBR. - prob.
the proposed action. However, in probative, adj. 1. useful for or used
doubts where there is a necessary for testing. 2. affording evidence or
end to be obtained, a certain duty to proof.
be discharged, the certain right of probatory, adj. probative; giving
another to be protected, or the valid­ proof or used in proof.
ity of an act to be performed, the p roblem, n. 1. a subject that needs
safer means must be taken. consideration or that is being reasoned
probability, n. 1. the state of a mind about. 2. a proposition stated as a
problematic 247 proof

genuine question (not as a rhetorical tion between a principle and its prin­
question or as a courteous invitation cipiate or principiates; a beginning
to assent). 3. an unsolved philosophi­ and a continuing.
cal question or inquiry upon which proconclusion, n. in a composite syl­
various views are maintained, with logism, any conclusion that serves as
no convincing solution as yet avail­ a premise for a following conclusion.
able; a proposition that is not ad­ produce, v.t. 1. to bear; bring forth;
mitted and not denied by all. 4. a yield. This connotes material causality
question formerly disputed though or a combination of material and
now solved by a demonstration of efficient causality. 2. to cause; make;
an exact answer. Such a question may manufacture. This connotes only ef­
still be disputed by amateurs or by ficient causality.
philosophies reputed to be false. An ABBR.- prod.
answered problem, unlike a mystery, prolegomenon, n., pl. -a. I. a fore­
is fully understood. word; preliminary remark. 2. an in­
the critical .problem, see phrases troductory essay or study. Some
S.V. KNOWLEDGE. philosophical works bear this title:
dialectical problem, a question as, I. Kant's Prolegomena to a Future
concerning matters of choice or of Metaphysics of Morals.
truth that cannot be settled with proletariat, n. I. the lowest class in
certainty. society. 2. the current Marxist sense.
ABBR. - prob. the industrial or working class; the
problematic (problematical), adj. masses.
1. having the nature of a problem; promulgate, v.t. 1. to publish offi­
being in question or under debate; cially; give official notice or informa­
disputed. The term is often used as a tion to subjects about a law, decree,
noun with the article: the proble­ interpretation of a law, tax, etc.
matic. 2. not the subject of a con­ Promulgation is an essential property
sensus; not universally accepted; ac­ of a law. 2. to make widespread;
tually doubted or doubtful. circulate; make commonly known or
process, n. 1. a course or orderly ser­ readily knowable.
ies of operations involving many proof, n. 1. the act or process of
changes. 2. change going on, esp. if on proving, i.e., of testing or trying
a large scale. 3. a special method something. 2. the presentation of any
or treatment involving a number of convincing evidence for or against an
successive steps. 4. movement; ad­ alleged fact, claim, assertion, proposi­
vance; development; progression of tion, truth, etc. 3. anything useful to
some sort in physical or mental action establish the truth or certainty of
or growth. Philosophers who stress something; conclusive evidence that
change and evolution are referred to brings conviction to the mind or
as process philosophers. brings a verdict of a court. This
illicit process (of major or meaning of proof includes facts, doc­
minor term), an illogical manipula­ uments, testimony, reasoning, admis­
tion that violates the rule of the sions, etc. 4. a demonstration or­
syllogism forbidding that a term have ganizing the evidence in statements
a wider extension in the conclusion and thereby establishing the truth of
than it had in its own premise. something; esp. an argument that
natural process, the ways in which proceeds from necessary and evident
natural bodies change by action and premises and thus is fit to generate
interaction; the course of nature. conviction. See chart on INFERENCES.
ABBR.- proc. 5. a series of propositions related to
procession, n. a coming forth; origin each other in such a way that each
from a principle; a following in order of them is either a premise or can be
after, or from, a principle; the rela- logically inferred from those proposi-
propensity 248 proportion

tions that precede it in the series. sense, use, or predication; true; uni­
6. a check, esp. if indirect, against vocal (if a common name). 9. gram­
a demonstration's correctness; 7. in­ mar. designating a particular indi­
tentional logic. any test or method vidual, person, place, etc.: as, Mil­
of testing the objective truth of a waukee is a proper noun. See NAME.
statement or argument. 8. symbolic ABBR. - prop.
logic: logical (formal) proof. a dem­ property, n. 1. logic. an accident es­
onstration to test the validity and sential to and common to all mem­
structure of purely formal arguments bers of a class or species; an attribute
according to formal principles of that does not form part of the essence
inference in a given system, inde­ of its subject but necessarily results
pendently of the content of the prop­ from that essence as a formal effect;
ositions. 9. a test or trial of the truth, proprium; the fourth predicable. 2.
worth, quality, sincerity, authenticity, a characteristic trait or attribute of
etc., of some person or thing; any a class or of an individual person,
reason confirming what is in doubt, object, institution, society, place, etc.
esp. if this is done by a sensible sign; 3. ethics. the right of ownership. 4.
verification. 10. the quality or con­ any thing or things owned.
dition of having been tested or dem­ sensible properties, sensible acci­
onstrated. See divisions under ARGU­ dents special to a class of bodies.
MENT and DEMONSTRATION. ABBR. - prop.
annotation of a proof: proving prophecy, n. a foretelling of future
the premises or giving the principle free events. See intellectual MIRACLE.
(reason) why a premise, substitution, The theological meanings of prophet
etc., in a proof is valid; giving critical and prophecy, esp. in the New Testa­
or historical comment, analysis, or ment, include various types of di­
explanation of a proof. vinely given knowledge.
burden of proof, the obligation to proportion, n. 1. a part, portion, or
prove a statement and not merely share, esp. in relation to the whole;
to assert or deny something. quota. 2. comparative sharing or right
propensity, n. 1. a natural inclina­ apportionment: as, each citizen's
tion. 2. a strong, almost uncontroll­ proportion of the benefits and burdens
able tendency. of distributive justice. 3. similarity;
relation; comparison in any respect.
proper, adj. 1. one's own; its own;
naturally and exclusively belonging to
4. a simple relation of likeness be­
tween comparable beings, natures, or
or related to oneself or itself; distinc­
principles. A compound relation is a
tive; peculiar (to); special (to a
proportionality. See also PROP O R ­
person, class, place, occasion, festival,
TIONAL, sense 2. 5. an analogy. 6. a
etc.); not common to others. 2.
comparative relation between the
specially suitable to a specific con­
parts within a thing, or between dis­
dition or specially adapted to a
tinct things, in some quantitative at­
specific purpose or nature. 3. per­
tribute; ratio. 7. a fitting together of
taining to an accident, relation, or
the principles or parts of things: as,
object that necessarily belongs to an
in symmetry, harmonies in colors and
essence. 4. hence, intrinsic; essential;
sounds, and the matching together of
primary. 5. conformed to an accepted
suitable matter and form. 8. degree,
standard or to the criterion of good
extent, or size, relative to a standard.
usage; correct. 6. conformed to
a moral standard; fitting; right. 7. arithmetical proportion: ( 1) an
modest; decent; befitting human dig­ equality between ratios: as, 2 is to 8
nity in sexual associations. 8. literal as 5 is to 20. This is more exactly
in meaning or sense; understood called a proportionality. (2) a divid­
in its exact or primary meaning, ing into equal parts. ( 3) an exact
proportional 249 proposition

balance of rights and duties, as in thesis or opposition between its com­

commutative justice. ponents.
geometric proportion, an appor­ categorical proposition, a state­
tionment of rights and duties, meas­ ment without qualification or condi­
ured not by equal parts to each, but tion. This may be affirmative or nega­
.
tive.
by the abilities, needs, and services 1J
of each. causal proposition, one that states
moral proportion, the humanly in one clause the cause of the truth
estimated comparative value standing of the statement made in the other
between two (or more) moral factors: clause. See causal CLAUSE; ENTHY­
as, moral proportion between good MEME.
and evil in an act or in its conse­ complex proposition, one whose
quences; between a deed and its subject or predicate or both contain
merit; between a law and its attached a complex term. This does not mean
penalty; between pay and work; etc. as in grammar, a complex sentenc�
proportional, adj. 1. belonging to or or one with a dependent clause.
measured by a proportion; relative. component proposition, one of
2. belonging to a set of proportions; the simple propositions that make up
peculiar to similar or related things a composite proposition or into which
and their principles. The various act­ the composite can be reduced.
to-potency relationships within a be­ conditional proposition, a hypo­
ing are proportional to each other; thetical proposition composed of two
but a single relation, e.g., of matter­ parts so connected together that the
to-form, is proportionate. 3. having, positing or negating of one implies
or being in, proportion. 4. in mathe­ the positing or negating of the other
matics. having the same or a con­ part; in other words, the positing or
stant ratio; equal in ratios. negating of the first part is the con­
dition t? be verified for the positing
proportionality, n. a proportion of
or negating of the other part. The sign
proportions; a relation of relations.
is "if . . . , then"; "unless . . . ,
See ANALOGY of proportionality.
then."
proportionate, adj. being in proper
conjunctive proposition: ( 1) a
proportion in some reciprocal rela­
hypothetical proposition asserting that
tion: as human knowledge and sensi­
the two judgments contained in it
ble beings are proportionate to each
cannot both be true at once: (Sign:
other. See proportionate OBJECT.
"not both A and B"). (2) a propo­
proposition, n. 1. a complete sentence sition stating that two or more be­
expressing an affirmative or negative ings, facts, or statements coexist
judgment; a statement or sentence without declaring any causal connec­
that is capable of being true or false. tion between them: distinguished
A proposition is to logic as a sentence from implicative proposition; a com­
is to grammar. Judgment is more
posite proposition whose categorical
properly used for the mental act of members are connected by "and "
assenting or denying while proposi­
"or," "but," etc. These connectiv�s
tion is used for the external verbal
unite two or more subjects, two or
sign of the judgment. 2. presentation .
more predicates, or two or more sim­
of an offer, invitation, plan, terms of ple clauses. It is to be noticed that
a contract or of a settlement, etc.;
"neither-nor" is a sign not of a dis­
an act of proposing. 3. the proposal junction, but of a �onjunction of
made in an offer, contract, etc. negatives.
Selected divisions are given. Also contingent proposition, one whose
see divisions of JUDGMENT. predicate is not a necessary attribute
adversative proposition, a com­ of its subject nor necessarily excluded
pound proposition that expresses anti- from its subject; one whose predicate
proposition 250 propter se

may or may not be true of its sub­ predicate belongs to or is excluded

ject, depending upon the given facts. from the subject. See s.v. MODALITY,
Such propositions are signs of syn­ sense 2.
thetic a posteriori judgments or necessary proposition, one whose
judgments in contingent matter. predicate is necessarily contained in
copulative proposition, a con­ or necessarily excluded from the na­
junctive proposition in sense 2. ture of the subject. It is also known
disjunctive (alternative) propo­ as a judgment in necessary matter.
sition, a (hypothetical) proposition Most such propositions concern uni­
connecting two or more members by versals or essences; many are analy­
the particle "or" so that not all the tic a priori judgments put into propo­
members are true together. Two sitions. EXAMPLES: "Man is rational";
modes are distinguished: the inclusive "God is good."
(weak) and the exclusive (strong); opposition of propositions, see
the latter requires that only one of OPPOSITION.
the members can be true. See DIS­ propositional calculus, see CAL­
JUNCTION. CULUS.
exclusive proposition: (1) a com­ self-contradictory proposition,
pound proposition containing a term one that is necessarily false; one that
such as "alone" or "only" modifying denies a tautologous proposition; one
the subject or predicate: as, God that states the intrinsically impos­
alone is infinite. (2) a strong disjunc­ sible. See IMPOSSIBLE.
tive proposition. simple proposition: (1) one that
formal relations of propositions, makes a single affirmation or denial
the purely logically valid connections of a single subject: sometimes called
of propositions concerning the same a two-term proposition. (2) a prime
content or materials, with no con­ sentence or component into which a
sideration of the truth of the content. composite proposition is reducible.
See OPPOSITION; CONVERSION; INVER·
universal proposition, one whose
SION.
subject is a universal term used dis­
hypothetical proposition, one that
tributively.
asserts the dependence of one affirma­
ABBR. - pr.; prop.
tion or negation upon another affirma­
tion or negation. The older logicians REF. -Aristotle, On Interpretation
distinguished the three kinds: condi­ (Perihermineias), ch. 4 ff.
tional, conjunctive, and disjunctive. proprium, n. an accident necessarily
This term seems now to be discarded flowing from or belonging to an
in favor of implicative. A hypotheti­ essence and, hence, common to all
cal proposition would nowadays mean natures having that kind of essence;
one that states an hypothesis. proper accident; property in the sense
implicative proposition, one stat­ of the fourth predicable.
ing a causal relation between the *Propter quod unumquodque tale,
component propositions. This would et illud magis: Lat. sentence. a
include causal and conditional propo­ Lat. translation of a maxim of Aris­
sitions as defined above. See IMPLI­ totle: "The cause of some kind of
CATION; Appendix on Logical Nota­ thing is even more that kind of
tion. thing." That is, the cause of anything
indefinite ( indesignate) proposi­ is that kind of thing in a greater de­
tion, one having as its subject a uni­ gree; or, the cause always surpasses
versal term whose supposition is of its result in some measure. The maxim
uncertain extension. applies to efficient and formal causes,
modal proposition, one whose and to premises regarded as formal
copula is qualified by a mode that principles of a conclusion.
indicates the manner in which the *propter se, Lat. phrase. by its very
prosperity 251 prudence

nature; because of a necessary con­ the education of a child through dele­

nection with its nature. gated teachers.
prosperity, n. 1. success; good for­ mediate providence, merely gen­
tune. 2. the abundance of goods and eral planning for one or more beings
means for connatural human temporal or assigning the detailed planning and
welfare. This does not mean merely care of a being to an intermediate
material well-being. This kind of agent.
abundance is often spoken of as the moral providence, care over moral
second natural end of the state. beings, their relations, and their des­
prove, v.t. 1. to test in some way; try tinies.
out. 2. to present evidence that re­ natural providence, the direction
quires a certain assent. 3. to argue of natures to their natural ends in
conclusively; demonstrate: e.g., es­ accordance with their natural capaci­
tablish a truth, successfully show the ties to act, act upon, and receive
validity of a claim, make manifest the from other natures.
authenticity of a report, etc. Proved special providence, unusual care
seems to be said chiefly of certainty directed to the good of one being
in evidence or in an argument. Dis­ or class of beings such as is not
proved is said of that which is re­ given to other beings in the same
futed as certainly false; unproved, order or system. This may be natural,
of that which is neither surely true e.g., the planned development of the
nor surely false. earth as the habitation for the human
providence, n. 1. the plan or exem­ race, or supernatural, e.g., the plan
plar whereby things are ordered to of salvation.
an end; deliberate foresight of and supernatural providence, the di­
direction to an end. 2. loosely. govern­ vine direction of intelligent creatures
ment. 3. both providence (foresight to an end exceeding their natures and
and advance preparation) and govern­ to the supplying of means proportion­
ment (execution of the intended plan ate to this end.
and preparations). Thus, divine provi­ REF. -S.T., I, 22; 103; C.G., III,
dence often refers to management as Ch. 64, 97.
well as to planning. 4. the integral proximate, adj. 1. the closest to a
part of the virtue of prudence that point of reference; nearest; next to
looks in advance to all suitable prep­ the point of reckoning. 2. immediate
arations; care. 5. hence, skillful and or first in the series.
prudent management. In this sense, prudence, n. 1. the cardinal moral
providence refers to a subjective or virtue that habitually inclines a per­
a potential part of prudence. son to find, choose, and use the right
divine providence, the divine plan means to a good end; the habit of
directing all things to the end ap­ desiring, finding, and choosing the
pointed by God, according to the right means for worthy human ends,
natures of each being. Divine govern­ and of using them in the right way;
ment carries out in time the universal recta ratio agibilium, i.e., right
divine plan made in eternity; hence, reason in regard to things to be done :
it is thought of as supplementing contrasted with art, recta ratio
providence taken in its narrow sense. factibilium. 2. an act of this virtue,
immediate providence, planning e.g., the inquiry preparatory to mak­
for one or more individual beings, ing a conscientious choice. 3. one of
events, means, and goods and di­ the several subjective parts of this
recting each one or more individually virtue: private (personal) prudence,
to their own ends. Immediate provi­ domestic prudence, or political
dence does not necessarily exclude (royal) prudence. Prudence, referred
some mediate providence and mediate to simply, means personal prudence
government: as, when a parent plans directed to one's own true good. 4.
psyche 252 punishment

consideration of the present and the sum of an individual or typical per­

past as a guide to the future; an act son's actions, attitudes, emotional dis­
of counsel. 5. practical wisdom in positions, intellectual achievements,
human affairs. 6. Ockham (1300?- social responses, traits, views, etc., as,
1349?). (a) moral science; (b) good the psychology of a medical student;
moral judgment; ( c) an evident prac­ the psychology of Macbeth. See PER­
tical judgment in a particular case, SONALITY, senses 4 and 5. 6. a treatise
deduced from a principle or relying on, or system of, psychology. 7. C.
on experience; ( d) general and ap­ Wolff's division of philosophy. the
plied knowledge about good moral special metaphysics of man's nature.
living. This often was divided into minor
prudential certitude, see CERTI­ (sensitive) psychology about the sen­
TUDE. sitive life and major (rational) psy­
See chart on VIRTUES; MEAN of chology about the higher, spiritual
virtue. life of man.
REF.-N. Eth., VI, ch. 5, 7-10; experimental psychology, the
S.T., I, 22, a. 1; I-II, 57, a. 4; study of human mental or conscious
II-II, 47, 48, 50, 51; Truth, q. 5, operations by scientifically controlled
a. 1. observations, tests, and statistical cor­
psyche, n. I. Aristotle. a soul or vital relations.
principle. This meaning pertains to philosophical psychology, see
any organism. 2. the human soul. 3. senses 1-3.
the mind. 4. the conscious powers. rational psychology: (1) the ex­
5. Freudian thought. the affective and perimental scientific study of the
mental aspects of the human organ­ processes of higher thinking, e.g., of
ism in relation to its environment. induction and logical inference. (2)
psychological (psychologic), adj. I. the philosophical study of man's in­
of or in the mind; mental. 2. of or tellectual and voluntary operations or
in the conscious soul. 3. of, or spiritual life; see main entry 3. (3)
studied in, psychology. the philosophy of human nature (of
ABBR. - psyc.; psycho!. man).
psychology, n. I. orjginally. the philo­
ABBR.-psyc.; psychol.
sophical study of living things, i.e.,
psychophysical, adj. of the functional
of natural bodies having a psyche.
(operative) relations between the
2. the philosophical study of human
animal or human body and the mind.
life as a nature; the philosophy of
human nature. 3. the science of the psychophysical parallelism, see
human soul, its powers, operations, PARALLELISM.
and relations to the human body. psychophysical problem, see
This sense is often referred to as ra­ BODY-mind problem.
tional psychology; it is part of the psychosomatic, adj. see an English
larger philosophy of human nature dictionary.
(of man). See METAPSYCHOLOGY. 4. punishment, n. I. the act of causing
modern nonscholastic senses. (a) the another to bear pain, loss, or any
empirical science of mental processes, suffering for a crime or other wrong­
including cognitive, emotional, and doing. 2. strict active sense. the au­
volitional acts and states. ( b) the thoritative depriving of a good, oper­
science of animal and human be­ ating on a subject who is a wrong­
havior. This nonethical sense of be­ doer, against his will, in order to
havior means more than purely remove or compensate for a fault
physiological behavior since it means already and certainly committed. 3.
conscious action or some conscious passive sense. the bearing of punish­
manifestation of unconscious or sub­ ment; receiving and undergoing a
conscious activities or states. 5. the penalty. 4. the penalty imposed or
pure 253 purpose

inflicted. See penal SANCTION. ual in all its operations. 4. unmixed

corrective {medicinal) punish­ with anything other than itself; abso­
ment, a penalty intended to reform lute; identified with itself. 5. perfect;
the actual wrongdoer. free from foreign elements, limita­
deterrent (social) p unishment , tions, imperfections, privations, etc.
a penalty threatened or inflicted to 6. simple; sheer.
protect the community and deter any III. ethical senses. 7. free from
member from harming the community moral wrong; sinless; blameless; in­
by violating law or rights. nocent. 8. chaste.
retributive (vindicative) punish­ IV. epistemological senses. 9.
ment, a penalty imposed by lawful theoretical; speculative. 10. absolute;
authority to compensate for the of­ considered in its absolute nature in­
fense to God, the lawgiver, and the dependently of existential differences
community for the wrong done to and circumstances. 11. Kantian phi­
these; sanction designed to protect losophy. free from empirical ele­
the majesty of law and restore the ments: as, pure reason. 12. free from
order of justice. emotional and appetitive influences or
pure, adj. I. in general. 1. free from even from images: as, pure thought.
anything that decreases, weakens, purgation, n. a cleansing or remov­
soils, or damages; unmixed; free from ing of impurities, foreign matter, un­
defects, flaws, faults, etc. desirable elements, emotions, anxie­
II. metaphysical senses. 2. free ties, guilt, charges, etc.
from passive potency and composi­ aesthetic purgation, catharsis.
tion in its being, nature, form, or purification, way of, phrase. see
perfection; unmixed with potency: as, WAY of remotion.
God is pure act of being. 3. not purpose, n. 1. end; final cause. 2. in­
united with matter; positively spirit- tention.
 Q
qua, adv. as; in the capacity, charac­ ties. 2. limited by conditions or rela­
ter or function of; under the for­ tionships; existing, meant, or under­
ma'uty of: as, St. Thomas qua phi­ stood with an attached qualification;
losopher. not simple or absolute. 3. incomplete:
Quaestio Disputata, title; pl., Qua­ as, a qualified good. 4. used in a sec­
estiones Disputatae. A Disputed ondary, limited, or extended sense.
Question (Questions); A Dispute. See SECUNDUM QUID. 5. changed or
This title is given to the whole or restricted in meaning or extension by
part of many treatises in philosophy an incidental term. 6. having met the
and theology of the medieval and requirements set; having shown the
late medieval scholastic professors. A necessary or desirable qualities; fit;
reportatio was the student's or listen­ eligible.
er's report of the master's handling qualifier, n. a term, usually an adjec­
of a question. A disputed question tive or adjectival phrase and usually
was the master's own written version representing a quality, that shades or
of the question made after the pre­ limits the meaning of another term.
liminary public discussion. St. See QUANTIFY.
Thomas' works On Truth, On the quality, n. I. Met. 1. an accident
Power of God, On Evil are samples intrinsically perfecting a substance
of such questions. The master usually either in its being or in its operation;
selected the question as a formal an attribute describing what kind of
teaching method. subject a thing is or what kind of
Quaestiones Quodlibetales, title, pl. form it is. Not every quality is a
short discussions, often referred to as distinguishing property. See chart on
Quodlibets, on a wide variety of philo­ CATEGORIES OF BEING. 2. the excel­
sophical and theological subjects, lence, or degree of excellence, of a
either in the formal style of the thing.
Questions or in a freer form. The II. Logic. 3. in a categorical propo­
question might be proposed by any­ sition, the affirmative or negative
body (usually a master), but on character of the proposition or of its
any subject; hence, the name Quod­ copula. 4. in a conditional proposi­
libet, "anything at all." tion, the affirmative or negative con­
qualification, n. 1. in general. a qual­ nection between the condition and
ity, condition, or addition that modi­ the consequent (conditioned). 5. the
fies, changes, restricts, or limits: (a) property of certainty or probability
a being; (b) an activity; (c) an act that belongs to a given judgment or
of consent or of choice; (d) a right; proposition.
(e) the meaning of a term; or (/) III. Loose, popular use. 6. a
the degree of certainty of a proposi­ condition of a being; a state; a
tion. 2. any quality that fits a person differentiating feature.
for some duty, employment, honor, NOTE - The divisions belong to
reward, etc. 3. a fixed condition that sense 1.
must be met before exercising some
affective quality: (1) a quality
of an object capable of stimulating
right.
a pleasant or unpleasant response in
substantial qualification, a spe­
a perceiving subject. It is the ob­
cific difference, e.g., human. jective correlate of an affection. (2)
accidental qualification, a quality. a passible quality of a sensible thing.
qualified, adj. 1. modified by quali- entitative quality, a disposition or

254
quantify 255 quantity

habit that perfects or modifies the with quantity or extension rather than
being of a substance, e.g., health, with substance, essence, or quality:
sanctifying grace, the scar of a wound. as, integral parts of a body are
operative quality, a disposition or quantitative parts. 2. measurable. 3.
habit that affects a being's capacity (the) quantitative: quantity as it con­
to act. cretely modifies a substance.
passible quality: (1) a quality of quantity, n. 1. the accident proper to
a sensible object capable of immedi­ a material substance in virtue of
ately affecting an external sense, e.g., which it must naturally have exten­
the colored, sounding, hard, etc. sion; the real, absolutely inherent
Hence, it includes affective qualities. accident of a body by which it
(2) more specifically. a permanent possesses distinct integral parts Quan­
capacity to be affected by the quali­ tity as a noun is conceived as a form
ties of objects: distinguished from a or quasi substance; but as an acci­
passion, which is a transitory affec­ dent, it is naturally stated as an ad­
tion. jective, i.e., as a modification of sub­
primary quality: (1) in the older stance. The being of quantity is to be
scholastics. the proper sensible or distinguished from material substance
proper sensible quality, e.g. color, and from qualities. See chart on
sound, resistance, temperature, etc.: CATEGORIES of B eing. 2. the extension
distinguished from common and acci­ of the subject or predicate of a
dental sensibles. (2) in Descartes, proposition. 3. the personal supposi­
Locke, and many later scholastics. tion of the subject of a proposition,
the accidents that exist in objects as usually indicated by some quantifying
in our perception of them and on term or symbol.
which the other accidents of quality NOTE - The divisions pertain to
depend. These primary qualities are sense 1.
all associated with extension: bulk, abstract quantity, quantity con­
figure, number, position, motion, rest, sidered apart from all sensible quali­
etc. ties; hence, mathematical quantity.
secondary quality, any sensible This may be continuous or discrete.
accident of an extended body that contiguous (adjacent) quantity,
stimulates sensations that differ from the quantity of distinct bodies which
the physical state of the accident, e.g., touch each other at some boundary.
color differs from seeing color, odor continuous quantity, the con­
from smelling. This sense is related nected quantity of a body whose in­
only to Locke's meaning of primary tegral parts form one being within
quality. common boundaries; unbroken ex­
REF. - Categories, ch. 8; Met., V, tension within a single natural body.
ch. 14; John Locke, An Essay Con­ dimensive quantity, the measur­
cerning Human Understanding, II, 8, able extension or the size of a body
23. because of its dimensions. This idea
quantify, v.t. to indicate plainly what of measurable extension may be ap­
the logical quantity or logical ex­ plied analogously to measuring time
tension of a principal term or symbol and change, which are a successive
is: as, all, each, and some are quan­ or mobile quantity.
tifiers. The term, sign, or symbol discrete quantity, the quantity of
used to declare the quantity is called distinct or separated bodies; number;
a quantifier. The determination by the multitude; an aggregate of bodies,
quantifier, as well as the analysis of each with its own complete boun­
the quantity of a proposition (or daries.
even of its predicate), is called quan­ finite quantity, a definite, measur­
t ifica t ion. able extension.
quantitative, adj. l. having to do infinite quantity, a n1,1mber, body,
quasi 256 question

aggregate of bodies, or space that has the substantial unity and intrinsic
no determinable limits and can be living form that an organism has. A
added to indefinitely. This is also re­ sovereign state and the universe are
ferred to as mathematical, negative, thus often described by scholastics as
or indefinite infinity. quasi-organic.
real quantity, an extended body quasi-public, adj. I. privately owned,
with sensible qualities. but rendering essential functions for
successive ( mobile) quantity, a the public good or having great bear­
group of bodies, set of numbers or ing on public well-being. 2. pertain­
figures, or a series of bodily changes ing to local or dependent govern­
whose component members follow one ments.
another in place, movement, time, or question, n. 1. a problem, topic, or
other serial arrangement. proposition under critical study for
virtual quantity: ( 1) some meas­ its truth or the precise formulation
urement of a quality by reference of its truth. 2. a point or element
to a directly measurable feature of in a topic that is challenged, debated,
it such as its rate of action, the or discussed. 3. a formal method of
number or size of its effects, its teaching used by the medieval schol­
comparative effect on some meter, astic philosophers and theologians in
etc.; hence, degree; intensity; which a topic selected by the master
amount: measuring knowledge, value, was presented and the objections,
ability, etc. ( 2) the capacity of im­ proofs, and answers to objections of
material things to be numbered be­ both students and master were heard.
cause they constitute a particular The method of the articles in St.
number of units or wholes. Thomas' Summa Theologiae is the
ABBR.-qt. method of the question, rather than
REF. - Cat., ch. 6; Met., V, ch. of the lecture, commentary, or essay.
13; XI, ch. 1 2; Physics, V, ch. 3; See scholastic METHOD. 4. an un­
S.T., I, 42, a. 1, ad 1. solved genuine doubt. See PROBLEM.
quasi, adv. as if; as it were; seem­ 5. an interrogative sentence.
ingly; nearly. begging the question: ( 1) a fal­
quasi (before noun), quasi- (before lacy in content that assumes a con­
adjective), combining form. seem­ clusion. Some of the ways of com­
ing; seemingly; in imitation of: as, mitting the fallacy are: assuming the
sophists are quasi philosophers. conclusion in the premises, e.g., by
quasi-integral, adj. resembling an in­ change of words; assuming a defini­
tegral (virtue) but not exactly fit­ tion or principle that must be proved;
ting the nature or definition of an assuming the particular case that is
integral. Thus, the sense of propriety needed to prove a universal proposi­
that perceives what is becoming be­ tion from which that case is deduced;
havior in varying circumstances is a assuming an hypothesis to be proved
quasi-integral virtue connected with with certainty; circular definitions;
temperance. substituting repetition, emphasis, su­
quasi genus, n. a class whose mem­ perlatives, and name-calling for
bers are not species because they proof; the vicious circle in proof.
have no univocal generic note. (2) loosely. ignoring or evading the
quasi-organic, adj. somewhat like an issue.
organism in structure and functions beside the question, not related
because it has specialized parts or to the precise problem or subject
members for specific functions and under discussion; irrelevant.
closely coordinates the activities of disputed question: (1) an un­
the parts for each other's good and settled or debated philosophical prob­
for the good of the whole, yet it lem; a proposition that is seriously
i� "Unlike an organism lm;irn�c it lacks affirmed and denied by opposing
qui a 257 quod quid erat esse

parties. (2) a work with the title *quid pro quo, Lat. phrase or sen·
Quaestio Disputata, q.v. tence. I. lit., "something for some­
fallacy of multiple (many) ques· thing." 2. one thing in return for or
tions: ( 1) the device of confusing, in payment for another thing. 3. in
ridiculing, or tricking an opponent by onerous contracts, the legal considera­
proposing at one time many questions tion or the just equivalent of the
in such a way that no single answer, rights or goods exchanged by the
yes or no, to the compound question contracting parties. Thus, in a con­
can be given that does not involve tract of sale, ten dollars may be the
more than one admission, and that quid paid for a pair of shoes, the
usually an undesirable and not con­ quo.
ceded one. (2) the device of masking *"Quidquid recipitur, recipitur per
many questions by stating a propo­ modum recipientis." Lat. sentence.
sition in such a way that it involves "Whatever is received is received
previous merely assumed answers. according to the mode of the re­
open question, one that is free ceiver." The dictum has a number
to be argued or contested, to be ac­ of variants. The mode refers to the
cepted, doubted, or rejected; an un­ kind of existence, nature, or capacity
settled, not yet answered problem. of the recipient. The receiver meas­
See main entry 4. ures and qualifies what is taken into
out of the question, impossible; itself. The best-known application oc­
already ruled to be not under con­ curs in the dictum that "the known
sideration. Philosophers also speak of is in the knower according to the
ethical, metaphysical, psychological, nature of the knower." See inten­
theological, and the like questions ac­ tional EXISTENCE.
cording to the general content. Ques­ quiescent, adj. see s.v. ATTRIBUTE.
tions are also distinguished as ques­ *quinque viae, Lat. phrase. lit., the
tions whether something is, or what five ways. The five proofs offered
it is, or why it is. by St. Thomas that God exists.
state of the question, an intro­ REF. - S.T., I, q. 2, a. 3.
ductory statement preceding proof quintessence, n. the fifth perfect ele­
and reputation, in which the termi­ ment, fully actualized, that was
nology, history of opinions and at­ thought to be the nature of the un­
tempted solutions, and the central changing heavenly bodies. See ETHER.
controverted issues are reviewed. *quo animo? Lat. phrase or sen·
ABBR.-q.; qq.; qu.; ques.; Q. tence. with what intention?; with
*quia, conjunction, Lat. I. because; what mind?
because of. 2. that. Sense 1 occurs *quod est, Lat. clause or phrase,
in the expression, a quia clause, i.e., see *m QUOD EST.
one that gives the reason in an en­ *quo est, Lat. phrase or clause, see
thymeme. Sense 2 occurs in the ex­ *ID QUO EST.
pression, a demonstration quia, i.e., *quo jure, Lat. phrase or sentence.
one that proves that something is so by what right?
(a fact) rather than why it is so; *quomodo (quo modo), Lat. inter·
also in the expression, a quia ques­ rogative, direct or indirect. how?
tion, a question of fact. in what manner?
quiddity, n. the essence; the answer *quod quid erat esse, Lat. phrase.
to the question, "Quid est?" - What It is a literal translation of a com­
is it?; the definition. The correspond­ plicated phrase of Aristotle. 1. usu­
ing adjective is quiddative, i.e., es­ ally. substance. 2. sometimes. mere
sential. essence.
 R
racialism, n. 1. a theory about natu­ formal objects of the same whole
ral or hereditary racial differences in thing. 2. a perfection of a thing but
human abilities, rights, biological regarded as an object of thought and
purity, etc. 2. feelings of racial an­ as really or mentally distinct from
tagonism, prejudice, discrimination, other perfections in it; a particular
superiority and inferiority, etc. feature or characteristic of an object
racism, n. 1. racialism in senses 1 or on which thought is focused. 3. the
2. 2. a practice or program of racial defining characteristic of a thing; the
discrimination, segregation, domina­ specific form; the specific difference:
tion, persecution, etc. based on racial as, ratio bani (of the good). This
theories or feelings. is referred to as ratio formalis. 4.
*raison d'etre, French phrase. rea­ the ground, reason, or fundamental
son for being or existing. knowable feature of a thing; hence,
ramification, n. the result of dividing form. Some translations of Aristotle
or spreading out into branches; hence, seem to use ratio in this sense. 5.
subdivisions, consequences, complex a purpose or reason put into things;
results. ontological truth. 6. the objective
range, n. 1. the full extent (in space, meaning in a thing; an objective
time, or objects) across which some­ explanation: as, sufficient reason
thing moves, on which it acts or can (ratio; raison d'etre). 7. the known
act, to which it applies, about which meaning of some name. 8. the for­
it is understood; scope. It is some­ mal perspective or light under which
times used as a synonym for the a science considers its subject; for­
material object of a power, habit, mal object quo; medium sub quo.
science, etc. 2. the limits of possible ratiocination, n. 1. the ability to
variations of amount, degree, etc.: reason. 2. an act of reasoning, esp.
as, the range of just prices; the range if conformed to logical rules.
of levels of life. ratiocinative, adj. clearly exhibiting
*ratio, Lat. n. lit., reason. This Latin the use of reason. Thus, St. Thomas
word occurs often in St. Thomas calls natural sciences ratiocinative.
and other writers in a somewhat be­ rational, adj. 1. possessing or using
wildering variety of meanings. It re­ reason. 2. based on or attained by
fers to reason itself, to the object the use of reason. 3. showing by its
attained by reason, and to the in­ activity that reason is present or
fluence exerted on reason. I. the for­ trained. 4. conformed to right reason;
mal object in the thing that the judicious; reasonable. 5. conceivab!e;
mind is actually considering; the not contradictory. 6. belonging to hu­
essence, nature, form, or note of man (i.e., rational) nature.
a thing as intelligible; the notion or rational nature, see HUMAN na­
thing known; the common formality ture.
to which the mental intention is di­ rational by essence, reason itself.
rected; the objective concept. Some­ rational by participation, belong­
times, the word intelligibility is used ing to a rational being and control­
to describe this aspect of the known. lable by reason. This is said chiefly
As the same real thing may have of man's appetites, sensory or intel­
many formal objects, it may have lectual, and their acts.
many rationes or intelligibilities. A rationale, n. the reasons or principles
ratio, however, may be only a being that explain some position, attitude,
of reason or a logical relation between policy, etc.

258
rationalism 259 realism

rationalism, n. any one of the views *rationes seminales, Lat. phrase

that attribute excessive importance to from St. Augustine. seminal PRINCI­
human reason, e.g., (a) that reason PLES in bodies, q.v.
is self-sufficient to know all things re-, prefix, meaning. I. back: as, re­
and need not be helped by revela­ duce, reflect, repay, restitution, re­
tion from God; indeed, revelation is store, return. 2. again; anew: as, re­
unworthy of man; ( b) that a priori arrange, recur, repetition, resume.
reason, independently of sensory ex­ real, adj. I. actual; objectively exist­
perience and intellectual intuition and ing or existing in a whole thing;
verification of facts, can give certain existing; happening in fact. The same
knowledge of everything; hence, ex­ problems of what to include and
perience, history, feeling, taste, and exclude in the real occur here as
the voluntary life of man are unim­ in regard to being. See BEING. 2.
portant; mathematics is ideal as hu­ based on fact; founded on things
man knowledge; (c ) that all author­ themselves; present in or between
ity in matters of truth is subject to things: as, real multitude, real differ­
the scrutiny and approval of reason, ences. 3. the objective, excluding the
without any duty of obedience or intentional real. 4. the material; the
reverence for the authority. Some­ sensibly real. This would be a rare
times rationalism also means intel­ use among scholastics.
lectual criticism of myths, religious the real, reality; anything exist­
superstitions, and unscientific views of ing; everything existing, viz., the uni­
physical nature and of human origins. verse or God and the universe.
The philosophers of the Age of En­ realism, n. any variant of the philo­
lightenment are specially known as sophical position that (a) accepts the
rationalists. existence of things prior to and inde­
rationality, n. I. the fact of having pendent of human knowledge; ( b)
or using reason. 2. reason as a faculty the knowability of extramental ob­
of man. 3. reasonableness of an opin­ jects; and (c ) the need of conform­
ion, suggestion, decision, command. ing human thought and conduct to
rationalize, v.t. I. to make rational; objective standards. See theory of
to make conform to reason. 2. to
KNOWLEDGE, ULTRAREALISM.
explain on rational grounds. Thus,
critical realism, the position,
early Greek philosophy rationalized
chiefly of the Louvain school, admit­
theological doctrines in primitive
ting that real beings exist in a uni­
myths. 3. to attempt to make some­
verse independent of the mind and
thing seem rational. 4. hence, in
that men know such beings, but
logic: to find premises for conclusions
claiming that man must establish
that we have already accepted. 5. t.
these truths by some principles or
and i., psychology. to devise plausi­
truths prior to the truth of the exis­
ble explanations or excuses for one's
tent. In other words, the philosopher
beliefs, errors, desires, choices, pur­
must begin in the mind, not with
chases, etc., usually without being
beings. Maritain uses critical realism
aware that the reasons given are not
in a wider sense as opposed to naive
one's actual motives. 6. to apply
realism.
modern methods of division of labor
and of efficiency to production of
immediate (direct; metaphysi­
goods, crops, etc. in volume. See
cal) realism, the position of St.
CAPITALISM.
Thomas and the Toronto school that
NoTE - Rationalization is not to be
the philosopher does and must begin
confused with ratiocination. with beings themselves and the first
*rationes aeternae, Lat. phrase. lit., truths about beings, independently of
"eternal reasons." I. the divine ideas. any critique of knowledge. Hence,
2. eternal truths. the first truth is that "being is"
reality 260 reason

rather than some such truth as "I ture." This meaning is referred to in
am thinking." the phrase, "reason as nature." See
moderate realism: (1) (in re­ RATIONAL by essence. 5. the basis,
gard to knowledge of universals), the evidence, premise, or causal clause
epistemological view that man's direct presented for any conclusion; the
universal concepts ordinarily repre­ motive of assent; esp. a solid or
sent natures that are objectively real sound ground for a judgment. 6. the
and in some way fit to be represented explanation offered for some name,
as universal by the mind's activity, being, or action. 7. the motive or
though these natures in themselves final cause for some decision or ac­
exist only as individuals. Hence, it tion. 8. the standard of morality. See
is a middle (moderate) position be­ RIGHT REASON, below, sense 3.

tween ultrarealism and nominalism. being of reason, see BEING.

(2) (on origin and objects of knowl­ distinction of reason, see DIS.­
edge), the epistemological view that TINCTION.

all human knowledge originates from divine reason or reasons: ( 1) the

sense and sensory contact with the exemplary idea or ideas in the divine
real, that things are the measure of intelligence. (2) some part of the
the truth of knowledge, that sensory divine plan for creatures. (3) the
experience is not the only way of good for whose sake God wills or
knowing and the sensed are not the permits some event. See RATIONES
only types of real things, and that AETERNAE.

intellectual knowledge is different extrinsic reason, the worth of an

from and superior to sense and authoritative opinion for some judg­
feeling. ment: distinguished from intrinsic
NoTE- J. Wild distinguishes logi­ reason which comes from the known
cal realism (intentional logic), meta­ facts, from the nature of the object,
physical realism, epistemological real­ or from the understood principle. See
ism, and ethical realism in "What Is EVIDENCE; FAITH.
Realism?" Journal of Philosophy, higher reason, the intellect when
XLIV (1949), 148-158. considering divine, spiritual, and eter­
reality, n. 1. the fact or state of be­ nal things.
ing real. 2. real things; the actual. lower reason, the intellect when
Both the objective and the inten­ considering material and temporal
tional may be included. 3. all exis­ things.
tents, but considered only as real, participating in reason, somewhat
not as unified or related to each other. like, benefited and directed by, or
NOTE- Some Scotist writers dis­ associated with reason.
tinguish realitas from res; realitas be­ particular reason, the cogitative
longs to a thing but is not the thing. SENSE.
reason, n. 1. the act of drawing con­ practical reason, the practical in­
clusions from other judgments; dis­ tellect. There is also a special Kantian
cursive thinking; proving or attempt­ sense much used by philosophers.
ing to prove. As the typical mode of See J. Collins, Modern European Phi­
human knowing, it is referred to as losophy, p. 517, note 3.
"reason as reason." Popular usage reasons of the heart, see HEART.
seems, however, to include judging, reasons of state, see STATE.
analyzing, and rationally explaining right reason: (1) reason that is
acts of reason or reasoning. 2. the objectively controlled by and func­
power of reasoning; the intellect con­ tions according to the objective meas­
sidered in its reasoning function. 3. ure of truth or of human conduct.
a name for the intellect itself. 4. (2) hence, reason conformed to ob­
a name for the entire rational nature jective evidence. (3) reason direct­
of man: as, "Reason is man's na- ing man according to his true end;
reason 261 recognition

practical wisdom; prudence; con­ ques, XXIII (1934), 221-240. Robert

science. The exact understanding of Hooper in Right Reason in the Eng­
right reason as a norm of morality glish Renaissance calls attention to
in Aristotle and St. Thomas is much these meanings of reason: a mode of
disputed. (4) what is just; what is knowing (concept), power of know­
morally good. ( 5) rational nature ing, a way of doing (moral princi­
taken completely and rightly known ple), and a condition of being.
for what it truly is. reasoning, n. 1. the act of drawing
speculative reason, the specula­ new judgments from other judg­
tive intellect. ments; discursive thinking. See chart
seminal reasons, see seminal PRIN­ on INFERENCES. Many different terms
CIPLES: distinguished from eternal describe this third operation of the
reasons and opposed to potency. mind. 2. the proofs or reasons offered
sufficient reason, the complete and for the new judgments drawn. 3. the
necessary objective explanation of integral part of prudence that readily
something; the full intelligibility of draws a right practical conclusion
accounting for something. Sometimes from the assembled information, past
it means proportionate cause or some experience, and the probabilities of a
other basic explanatory principle - situation.
thus, probably, in the reference to rebut, v.t. 1. to present carefully
it in Pope Pius XII's (1876-1958) drawn arguments against a position
Humani Generis. The Leibnitzian or thesis; contradict; disprove. 2. to
sense is rare in modern scholasticism. answer a dilemma with a counter-di­
the principle of sufficient rea­ lemma whose conclusion is opposed
son: "Everything has a sufficient to the conclusion of the original
reason." This principle was intro­ dilemma.
duced formally by G. Leibnitz and receive, v.t. 1. to be acted upon by
often has been· understood in a ra­ another and get a form in real or
tionalist and necessitarian sense, as intentional change. See PATIENT; UN­
by C. Wolff and Kant. It may, how­ DERGO. 2. to know; learn; apprehend
ever, be understood in an acceptable mentally; be informed by the im­
scholastic sense as including the prin­ pressed species. 3. to take possession
ciple of intelligibility of being, of of property given, bequeathed, or
causality and proper causality, and some way transferred by another.
of evidence. Thus, it is cognate to principle, see *QUIDQUID RECIPI­
the modern scientific canon of com­ TUR.
plete explanation. Its ontological for­ receiver, n. 1. a person, subject, po­
mula may be stated: "Every being tency, or receptacle that receives. 2.
has a sufficient reason for its being the recipient; determinable principle
and every attribute and relation of in change; the passive potency being
its being." Its logical formula is: modified; the patient, sense 1.
"Every statement should have rea­ receptor, n. 1. a receiver. 2. a sense
sonable evidence." organ or one of its nerve endings
supernaturally illumined reason, that responds to special stimuli that
intellect or human knowledge aided affect it.
by faith or other supernatural gifts. recognition, n. 1. the act of memory,
This phrase in some texts means the sensory or intellectual, that knows
Augustinian illumination. again or identifies anything previ­
REF.-N. Eth., VI, ch. 1, 5; S.T., ously known. 2. the mental function
I, q. 79, aa. 8-9; I-II, q. 15, a. 4; of identification of the past. In Eng­
II-II, q. 153; Truth, q. 15, a. 2; lish, recognition often implies delib­
J. Peghaire, lntellectus et Ratio Seton erate effort to revive a memory. 3.
S. Thomas d'Aquin; id., Revue des perception and identification, as by
Sciences Philosophiques et Theologi- some particular detail. 4. acceptance
recollection 262 reductionism

or admission of facts. 5. acknowl­ premises to show that this leads to

edgment of the rights, claims, legal a conclusion that contradicts an as­
existence and standing, office, etc. of sumed true premise of the original.
another. 6. formal glory given to 5. to check thoroughly the truth of
another. 7. admission of or credence a conclusion by tracing back all its
given to the authority of another's premises to immediately evident judg­
statement, document, etc. ments; to trace judgments back to
REF. - Aristotle, On Memory and their origins. This is called reduction
Reminiscence, ch. 2. to first principles, for these are the
recollection, n. calling back to mind; basic or ultimate terms in a reason­
deliberate revival of a memory; ing process. 6. to classify or bring
reminiscence. within a logical scheme: as, the
rectify, v.t. to put or set right; cor­ part is reduced to the type to which
rect; amend; turn in the right direc­ the whole belongs; substantial change
tion. Grace is often said to rectify is reduced to the category of sub­
reason. It gives it rightness by turn­ stance, though change is not sub­
ing it toward truth and depths of stance. 7. to trace physical things,
insight that the mind, uncured of states, order, etc. back to their ori­
original sin, would fail to reach. gins. 8. to educe; develop a form
rectitude, n. I. rightness in knowing from a potency. Reduction seems to
or reasoning; conformity to standards be an inaccurate usage for eduction.
and rules of thought, of art, of 9. to deprive a subject of a form;
method, etc. 2. right living; conduct to let a form return to potency in
conformed to moral principles and matter.
leading man to his true ultimate end. *reductio ad absurdum (ad impos·
Some, however, distinguish rectitude sible), Lat. phrase. a logical opera­
from goodness or virtue. Rectitude tion that either (a) proves a proposi­
alone merely declares conformity to tion by showing that its opposite is
law or custom; it is limited to the foolish or contradictory, or ( b) dis­
legally just. proves a proposition by showing that
reduce, v.t. lit., "to lead back or bring its logical consequences are foolish,
down (to its elements) in some way." impossible, or unacceptable to the
I. to lessen or lower in some way; person who proposed the original
to make smaller, simpler, or clearer. proposition.
2. to break up into simpler constitu­ REF.-Prior Analytics, II, 17.
ent elements. This sense applies to reductionism, n. any method of ex­
mental analysis as well as to physical plaining or eliminating complex is­
decomposition. 3. to change to a sues by simplifying problems, finding
different bodily form, especially to common elements in diverse data,
a simpler form or more readily meas­ breaking down complex activities or
ured figure. 4. to change the logical motions into equivalent simpler
form, especially into a simpler or classes or more elementary forms,
clearer one. Thus, a conjunctive prop­ denying distinctions, denying difficult
osition is reduced to a conditional aspects of phenomena, etc. An illicit
one. A syllogism in the later figures use of reductionism misapplies the
is reduced (a) to the first figure principle of economy, e.g., by ignor­
directly, by converting propositions ing data, denying irreducible differ­
or transposing the order of premises ences, pretending dissimilar problems
in the original syllogism; ( b) indi­ are identical, etc. It is sometimes
rectly (as a test of the validity of referred to as the fallacy of "nothing
the original mood), by contradicting but." Of many examples of this un­
the conclusion of the original syl­ due simplification, we find all human
logism and using this as a premise cognitive activity reduced to sensa­
together with one of the original tion; life reduced to purely bio-
reduplicate 263 refutation

chemical categories; Darwin's reduc­ itself. 2. fixed earnest attention on

tion of all man's higher powers and some subject; serious thought.
higher activities (e.g., choice and ontological reflection, the consid­
moral purpose) to quantitative differ­ eration of the object or being that
ences from primate instinct; Marxist is known inasmuch as it is known,
reduction of all motivation to the not inasmuch as it is.
economic; logical positivists' ruling psychological reflection, the con­
out the question of God's existence sideration of the acts or states of
as meaningless since God is not ex­ the self or of the psychic character­
perienced; G. E. Moore's charge of istics of one's experience.
"the naturalistic fallacy" committed self-reflection, mental attention to
by ethicians who reduce moral good the self as perceived in past or pres­
to the useful or pleasant good. ent experience.
reduplicate, v.t. to double; repeat ABBR. -refl.
the meaning of another term in an REF. -S.T., I, q. 87; J. Webert,
added term. Specification, by con­ O.P., " 'Reflexio.' Etudes sur Jes
trast, declares the special meaning operations reflexive clans la psycholo­
among many that a term has or the gie de saint Thomas d'Aquin," Me­
aspect under which a term is used, langes Mandonnet, I, 285-325.
e.g., "reason as nature" specifies; reflex, adj. 1. turned or bent back.
"man inasmuch as he is rational can 2. turned or bent back on itself;
think" is a reduplication. reflective; self-reflective; self-reflect­
reference, n. 1. relation; regard. 2. ing. 3. hence, second or secondary to
directing the attention to a person, an act immediately knowing an ob­
thing, book, passage in it, etc. 3. ject; pertaining to an object or an act
the work or passage indicated by a of one's powers in its status as a sec­
referring direction. 4. the sign, mark, ond intention: as, a reflex universal
abbreviation, footnote number, etc., concept: a reflex judgment criticizing
which indicates the book, article, pas­ one's prior assent. 4. naming or be­
sage mentioned or recommended, etc. longing to an involuntary muscular
ABBR.-ref. reaction to stimulation of the nerves.
The name is extended from the
referend, n. the second tenn of a
physiological involuntary response to
relation; the object signified by a
the psychological awareness that ac­
sign or symbol.
companies this. An unconditional re­
referent, n. 1. the first term or sub­
flex is unlearned or instinctive; a
ject of a relation. 2. the sign, symbol,
conditioned (conditional) reflex re­
etc., referring to a signified object
sults from training or association.
or concept.
ABBR. - refl.
refine, v.t. to purify; free from im­ reflexive, adj. using reflection or psy­
perfections; remove in purifying. See chological introspection; beginning
WAY of negation. the study of man from data gathered
refine on (upon): (1) to improve. by self-reflection; studying man as a
(2) qualify more exactly. (3) perfect spiritual and interior subject rather
an analysis. than as a thing or object. The re­
reflection (reflexion), n. the literal flexive method is distinguished from
meaning, bending back (on itself), behavioristic, purely experimental, a
largely explains the use of words in priori, etc.
this family. 1. the mind's attention ABBR. - refl.
to itself or to the thinker's conscious refutation, n. 1. the act of proving a
acts as the object of attention; the statement or argument to be false
intellect looking at itself or at its or invalid; reasoning involving the
own person and personal acts; the contradictory of a proposed conclu­
cognitive act of a power present to sion; careful disproof. 2. the reasons
regress 264 relation

or evidence supporting the disproof. logical relation, a reference of

direct refutation, proof of the one to another (a) when one or both
opposite conclusion, major, or minor, terms are not existing, or ( b) the
thereby showing the opposite to be terms are not really distinct: as, the
simply false. relation of identity, or (c) the foun­
indirect refutation, attacking a dation of the relation is only mental,
proposition by pointing out its gra­ not real; hence, a relation of a re­
tuitous assumptions, its premises lation. It is called a relation of reason
obtained from an unreliable source, because it is not in the subject as
or its unsatisfactory logical conse­ a relation of it but it is put there
quences. by the mind; also called relationes
sophistical refutation, a fallacy secundum intentionem et non secun­
(taken from the title and first chap­ dum esse.
ter of Aristotle's Sophistical Refuta­ mixed relation, a relation that is
tions). real when one term is considered as
regress (regression), n. a going back; the subject of the relation but only
backward movement; return. logical when the correlative term is
infinite regress, the attempt to go regarded as the subject; as, the mixed
back without end in a series of prem­ relation between knower and thing
ises or in a line of causes. known is real on the part of the
reify, v.t. to think and speak about knower who really becomes different
what is not a being or a whole as by knowing, but logical on the part of
though it were a being or a whole. the known which remains really the
Instances include: thinking of a be­ same before and after being known.
ing of reason as real; of an abstrac­ moral relation, a bond or order
tion as a concrete singular thing; of between moral beings: as, the rela­
humanity as a singular person; of an tion of A's right to life and B's duty
accident as a substance; of a part or to A's life.
coprinciple as a whole or suppositum.
mutual relation, one that is al­
relata, n. pl. (relatum, sing.). the
together real or altogether logical
related; the extremes of a relation.
whichever term is treated as its sub­
relation, n. the reference of one thing
ject. A mutual relation should not be
to another; the referring of a thing
confused with an equal relation (re­
or term to something else; the order
lation of the same denomination or
(connection, regard, respect, bearing)
name) : as, brother and sister both
of one to (with, on, upon) another;
have the equal relation of child to
the accident whose being consists en­
their parents.
tirely in its reference. As an accident,
necessary relation: ( 1) a tran­
it is more exactly referred to by the
scendental relation. ( 2) an internal
adjectival term, the relative. See
relation.
chart on CATEGORIES.
nonmutual rel ation: ( 1) a mixed
external relation: ( 1) modern
metaphysical usage. a relation that relation. ( 2) a nonreciprocal relation;
relation of inequality.
does not belong to or necessarily fol­
low from a thing's nature. (2) politi­ predicamental (contingent) rela­
cal philosophy. pl., international re­ tion, a reference to another that may
lations. be present in or absent from a being
intentional relation, the relation or an essence without internally
of knower to known. changing the being or essence; a rela­
internal relation: (1) a relation tion added to a thing that already is
required by a thing's nature. (2) a completely constituted. Predicamental
relation within a being, as between relations are the true category of real
its parts or between its structure and relation. Logical relations are reduced
functioning. to the category. Transcendental rela-
relative 265 religion

tions are not in the category even by as, dependent upon another; condi­
reduction. tioned by another; coexisting with an­
real relation, a reference of one other; limited by another; etc. See
real thing or principle to another also relative OPPOSITION. 3. impossible
really distinct from it because of an or unintelligible except as referring to
objective foundation or ground in the or referred to something else. 4. con­
subject; a relation existing between sidered in its reference to something
things independently of the mind else rather than absolutely in itself;
knowing the relation. St. Thomas' considered precisely in comparison
texts refer to these as relations with another.
secundum esse. relative to: ( 1) relevant to; con­
relation of reason, logical relation. cerning; about. (2) corresponding to;
relation *secundum dici, some­ proportionate to.
thing absolute that is said to be re­ relativism, n. 1. epistemology. the
lated to something else because a real view that all knowledge entirely de­
or logical relation is added to it. pends on and varies with the limited
transcendental (necessary) rela­ ability of each knower and his con­
tion, a connection between one thing ditions of knowing; hence, the denial
and another that is so necessary to of any absolute truth and certitude
the subject that it cannot be without common to all normally intelligent
that relation; hence, it is either identi­ men. See POSITIVISM. 2. ethics. the
fied with its whole essence, is a con­ view that no moral acts and objects
dition of its being, or necessarily fol­ are intrinsically good or evil but that
lows its being and essence so that loss all moral matters depend altogether
of this relation would imply the on variable conditions such as the
destruction of that being or essence: free will of God, customs and conven­
as, the dependence of creature on tions, positive laws, degree of culture,
the Creator is a transcendental re­ social approval and disapproval, and
lation. This usage, at least as old as each individual's existential situation;
John of St. Thomas (1589-1644), hence, a denial of intrinsic morality
is sometimes regarded as a misnomer and of the immutability of principles
and not as a true relation. of the natural law. See SITUATION
principle (of specification): The ETHICS; VOLUNTARISM; POSITIVISM,
relative is specified by the absolute senses 3 and 4.
or by its term. relevant, adj. bearing upon or relat­
ABBR. - rel
. ing to the question, issue, or topic
REF.- Cat., ch. 7; Met., V, presented; pertinent; applicable;
Ch. 15; S.T., I, q. 28; Power of truly connected with; to the point.
God, q. 7, aa. 9, 11; A. Krempel, religion, n. 1. objective religion. the
La Doctrine de la Relation chez sum of truths and duties binding man
Saint Thomas, esp. the early histori­ to God. In the higher religions, this
cal part; F. A. Blanche, O.P., "Les sum includes creed, cult, and code. 2.
mots significant la relation dans la personal religion. one's own beliefs
langue de saint Thomas d'Aquin,'' about God and in God's teaching, and
Revue de Philosophie (Louvain), one's acts of honor and obedience to
XXXII (1952), 363-388. God. 3. virtue of religion. the con­
relative, adj. 1. referring to or re­ stant will to give to God the worship
ferreq to another in some way; look­ that is due to Him. See chart on
ing toward another; the accident of VIRTUES. As the due (debt) is part
relation named properly and adjec­ of its formal object, it is a potential
tivally as belonging to the referred virtue in the group of justice; as it
subject as it is ordered to another; concerns the means rather than God
connected with another. 2. hence, re­ as its immediate end, it is a moral,
ferred to another in specified ways: not a theological, virtue. In sense 2,
religion 266 represent

religion is one of the so-called gen­ personal and liturgical relations with
eral virtues. God.
direct (formal) religion, any act ABBR.-rel.
of immediate honor to God. Indirect REF. - S.T., II-II, q. 81; C.G.,
religion indirectly honors God by do­ III, ch. 119.
ing our duties to creatures because reminiscence, n. recollection.
God so commands us. remotion, n. the intellectual act of
history of religions, see HISTORY. knowing incorporeal substances in this
natural religion: ( 1) the body of life (a) by mentally removing matter
truths and duties about God and from them or ( b) denying identity
man's relations to God that are or can with or likeness to material creatures
be known by natural reason. Such or to any creature. See negative
knowledge formally excludes super­ JUDGMENT.
natural revelation in source or con­ remotion (removal), way of, the
tent; the duties are natural-law duties. negative way of knowing God's na­
( 2) the practice of the natural virtue ture and attributes. See WAY.
of religion. REF. - John Henry Car­ *removens prohibens, Lat. phrase.
dinal Newman, An Essay in Aid of a removing an obstacle; making causal
Grammar of Assent, ch. 10. action possible or moral action valid
philosophy of religion, reasoned by taking away an impediment to ac­
knowledge of the origin, nature, ob­ tion; opening the way for action or
jects, purpose, and values of religious valid action. The situation is usually
knowledge and practice. This subject regarded as a condition, q.v.
matter includes materials from the *reportatio, n., Lat. in the medieval
philosophy of man, theory of knowl­ schools, a student's copy of the origi­
edge, natural theology, ethics, the nal lecture of a bachelor or master.
histories of religion, and the psychol­ A reportatio examinata or magna is a
ogy of religious experiences. The version checked by the lecturer him­
philosophical study of religion can, self. An ordinatio is a finished draft
then, also include the rational investi­ revised or arranged by the lecturer
gation of the possibilities of revealed himself. These titles appear in me­
religion; in this way it resembles dieval works and manuscripts. Thus,
apologetics. It seems to be misde­ Duns Scotus' Opus Parisiense is also
fined in some circles as reasoned in­ called Reportata Parisiensis, but his
terpretation and evaluation of re­ Opus Oxoniense is called Ordinatio.
ligion, even of supernatural religion. represent, v.t. Note the general mean­
practical religion: ( 1) the prac­ ings of being present, or of making
tice of religion; acts of formal re­ present, again or in a second way. 1.
ligion such as prayer, sacrifice, oaths, to present to the mind; put before
religious festivities, etc. ( 2) man's the mind. 2. to be a physical or in­
duties to God; the observance of the tentional likeness of another; to show
natural law. ( 3) the effects of religion a likeness to the original. 3. to pre­
in bettering one's personal life and sent in words; to state a case in an
one's dealings with others. effective manner. 4. to be a sign or
revealed (supernatural) religion, symbol for; stand for; denote. 5.
the objective body of truths, forms to be the analogous equivalent of;
of worship, duties, and religious in­ correspond to. 6. to produce or per­
stitutions or organization given to form a play; to play a part; im­
men by God through special signs personate (a character). 7. to take
and means that are outside of and the place of and act for another; be
better than the order of nature. the present substitute or agent for
subjective (personal) religion, another in virtue of duly conferred
personal religious belief and practice �uthority. 8. to serve as an example,
(whether true or false); one's inter- mstance, or type of.
representation 267 resolution

representation, n. 1. in general. a rescind, v.t. I. to change a law by

likeness of one to another that gives repealing it. 2. to revoke an order.
the other a sort of second presence; a 3. to cancel a contract. 4. to declare
copy, imitation, resemblance, repro­ an agreement, contract, law, treaty,
duction of another. 2. an act or in­ etc. invalid.
stance of representing. 3. what is resemblance, n. I. similarity, esp. in
represented; the state, fact, or man­ external characteristics; a state of
ner in which something is represented likeness. 2. something that is like
(in any of the forms of representa­ another. See LIKENESS.
tion). 4. the act of forming a likeness principles on resemblance: ( 1)
of an object in a knowing power. 5. Every effect is in some degree like to
a cognitive (intentional) likeness of its cause. (2) Everything that par­
an object in the senses or in the in­ ticipates in perfection is in some de­
tellect. See SPECIES. 6. presentation of gree like the original. (3) The copy
a retained image to the memory. 7. is true in the measure that it imitates
a statement of facts, claims, argu­ the original or the maker's exemplary
ments, contractual inducements, rea­ idea of it.
sons for protesting, etc. 8. the right reservation, n. 1. an act of holding
to act as a substitute or authorized something back; withholding of a
agent of another person or of a group. right, full or clear meaning, intention
9. a body of representatives who act of an agent, etc. 2. a qualification or
or speak for others; a delegation. limiting condition attached, e.g., to a
representationism, n. See PRESENTA­ contractual assent.
TION, end of the entry. mental reservation, deliberate use
republic, n. 1. a constitutional system of a form of words or other signs
in which the electorate holds supreme in which the speaker or writer does
power and exercises it by its elected not externally express his full mean­
representatives who are responsible to ing but holds back in mind some part
the electorate. 2. a state with such a of his meaning so that the statement
form of government. 3. a state with remains ambiguous. Broad mental
a president rather than a monarch as reservation is used of an ambiguous
its executive head. conventional expression that reveals
"(The) Republic," a dialogue of one's mind if properly interpreted but
Plato on justice, the ideal state, the that does not of itself clearly imply
rule by philosophers, etc. It contains only one definite meaning. Strict
the famous myth of the cave. mental reservation uses an expression
requisite, adj. needed for some pur­ that totally conceals the meaning
pose; indispensable; essential in itself while pretending to reveal the mind.
or in the given circumstances; de­ See LIE; TRUTHFULNESS.
manded physically, morally, legally, resist, v.t. 1. to withstand; oppose;
or logically. hold off; stand firm against. 2. to
*res, Lat., n. essence, understood as fight, argue, or work against; use
one of the transcendentals; thing. some force against. 3. civilly re­
*res et modus, Lat. phrase. I. lit., sist. to oppose by using only legal
"the thing and its mode." See MODE means. 4. passively resist. simply not
AND DICTUM. 2. usually. the perfec­ to comply with a law and take the
tion attributed and the way in which consequences. 5. to keep from yield­
it is predicated: as, God has knowl­ ing, consenting to, cooperating, en­
edge (res) by identity with His es­ joying, etc.: as, we must resist recog­
sence, infinitely, independently (mo­ nized temptations.
dus); a predicate and the way it is resolution, n. 1. the act or process
predicated. 3. substance and its acci­ of breaking something down into its
dents and degree of perfection. 4. constituents or simpler elements, e.g.
genus and its specific difference. by natural decay, by chemical dis-
resonance, bodily 268 retorqueo

solution. 2. the mental process of joint (*in solidum) responsibil·

analysis. 3. the analytic method. See ity, accountability together with co­
ANALYSIS, sense 5. 4. removing a operators; legal (civil): to police and
doubt; explaining or solving a ques­ courts with reference to civil law;
tion; answering a problem step by moral: to one's conscience, esp. in
step; settling a dispute or legal ac­ regard to natural-law precepts; penal:
tion. 5. firm determination; strong to repair harm done to the common
purpose for the future. good according to the measure and
reasoning by resolution, reason­ form determined by law; religious:
ing from effects to causes; a posteriori to God. ·
reasoning. rest, n. absence of motion, especially
resolution to first causes, reduc­ of apparent local motion; inactivity;
tion, q.v. an unchanging condition of a body.
ABBR.-res. See NATURE, sense 3.
resonance, bodily, phrase. the phys­ restitution, n. 1. a giving back to
iological changes accompanying emo­ the rightful owner of something be­
tional states, as of anger or fear; longing to him. 2. the duty, binding
passible qualities in the animal or in justice, to make full repayment
human organism during emotional for deliberate injustice or damage
changes. done to another in matters of com­
respect, n. 1. an act or feeling of mutative justice. It is disputed
honor to another; courteous regard; whether restitution as such is due
revering another. 2. the virtue of for the other types of injustice. 3.
observance; respectfulness. 3. a par­ the repayment made or to be made to
ticular point, detail, intelligibility, or the rightful owner for his violated
ratio. 4. a relation. rights; reparation for loss or injury
*Respondeo. Dicendum quod, Lat. inflicted.
expression. lit., "I answer. It must restrain, v.t. 1. to hold back from
be said that. . . ." Simply: " I an­ action; prevent or suppress, especially
swer. . . ." This is the technical by use of force or legal threat of
signal that introduces the corpus of penalty. Restraint differs from con­
each article in St. Thomas' Summa straint, which compels one to act. 2.
Theologiae and in the Disputed Ques­ to keep under control. See SELF-CON­
tions. TROL. 3. to deprive of physical lib­
response, n. 1. something said or done erty; confine; bind.
in answer to something else. 2. the restriction, n. 1. a qualification; limi­
philosophical discussion of a question tation; confinement; narrowing and
that has been raised. 3. the philosophi­ thereby controlling. 2. a mental res­
cal answer to an objection, authori­ ervation. 3. a limiting or withdrawing
tative opinion, misunderstanding, etc. of the exercise of some right or
that has been offered against a posi­ privilege.
tion or conclusion. 4. an official re­ result, n. the effect, esp. the last ef­
ply to an inquiry on some doubt of fect; the end obtained; the activity
law or of practice. 5. the reaction of performed or the good produced.
the organism to a stimulus. retention, n. 1. keeping or holding in
responsibility, n. 1. the duty and possession. 2. helping another by
right of a person to be answerable keeping his goods for him. 3. the
to someone or some authority for function of memory in storing past
his free acts and their consequences. images, experiences, etc.
Note that an agent is responsible; *retorqueo, Lat. v. lit., "I retort."
his acts are chargeable or imputable. This expression introduces a refuta­
2. the particular act, task, person, tion to a criticism of a position or
or object for which one must give argument that one has already ex­
an account; one's duty. plained or proved.
retort 269 right

retort, n. 1. a witty answer that turns and Plato, rhetoric has often inter­
the words of the opponent back upon ested philosophers because its falla­
himself. 2. answering a dilemma by cies present logical problems and its
drawing from it a conclusion opposite study of the emotions and motiva­
to what the opponent had drawn. tions of men, alone or in groups,
return to God, phrase. See ASCENT, suggests psychological, ethical, and
sense 3. political problems. 2. the portion of
return to self, phrase. to tum atten­ material logic that generates suspicion
tion from the object of thought to of the truth rather than certainty or
the self; to look at the self as an probability of conclusions; presenta­
object of one's thought; to intro­ tion of merely persuasive reasons.
spect; to enter into the self. See ABBR. - rhet.
REFLECTION. REF. - Plato, Sophist; Aristotle,
revelation, n. 1. the act of making Rhetoric; Sophistical Refutations.
hidden or secret truth known. 2. the right, ad;. 1. directed to the true end;
manner, method, and means of mak­ hence, good; proper; virtuous; pru­
ing the unknown known. 3. the truths, dent. 2. directed to a desired end;
secrets, objects, etc., that are shown, hence, useful; opportune; correct. 3.
declared, shared, or displayed. in accordance with fact or evidence;
divine revelation: (1) God's re­ hence, true. 4. conforming to rules
vealing act. (2) truth revealed about or standards; hence, orderly; regular;
God or His will for man. Divine logically sound. 5. leading to success:
revelation is natural in manner or ob­ as, right order in nature.
jects when human reason using natu­ right, n. 1. subjective right. the in­
ral means and natural evidence has violable power to do, hold, or claim
truths shown to it; for nature is something as one's own. 2. objective
God's instrument and somewhat right. the just thing; the due good;
manifests His mind. The revelation the object over which a person has
is supernatural (a) in content, if an inviolable moral power. 3. broadly.
the truths made known by God justice; moral goodness; legally al­
are in themselves mysterious and lowed conduct; equity. 4. the obligat­
not knowable at all or not know­ ory good; the good as the object of
able with certainty by human reason law: distinguished from good as the
using only natural evidence, and (b) object of choice, of love, as self­
in manner, if God uses special intel­ perfecting, etc.
lectual signs and special messengers ANT. -injustice; evil; wrong.
to declare supernatural or natural The divisions pertain to sense 1
truths. or to sense 2 by denomination.
REF,-J. De Ghellinck, "Pour acquired right, a natural or posi­
l'histoire du mot revelare," Recher­ tive right obtained from a source
ches de Science Religieuse, VI (1916), other than the simple fact of possess­
149-157. ing human nature.
reverence, n. 1. the act of giving alienable right, one whose object
deserved interior and exterior honor may lawfully be given up or ex­
to those who excel us. 2. the habit of changed.
so honoring others. Reverence may coactive right, a perfect right.
not be a special virtue, allied to jus­ civil right: ( 1) a right recognized
tice, but an act or disposition that by human positive law. (2) the
plays a big part in religion, observ­ legally recognized rights of private
ance, piety, and humility. individuals for their personal free­
ABBR.-rev. dom and equal protection in the com­
rhetoric, n. 1. the study of or skill munity, together with the right to
in the use of language in order to start legal proceedings in defense of
influence or persuade. Since Socrates such rights. In the U.S., these are
right 270 rule

the rights guaranteed by the thir­ necessary human end. A precarious

teenth and fourteenth amendments right or simple liberty concerns the
and by certain acts of Congress. use of human abilities in nonnecessary
These are distinguished from political matters; these may be restricted by
rights, as rights to vote and hold positive law.
office. They are often also distin� ABBR.- r., rt.
guished from civil liberties, i.e., the REF. -S.T., II-II, q. 57; Pope
guaranteed natural rights of freely John XXIII, Pacem in Terris.
thinking, speaking, and acting without rightness, n. I. correctness. 2. recti­
legal interference except in the in­ tude; general conformity to moral
terests of the public welfare. Termi­ law.
nology, however, seems to be fluid. rule, n. I. an established guide for
connatural right, a natural right conduct, thinking, operations, etc. 2.
that belongs to a person just because a code of regulations; body of cus­
he possesses living human nature. toms and laws; hence, also a law. 3.
imperfect right, a liberty to do, a criterion; standard; measure; an
make, or claim something, but which authoritative measure. 4. regular pro­
may not be defended by force. cedure or method, esp. when regarded
inalienable right, a right so neces­ as a standard for some sort of opera­
sary to one's welfare and to the tions; a standard way or practice to
performance of one's duties that get and use a habit. NoTE- In
a person may not give up or give ethics, it is useful to distinguish
away the objects of the right. between an ethical rule (sense 1,
indefeasible right, an inalienable above) and an ethical principle or
right so necessary to man's moral truth. It is a principle that all men
welfare and the attainment of man's must obey a certain conscience, but
end that he cannot give it up and a rule tells men what means or prac­
no authority can take it from him for tices will form a correct and sure
any cause whatsoever. conscience. S. a system of government
juridical right, a right granted with reference to the governors: as,
by determinative positive law. rule by one, by the rich, by the
natural right, a right coming to masses, etc. 6. exercise of authority;
man from the Author of nature and rulership; controlling subjects or be­
directly from the natural law for ings of a lower order: as, the rule
the fulfillment of duties of this law. of man over domesticated animals.
perfect right, a right so complete despotic rule, government, as by
that one may use proportionate force, a tyrant, for the sake of the ruler;
if necessary, to defend the right. See hence, an absolute power, using fear
the principle of SELF-DEFENSE. and force. Human control of merely
positive right, a right that belongs material things is also called despotic
to a person by grant of positive law. rule because it is totally subordinated
This may be a natural right which to man's good and power.
positive law accepts and defends or political rule, government, as by
a new right granted directly by posi­ a constitutionally limited ruler, for
tive legislation. A divine-positive the sake of the governed; the ruling
right is granted by divine-positive of free men by moral obligation and
law; it may be called a supernatural persuasion. See ARISTO CRA CY; . DEMOC­
right. RACY; REPUBLIC. Man's free control
true right, a right granted to ful­ of his semiautonomous human powers
fill a moral duty or to achieve a is a political rule.
 s
sacred, adj. I. belonging to God; means adopted by lawgivers and other
given to or set apart for God or for officials to make the law inviolable,
the worship of God. 2. inviolate; as promises and threats, rewards and
morally protected and made sacred penalties.
by the Author of the natural law: imperfect sanction, one that is
as, sacred rights of personality. (a) insufficient as a motive to obey
sacrifice, n. I. proper sense. that act the law in all cases, or ( b) dis­
of the virtue of religion by which an proportionate to the moral value of
authorized person (priest) offers a the act sanctioned, or (c) both in­
precious gift to God and somehow sufficient and disproportionate.
changes the gift as a sign of God's medicinal sanction, one that is
supreme excellence and man's recog­ meant to be a remedy for violations
nition of God's supreme dominion; of the law and often looks to the
"a sacred sign of an interior offer­ help of the injured or the rehabili­
ing" (St. Augustine, City of God, tation of the wrongdoer.
X, ch. 3). A sacrifice of reparation natural sanction, one coming from
also includes immolation or some the natural law and consisting in
destruction of the gift. 2. broad sense. natural rewards for observing the
a spiritual offering made to God: as, natural law and natural penalties for
almsgiving for God's love. violating it. The sanctions may be in
REF. - S.T., II-II, 85; III, 48, a. the order of personal (individual)
3; C.G., III, ch. 129. goods, social goods, or universal
sadness, n. the emotion or passion, goods (namely, the gain or loss of
deriving from hate, that feels dis­ the all-good object of beatitude,
tress over a present evil or an ab?ent God).
good; a mild degree of unhappiness penal sanction, threats of penal­
over a present situation ties and actual punishments and losses
same, adj. (usually, the same). 1. for disobeying the law.
identical; being the very one; being perfect sanction, one that is (a)
not two things but one distinct from adequate to motivate the good deed
others. This sameness is also referred in all cases or to deter an agent
to as the very same; the self-same. from forbidden evil in all cases, and
2. alike in class, form, quality, ( b) proportionate to the moral value
amount, rank, function, etc. 3. un­ of the deed or moral harm of the
changed; not different from what it misdeed.
was. positive sanctions, sanctions set
materially the same, formally up by positive law.
different, see materially identical s.v., premial (praemial) sanction,
IDENTITY. promises and gifts of rewards for
sampling, n. I. the technique used (willing) observance of law.
in inductive reasoning and testing in sanction in the active sense, the
which one or more pieces, parts of decree of the lawgiver setting up
a whole, or specimens of the class are benefits for the observance of and
taken as representing the nature or penalties for the violation of law.
qualities of the whole or of the class. sanction in the passive sense, the
See EXTRAPOLATION. 2. the sample so legally established benefits and penal­
taken. ties set up by the lawgiver, esp. when
sanction, n. I. the inviolability of given or imposed.
law; the sacredness of law. 2. the vindicative sanction, a penal sane-

271
sanctity 272 scholasticism

tion set up and imposed for the pur­ being scandalized; falling into moral
pose of restoring moral order and evil on the occasion of another's act
championing justice against violators or omission. This is pharisaical when
of the law. See vindicative JUSTICE; it insincerely takes scandal from the
PUNISHMENT. good or indifferent conduct of others
sanctity, n. holiness; union of the or when it hinders spiritual good by
created will with the will of God. pretense of a scandal.
See HOLY, sense 3. sceptic, n. skeptic, q.v.
sapiens, adj. lit., "wise." The species SCG (S.C.G.) (C.G.), abbreviation
or specific difference in the biological for St. Thomas Aquinas' Summa con­
definition of man as Homo sapiens. (ra Gentiles (alternative title, On the
sapiential, adj. having the nature of Truth of the Catholic Faith), cited
philosophy or wisdom; leading to by books in Roman numerals and
wisdom; explaining or illustrating chapters in Arabic numerals.
true wisdom. See sapiential METHOD. scholasticism (S -) , n. 1. the phi­
satisfaction, n. 1. the act of gratify­ losophy and theology of the school­
ing or bringing content to someone's men or of the Christian university
desires, hopes, etc. 2. the act of ful­ schools of the Middle Ages and of
filling a need or meeting an obliga­ their modern successors. This name
tion in full. 3. the experience of was originally opposed to monastic
pleasure and calm upon knowing that theology, the less formal and more
one's needs, desires, hopes, etc. are affective theology of the monastic
sufficiently realized; the psychological schools. It applied to both the phi­
rest in the quieting of the eagerness losophy and method of the faculty
of desire. 4. the object, service, pay­ of arts and the method in dogmatic
ment, compensation, etc. that brings theology of the faculty of theology.
contentment or that fulfills some The special methodology included the
obligation. lecture or commentary and the dis­
scandal, n. 1. strict ethical sense, a puted question. It is disputed whether
violation of charity consisting in any scholasticism should be distinguished
act or omission that would reasonably by its difference from monastic
lead others to moral evil even if studies, by its doctrines, by its
this act or omission is not evil in common themes, or by its method
itself. 2. a surprising or imprudent or by which method. See METHOD.
act that hurts or offends others even 2. specifically. scholastic philosophy;
though it is not likely to induce the systematic philosophy cultivated
others to do evil; a disgraceful act, in the Middle Ages from Aristotelian
circumstance, or event. 3. careless or and Augustinian roots, highly devel­
malicious defamation of others. oped by St. Thomas Aquinas, and
active scandal, giving or causing marked by tendencies to metaphysical,
scandal to another or others. Direct theistic, and humanist interests and by
active scandal is doing an evil act general conformity to Catholic ortho­
or omitting a good one with the doxy. Three periods of scholasticism
intention of inducing another to do are often distinguished: ( 1) the
an evil act or omit the required good. medieval period from St. Ansehn
This intention is diabolical when it is (1033-1109) to John Capreolus, 0.P.
malicious and not merely seeking (c. 1380--1440); the Golden Age is
selfish advantage or pleasure. Indirect the latter half of the thirteenth cen­
scandal is doing an act when another's tury; (2) the second scholasticism
evil act is foreseen as likely or cer­ of the Counter-Reformation period
tain but is permitted rather than or the Spanish-Portuguese revival,
intended. See indirect EFFECT; indi­ running from about 1520--1640, and
rectly VOLUNTARY. declining after the spread of Car­
passive scandal, taking scandal; tesianism and other troubles in the
 scholium 273 science

Church; (3) the modern period, of truths about a given or distinctive

sometimes known as new scholasti­ object. Aristotle and St. Thomas also
cism or neo-scholasticism, beginning wish to keep a science far from
in the latter half of the nine­ opinion and demand necessary matter
teenth century and officially recog­ in the conclusions of a science. 2.
nized by Pope Leo XIII in 1879. systematized knowledge acquired by
German writers tend to speak of methods appropriate to the subject
the thirteenth century as high or matter and carried on in order to
great scholasticism; the writings learn the principles and nature of
just before the thirteenth cen­ the object of study; exact, coordi­
tury are early scholastic; those after nated, certain knowledge of a definite
Duns Scotus are late scholastic. subject. 3. an intellectual habit of
Thomism is only one major form of scientific knowledge about a proper
scholasticism. object: as, the habitual knowledge of
ABBR. - schol. the physiology of plants. See chart on
REF. - M.-D. Chenu, O.P., Intro­ VIRTUES for divisions. 4. an act of
duction a L'Etude de S. Thomas scientific thinking, esp. the movement
d'Aquin, pp. 51-60; Jean Leclerq, of reason from principles to new
The Love of Learning and the Desire demonstrated conclusions.
of God: a Study of Monastic Culture, master (architectonic) science,
tr. by C. Misrahi, Introduction and a subalternating science, sense 3.
passim; M. de Wulf, Histoire de la natural (physical) science: ( 1)
Philosophie Medievale, 6th ed., I, a systematic, certain, generalized, and
15 ff. gives lists of definitions of reasoned knowledge of some selected
"scholastic" and "scholasticism"; id., subject matter in the physical world:
"Notion de la scolastique medievale," as, biology, chemistry, geology. In
Revue Neoscolastique de Philosophie, this meaning of science, a philosopher
XVIII (1911), 177-196. is not called a scientist, i.e., a labora­
scholium (scholion), n. I. a mar­ tory worker who deals with quantities
ginal note or comment on a classical and measurable qualities of bodies.
text. See GLOSS. 2. some information (2) older sense. the philosophy of
or discussion supplementing a thesis nature.
or proposition: as, an historical note, normative science, one that leads
textual comment, a scientific or theo­ to the discovery of rules: as, ethics,
logical item for comparison, or a optics.
practical application of a thesis. operative (applied) science, one
ABBR.-schol. concerned with concrete actions or
school, n. a group of teachers and with applications of theoretical sci­
disciples related to each other by ence to singular operations: as, medi­
common traditions, common teachings cine.
or conclusions, the same methods, or philosophical sciences, the whole
interest in common problems. body of philosophical branches usu­
ABBR.-sch.; S.; s. ally referred to as philosophy, q.v.
schoolman, n. a scholastic or medieval philosophy of science, the part
university professor of theology, phi­ of the theory of knowledge that
losophy, or logic. investigates, analyzes, and defends
science, n. 1. a type of knowledge the nature, truth, and other values
that is certain and reasoned, that of scientific knowledge and its meth­
understands its conclusions in the ods, presuppositions, and categories;
light of, or draws them from, their a philosophical study of the human
causes and principles, and that or­ knowledge of nature. Some regard
ganizes its conclusions into a body this as a part of material logic;
of truths about a proper object; others regard it as a part of the
demonstrated knowledge of a body philosophy of nature about which
science 274 Scotism

natural sciences are concerned in ART ( 4) A science that demonstrates

.

their special ways. the reasoned fact about its subject

political science, the empirical or matter.
descriptive science concerned chiefly ABBR.- sc.; sci.
with methods and means of organizing REF. -Aristotle, Posterior Analy­
civil society, lawmaking, governing, tics, I, ch. 2; II, ch. 1; Met., VI,
suppressing and punishing crime, pro­ ch. 1; N. Eth., VI, ch. 6; S.T., I-II,
moting peace and prosperity, and con­ 57, a. 2; St. Thomas' Commentary
ducting international relations. It is on I Posterior Analytics, ch. 28, lect.
distinguished from political philoso­ 41, nos. 7, 8, 11; Commentary on
phy. See POLITICS. Boethius' "On the Trinity," q. 5,
practical science, one concerned aa. 1, 3, and the important replies to
with action, practice, or correct con­ objections; W. 0. Martin, The Order
duct. and Integration of Sciences; J. Owens,
productive science, one concerned C.Ss.R., "The Aristotelian Concep­
with the making of objects or the tion of the Sciences," International
changing of things. Philosophical Quarterly, IV (1964),
speculative science, one con­ 200 ff.
cerned with the discovery of truth *scientia media, Lat. phrase. I. lit.,
for truth's sake; one seeking cer­ middle knowledge, i.e., knowledge of
tain, reasoned, causal knowledge of objects that are intermediate between
some subject matter for the sake of other classes of objects known in an­
understanding that subject. other way. 2. that sign of God's
subaltern (subaltemated) sci­ knowledge in which He knows fu­
ence: ( 1) a science that provides ma­ turibles and the free futures in their
terial for the study of a higher sci­ status as futuribles before their oc­
ence. (2) a science whose subject currence. Luis Molina considers these
matter is part of the subject matter objects to be intermediate between
of a more inclusive science; a spe­ the objects of divine vision and of
cialty within a particular scientific simple intelligence as well as be­
field. ( 3) a science that draws its tween God's knowledge of necessary
proper principles from a higher sci­ objects and of free futures. 3. a
ence. ( 4) a science subordinate to mixed science that attains its object
the purpose of a higher science; by both the first and second modes
hence, an ancillary or subordinate of abstraction: as, astronomy.
science. (5) a science that demon­ scientism, n. the opinion that mod­
strates the fact rather than the rea­ ern natural sciences and mathematics
soned fact. are the supreme form of knowledge,
subaltemating science: ( 1) a the only certain objective kind of
science superior to another by in­ knowledge, the pattern of all other
cluding the subject matter of another kinds of knowledge, and the standard
in a fuller way and correlating that by which to judge the truths, con­
subject matter with other materials. clusions, and values of all other ways
(2) a science that supplies the proper of knowing. The opinion is also re­
principles for another science, while ferred to as the fallacy of the uni­
it itself is relatively independent of form method of science.
the subaltern science. ( 3) the master Scotism, n. the system, characteristic
or architectonic science whose pur­ doctrines, or method of the philoso­
pose governs the purpose and uses phy and theology of Duns Scotus,
of the subordinate science. It does O.F.M. (1265?-1308) or of one of
not, however, govern their proper his followers. Scotus has been given
methods, work, truths, etc. Meta­ the honorific title, Doctor Subtilis.
physics and ethics are often named Scotism is a Christian philosophy that
master sciences. See architectonic is highly critical of the Augustinian
se 275 secundum

philosophy of Henry of Ghent and (e) per se, by means of itself. See
closer to Aristotelianism than the entry PER se. (!) pro se, (speaking)
Bonaventuran group of Franciscan for one's self; in self-defense; (g)
thinkers. Scotus refined definitions, propter se, because of itself alone;
distinctions, and proofs in the Thom­ for its own sake; (h) secundum se,
istic heritage. Some of his own doc­ (considered) according to itself, i.e.,
trines include: the univocity of being; absolutely in its own being or nature.
haecceity as the principle of in­ secondary, adj. below, after, coming
dividuation; the form of corporeity from, dependent upon, serving, help­
in addition to the substantial form ing, or less important than, another:
of a natural body; a formal distinc­ as, creatures are secondary causes.
tion between the transcendentals; the ABBR.-sec.
presence of a common nature in secret, n. 1. a fact, event, intention,
things before the abstractive act; a or other matter that is deliberately
formal distinction between the soul concealed from public knowledge. 2.
and its powers; man's direct intui­ a fact, intention, plan, or other mat­
tion of singular things; restric­ ter that is not publicly known and
tion of the role of the object to cannot be revealed without doing in­
specifying rather than producing justice or uncharity. 3. a mystery;
knowledge; being as being is the something not revealed, not yet
proper object of the intellect; uni­ known, not explained, or not under­
vocal knowledge of divine perfec­ stood: as, the secrets of divine provi­
tions; primacy of will and love over dence in our lives.
intellect; an enlarged scope of free­ natural secret, a fact, event, plan,
dom; infinity of God looms large as or other matter that is of such a
a divine trait and as a limit on philo­ nature that its disclosure would cause
sophical knowledge of God; natures harm so that natural human fellow­
and the secondary part of the deca­ ship requires it be kept secret, apart
logue depend on the free will of from any agreement to do so by one
God. He excels among scholastics in who knows of the matter.
the care given to his proofs and in open secret, one generally known
analysis of the insufficiencies of or no longer hidden.
others' proofs. promised secret, a fact, intention,
the law of Duns Scotus (so discovery, or other matter that has
named by Jan Lukasiewicz for his been revealed to, or has been dis­
own Axiom III) : "If two contradic­ covered by, someone who has prom­
tory sentences (e.g., a and Na) were ised not to make it known to others.
true together, we could derive from secret of trust (professional sec­
them the arbitrary proposition q, i.e., ret), a secret made known to or
any proposition whatever. learned by a professional person in
REF. - F. Garcia, O.F.M., Lexikon the course of aiding another with
Scholasticum Philosophico-Theologi­ an agreement or implicit contract,
cum: Termini, Distinctiones, Efjata binding in justice, to keep the matter
(favoring Scotistic brand of scholas­ sacred and unknown to others.
ticism). *secundum, Lat. prep., "according
*se, reflexive Lat. pronoun, third to." It appears in a number of much
person, sing. or pl., accusative or quoted philosophical phrases: (a)
ablative case, "self," occurring usu­ secundum esse, according to its exis­
ally with a preposition in philosophi­ tence. ( b) secundum intentionem,
cal texts: (a) a se, from itself: as, (1) according to the intention (of
ens a se; ( b) contra se, against the author; of its nature); according
itself; (c) de se, of itself; without to its natural tendency. (2) accord­
relation to or union with or help ing to thought; in an intentional re­
from another; (d) in se, in itself; lation; merely in thought; merely as
secularism 276 self

a being of reason. (c) secundum of others. 3. one's own advantage,

(suam) naturam, according to its good, pleasure, welfare, or will; sel­
(own) nature; by its nature; con­ fishness. 4. self-, a combining form
forming to its natural tendency. (d) indicating: (a) the agent of action;
secundum quid, lit., according to ( b) the person or thing affected by,
something; hence, in a certain or in or benefiting from, action or atten­
some respect; in a qualified, re­ tion; hence, a reflex expression: as,
stricted, secondary, improper, or ex­ self-defense; (c) the subject in which
tended sense; not simply; not in the an act, attribute, etc. inheres; (d)
proper meaning; from a limited point the subject of some relation or de­
of view. (e) secundum usum (Angli­ scription; (e) aloneness.
cized phrase), according to usage. of itself, from itself; by its own
secularism, n. a group of doctrines nature; because it is what it is; natu­
and practices that reject the actual rally; intrinsically; essentially; with­
relation of God and religion to any out others; per se; de se.
area of human living except the self-active: (1) able to act or
formally religious; the theoretical and acting by its own power; immanent
practical exclusion of religious ideas in its activity, i.e., causing its own
and practices, including religiously action and benefiting from its own
taught morality, from family life, action. (2) uncaused in activity; hav­
education, government, business, rec­ ing no dependence on external in­
reation, charitable, and social works, fluences.
etc. See DEISM. self-caused (self-produced): (1)
seeming, adj. 1. apparent; not actual. a misnomer for uncaused or self­
2. false; superficially similar; onto­ sufficient. (2) self-evident (truth);
logically untrue. 3. not genuine; not causing its own truth.
totally as it appears: as, forbidden self-consciousness, see CONSCIOUS­
pleasure is a seeming good. NESS.
select, v.t. 1. to choose or pick out self-contradictory, said of a prop­
from a number available because of osition, hypothesis, or construct that
some better quality. Select adds to contains within itself elements that
choice a connotation of a better ob­ necessarily exclude each other; in­
ject chosen. 2. to cause the better consistent in its own elements or
or fitter to survive or flourish while notes; hence, intrinsically impossible;
the inferior does not do so; to act incapable of being true under any
as though selecting. 3. v.i., to make conditions. In modem logic, a self­
a selection or choice. contradictory statement or proposi­
selection, natural, ·phrase. a hypo­ tion is one that contains only falsity
thetical biological process or trend values; in other words, one that de­
by which the course of changing na­ nies a tautologous proposition.
ture seems to pick out organisms self-control, see CONTROL.
that have characteristics favoring self-defense, see DEFENSE.
survival in their environment to self-denial, control of selfish de-
reproduce their kind and to transmit sires for one's own will, advantage,
the favorable characteristics to their or pleasure; abstinence from desired
offspring. See DARWINIAN. things or acts; refusal to indulge
self, n. 1. a being having personality; one's own likes and dislikes to the
the person considered as subject of disadvantage of others.
his own distinct existence, special self-determine: (1) see DETER­
qualities, and individual acts. 2. any MINE. (2) !ee political FREEDOM,
person or thing considered in rela­ senses 1 and 2.
tion to its own identity; a person's or self-evident (evident in itself;
thing's identity or individuality, be­ *notum quoad se), see EVIDENT.
longing to it and distinct from that self-existent, having no cause of
self 277 seminal

its being and no need of any being ment of material being that keeps
to cause it or its perfections and ac­ it from possessing the forms of other
tivities; having existence from its own things by knowledge; bound to itself
essence or by identity with its own and within itself.
essence; uncaused being; ens a se; self-preservation, the tendency of
being-by-essence. The identity of ex­ a being to act in such a way as to
istence with essence is more properly keep its own good from any danger,
the note distinguishing Ipsum Esse injury, or other evil; esp. the tend­
from the self-existent. ency of sentient organisms to pre­
self-government, see GOVERN­ serve themselves from the threat of
MENT. death.
selfhood, the person or personal­ self-reflection, see REFLECTION.
ity regarded as a whole, distinct be­ self-respect, the potential virtue,
ing, existing for itself. related to temperance, whereby a per­
self-identity: (1) the fact that son constantly has a moderate love
a being or an important part of it is of his own honor as worthy of the
the same as itself over a period of dignity of his humanity; philotomy.
time. (2) personal identity; the per­ self-restraint, see SELF-CONTROL.
sistent substantial sameness of the self-sufficient, not needing others
person, the conscious ego, or the soul for its being, activity, economic wel­
despite other changes inside and out­ fare, internal peace and order, etc.;
side the organism. ( 3) the knowledge independent; complete in end and
that one's present self is the same equipped with all necessary means to
as the self perceived at another time; get and keep this complete good; self­
the intellectual memory of the same contained. The self-existent being and
self perceived in its changing acts. self-evident truths may also be re­
self-incrimination, public self-ac­ ferred to as self-sufficient. See perfect
cusation or admission of having done SOCIETY.
wrong or of being connected with semantic, adj. pertaining to meaning,
a crime or criminals. the meaning of language, or the sci­
self-knowledge, see KNOWLEDGE. ence of meaning.
self-love, see LOVE. semiagnosticism, n. a limited type of
self-made: (1) uncaused. (2) im­ agnosticism which admits that the
proved in knowledge, personality, for­ existence of a certain object, e.g.,
tune, etc. by one's own efforts, use God or the soul, can be naturally
of freedom, surmounting risks, and known by man, but denies that any­
perseverance. thing further about the reality of this
self-mastery, self-control; temper­ object is naturally knowable or natu­
ance; victory over one's undesirable rally certain.
feelings, tendencies, habits, or their semiconscious, adj. not fully aware;
external expression. not fully awake; partially attentive.
self-motion, see MOTION. semideliberate, adj. only partially de­
self-moving, see MOVE. liberate; not fully voluntary because
self-perfective, acting on itself in deliberation and choice are some­
such a way that the term or fruit of what weakened by modifications such
an action is directed to the good or as haste, inattention, habit, strong
improvement of the agent and is feeling, extreme fatigue, etc.
contained primarily or wholly in the seminal, adj. 1. of seed, reproductive
agent's whole being; the self-benefit­ activity, or the origin of living or­
ing aspect of immanent activity. ganisms. 2. like seed; originative;
self-possession: ( 1) independent being a source in the sense of mate­
control of one's self and actions for rial or efficient cause or a com­
one's own good, under God; sui juris. bination of both. See seminal PRIN­
(2) subjectivity; the self-confine- CIPLE.
semiotics 278 sense

semiotics, n. the theory of symbols sensu diviso et composito, s.v. DIVI­

or signs. I. Bochenski, O.P., speaks SION.
of its three parts: 1. logical syntax: A. Divisions chiefly pertinent to
the theory of the mutual relations of sense 1, above.
symbols; 2. logical semantics: the central sense, the internal sense
theory of the relations between the having these functions: (a) aware­
symbol and what the symbol stands ness of one's sensations; ( b) unify­
for. 3. logical pragmatics: the rela­ ing the cognitions of the several ex­
tions between the symbols, their ternal senses into one image of the
meanings, and the use of the symbols. same material thing which the dif­
semipublic, adj. public in some re­ ferent distinct sensations represent;
spects inasmuch as it influences many and ( c) discriminating between the
people and the common good yet various external sensations.
private in ownership, management, cogitative sense (particular rea­
and the benficiaries of the profits son; discursive power), the esti­
or other advantages. mative sense as it is in man, operat­
sensa, n. pl. the objects of sensations; ing under the influence of reason.
particularly, the actually sensed for­ common sense: (1) the central
mal objects. sense in its function of perceiving
sensate, adj. 1. able to have sensa­ a common sensible. (2) ordinary
tions. 2. felt by the senses. 3. em­ sound judgment in practical matters.
phasizing the activities and interests ( 3) simple, usually immediate, judg­
of the senses: as, a sensate culture. ments about objects of experience;
sensation, n. an act of a sense power; spontaneous, general, prephilosophi­
consciousness of singular, concrete, cal knowledge. (4) the general con­
material objects by means of one of victions of most men. ( 5) in some
the sense powers and sense organs scholastics. the immediate judgments
in a material way; cognitive represen­ of the first principles that men com­
tation of some material thing in a monly accept because of their self­
material way. This is distinguished evident nature. See natural CERTI­
from sense appetency, emotion, and TUDE; UNDERSTANDING, sense 5. (6)
intellectual consciousness. See sensory in Reid. general convictions of men
PERCEPTION. reached by a blind intellectual in­
sense, n. 1. any power in an animal stinct.
or man that knows concrete material estimative sense, the internal
things in a material way. 2. a collec­ sense that recognizes what is useful
tive term for all the powers of or harmful to the organism in par­
sensory knowledge, or even for all ticular instances. Its acts are known
powers of the sensory order includ­ as sensory estimations of particular
ing the sense appetites. 3. an organ goods or evils. See INSTINCT.
of sensation. The sensory power is external sense, any sense power
regarded as composite of the organ that gives immediate cognition of
and the capacity for sensory aware­ one of the sensible properties of the
ness. See List of Terminology on external world or of the states of the
MAN. 4. the sentient soul. 5. a non­ percipient's body; hence, sight, hear­
sensory power that acts with the ease ing, taste, smell, and the various
and spontaneity often found in the senses referred to as touch.
senses: as, a hypothetical moral internal sense: (1) a sense power
sense; Newman's illative sense. 6. having the images provided by other
meaning; any one of the several senses as its immediate object. These
meanings in which the same word, powers are the central (common; uni­
phrase, sentence, or passage may be fying) sense; the imagination; the
used and understood. See PREDICA­ estimative sense; and the memora­
TION for divisions; SUPPOSITION; tive power. (2) a sense power that
sense 279 sensorium

gives only mediate sensory knowledge sory knowledge of a body's sensible

of the external material world. accidents: as, substance, beauty,
proper sense, an external sense unity which are really and directly
having its own special object or associated with a sensible property
proper sensible. and sense perception.
sense memory, see MEMORY. common sensible, some bodily ac­
sense perception, the ability, cident naturally perceptible by more
process, or act of immediately know­ than one external sense and primarily
ing some material thing by a sense. perceived by no sense: as, size is
unifying sense, the central sense sensible to the eye through color,
in function b, above. not through itself, and to the hand
REF. - Aristotle, On the Soul, II, through pressure and temperature.
ch. 12 ; III, ch. 1-2. primary sensible: ( l) older scho­
B. Divisions of sense 5. lasticism. a proper sensible. (2)
common sense, see all meanings Locke (1632-1704) and others who
of common sense, above, except the have adopted Locke's terminology. a
first. primary quality.
illative sense: ( 1) the power of proper sensible, the object pri­
making inferences from a mass of marily and by its nature attained by
details or of seeing the significance of each distinct sense; the formal object
cumulative evidence. (2) the de­ specific to each sense.
veloped power of judging and reach­ sensible per se, a material acci­
ing right judgments by reasoning dent which is immediately percept­
(John Henry Cardinal Newman, ible by some external sense: distin­
Grammar of Assent, ch. 9). (3) the guished from accidental sensible.
central sense. Both proper and common sensibles
moral sense, an alleged innate are per se sensibles.
ability, intellectual or nonintellectual, REF. -Aristotle, On the Soul, II,
to distinguish moral good from moral ch. 6; S.T., I, 17, a. 2; 78, a. 3 ad 2.
evil and to make right judgments sensism, n. the opinion that reduces
about the content and applications of all cognitive and appetitive powers
the natural moral law. and activities of man to the organic
sensibility, n. 1. ability to be stimu­ and sensory level; thereby it regards
lated by sensible objects, to perceive concepts as mere composite images,
them by sense, or to be moved emo­ denies universals, denies any essential
tionally by them. 2. a general term difference between intellect and sense
for the whole set of powers and or­ as well as between will and bodily
gans that have sensations. appetites, and denies a substantial
sensible, adj. 1. able to stimulate soul.
sensation. 2. able to be perceived by sensitive, adj. 1. of the senses or
the senses or by the intellect with their sensations. 2. able to have
the help of the senses. 3. having sensory knowledge. 3. having sensa­
sense; sensitive. 4. reasonable; judici­ tions. 4. having properties or experi­
ous. ences like to or associated with keen
sensible, n. a quality or property of sensations.
a material body that can stimulate sensorium, n. I. the whole sensory
sensation and be perceived by the apparatus of the body including the
senses themselves or by the intellect brain, nerve centers, and end organs
with the help of the senses. of sensing. 2. the area of sensation
accidental sensible (incidental sen­ or of some type of sensation, such
sible; *sensibile per accidens), as sight, in the brain. 3. the area of
any characteristic of a body that is the brain in which are stored the
not known by the senses but is known images on which the intellect ex­
by the intellect with the help of sen- trinsically depends for knowing, re-
s e nsory 280 separation

membering, etc. 4. the brain regarded text. ( d) the answer given by the
as the center for all the senses and master (professor) in regard to the
sensations: distinguished from motor­ sentence presented for discussion. ( e )
ium. a resume of a monastic sermon. (/)
sensory, adj. 1. of the sense and a collection of pious thoughts, quota­
sensations. Note that sensitive and tions, etc. 4. ethics and law. (a) a
sensory refer more to sense knowl­ judicial decision or judicial imposi­
edge; sensual and sensuous to sensory tion of a penalty on the guilty. ( b)
appetency and feeling. 2. connected the penalty officially imposed or im­
with the reception and transmission posable. Law classifies sentences in its
of sense impressions: as, sensory (af­ own categories.
ferent) nerves. biconditional sentence, a state­
sensual, adj. 1. of the flesh and sen­ ment in which the condition and con­
sible pleasures or emotions: distin­ ditioned are reciprocal. Its signs are,
guished from the spiritual and intel­ "if and only if"; or "If p, then q;
lectual. 2. connected with, or much and if q, then p."
interested in, bodily or sexual pleas­ prime sentence, a simple proposi­
ures; lustful. tion or any of the simple propositions
sensuality, n. the sensitive appetites into which a composite proposition
considered together. See APPETITE. has been reduced.
REF. -S.T., I, 81, a. 1; Truth, q. sentient, adj. 1. able to perceive by
25, a. 1. sense or actually perceiving by sense.
sensuous, adj. 1. of, based on de­ 2. able to know only by sense.
rived from, affecting, appealing to, or sentiment, n. I. strict sense. a con­
perceived by, the senses. The connota­ scious quality of liking or disliking
tion, however, is more the pleasurable that accompanies some act of the
or emotional than the cognitive as­ will: distinguished from emotion that
pect. 2. easily responding to a sensible is purely sensible, more intense, more
attraction; enjoying sensible pleasure. connected with organic changes, and
sentence, n. 1. logic. a word or con­ more transitory than sentiment. 2.
nected group of words stating, asking, an opinion or attitude that is colored
commanding, requesting, or exclaim­ by a volitional or emotional quality.
ing about, something; a single unit of 3. often. a fairly constant emotional
complete thought. 2. grammar. a outlook or point of view, combining
conventional unit of connected speech a number of opinions and feelings,
or writing, usually containing a sub­ and serving as a basis for judgment
ject and a predicate. A written sen­ and action: as, the sentiment of
tence is marked by beginning with school loyalty. There are a number of
a capital letter and closing with an other popular meanings of this word.
end mark (period, question mark, separation, n. 1. the real act or
etc.). A spoken sentence is marked as process of dividing or disconnecting
the group of words between definite one thing, part, or member from the
final pitches or pauses. 3. in scholastic whole or from another thing, part,
and monastic literature: (a) a cita­ or member. 2. the state of things,
tion from an authority; an excerpt parts, etc. that have been thus divided
from a classic writer or standard au­ or taken apart. 3. the mental act
thority; an opinion, judgment, or dif­ that detaches form from matter (sub­
ficulty mentioned in the writings of a ject) or that distinguishes substance
leading philosopher or theologian. from attribute. This act differs some­
This usage is famous in Peter Lom­ what from abstraction and prepares
bard's Books of Sentences (Theologi­ for a judgment. See DISTINCTION;
cal Sentences) and commentaries on DIVISION. 4. a negative judgment (be­
this work. ( b) a text commented on cause the intellect separates things
or discussed. (c) the comment on a or principles that are actually sepa-
sequitur 281 sign

rated or capable of being apart from God's action and of some divinely re­
each other in existence). 5. hence, the vealed doctrine with which that action
third mode of abstraction, q.v. 6. is associated. 4. an instance used to
legal (judicial) separation. the loosen­ illustrate or prove a general proposi­
ing of the marital bond of common tion. 5. a logical moment or stage in
life without the right of perfect a concrete indivisible act or process.
divorce or legally remarrying. See sign of KNOWLEDGE; MOMENT.
*sequitur, Lat. verb. it follows arbitrary (conventional) sign,
(that). Often it appears in the nega­ something connected with the signified
tive non sequitur, it does not follow only by the agreement of men that
(that). gives an accepted and definite mean­
series, n. a group or number of simi­ ing or reference to the sign: as, cer­
lar or related persons, things, causes, tain printed characters are a sign of
events, perfections, etc. arranged so the object fish. Sometimes there is a
that they come one after another definite historical reason for the se­
according to some principle of order. lection of the sign, as the choice of
per accidens (horizontal) and the cross as a sign of the Redeemer
per se (vertical) series, see de­ and the redemption.
pendent CAUSE. formal (pure) sign, a sign or
ABBR.-s.; ser. medium that has a likeness or form
set, n. a collection of beings, perfec­ common to the sign and the object
tions, or statements that belong to­ signified but that is not itself first
gether or act simultaneously with each known before it leads to knowledge
other: as, a set of causes; a set of of the signified: as, a concept is a
analogical perfections. Series tends to formal sign of the real object. The
emphasize the succession and dynam­ being of the concept is to be a sign;
ism of the members rather than the the cognitive relation between subject
collection of them. and object is the sign relation. See
share, v.t. 1. to distribute portions *MEDIUM QUO.
of something to others; give a part instrumental sign, a humanly de­
of some whole to; divide and give out vised tool or medium quad, which is
benefits and burdens so that all have used to refer to and stand for another
some, none have all. Share in this but which is not based on a likeness
sense is not the same as participate. of sign and signified: as, printed nu­
The sharers participate, as in sense merals are instrumental signs of defi­
2. 2. to have a part of something nite amounts of weight or money.
together with others; to own, use, material sign, a definite type of
enjoy, etc. in common with others; material thing which must first be
participate, q.v. 3. v.i. to take part known to lead to knowledge of some­
with others in some activity, project, thing else: distinguished from formal
formation of a society, etc. sign. The materiality of the sign is
ABBR.-shr. unimportant in this distinction. Ma­
sign, n. 1. something that leads one to terial signs may be either natural, as
knowledge of something else. Often smoke, or conventional, as the letters
the sign is sensible, though it may that spell smoke.
lead to knowledge of the spiritual, manifestative sign, one showing
hidden, unseen, etc. Signs include the existence of something else: as, a
natural effects, symptoms, words, ges­ clue.
tures, signals, numerals, images, flags, methodical (systematic) sign, an
marks, signatures, etc. 2. something arbitrary sign: as, a manual sign for
referring to and standing for another. an abstract word.
3. a sensible manifestation of a hid­ miraculous sign, a miracle con­
den truth or of an unseen being: as, sidered as an evidence of God's exist­
a miracle is a sign, i.e., a proof, of ence, His approval of some doctrine
signate 282 simplicity

or person, His goodness, the value ject known; representation. 3. an

of prayer, etc. object resembling another object from
natural sign, something by its very which it originates.
nature connected with another and simple, adj. 1. having no parts (or
leading to knowledge of that other: only one part); not constituted of
as, an effect is a natural sign of its parts of any kind; not composite;
proper cause; an image is a natural undivided and indivisible; absolutely
sign of the original. one. 2. having no quantitative parts;
substitutive sign, one that can not extended. 3. having few parts;
take the place of another thing in our not complicated or involved. 4. hav­
learning or thinking about things or ing no passive potency or incomplete­
even in our exchange of things: as, ness in its kind of being or nature;
words stand for objects and concepts; pure. 5. easy to do, understand, solve,
paper currency, for real property. construct, etc. 6. without additions,
ABBR. - s. Also see SYMBOL. qualifications, reservations, etc.;
signate, adj. designated; marked; mere; plain. 7. without guile or
bounded. deceit; innocent, sincere; unpre­
in signate act, see in ACTU sig­ tentious. 8. unaffected; natural: as,
nato. simple manners. 9. lowly; common;
signatum, (pl., signata), n. the ob­ ordinary: as, simple people. 10. hav­
ject, person, group, event, proposi­ ing or showing little intellectual acu­
tion, etc., referred to by a sign; the men; easily misled; foolish.
signified. See also in ACTU signato. absolutely simple, having no com­
significance, ( significancy; significa­ position whatsoever in its being (of
tion), n. 1. meaning, esp. the mean­ essence with act of existence, of mat­
ing of a sign (word, signal, symbol, ter with form, of substance with acci­
etc.); the capacity of a sign to repre­ dents, or of piece with piece).
sent some object to the mind. A simplicity, n. 1. ontological simplicity.
sentence is also said to have meaning absence of parts in a being or nature.
but not signification. 2. the quality 2. psychological simplicity. (a) ease
of being meaningful or significant. 3. of comprehension or credibility; fa­
importance; consequence. 4. a hidden, miliarity; absence of complexity,
or weighty meaning other than the subtlety, and sustained reasoning in
openly expressed one. This shading regard to the object to be thought
applies to significance, not to si gnifi­ about. ( b) lack of intellectual ability,
cation. quickness, or insight. 3. moral sim­
modes of signification, see modes plicity. (a) guilelessness; innocence.
of PREDICATION. A term sign is looked ( b) sincerity; lack of affectation;
at in two ways: what it means (res singleness of good intention. (c) a
significata) and how it means this plain, nonluxurious, noncompetitive
(modus significandi). If, for instance, way of living. 4. logical simplicity.
one says that God knows, knowl­ successful unification or systematiza­
edge here means awareness of beings tion of a great range of facts under
(the res) but the way (modus signifi­ one principle, law, or hypothesis. See
candi) in which God knows is alto­ ECONOMY. Logical and psychological
gether exceptional; e.g., His Knowl­ simplicity do not always correspond
edge is identified with His essence as has been noted about Albert Ein­
and is not caused by objects. stein's general relativity theory, which
similar, adj. nearly but not com­ is logically simple but not readily
pletely the same as another; like but understood. 5. aesthetic simplicity.
not identically like its source. plainness; lack of much adornment.
similitude, n. 1. a likeness or resem­ Other senses are less common in phil­
blance of one to another. 2. a mental osophical literature. The divisions
form resembling the form of the ob- pertain to sense 1.
simplify 283 situation

essential (physical) simplicity, nected with the capital sin. Seven

absence of more than one constituent are usually named.
principle of the essence or nature; mortal (grave ; serious) sin, a
lack of composition or structure in fully deliberate personal sin in a
the essence: as, an angel's substance weighty matter, or in a matter er­
is simple. roneously judged to be important, by
metaphysical simplicity, a lack the person doing (or omitting) it.
of composition of any kind; hence, The immediate theological effect of
existential simplicity. See absolutely such a sin is loss of the friendship
SIMPLE. of God and of sanctifying grace and
quantitative (integral) simplic­ liability to other penalties.
ity, absence of corporeal or extended original sin: (1) the loss of super­
parts. natural and preternatural gifts by
principle of simplicity, see prin­ every member of the human race
ciple of ECONOMY. (except Christ and Mary) as a re­
simplify, v.t. 1. to make more simple, sult of Adam's loss of original justice.
less complex, easy or easier. This is (2) the state of the human race as
said chiefly of efforts to render some­ deprived of supernatural and preter­
thing intelligible. 2. to reduce. See natural gifts and wounded or weak­
REDUCTIONISM. ened in some natural gifts. See HU­
MAN NATURE.
simply, adv. absolutely; uncondition.
philosophical sin, a deliberate hu­
ally; without qualification; just ex­
man transgression or omission of a
actly and properly as stated: as, God
precept when it is regarded as con­
is simply infinite; Marxism is simply
trary to right reason or human nature.
inhuman.
theological sin, a deliberate evil
simultaneous, adj. 1. existing, occur­
act when known to be a personal
ring, acting, consenting, etc. together
offense against God.
or at the same time. Like priority,
venial sin, a personal sin in a
simultaneity is divided into the simul­
light matter or one that is light in
taneous in origin, nature, and time.
malice because of mitigating circum­
2. existing or standing at the same
stances or because of invincible ignor­
time in the same relation to each
ance of the gravity of the matter.
other: as, these two propositions
REF. - St. Augustine, Contra Faus­
(affirmation and denial of the same)
tum, XXII, 27; S.T., I-II, 71, a. 1;
cannot be simultaneous in truth. 3.
C.G., III, ch. 143.
belonging together or classified within
singular, adj. single; individual, q.v.
the same species.
ANT. - universal.
*a simultaneo argument, see ABBR. - sing.
ARGUMENT. NoTE-One must distinguish sin­
sin, n. a morally evil human act; a gular names that refer to one in­
deliberate offense against a law of dividual alone, as George Washing­
God by thought, word, deed, or ton, the President, and names denot­
omission; "a word, deed, or desire in ting singularity (the quality or fact
opposition to the eternal law" (St. of being an individual), as person,
Augustine). See moral EVIL. suppositum, singular, first substance,
actual (personal) sin, an offense etc.; these latter are universals or
against the law of God by a person's common terms.
own deliberate act: distinguished from REF. - St. Thomas Aquinas, In I
original sin or habitual guilt or a Sent., d. 23, q. 1, a. 2, solutio.
vice. situation, n. 1. the place or position
capital sin, one that gives rise to of a corporeal object in relation to
other sins which will be means of its surroundings. 2. the position or
satisfying the passion or habit con- condition of some thing or person
site 284 social

with regard to attendant circum­ skeptic (sceptic), n. 1. any member

stances: as, he was in a favorable of a philosophical school, ancient
situation. 3. an occasion, q.v. 4. a or modem, who doubts or denies the
combination of circumstances at any possibility of any certain human
specified moment. 5. a set of cir­ knowledge. Universal and absolute
cumstances both internal to and ex­ skepticism is either a doctrine that
ternal to a moral agent at a time of the human mind should doubt on all
decision. or nearly all matters, or a state of
situation-ethics, a form of relativ­ attempted permanent doubt that sub­
ism or individualism in ethics, spon­ stitutes for certitude mere inquiry
sored by ethical existentialists. It or provisional opinion on all issues
holds that each person has the right or, at least, on all important matters.
to decide for himself the morality There are also relative, partial, or
of each of his acts according to the mitigated forms or skepticism such
total concrete situation in which he as agnosticism, fideism, historical
exists and must act. This situation skepticism, religious skepticism, etc.
stresses his own personal need, de­ The second Academy (Platonic
sires, prospective advantages, dan­ school) was skeptic; hence, a skeptic
gers, etc. Hence, no moral princi­ is also referred to as an Academi­
ples are objectively and universally cian. 2. a person who habitually
valid for all situations and persons; doubts, questions, suspends judgment
no act is intrinsically evil or good; or decision, and worries over matters
the common good cannot prevail over that are evident or generally accepted.
what one considers his personal good. slander, n. an oral statement in­
The scholastic theory of the three jurious to another's reputation.
moral determinants regards the cir­ slave, n. 1. a human being owned by
cumstances of the situation as only and completely subject to another
one of the moral factors. human being and existing only or
REF. - J. V. McGlynn, S.J. and mainly for the good of that owner;
J. J. Toner, S.J., Modern Ethical a human being reduced to a mere
Theories, ch. 7. animated instrument for another's
site, n. the place where a body is, was, good. 2. one who by birth or agree­
or is to be located. Site is not an ment is bound to the service of the
English equivalent of the Latin owner of the land on which he lives;
situs, a category. serf.
situs, n. 1. the internal position of the natural slave, a person whose
parts of a body; the manner in which natural abilities and daily work do
the parts are arranged in reference not fit him for free political life in
to each other; the way that parts of which he would direct himself and
a body fit and sit together in a others to his own good or to their
natural body; posture. Examples of own good or to the common good,
this ninth category are: sitting, walk­ and whose services, therefore, must
ing, erect, head up, facing, etc. Situs be directed by another to the good.
is regarded as a formalized accident, social, adj. I. living together with
for it implies relations between parts other human beings and having deal­
and accidents. 2. the normal position ings with them, esp. in a permanent,
of an organ within a living body with organized community. 2. having the
reference to the normal position of abilities for, desires for, and needs
other organs. 3. mental position; atti­ of living with other human beings.
tude; outlook. 3. enjoying the company of others;
size, n. 1. quantity; the accident of friendly; companionable; at ease in
a body that determines how much dealing with other persons. 4. helping,
space it occupies. 2. actual extent; obeying, or working with others for
dimensions; amount. See EXTENSION. the sake of the common good and
socialism 285 society

often under public command or au­ ciety, intermediate between the family
thorization. See ASOCIAL. and the state, and comprising in its
socialism, n. 1. the economic and membership all who engage in the
political theory of collective or gov­ same type of labor, trade, or pro­
ernmental ownership, operation, and fession, organized for the common
control of the essential means ( capi­ economic well-being or professional
tal goods) for the production and excellence of all its members; an
distribution of material goods in the occupational, functional, or vocational
interest of all members of a political group. When it is complemented by
community. 2. the practice of social­ interlocking political groups, it is a
ism; socialization. corporative state.
sociality, n. the tendency of men to domestic society: ( 1) conjugal
associate with one another for their society; the married state. (2) pa­
common good and to form permanent rental society; a family. ( 3) a house­
groups or societies. hold; servant society.
socialization, n. 1. the government's imperfect society: ( 1) a society
act of seizing private property, often incomplete in its end, i.e., one whose
without compensation, or of sup­ purpose is not an essential constant
pressing private management of pri­ human good. (2) a society incom­
vate property and substituting owner­ plete in its possession of, control of,
ship, operation, or management by and ability to possess and control
an official or trust set up by the state, means adequate to its end - known
in the interests of the community as a society imperfect in means.
rather than of the owners. See NA­ natural society, one whose usual
TIONALIZATION. 2. governmental exer­ existence, specific end, essential na­
cise of a large measure of planning, ture, essential properties, and essential
regulation, etc. of industry, banking, social rights and duties in view of
agriculture, mining, and other basic its end are determined by the Author
economic areas. 3. a just exercise of of nature and the natural law be­
state power over property ownership cause its end is a natural necessity
and management in accordance with of human nature.
both the principle of subsidiarity and ANT. - conventional society. A
the needs of the common good. natural community is the sociologists'
REF. - Pope John XXIII, Mater Gemeinschaft.
et Magistra, nos. 52 ff. perfect society: (1) a society with
society, n. the permanent moral union a complete simply human good that
of two or more for a specific com­ in its own order (type; class) is not
mon good to be attained by their subordinate to a higher good. ( 2)
cooperative activity. See St. Augus­ a society complete in its possession
tine's definition of a people in City of and right of control over all the
of God, XIX, 24. means to attain its specific end; a
civil society, the state, q.v. sovereign society. The first, e.g., a
conjugal society, the state of mar­ family, is called perfect only in end;
ital union between husband and wife; the second, e.g., the sovereign state,
the state of the married couple. is perfect in end and means.
conventional {arbitrary; pactiti­ supernatural society, one set up
ous; purely contractual) society, by a supernatural intervention of God
one whose end and nature are deter­ for a supernatural good as its prin­
mined only by the free consent of cipal end. Such a society need not
its founders or its members; as, a be a theocratic society, i.e., a society
political party; a labor union. This is directly ruled by God or by an au­
the sociologists' Gesellschaft. thority directly named by Him. See
corporative society, a freely or­ CHURCH.
ganized, semipublic, autonomous so- principles on society: ( 1) The
Socratic 286 soul

end specifies a society. (2) The municating it. 3. The S-. the title of
family and sovereign state are natural one of Plato's dialogues.
societies. (3) The principle of sub­ sophistic (sophistical), adj. 1. like
sidiarity, q.v. (4) The principle of the sophists in falsely appearing to
pluralism of societies within the be philosophical. 2. using sophisms;
broader society of the state. There employing the methods of sophists.
are also principles on the origin of 3. clever and plausible but unsound.
authority and its limited exercise. sorites, n. etymologically: a heap. 1.
Socratic, adj. of, having to do with, a series of syllogisms or enthymemes,
characteristic of, or following So­ having at least three premises, in
crates (470?-399 B.c.), his philos­ the first figure, with all conclusions
ophy, or his method. suppressed except the last. In the
Socratic m ethod, see MAIEUTIC. Aristotelian or progressive type, the
solidarism, n. a theory of social unity first premise contains the subject of
and responsibility that emphasizes the the conclusion and the last premise
natural moral unity of men in society, contains the predicate of the con­
their interdependence in helping and clusion, e.g., All A is B, All B is C,
being helped by one another, their etc., therefore, All A is C (X). In
pluralism as responsible persons in the Goclenian or regressive type,
natural subsocieties, and their com­ (named after Rudolph Goclenius of
munity of purpose: opposed to dis­ Marburg, 1547-1628), the first prem­
integrating individualism ( atomism) ise contains the predicate of the con­
at one extreme and to complete clusion and the last premise contains
socialism at the other extreme. the subject of the conclusion, e.g.,
All C is D (X), All B is C, All
*in solidum, Lat. phrase. jointly re­
A is B, therefore, All A is D (X).
sponsible for some action done by
cooperators or by members of a
2. loosely. any chain of reasoning
that suppresses some premise or
corporation.
premises and uses the conclusion of
something, n. 1. a thing not definitely
one argument as the premise of the
known, understood, or identified;
next. See POLYSYLLOGISM.
some undetermined thing, quality,
soul, n. 1. in general. the ultimate in­
etc. 2. some thing or things definite
trinsic principle of life; the vital
but unspecified. 3. as a transcen­
principle of a living substance; the
dental. any being considered as dis­
substantial form of a living body;
tinct from other beings. This is the
the first act of a physical (organic)
notion of aliquid, an aliud quid,
body having life in it potentially. 2.
or an "other (distinct) thing."
specifically, the human soul: (a) pre­
sophism, n. I. a clever and plausible,
liminary definition: the intrinsic ulti­
but fallacious, reason or way of
mate principle of human conscious
reasoning; fallacy. The connotation
life, i.e., of human knowing and will­
often suggests that the user of the
ing; that by which man primarily
sophism intends to deceive the hearer
lives, perceives, and thinks (Aris­
or reader. 2. a semblance of wisdom.
totle). ( b) in the philosophy of na­
Sophist (sophist), n. 1. any one of ture: the first act of the disposed
a group of ancient Greek teachers human body with its potency for life;
of rhetoric, oratory, legal procedure, the substantial form or vital principle
or philosophy, of whom some were of a living human being. (c) in the
charged by the great Greek philoso­ philosophy of man and metaphysics,
phers of using clever fallacies. 2. any­ as a conclusion of proof: the spirit­
one using specious, misleading rea­ ual and immortal substantial form of
soning; somebody more interested in a human organism.
winning an argument or approval or ground of the soul (center of
vote than in finding truth and com- the soul; summit of the soul;
sound 287 special

*apex mentis; spark of the soul ; state. 2. specifically. supreme and in­
etc.), an expression used by various dependent power of ruling in a politi­
writers [Stoics, St. Bonaventure cal society; political authority that is
(1221-1274), St. Albert the Great complete and answerable to no other
(1193-1280), Tauler (1300?-1361), political superior. 3. all the rights, in­
Eckhart (1260-1367), etc.] to refer ternal to a state and external to it in
to the inner essence of the soul, be­ its relations with other states, that to­
yond its faculties and acts, or to its gether belong to an independent poli­
receptive mystical powers for union tical community. 4. the full and
with God, or to its intimate relation autonomous power of the governors
with God. See higher REASON. or government of a state.
parts of the soul, see s.v. PART. absolute sovereignty, an (as­
soul incarnated, the soul present sumed) unlimited political sover­
in a body as its form. eignty, not bound by a constitution,
spark of the soul (*scintilla laws of morality, or laws of the land,
animae), the inmost center of the and not answerable to the people or
soul; the seat of conscience; the to any institution or agency within
"part" of the soul least contaminated the state.
by sin. popular sovereignty: (1) sover­
soul of the world, see WORLD eignty whose exercise in some degree
SOUL. depends ultimately on the consent of
REF. - Aristotle, On the Soul, II, the governed, as in President Abra­
ch. 1, 2; scholastic commentaries on ham Lincoln's dictum about "govern­
this. ment of the people, by the people,
sound, adj. 1. free from defect, fault, and for the people." See CONSENT
damage, disorder, etc.: as, in health, theory. (2) exercise of absolute politi­
legal value, reasoning, etc.; altogether cal authority by the people them­
good in its natural constitution. 2. selves in a pure democracy. (3) re­
said of an argument. both valid and tention of absolute sovereignty by
true. the people while delegates exercise
sound, articulate, phrase, a voiced limited rule: as in Rousseau's coach­
word with distinction of tones (i.e., driver theory.
of consonants and vowels), syllabi­ space, n. three-dimensional extension
fied, if necessary, and selected to conceived as abstracted from bodies,
convey an imposed meaning. spreading out in all directions almost
source, n. I. that which furnishes a without limits, and serving as the
first and continuous supply of some­ receptacle for bodies. Real space is
thing. 2. a constant principle in any space actually occupied by three-di­
order of causality but esp. of mate­ mensional bodies; its reality is that
rial and efficient causality: as, a of the bodies in place. Other divisions
source of wealth, of information, of are not uniformly used and show di­
power. 3. the place of origin of some verging opinions on the question
substance or of energy. 4. that from whether space is a real being or a
which something is derived or by being of the mind.
which its quality is determined: as, REF. - J. A. McWilliams, S.J.,
sources of truth, of obligation, of "Space as a Receptacle," from his
concrete morality. See FONT; moral Cosmology, reprinted in D. A. Dren­
DETERMINANTS; LAW. nen, ed., A Modern Introduction to
sovereignty, n. 1. supreme and inde­ Metaphysics; 531-534.
pendent power of ruling in any com­ special, adj. I. distinctive; exclusive;
plete community. In this sense, sov­ proper to only one being or class;
ereignty belongs to God over the differentiating. 2. given to or for a
universe, to the Pope in the Church, particular person, occasion, etc.: as,
and to the supreme power in any a special dispensation from a positive
species 288 species

church law. 3. definite; specified. tion or a concept as representing or

ABBR. -sp. conforming to the formal object. 6.
species, n. 1. the concept that ex­ the likeness of the thing judged in the
presses the total and exclusive es­ act of judging or understanding the
sence that is common to many in­ whole proposition. This probably is
dividuals; the specific essence. In this the mental act of synthesizing the
sense, species is a direct universal subject and predicate concepts. 7.
concept. 2. the predicable that desig­ (often pl.) accidents or appearances
nates the class to which a substance of things, esp. the sensible ones
belongs; the total and exclusive es­ founded on quantity.
sence known to be common to many A. Divisions of senses 1 and 2.
individuals; the class of individuals least (lowest) species, one that
that have the same genus and the contains no species below it; one that
same specific difference. In this sense, is in no way a genus, but only a
species is a reflex universal; all in­ proper species: as, man.
dividuals in the class are univocal in moral species, the lowest class of
nature and have the same essence virtue or vice that defines a human
and bear the same name. 3. dis­ act.
puted biological sense. a natural class B. Divisions of sense 3.
or population in a series of living evolving and fixed species, the
beings that are seemingly descended evolving species, one whose members
from a common stock and indefinitely can or do change into a new species
fertile among themselves; "an assem­ in the biological sense of a species.
blage of individuals in which not fixed species, one whose members (a)
only the whole form of any one re­ have never changed (since its crea­
sembles in all essential points the tion or first appearance) or ( b) have
whole form of any other, but each now reached a stage of stability and
separate part, internal and external, no longer undergo evolution. See di­
similarly resembles the corresponding visions of CREATION.
part in any other" (Aristotle, His­ C. Divisions of sense 5.
tory of Animals); a group of an expressed species, the cognitive
actually or potentially interbreeding likeness of the object considered as
natural population reproductively iso­ a living act completed in the sense
lated from other groups (Dobzhan­ or intellect.
sky). The biological problem of de­ impressed species, the likeness of
termining a natural species is the object as caused by the object
complicated by the need of a set affecting a sense power or by the
of features to identify an individual agent intellect together with the
and by the problem of evolution phantasm of the object affecting the
of species, of transitional stages and possible intellect. There is some dis­
variations in evolution, etc. Taxono­ pute whether the impressed and ex­
mists often use the word species for pressed species are really distinct.
the logician's word specific difjerence They are at least logically distinct.
because of the binomial system. See innate species, a representation of
HOMO SAPIENS. 4. the species,, i.e., an object with which man is born
the human race. 5. a mental likeness and which is not acquired by his own
or representation of the object sensed experience and reflection in the course
or thought about; the cognitive form of his life.
representing the object and present intelligible species, a representa­
in the cognitive power as the intrinsic tion of an object in the possible in­
principle determining the knowing tellect.
power to know in act and to know most special species (*species
this object; intentional form; in­ specialissima), Scotistic usage, the
tention, esp. sense 5; hence, a sensa- species of the individual thing; the
specific 289 spirit

initial, confused, directly intuited cussed; being sought for: as, the
knowledge of the individual; a cogni­ specified meaning. 3. the definite; not
tive likeness of only one individual. merely in general; not indeterminate.
received species, one caused in spectator theory of knowledge,
the sense power(s) or intellect by its phrase. a view of human knowledge
object or by special divine action of that stresses man's passivity to the
illuminating, infusing, etc. objects in the world. One is thought
sensible species, a representation to view objects in the world rather
of a material thing in a sense power. than to learn about them by moving
ABBR. - sp.; pl., spp. about, testing, comparing objects, and
specific, adj. 1. of a species; belong­ taking an active part in the world.
ing to, marking, constituting". or simi­ speculation, n. thinking for truth's
lar to, a species: as, specific differ­ sake; theoretical study or knowledge
ence. 2. special; proper. 3. definite; that is not directly related to action
precise; limited. or practice; learning and knowledge
specification, n. 1. detailed mention; sought for their own sake as truth;
enumeration of particulars; minute contemplative pursuit of and reflec­
definition. 2. a modifying term, tion on truth. In scholasticism, specu­
phrase, or clause that designates the lation does not imply conjectural
attribute, form, or aspect according knowledge. See KNOWLEDGE; SCIENCE.
to which the subject possesses the speech, n. 1. the act of uttering words
predicate: opposed to reduplication to communicate ideas, opinions, and
or the reduplicative sense. See RE­ feelings to other persons; the act of
DUPLICATE. 3. the characteristic or dif­ expressing and communicating one's
ference that puts something in its thoughts and feelings by spoken
own definite class or group. This words and sounds; deliberate use of
need not be a specific difference. oral language as signs of one's mind.
4. a form actuating a power and 2. the interior act of conceiving a
removing its indetermination in re­ mental word. 3. rare. understanding
gard to this definite object of this what one is saying. 4. any act that
power's activity. See SPECIES, sense uses formal signs, even if not oral
5. 5. a conclusion or tertiary prin­ or audible, in order to communicate
ciple of the natural law that definitely with others. 5. the ability to speak.
determines a broader principle of the 6. the signs used in communicating
law; a determination of something with others and the manner of using
indefinite in natural law by a definite them. 7. making the unknown known
rule or precept of positive law. The in some way; revealing.
adjective for this sense is specifica­ modes of speech, see modes of
tive or determinative. PREDICATION.
order of specification, the order REF. - S.T., I, 34, a. 1 ad 3.
of forms and formal objects that spirit, n. 1. a positively immaterial
classify and distinguish things: dis­ living substance; a pure spirit or
tinguished from order of intention, spiritual nature that is not united
of agents, of ends. substantially with matter and has no
principle of specification: (a) dependence on matter. 2. the im­
The relative is specified by the abso­ material (spiritual) form in man: a
lute. ( b) Each power, habit, and act name for the human soul because of
of knowledge or of appetite is im­ its intrinsic independence of matter.
mediately specified (distinguished; 3. the highest spiritual power in man;
classified) by its own formal object. hence, intelligence. 4. the source of
(c) Change is specified by its term. the most personal and elevated activi­
specifying cause, see objective CAUSE. ties of human nature. This is a more
specified, adj. 1. named; declared; neutral definition of soul or the spirit­
given. 2. already identified; being dis- ual principle in man. 5. motive; in-
spiritual 290 state

tention; habitual and somewhat emo­ is m the category of quality. 2. the

tional attitude or outlook. 6. the true set of circumstances and relations
meaning or intention of the law that constitute a somewhat lasting
rather than its literal meaning. 7. the way of being or living: as, a state
Holy Spirit, the third Person in God. of prosperity, of war, of political
ABBR. - sp
. independence. 3. a stage, period, or
spiritual, adj. 1. positively immate­ phase of existence; a lasting degree
rial; intrinsically independent of mat­ of development, perfection, or priva­
ter in being and in (at least some) tion: as, the state of infancy, of
activities; not material in its con­ grace, of sin. 4. status or station in
crete nature. See chart on senses of life; a person's or a group's relatively
IMMATERIAL. 2. of, or directly re­ permanent position and function in
lated to, the spirit of man or to the society: as, the married state; reli­
religious or moral aspect of things: gious state; state of slavery. 5. style
distinguished from bodily. 3. of, or of living, expenditure, display, leisure,
directly related to, the sacred, the etc.: as, dukes live in state. 6. the
eternal, and the church: distinguished accident of having on or of having
from lay, political, secular, and tem­ (something) about or near the sub­
poral: as, spiritual interests; spiritual stance; possessing (something) either
jurisdiction. by natural endowment or by natural
*splendor veri, Lat. phrase. often environment. This tenth category, also
used to describe beauty. lit., the known as habitus, may be understood
splendor of the true; the shining narrowly or widely. Examples in­
forth of the ontological truth of an clude: clothed, winged, hairy, thorny,
object; the radiance of form on its scaly, horned, armed, feathered, look­
subject. ing like the immediate environment
spontaneous, adj. 1. acting according (as in protective coloration of in­
to or resulting from natural tendency; sects), etc. The notions of nearness
proceeding from an intrinsic princi­ and ownership (use, at least) are in­
ple in a natural body but not from volved. Some extend the category to
conscious or voluntary intention or such states as being wealthy, vir­
from command; acting in an un­ ginal, married, baptized, etc., as in
forced, indeliberate way. See MOTION; sense 3 and 4, above. 7. a permanent
MOTUS primo-primi. 2. originating its condition, accident, quality, property,
action from within, without being ex­ etc.: as, independence is a state of
ternally applied to action by a force being politically free. This sense is
or by violence against its nature; free often used in defining terms; but it is
in movement. See FREE, sense 2. a substitute for one or more of the
S.T., S.Th., abbreviations for Summa definite senses above. 8. political
Theologiae (Theologica) of St. philosophy. (a) the permanent moral
Thomas Aquinas. union of many families (and
standard, n. a rule, norm, or basis smaller communities) for obtaining
of comparison that is useful in meas­ complete temporal happiness and en­
uring or judging a specified character­ dowed with full authority to exact
istic of a thing or act: as, standards the cooperation of its members for
of weight, moral goodness, academic that end; a sovereign temporal so­
proficiency, market value, etc. ciety; a civic community perfect in
start, n. see PRINCIPLE; BEGINNING; both end and means; the body politic.
OPPORTUNITY. (Aristotle, Politics, III, ch. 9.) (b)
state, n. NOTE: Many meanings of the government of a state; its au­
state imply the notion of something thority. This sense is an improper
relatively permanent or continuous. 1. use of a part for the whole that
a somewhat continuous disposition of is frowned upon in the political phi­
health, of mind, or of feelings. This losophy of the natural law because
state 291 sterilization

it tends to identify the state with dependent state: ( 1) a subordi­

the government. 9. political science. nate part or political subdivision of
a power invested with capacity of an independent state that usually has
diplomatic action with other powers. only limited jurisdiction in lawmak­
10. state o j the question. a review of ing, raising and using public monies,
the history and terminology of a judging cases, etc. (2) a dominion; a
philosophical (or other) problem, the colony.
attempted solutions, and the precise laic (laical) state: ( 1) a state
controverted issue. that professes no specified religion as
A. Divisions of sense 3, affect­ the religion of the state. See I N D I F­
ing man. FERENCE. (2) a state that supports
state of nature (of abstract na­ no religion. ( 3) a state from which
ture; of pure nature), see s.v. HU­ the influence of churchmen in form­
MAN NATURE. ing public policies in areas of com­
state of fallen (lapsed nature, mon interest to church and state and
see original SIN; HUMAN NATURE. in administering the state is excluded
state of integral nature (of origi­ as far as possible; a state controlled
nal justice), see HUMAN NATURE in by laymen for secular interests. Many
its abstract state: contrasted with degrees of this nonreligious (secular;
state of restored justice or of re­ secularized) conception of authority
demption. and common good are possible and
state of redemption (of re­ have been tried.
deemed nature), the permanent hu­ reasons of state, a practical politi­
man condition after the fall of Adam cal good regarded as a motive for
and its remedy through the Passion, action by a state or its government,
Death, and Resurrection of Jesus abstracting from morality, consist­
Christ who has restored the super­ ency, humanity, treaty obligations,
natural gifts to the human race. etc. involved in a decision, act, policy,
state of grace, the fact that a etc.
human soul possesses sanctifying sovereign state, see perfect SO­
grace, which can be a permanent CIETY; SOVEREIGNTY.
quality of the soul if not freely lost. statecraft, n. the species of prudence
Hence, it is called a state rather than that consists in able management of
a mere vocation to grace, an oppor­ public affairs so that the right means
tunity to have grace, or a passing to the true common good are de­
movement of grace. sired, found, and used; political pru­
state of sin, the condition of a dence.
soul guilty of unforgiven original or statement, n. 1. an act of stating
personal sin and not restored to something or of declaring a judgment.
sanctifying grace. 2. affirming or denying a proposition.
supernatural state: ( 1) the fact 3. a proposition, q.v.; a declarative
that man is called to or has received sentence that may be or can be classi­
sanctifying grace, whether in the state fied as true or false but not both.
of original justice or of redemption. 4. a variant or different formulation
(2) a supernatural status or way of of the same proposition, thesis, posi­
living: as, Christian wedlock is a tion, etc.
supernatural state. status, n. see STATE, senses 4 and 5.
B. Division of sense 8. statute, n. a positive law passed by a
confessional state, a state that legislative body and formally promul­
officially supports some one religion. gated; a legislative enactment supple­
Sometimes such a state also legally menting natural, constitutional, and
debars other religions. common law.
corporative state, see corporative ABBR. - stat.
SOCIETY. sterilization, n. the act of rendering
stewardship 292 subaltern

a man or woman temporarily or per­ sophical works which are not mere
manently infertile and incapable of commentaries on Aristotle; he re­
generating children, while remaining established the writing of philosophi­
able to have sexual relations. Tem­ cal works as such. His metaphysics
porary sterilization is induced by teaches a seemingly essentialist con­
drugs; permanent, by vasectomy in ception of being (that which is or
the male and salpingectomy or other can be); the analogy of being be­
surgery in the female. According to tween God and creatures is one of
the motive for which sterilization is intrinsic attribution; actual essence in
induced, it is distinguished as eugenic a creature is only mentally distinct
(for the good of the race but not from the act of existence; act can
of the patient), punitive (for gross limit itself; a being is an individual
crime), contraceptive, or therapeutic because it is a whole substance;
when needed for the patient's present personality is but a mode of being;
health. See human GENERATION. a relation is not really distinct from
stewardship, n. the right or duty to its subject. His theory of knowledge
take care of something whose sub­ is close to St. Thomas' except for
stance belongs to another owner; his view about the direct knowledge
trusteeship. of the material singular. The powers
principle of stewardship: In re­ are not really distinct from the hu­
gard to his own life, health, and man soul and from each other.
powers of body and mind, a person Neither intellect nor will has prim­
has the duties of a steward of God acy; the activity of both is required
and enjoys only such rights as rea­ for formal beatitude. Aseity is his
sonably belong to a steward for the favorite conception of God; depend­
sake of the good of the whole or­ ence is the radical feature of a crea­
ganism and its rightful functions. ture. He stresses the role of will,
stipulate, v.t. 1. in contracts, agree­ regulated by reason, in his concep­
ments, etc. to include definitely in tion of laws; he is thus less intel­
the terms of a contract, agreement, lectualist than Thomas and less volun­
treaty, etc.; to specify as an essen­ tarist than Scotus. He defended a
tial condition, requisite, or object for penal-law theory, but not for tax
an agreement. 2. to choose or arbi­ laws. Political society arises from
trarily determine the meaning of a popular consent, and political author­
sign, term, symbol, etc. See stipulative ity is permanently transferred by the
DEFINITION. community to its ruler. The Pope has
structure, n. 1. something built or no direct temporal power over the
constructed of a number of parts; a various states but has directive spirit­
composite unit. 2. the arrangement, ual power in regard to temporal af­
order, or way in which the parts are fairs and, hence, indirect temporal
interrelated. 3. the specific quality power over sovereigns. A theological
arising from the internal arrangement view that affects some philosophical
of the organs and integral parts of opinions is his doctrine of congruism
a thing so that this definite organiza­ that slightly modifies Molinism and
tion is a sign of its specific form. 4. tightens the sureness of divine fore­
constitution; essence. knowledge and cooperation by the
Suarezianism, n. the philosophical doctrine of congruent circumstances
and theological principles and charac­ for the gift of efficacious grace.
teristic doctrines special to Francis subaltern ( subalternate; subalter­
Suarez, S.J. (1548-1617), or to a nated), adj. of inferior rank; lower;
follower of Suarez. His honorific title subordinate; serving another. In logic,
is Doctor Eximius. "The Excellent a species is said to be subaltern to
Doctor." Though principally a theo­ a genus, a particular proposition to a
logian. Suarez wrote formally philo- corresponding universal one, and an
subconscious 293 subjectivism

auxiliary science to a subalternating ject as known in some way becomes

(superior) one. See OPPOSITION; an object. 11. a power, or one of
SCIENCE. its functions, that is controlled by a
subconscious, adj. 1. occurring or habit: as, the irascible appetite is
present without conscious perception, the subject of the habit of meek­
with only slight perception, or with ness. 12. a holder of a right. 13. a
peripheral attention to it. 2. imper­ person under the authority of an­
fectly aware; not fully conscious. other.
subcontrary, adj. the difference or proper subject, the substance,
opposition between an affirmative par­ substratum, or disposed matter that
ticular and a negative particular is proportionate to or ready for some
proposition about the same subject quality, change, new form, etc.
matter. subject matter, the thing or things
subgenus, n. a genus intermediate be­ discussed in a science or in a propo­
tween the supreme genus and the sition. This does not merely mean
lowest species. the subject of predication in a science
subject, n. NoTE - Subject has two or proposition but the entire set of
central foci of meanings: ( 1) that statements belonging to a science
which is a substratum that bears or theory. It includes all the princi­
something and (2) that which faces ples and conclusions about the formal
objects outside of or other than it­ or proper object of the science.
self. See chart on OBJECT and SU B ­ ABBR. - subj.
JECT. 1. substance considered as sub­ subjective, adj. 1. belonging to, char­
strate to which the act of existence acterizing, emphasizing, affected or
and the accidents belong; the subject colored by, or produced by, the con­
of inherence, i.e., in which accidents scious person; belonging to the inner
inhere. Usage usually restricts sub­ world of the person rather than to
ject to a complete substance and the outer world of things. 2. refer­
does not apply it to a substantial ring to and accenting personal ex­
part. 2. what exists in its own right periences, feelings, impressions, re­
as an ultimate subject of predication. actions, limitations, and individual
3. the thing, concept, or term about differences of persons rather than re­
which some declaration or denial is ferring to and accenting control by
made. 4. the substrate (material sub­ external phenomena, events, and com­
stance; potency; patient) in which mon tests of the true and the good.
accidental change occurs and which 3. highly individual; appreciative and
receives any perfection or form aris­ affective; existing only, or largely,
ing from the change. 5. the potency within the mind of the individual
out of which or in which substantial knower; unobjective. 4. immanent;
change can or does occur. This sense, in, from, and for the acting subject.
unlike 4, includes prime matter as a 5. inferior: as, commutative justice
kind of subject. 6. an inferior of a is a subjective part (species) of jus­
universal concept; a member of a tice (genus).
class. 7. theme or topic of a debate, subjectivism, n. 1. any doctrine on
lecture, class, etc. 8. the first mem­ knowledge that exaggerates the sub­
ber of a relation; the referred. 9. jective elements in some way: e.g.,
a percipient or conscious being: dis­ by denying all direct knowledge of
tinguished from other things known objects, by weakening the value of
as objects of which the percipient experience of objects and preferring
can be aware or by which his cog­ a priori internal determinants of
nitive or appetitive powers can be knowing, by substituting an internal
affected. 10. the ego or self; the self norm of truth for objective evidence,
as thinking; "ego cogitans": the "I etc. 2. any doctrine that admits no
thinking" of Descartes. But the sub- objective norm of morals. Also see
subjectivity 294 substance

RELATIVISM. Philosophical positions tion, service, etc. in a secondary or

that stress the importance of the assistant capacity; supplementing an­
individual person and person-to-per­ other's initiative, efforts, resources.
son relations should be referred to as subsidiary society, a social group
personalist rather than as subjectivist. whose function is or is thought to
subjectivity, n. 1. a quality, activity, be that of helping persons or other
or relation of the conscious and de­ societies: as, the state is subsidiary
siring subject; interiority. 2. the to the needs of families.
knowledge of the existence of one's principle of subsidiarity, the
self: distinguished from knowledge of principle of the political philosophy
one's nature, which is a more ob­ of the natural law that describes the
jective knowledge. 3. the relation of limited function of the state as a
person-to-person as persons or as secondary or auxiliary society: The
subjects having individual traits, state has the duty and right to assist,
value, and autonomy; intersubjectiv­ regulate, and stimulate private socie­
ity. 4. knowledge by connatural or ties and persons only insofar as such
loving insight into another as a per­ public efforts are needed or truly
son rather than impersonal knowledge useful for the common good and
of another as an object, thing, or without any interference with the
being. 5. a tendency to interpret and natural rights of private societies and
value all things according to one's persons.
own ideas, interests, likes, dislikes, subsist, v.i. 1. to exist in itself as
and personal gains. 6. the tendency an individual whole. 2. to continue
in personalist philosophy to empha­ to exist.
size the high value of the singular subsistence, n. 1. the existence proper
existent person and his relations of to a whole and uncommunicated sub­
intimate knowledge and love to other stance; existence that is independent
persons, including a personal God. of another subject in which it has
7. the state or property of being con­ being. This does not mean that it
fined within itself and not open to must be independent of a cause. 2.
the forms of other things: as, the an act of existence that by itself is
subjectivity of an oak because of its a whole being, unshared with any
unconsciousness. essence as its proportionate principle.
ABBR. - subj. See *IPSUM ESSE. 3. the precise per­
REF. - J. Maritain, Existence and fection whereby a nature is completed
the Existent. ch. 3, sec. 18-20. and is uncommunicated to another. In
subject-object, phrase. the thinking a person, this formal perfection is
subject or its acts when they are called personality. There are diver­
the object of one's own thought, as gent scholastic views on what con­
in self-consciousness or psychological stitutes a being to be subsistent. 4.
reflection; the interior subject as the the act of exercising existence.
object of the subject's thinking. subsistent, adj. 1. having being and
sublate, v.t. to deny; negate; take operation in or through itself, not
away: as, sublate the condition. in and through union with another
sublime, adj. grand; supreme; over­ principle or part; existent in itself.
powering in beauty. For person, see *suI JURIS. 2. existing
subordination, n. dependence; the re­ in no subject, not even in an essence;
lation of lower to higher or of in­ existing in such a way that its essence
ferior to superior in regard to causal­ is its act of existence: as, God is
ity, purpose, authority, lasting value, subsistent BEING.
etc. See dependent CAUSE for essen­ subsistent form, see FORM.
tial and accidental subordination of substance, n. NoTE - Substance nom­
causes. inally means something standing un­
subsidiary, adj. giving aid, protec- der another. This function of sup-
substance 295 subsume

porting accidents is .,not the basic substance considered as sub­

nature of substance; substance is strate: ( 1) a finite substance when
rather being that stands on its own, regarded as the subject of the acci­
by itself, or independently. This dents inhering in it or of the changes
ineans independence of a subject of taking place in it. ( 2) a finite sub­
reception or independence in the way stance regarded as the subject of a
it possesses its being; it does not finite act of existence.
inean independence of a cause that substance of a human act, the
inade or sustains it. 1. that which object and intention of the huinan
priinarily exists; a being whose es­ act, but not the circuinstances which
sence naturally requires it to exist are coinpared to accidents.
in itself; an ultiinate distinct subject REF. - Categories, ch. 4-5; Met.,
of being; being siinply; ens per se; VII.
ens in se; that whose act is to stand substantial, adj. 1. belonging to, de­
in being by itself: distinguished froin scribing, having the nature of, or be­
accident. See charts on CATEGORIES ing like, a substance: distinguished
of being and Usages in Regard to froin accidental. 2. being a part of
BEING. 2. the first beginning of a a substance. 3. reducible to the cate­
thing as virtually containing the whole gory of substance: as substantial
subsequent thing: as, self-evident change. An artifact is not a sub­
principles are the substance of a stance and is rarely referred to as
science. 3. a likeness to substance in substantial. 4. iinportant; consider­
being the first or inost real thing able; valuable. 5. strong; firm; solid.
in any given genus: as, substance and 6. actual; real; hence, true.
shadow. substantive, n. a noun or an equiva­
created substance just as sub­ lent group of words used as a noun
stance, a principle of being, pro­ and signifying a substance or a thing
duced froin nothing, whose nature it conceived as a substance: as, cow;
is to be directly related to a created redness.
act of existence in the way that a substrate (substratum), n. 1. a finite
potency or subject is related to its substance considered in one or inore
priinary act. The point is to dis­ of these ways: (a) as subject sup­
tinguish substance froin being (which porting its accidents; ( b) as subject
is substance and act of existence to­ of changes occurring in it; (c) as
gether) and froin the act of existing. passive subjective potency or inate­
complete substance, a whole sub­ rial cause of a whole substance; (d)
stance; a natural unit. as the subject to which the act of
first substance, a singular (individ­ existence is priinarily united. 2. a
ual) substance and usually an exist­ foundation; soinething holding or
ing one. bearing another. 3. in some pantheist
incomplete substance, a constitu­ views. the divine ground or base in
ent substantial part of a whole sub­ which all things exist. See GROUND
stance; an intrinsic substantial prin­ of being. 4. the undifferentiated priin­
ciple in a substance. See FORM; itive inaterial froin which all forms
MATTER. and changes in the universe are con­
second substance, a class of sub­ ceived by soine cosinogonists as hav­
stances; a genus or species of sub­ ing been derived.
stances; substance as a inental inten­ subsume, v.t. 1. to include in a class
tion, regarded as a universal to be of soine kind: as, a variety is sub­
defined. sumed in the species. 2. to bring
separated (separate; spiritual) soine fact or instance under a perti­
substance, a created intellectual be­ nent principle or rule; to show what
ing or subsistent form. See separated principle or rule covers or includes
FORM. the fact, case, or instance.
such 296 supernatural

subsumed minor premise (sub­ being (other �an God, the Creator).
sumption), a proposition that is The term is extended from persons to
logically added or related to another independent states.
premise or preceding conclusion, suitable, adj. fit; fitting for the oc­
either by way of developing the same casion or circumstances; ontologically
line of reasoning or by way of re­ good, relative to the nature, pur­
futing something contained in that pose, needs, etc. about which some­
line. thing is said to be suitable.
such, adj. 1. of this or that kind; summa (sum: rare), n.,· summas
having a given substantial or qualita­ or summae, pl. a complete treatise
tive determination. 2. of the same on some branch of learning (philoso­
or similar kind as something already phy; theology; moral theology; etc.);
mentioned or implied. 3. like, similar a concise organized exposition of all
to, or comparable to, something al­ main doctrines of a given field of
ready mentioned or implied. knowledge, usable for teaching.
as such, being what is already in­ *summum bonum, Lat. phrase. the
dicated, stated, or suggested: as, be­ supreme good; the highest object of
ing as such (ens ut sic) ; man as beatitude.
such. See SPECIFICATION. *summum genus (*supremum
to be such, to be an individual genus); Lat. phrase. the highest
of a certain kind; to be determined class; any one of the ten categories.
by some specific difference, property, Sum. Theo!. ABBR. - St. Thomas
or contingent quality; to belong to Aquinas' Summa Theologiae (Theo­
a certain class of things. logica).
suchness, n. the quality or state of superbeing, n. a neo-Platonic name
belonging to a certain species or a for God, used by Scotus Eriugena
specified kind of thing. Suchness an­ and Eckhart in an effort to stress
swers the questions: What kind of the divine unlikeness to finite beings.
thing is it? What is it like? It does superego, n. the psychoanalytic term
not answer: What is it? Is it? How for the part or function of the psyche
much of it is there? that unconsciously opposes the primi­
sufficient, adj. enough; as much as is tive impulses of the id and resolves
needed (to be, progress, explain, conflicts. It is often misused as a
prove, etc.); equal to the demands, modern name for conscience.
requirements, or specifications; per­ superessential, adj. supersubstantial.
fect in its own order without other superior, adj. 1. higher in position or
causes, means, explanations, etc. elevation; upper. 2. better in au­
self-sufficient, see SELF-sufficient. thority, ability, power, knowledge,
sufficient reason, see REASON. dignity, rank, value, etc. 3. wider in
*sui, Lat. pronoun. of himself; of extension; more inclusive: as, a
herself; of itself; of themselves; be­ genus or common term is superior to
longing to the self. See *sE. the members which are its inferiors.
*sui generis, Lat. phrase. of its own essential superiority, an essential
kind; unique; altogether individual. difference in nature, not merely in
*sui juris, Lat. phrase, genitive of degree, such that the lower nature
possession of *suum jus. (said of totally lacks the special perfections
a person): belonging to himself; hav­ and activities of the higher: as,
ing his own end and rights; having
knowledge is a kind of life essentially
independent existence in both the
ontological and juridical orders and
superior to vegetation.
existing for his own ultimate good; supernatural, adj. 1. exceeding the
self-ruling as a being with his own essence, powers, tendencies, forces,
end, freedom, and rights; not owned laws, possible activities, course or or­
by or existing for the good of any der, and the end of physical nature
superstition 297 supposition

collectively or of any particular context a certain object or objects.

created nature; what i s over and out­ Supposition adds to a noun's mean­
side existing nature and not due to it ing its use and actual reference to
in any way. 2. exceeding human na­ an object or objects, for the same
ture in its constitution, powers, tend­ word may have different suppositions.
encies, habits, scope of possible in­ Veatch and Parker suggest substitut­
tellectual and voluntary activities, ing designation for supposition as a
natural end in beatitude, and the better modern word. 3. the reference
natural means to human beatitude; of a term within a proposition to
any free divine gift that is not due something somehow existent, specify­
to the complete nature of man ing the mode of existence as real,
whether considered in its end, con­ merely logical, universal, particular,
stitution, needs, or means to these. factual, possible, necessary, contin­
3. having such a nature or goal that gent, etc. 4. the reference of the term,
it cannot be caused by any natural as used, to a thing, esp. to the ex­
agent even though it occurs in a pressed or implied extension of a
nature. 4. miraculous; producible only thing. 5. the act of relating or sub­
by God. Modern nonscholastic writers suming one intelligibility (ratio) un­
often refer to God and even to the der another. See SUBSUME; CLASSIFI­
human soul as supernatural. Closer CATION. 6. an assumed principle; an
to theological doctrines as they are, assumption conceded in a discussion;
scholastic writers would not use this presupposed principle.
term of the soul considered without The divisions pertain to senses 2
grace or of God as Author of nature and 4. The terminology is not alto­
and cooperator in natural activities. gether standard in different logicians.
God is a supernatural cause in regard absolute supposition, use of the
only to the order of the events of term in a proposition to stand for
grace, revelation, and miracles. The the absolute nature or the nature as
supernatural is not unnatural; it is such, as is done in a definition; hence,
nonnatural or above the natural, but use of a term to stand only for its
without impairing nature in any way. comprehension or proper meaning.
See NATURE, sense 13. collective supposition, use of a
superstition, n. any belief or prac­ common term for the inferiors taken
tice that: (a) attributes divine powers as a group but not for each of them
to creatures or to some acts of crea­ taken separately.
tures or ( b) gives divine honor to common (general) supposition,
creatures: as, fortune-telling, idolatry, the use of a common term to signify
etc. The rationalist use of the word either a nature common to many or
superstition to describe supernatural the individuals possessing such a
beliefs and practices inconsistent with common nature. This may be called
some scientific opinions or current universal supposition.
ideas is an antitheist and anti-Chris­ confused (indeterminate) sup­
tian epithet but not a description of position, the use of a common term
superstition. for some undetermined member or
supersubstantial (suprasubstantial), unspecified members of the class
adj. better than anything in the cate­ possessing the nature named by the
gory of substance. Pseudo-Dionysius, term.
Boethius, and others thus describe determinate (disjunctive) sup­
God. position, use of a common term for
supposit, v.i. to stand for; act as a some definite members of the class
substitute for. possessing the nature and excluding
supposition, n. 1. the positing of other members of this class from the
something for something. 2. the use reference.
of a substantive term to denote in distributive supposition, use of
supposition 298 suspicion

the common term for each and all (1210-1277), a realist: absolute sup­
of the individuals possessing a nature position; use of the term to stand for
common to many. See DISTRIBUTION; the universal nature signified by it.
distributed TERM. (3) in Ockham (1300?-1349?), a
formal supposition: ( 1) use of a nominalist: use of a term to stand for
term as a sign of a thing, nature, the universal concept in the mind.
or form designated conventionally by singular (discrete) supposition:
it; the term standing in the proposi­ ( 1) use of a term as a sign of only
tion for what is signified by the one individual. This may be a real,
term. ( 2) personal supposition. possible, or logical unit. (2) deter­
logical supposition, use of a term minate supposition. This sense is not
for an object as it is in the mind or restricted to the grammatical notion
for a being of reason. In Ockman's of the singular.
(1300?-1349?) view of universals, ab­ REF. - Peter of Spain, Summulae
solute and simple suppositions would Logicales.
have to be regarded as logical sup­ suppositum, n., pl. supposita. a sub­
positions. stance that is complete in itself and
material supposition, use of a uncommunicated; one ultimate com­
term to refer to the term itself, as plete subject of its own being. Obso­
its spelling or phonetics, but not to lete forms are supposit; supposite.
refer to a thing or nature. Modern See PERSON; SUBSISTENT; SUBJECT'
usage prefers to call this mention of senses 1 and 2.
a term. principle on predication: "A c­
particular supposition, using a tiones sunt suppositorum," i.e., Ac­
common term with a limiting of its tions belong to supposita and, hence,
extension to a particular or indefinite are predicated of the suppositum or
pronoun: as, some, any, a few, sev­ whole that performs them. Thus, the
eral, many, etc., when added to the man sees rather than his eyes; the
common term used. man sees by his eyes. Sight is an act
personal supposition, use of the and a predicate of the suppositum,
term for the objects within its ex­ man.
tension; reference to the extension REF. -See PERSON.
of the objects meant; e.g., reference supreme, adj. 1. highest; best; full­
to all, some, any. ANT. - formal sup­ est; most excellent in some or all
position. Since this type of supposi­ respects: as, supreme Being; supreme
tion employs a term to stand for a authority. 2. final; ultimate: as, the
thing or things which bear the form supreme end of man. For the ultimate
signified by it, Ockham's (1300?- end is also the highest good of a
1349?) doctrine of the reality of sin­ nature.
gulars alone requires him to hold surrogate sign of nature, phrase. a
that only personal supposition has physical or mathematical model de­
meaning or can stand for a signified vised as a substitute for understand­
thing. ing the structure or operations of
real supposition, use of a term as some natural phenomenon or object.
a sign only of an actual being or See MODEL, sense 3.
beings or of something belonging to suspicion, n. 1. an act or state of
an actual being, as its parts, perfec­ mind that believes something or
tions, etc. This usage again involves thinks it probable on little or no sub­
an opinion about what is actually stantiating evidence; a guess or sur­
real, whether possibles are included mise, but not faith nor true opinion.
in the real, etc. ANT. - logical sup­ 2. an inclining to assent to one side
position. but with a weak motive. 3. thinking
simple supposition: ( 1) logical someone to be guilty of something
supposition. (2) in Peter of Spain specified. The word is sometimes
sword 299 symbol

used euphemistically, antecedently to symbol, n. 1. something that stands

a court's judgment of a criminal. 4. for or represents another thing. How­
distrust of some thing or proposition ever, words are seldom referred to as
as bad, wrong, questionable, etc. symbols. 2. specifically. a special
sword, n. a metaphor for sovereign sensible sign, which is usually a ma­
power, full authority, or its plenary terial thing or a ritual act, that
use to compel subjects. stands for and reminds one of some­
the temporal sword, physical thing spiritual and connotes some­
might. the spiritual sword, moral thing unknown, unremembered, mys­
power, such as the right to excom­ terious, or even sacred. A symbol is
municate a subject from spiritual not a natural copy of what it repre­
privileges. sents or of the story it tells, though
syllogism, n. 1. an argument consist­ it may be historically associated with
ing of three propositions so connected it: as, a cross is a symbol of Chris­
that, if the first two are posited, the tianity; a flaming torch is a symbol
third necessarily follows. See chart on of pursuit of truth. As in artistic
INFERENCES. 2. a simple and complete practice, symbolism affectively sug­
argument. 3. any sign of the act of gests, rather than clearly describes or
reasoning. represents, what is to be communi­
categorical syllogism, one con­ cated and what is beyond the sensibly
sisting of all categorical propositions. perceptible. 3. a phantasm as intend­
complex syllogism, one that con­ ing or representing intelligibility in a
tains a complex or compound cate­ material thing and standing for that
gorical proposition. thing before the possible intellect un­
compound syllogi sm, two or more der the influence of the agent intel­
syllogisms in a continuous argument; lect. 4. a written or printed mark,
a polysyllogism or sorites. letter, figure, abbreviation, etc., as
dialectical syllogism, one that standing for an object, quality, proc­
draws an opinion in the conclusion ess, quantity, directive, proposition,
from one or more merely probable etc.: as in music, mathematics, sym­
premises. See dialectical ARGUMENT; bolic logic, etc. Thus, selected letters
PROOF. will stand for any name, any proposi­
hypothetical syllogism, one that tion, or directions about operations
contains a premise that is either a on the proposition; Barbara, e.g., is
conditional or conjunctive proposi­ a symbol for a categorical syllogism
tion. A pure hypothetical syllogism in the first figure containing three
consists of all hypothetical proposi­ affirmative universal propositions.
tions; otherwise it is mixed. Modern symbolic logicians distin­
modal syllogism, one that con­ guish a primitive symbol, which
tain a modal proposition. is a name or term for a notion
perfect syllogism, one presented that is judged to be basic to a
in the first figure and preferably in system or is regarded as intuitively
the mood, Barbara, which is regarded known, and a defined symbol, which
as the clearest way of stating rela­ is an expression whose meaning is
tions to the middle term and thus explicitly stated in terms of the primi­
presenting the force of the reasoning. tive symbols of a system or language.
practical syllogism: ( 1) one 5. psychoanalysis. an act or object
whose conclusion is a singular proposi­ that represents and reveals an un­
tion concerning choice or action. See conscious suppressed desire. 6. the­
CONSCIENCE; practical JUDGMENT. ( 2) ology. a collection or summary of
one whose major is about an end truths of faith drawn up to be an
and whose minor and conclusion con­ official rule for professing the faith:
cern means to that end. as, the Apostles' Creed.
ABBR.-syl. REF. -S.T., II-II, 1, aa. 9-10,
symbolize 300 system

symbolize, v.t. 1. to fashion use, or will's partial independence of God's

understand symbols: as, man is a grace when it is doing good.
symbolizing animal. 2. v.i. to serve as synesis, n. habitual willingness and
a symbol. readiness to judge individual practi­
symposium, n. 1. in ancient Greece, cal cases well according to the ordi­
an entertainment or dinner party nary or customary rules of right liv­
characterized by drinking, music, and ing. It is one type of good counseling.
intellectual discussion. Hence, we See chart on VIRTUES; GNOME.
have Plato's dialogue, The Sympos­ REF.-S.T., II-II, 51, a. 3.
ium. 2. any meeting or social gather­ synonym, n. I. a word or expression
ing at which ideas are freely dis­ that signifies the same thing or the
cussed. 3. a conference, usually of same formal object. 2. a word having
experts, organized to discuss a par­ the same, or nearly the same, meaning
ticular subject. 4. a collection of or sense as another word in the same
opinions or essays on a given subject. language. The opposite is antonym ,
syncategoremata, n., pl. lit., copredi­ a word with opposed meaning.
cates. words without meaning of synthesis, n. 1. real composition; the
their own but modifying in a sentence formation of a whole by putting to­
the meaning of other words (terms) gether its parts or the building of
that do have a meaning of their own. an order by relating members to­
They are words, not terms; they ex­ gether. 2. the combining of forms
press structure, connections, distribu­ into a judgment by experience of their
tion, etc., rather than sense. They union in the object. 3. the mental act
signify together with truly signifying of forming the concept of a species
words. Examples include sentential or of defining it by combining genus
connectives (and, nor, not, or, if ... and specific difference; logical com­
then), as well as whole, none, neither, position; any act of defining by com­
one, besides, alone. bining concepts. 4. the process of
REF.-J. R. O'Donnell, "The Syn­ thinking by which a unified body of
categoremata of William of Sher­ truths is deductively built up through
wood," Medieval Studies, III (1941), elaborating connections of causes with
46-93; Philotheus Boehner, O.F.M ., effects, forms with properties, prin­
Medieval Logic, 19-26. ciples with applications and implica­
synderesis (synteresis), n. the nat­ tions, e.g., in guiding research or pre­
ural habitual knowledge of the basic dicting new facts, etc. This method,
principles of the natural law; the said to move from the simple to
common human knowledge of the uni­ the complex, is also known as the
versal first principles of the practical synthetic method, the way of teach­
order. One such principle is that good ing, the way of explaining the real,
must be done and evil avoided. The and the way of descent. AN T - .

definition given is the Thomistic analysis. 5. reasoning by synthesis or

sense of an originally Aristotelian composition that moves from cause
term. Other meanings of synderesis to effect; hence, a priori reasoning.
have been defended; a voluntaristic system, n. 1. any real or logical order,
definition refers to synderesis as a esp. if it is highly complex and closely
willingness to recognize right reason. unified. 2. a number of bodily organs
REF. - M. B. Crowe, "The Term acting together to perform some one
Synderesis and the Scholastics," Irish of the main bodily functions: as, the
Theological Quarterly, XXIII (1951), nervous system. 3. a plan of classifi­
151-164, 228-245. cation. System atics is the theory and
syneidesis, n. conscience. rules of classifying natural species,
synergy, n. I. concurrence of two or classes, etc. Taxonomy is biological
more causes in one activity. 2. the systematics. 4. a complete, organized,
semi-Pelagian view of the human and coherent set of theories about
system 301 system

various philosophical questions; a tern, able to assimilate new evidence

doctrinal complex that constitutes a and develop additional answers. Its
more or less organic whole, containing systematic character is best seen in
interrelated theses, even if these have the set of act-and-potency theorems.
had diverse historical origins. Some See systematic PHILOSOPHY. 5. a
philosophical theories e.g., the Kant­ coherent but unprovable interpreta­
ian, Hegelian, and Marxist systems, tion of reality or of history. 6. a
arc regarded as closed or complete, regularly used method of doing or
resisting any major new development. making something.
Thomism is regarded as an open sys-
 T
*tabula rasa, Lat. phrase. lit., "blank in natural objects and in the course
tablet." human cognitive powers at of nature.
the start of each human life regarded teleonomic, adj. directed by force or
as having no actual knowledge from tendency of its nature to an end
a previous life or from any innate, without consciousness of this purpose
infused, or a priori source. in the natural agent; directed by
taleity, n. suchness, q.v. nature to survival or better survival:
taste, n. 1. the external sense adapted as, an evolutionary tendency in a
to perceive and distinguish flavors. 2. plant. See types of APPETITE.
the flavor special to an object. 3. telic, adj. directed to an end·' pur-
the ability to notice, enjoy, and judge poseful: as, telic causality.
the beautiful and excellent in nature temperance, n. 1. general moderation
and in art; habitual aesthetic appre­ and control of self in conduct. 2.
ciation. 4. the mean of moderation in the cardinal virtue that habitually in­
merriment. clines a person to moderate use of
tautology, n. 1. needless repetition of sensibly pleasurable things according
the same statement; statements or to the rule of right reason; habitual
parts thereof that add no new knowl­ rational control of the concupiscible
edge, even if they are logically true. appetite. See chart on VIRTUES. 3.
2. a tautologous proposition, i.e., a moderation or frugality in eating: a
statement whose truth or falsity can subjective part of temperance. 4.
be known a priori and without any sobriety in the use of intoxicants:
reference to the facts; hence, neces­ a subjective part of temperance.
sary truths, self-contradictory propo­ ABBR. - temp.
sitions (known as false), and com­ REF. - N.E., III, ch. 10; S.T.,
plete disjunctions. In this meaning, II-II, qq. 141 ff.
favored by modern formal logic, tempt, v.t. 1. to test; try; to put to
there is thought to be some repetition a proof: as, providence tempts our
of the subject in the predicate. loyalty to God. Tempting here may
be an educative or purifying process.
techne, n. a transliteration of the Aris­
2. to try �o p�rsuade or induce, esp.
totelian Greek word for art (techne) ;
to somethmg immoral; give scandal.
practical knowledge of artistic method
3. to arouse desire in; attract: as,
in any art. See POIESIS.
Plato tempts me to reread him. It
teleological, adj. I. relating to final
is this sense that is chiefly meant in
causes, design, or purpose. 2. con­
the temptation to sin. 4. to provoke
sciously purposeful; deliberately di­
or run the risk of provoking by put­
rected to an end.
�ing 3: te��· giving 3: c? allenge, annoy­
teleological argument, the dem­
mg, mv1tmg retahat10n, etc. 5. to
onstration for God's existence as the
dispose or be strongly disposed to.
Designer who planned natures to
tempt God, put a test to God in
achieve natural ends by their own
an irreverent, foolish, skeptical, or
operations; the demonstration to di­
even contemptuous way: as, the
vine existence drawn from finality in
atheist's challenge to God to kill him.
natural bodies.
tend, v.t. often with to or toward.
teleology, n. 1. finality, q.v. 2. the 1. to make its way toward; proceed.
fact of purposeful action in nature. �· to have an �nclination to, disposi­
3. the doctrine that purpose explains tion for, or desJre for some object. 3.
the order and success that are evident to direct oneself or be directed to

302
tendency 303 term

something as an end; move to a goal. A. Divisions of term in senses

tendency, n. see meanings and divi­ 5 and 6.
sions 0f APPETITE. formal term, the form lost in the
primary (per se) tendency, the change or the new form appearing
main or ordinary, regular tendency of as the result of the change. term
a nature unless exceptional factors from which, the state or condition
influence it. of a being at the start of change in
secondary (*per accidens) tend­ it; also known as the terminus a quo.
ency, an alternative tendency; a sup­ term to which, the state or condition
porting tendency: as, the tendency of of a being after a change or at the
an organism to change when it can­ present moment in a still continuing
not fulfill its primary tendency to change; terminus ad quem; total
reproduce its own natural species. term, the whole being either before
tendencious ( tendential ; tendenti· or after the change occurs.
ous), adj. inclining toward a se­ B. Divisions of term in senses
lected object: as, love is a tend­ 7 and 8.
encious union with its object while absolute term, one that refers to
knowledge is an intentional (assimila­ an object considered by itself, pre­
tive) union. scinding from its relations to other
tenet, n. a doctrine or truth to be held objects.
as part of a corpus of doctrine or abstract term, one that names a
of a creed: as, the analogy of the thing or form as it is represented by
sense and of the intellect is a tenet an abstract concept.
of scholasticism. analogous term, one that is predi­
term, n. 1. the first and last points, cated of two or more in senses partly
limits, members, or units of any set the same and partly different.
or series. 2. pl., the members or ex­ categorematic term, one having
tremes of a relation. If subject is meaning when used by itself; one
used to name the first member of referring to an object in nature.
the relation, term is used for the collective term, a common term
second member. 3. the object of a applied to all members with a similar
right. 4. pl., the obligations, rights, nature and constituting a whole unit
rates, duration, etc. of a contract. 5. or group. Such a term, e.g., family,
the object, goal, or end of a tend­ is not applied to the members of
ency, process, etc. 6. the start and the group singly or separately.
ending of a tendency, change, proc­ common (general) term, one ap­
ess; hence, also, solution and dissolu­ plicable to many individuals taken
tion. 7. a sensible conventional sign individually or separately from each
(oral, written, manual, etc.) expres­ other. Hence, in itself it is a sign
sive of a concept; a word (in the of a universal concept.
strict sense). 8. logical term. a noun concrete term, one that names a
or a verb or a phrase used in rela­ substance or a form as it is in a
tion to other terms as a part of a subject.
proposition or argument; any word distributed term, one used in dis­
or group of words that stands as the tributive or explicitly universal sup­
subject or predicate of a proposition; position, i.e., one applied to each of
the distinct elements into which the the members of any group of like
members. The distributed middle term
logical analysis of a proposition or
is the middle term of a syllogism used
argument can be reduced. 9. a word
at least once in distributive supposi­
with a special, definite meaning in a tion.
certain science or context. 10. the equivocal term, one used in al­
mental word as an internal term in together different meanings when ap­
the intellect. plied to different subjects and predi-
term 304 terminism

cates, even though the written or real term, a term of first in­
tonal symbol is the same. tention, below.
incidental term, the part of a singular term, a common term
complex (many-worded) term that with an incidental term that reduces
modifies the principal (main) term by its reference to only one individual
adding some mark of extension, qual­ of a class.
ity, or clarification. subject term, see S"\JBJECT, sense
logical term, a term of second 3.
intention, below. See also main entry, substantive term, a noun or pro­
sense 8. noun naming a substance or a prop­
main (principal) term, the part erty that is thought of as a sub­
of a complex (many-worded) term stance: distinguished from attributive
that stands for the main subject or term that refers to a function or an
the main predicate; the part of a accident.
complex term that is modified by the syncategorematical term, one
remaining parts. that has meaning or reference only
major term, the term of (ordi­ when used in connection with other
narily) greatest extension of those terms. See SYNCATEGOREMATA.
used in a syllogism. In the first figure, term of first intention (real
Barbara, it is the predicate of the term), one that refers to a thing
major premise and of the first direct or nature: as, book.
conclusion. term of second intention, one
middle term, the term in a syl­ that refers to something abstracted,
logism with which the major and or to thought considered as cogni­
minor terms are compared for iden­ tive (not as a real psychological
tity or difference; hence, it is the activity), or to language (terms);
medium of proof. It appears in the hence, it is a term for reflex uni­
antecedent of the syllogism but never versals and constructs: as, meaning
in the conclusion. is a term of second intention.
minor term, the term of (ordi­ undistributed middle term, a
narily) least extension in the syl­ common term that is not used in
logism. In Barbara, it ii the subject explicitly universal supposition at
of the minor premise and of the least once in a syllogism; a particu­
conclusion. ticular term used more than once
negative term, one stating the sim­ as the middle term in a syllogism.
ple absence of a being, form, or universal term, a common term
quality in that to which it refers: explicitly applied to every member
distinguished from privative term. of a class by a sign (incidental term)
Some of its signs are prefixes: Non-, of universality: as, all, every, no,
in-, (il-, ir-), un-, dis-; and the etc.
suffix: -less. univocal term, one predicated of
particular term, a common term two or more with a single meaning.
that in context or because of an Though this may be said of a proper
added particularizing sign applies only term, it is more commonly regarded
to some of the individuals of the as a kind of common term.
class to which the unmodified com­ For properties of logical terms:
mon term applies. see MEANING, SUPPOSITION, APPELLA­
predicate term, see PREDICATE, TION, AMPLIATION, COPULATION. Also
sense 6. see PREDICATION.
privative t()rm, one stating the terminism, n. William Ockham's
lack of something due to a nature. (1300?-1349?) type of nominalism,
See EVIL. holding that universals are only terms
proper term, a proper noun, sig­ or names standing for an individual
nifying only one object. or individuals in a proposition and
terminology 305 theology

that quantity and the last seven cate­ theism, n. I. philosophical sense. the
gories are only terms signifying in­ doctrine of the existence of a single
dividual substances and their qualities personal and provident God; the posi­
under varying conditions. tion that one God exists who is the
REF. -A. Maurer, C.S.B., History supreme Being, in some sense the
of Medieval Philosophy, 259, 277 ff, Maker of all things, intelligent, per­
363. sonal, perfect, and the provident
terminology, n. the set of terms with Ruler of the universe and of men.
their meanings and suppositions that The integral elements of theism are:
are employed in a particular branch (a) God's existence; (b) unity: i.e.,
of knowledge or by a particular au­ monotheism; (c) personal God; (d)
thor. A technical subject has (1) provident ruler of what He has made.
special words for the subjects dis­ See also CREATOR. A theist is one who
cussed in its field, and these tend to holds this position. 2. theological
form a special language for that field; sense. the belief in the God of He­
and (2) special definitions and more brew and Christian revelation: that
precise meanings for older words that He exists, is one, the Creator, and Re­
are commonly used in other senses. warder. These four doctrines seem to
testimony, n. I. a declaration or de­ be a minimal description of theism.
nial of a fact by its immediate wit­ theme, n. a dominant, explicit, direc­
ness. 2. any affirmation or denial of tive, and recurrent principle, ideal,
a fact. Note that testimony does not interest, or method of a specified
concern principles, inferences, etc., philosopher. Adj. - thematic.
but facts. 3. the facts declared or theodicetal, adj. of theodicy; concern­
denied. 4. a record of the reports of ing the defense of God's wisdom and
the witnesses. 5. any evidence or goodness in governing the universe
proof of something. 6. public avowal: and mankind.
as, of one's faith. theodicy, n. natural theology consid­
tetragrammaton, n. a group of four ered as a defense of God's perfection
consonants standing for the holy and providence in spite of the evil
name, Yahweh, in Hebrew texts; in the universe. The name, introduced
hence, the name Yahweh. The four by Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716),
are transliterated by any of these does not satisfactorily name the
sets: JHVH; JHWH; YHVH; theme and purpose of natural theol­
YHWH. ogy.
thaumatology, n. the study of mir­ REF. -J. Owens, C.Ss.R., "The­
acles. odicy, Natural Theology and Meta­
thaumatological proof, a demon­ physics," Modern Schoolman, XXIX
stration that God exists drawn from (1951), 126-137.
the actual occurrence of miracles. theology, n. 1. learned inquiry, study,
thaumaturgy, n. the working of mira­ or teaching about God; wisdom. This
cles or of reputed miracles. definition deliberately avoids the dis­
theft, n. I. the act of taking another's pute whether some forms of human
property and attempting to make it knowledge of God are truly a science.
one's own without the owner's knowl­ 2. natural (metaphysical; philosophi­
edge and against his reasonable will; cal) theology. the portion of meta­
stealing. 2. the property or thing physics in which reason studies the
stolen. Robbery adds the circum­ natural evidences for the existence,
stance of personal violence; forceful attributes, and operations of God;
entry into a building for purposes of the scientific study of the Cause of
stealing adds another circumstance. being. For some nonscholastic writers,
REF. -L. Bender, 0.P., "Furti philosophical theology means the ex­
Definitio," Angelicum, XXX I I plaining and evaluating of the phil­
(1955), 21-34. osophical implications (assumptions,
theophany 306 theory

consequences, conflicts, and concord­ theorem, n. 1. a proposition or truth

ances) of a religious faith. See PHI­ to be proved by deduction from ac­
LOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Natural theol­ cepted premises; a thesis. 2. the last
ogy has been called physical theology provable statement in a chain of
by Varro (116-27 B.c.) to distin­ statements, each of which is either
guish reasoned, reflective theology an axiom or comes from one or more
from popular or mythical knowledge preceding statements that are linked
of God or the gods; by others, in a together by the rules of logic in a
deistic sense, to indicate that it uses given system of logic; a conclusion
nature and natural order as the means in a purely deductive system of for­
of coming to a limited reasoned mal logic. 3. a broad principle or law
knowledge of God as Author of na­ that is not self-evident but provable
ture. ABBR. - nat. theol. 3. Christian from evident premises and that serves
dogmatic theology. "a discipline in as a foundation for other proofs, ex­
which the truths of the Christian reli­ planations, and applications: as, the
gion, based on and illuminated by rev­ theorem on the proportion of a na­
elation, are interpreted, developed, ture to its proper end. A theorem
and ordered into a body of doctrine" may be looked upon as a basic por­
(M.-J. Congar); the systematic study tion of a developed theory or as a
of the doctrines revealed by God as central thesis in a related group.
found in the authoritative sources of Compare AXIOM; PRINCIPLE.
Christian revelation and taught by ABBR. -theor.
the Church of Christ; specifically, theoretical, adj. 1. belonging to a
the theology of revealed truths or theory. 2. deduced only from theory;
of the Christian creed as distin­ limited to theory. ANT. - applied;
guished from study of liturgical, bib­ experimentally tested. 3. considered
lical, moral, and canonical questions; under abstract conditions proper to
"faith seeking understanding" (St. a theory but not in the concrete
Augustine; St. Anselm [1033-1109]). conditions where other factors are
This dogmatic theology may be: (a) also present. 4. purely speculative.
scholastic, i.e., taught by the meth­ theory, n. 1. an answer or solution
ods of the universities in the Middle to a philosophical question, supported
Ages, or ( b) monastic (affective; pa­ by considerable evidence and sys­
tristic; prayerful), i.e., aiming at un­ tematically coordinated with other
derstanding it in order to lead a answers within a doctrinal whole; a
better Christian life. See scholas tic well-founded interpretation of evi­
METHOD and SCHOLASTICISM, sense 1. dence. Hence, a theory is often cer­
4. (Christian) moral theology. the tain whereas hypothesis is more or
theological science of human acts, less probable. Theory should not be
studied according to the principles of confused with a mere hypothesis,
revelation, of authoritative teaching suggestion, or guess. 2. any one of
in the Catholic Church, and of reason, various attempts at explaining the
insofar as these acts are directed to same set of facts or the same prob­
man's supernatural end. Cf. ETHICS. lem: as, the various theories of
REF. -M.-J. Congar, "Theologie," knowledge of realists and idealists;
Dictionnaire de Theologie Catholique, the theories of illumination (St. Aug­
esp. sec. iii of this article. ustine) and of abstraction (Aristotle;
ABBR. theol.
St. Thomas). 3. an exact, critical
-

theophany, n. a manifestation or ap­

statement of the fundamental princi­
pearance of God in nature, in his­
tory, or in human lives; some way ples and main conclusions of a branch
whereby God makes Himself, His or major topic of knowledge: as, the
plans, will, or displeasure known to theory of divine providence.
men. axiomatic theory, a set of state-
theosebia 307 Thomism

ments consistently deduced from sensory perception and, hence, be­

certain initially chosen statements yond the range of experience. If such
that are called axioms or postulates. a thing is known, it is known through
These axioms are presumed to be an a priori form. Thing in itself is
valid in any science. See axiomatic often identified with substance (ens
METHOD. in se) or substantial form.
formal theory, a completely sym­ thing of nature, see NATURE.
bolic language built according to spe­ thingify, v.t. to regard a person as
cified rules from an alphabet of a thing or as a mere subject of a
chosen primitive (intuitive; self-evi­ proposition or hypothesis; to deper­
dent) symbols. The symbols of the sonalize by reducing a person to the
formal theory are an object language. material, useful, or unreal; reify.
theory of knowledge, see s.v. think, v.t. and i. 1. to use the mind in
KNOWLEDGE. any way. This is a general word for
theosebia, n. reverence due to and many types of intellectual activity.
given to God alone. Efforts made by some philosophers to
thing, n. 1. a concrete, singular sub­ put a restricted meaning on the term
ject; a whole individual that is so that it refers only to one or a
neither a part nor a group. 2. any few kinds of intellectual operations
object, fact, deed, event, quality, etc. have not met acceptance, with the
that exists or is thought about or exception of senses 2 and 3. Some
referred to. Thing does not mean the of these more definite meanings cor­
thinking about such an object, etc., respond to English idioms as think
nor the words used to refer to such over, think out, think through. 2. to
an object, etc. 3. essence: the equiv­ consider; to inquire, deliberate, or
alent of the Latin res; hence, one seek for truth without as yet clearly
of the transcendentals. This is the knowing. 3. to use the cogitative
best usage of the term, thing. Note power under guidance of the intel­
that a thing is conceived as a subject, lect when deliberating about a prac­
stable being, or subject of predication, tical action.
while being is conceived primarily as Thomism, n. 1. any doctrine or cor­
act. Thing is said simply of sub­ pus held by St. Thomas Aquinas
stance; accidents are not usually re­ (112 5-12 7 4) or those following his
ferred to as things. 4. sometimes used principles, characteristic views, and
as a synonym or variant for being; methods in philosophy or theology.
that which is. 5. a material object, 2. loosely, in modern times. scholasti­
not a person. 6. an object that can cism. 3. any doctrine commonly
be or is owned. taught by philosophers and theolo­
material thing, one that can be gians who are members of the Order
measured or can undergo gradual of Preachers, to which St. Thomas
change. belonged. 4. the body of philosophical
natural thing, an object as given propositions contained in the Twenty­
in the order of nature; a being with four Theses approved by Pope St.
one nature: distinguished from arte­ Pius X in 1914. This is probably
fact and from a part of the thing. the best and most accurate use of
See sense 1. the label Thomism. This corpus of
sensible thing, one capable of di­ theses is selected from the great mass
rectly affecting the senses by means of Thomistic discoveries and em­
of its accidents, and of being im­ phases and is centered on the doctrine
mediately perceived by an external of act and potency: (1) All being
sense. is pure act or a composition of po­
thing in itself. This is Kant's tency and act. (2) Act is limited
term (ding an sick) to refer to the only by potency. Pure act, then, is
reality in an object which is beyond infinite and unique; all finite and
Thomism 308 time

multiple act is united with potency infinite perfection. (24 ) God, as pure
in a real composition, which is basic­ Act of Being is unique; He alone
ally one of essence and existence. creates being and must cooperate with
(4) Being is based on existence. Di­ every activity of any creature. NOTE
vine and created being are analogous. - numbers of minor theses are
(5) Every creature contains a second omitted. 5. Bannezian doctrines on
real composition, namely, of substance divine cooperation with free will, di­
with accidents. (6) Relation often vine foreknowledge, predetermining
has a real entity other than that decrees, physical premotion, the mode
of the related subject. (7) Though of operation of actual grace, etc. See
simple in essence, angels have the BANNEZIANISM.
double creaturely composition of es­ Aristotelian· Thomist, of or de­
sence and existence and of substance scribing St. Thomas' use, interpreta­
and accidents. (8) The bodily crea­ tion, and development of doctrines
ture is a hylomorphic compound. (10) and methods of Aristotle, either in
Bodily substance is really distinct philosophy or in theological exposi­
from its quantity. (11) Signate mat­ tion.
ter is the principle of individuation neo· Thomism, recent Thomism or
or of numerical distinction between recent scholasticism, especially since
members of the same species of the public universal encouragement of
bodies. (13) Living bodies have a Thomism by Pope Leo XIII in the
soul as their substantial form. ( 14) encyclical, Aeterni Patris, on Aug.
In plants and brutes the soul is not 4, 1879.
produced in itself nor subsistent but REF. - for Thomistic terminology:
totally depends on matter. (15) The Peter of Bergamo, O.P., Index Rerum
human soul is created, subsistent, and Alphabeticus, vol. xxv of the Parma
immortal. (16) The human soul is ed. of Opera Omnia S. Thomae
the only substantial form of a man. Aquinatis.
(17) Man has organic powers that thought, n. 1. any mental activity or
belong to the human composite and process. See note on THINK. 2. men­
nonorganic powers, as the intellect, tal activity: distinguished from feel­
which belong to the soul alone and ing and volition. 3. a search for
are intrinsically independent of any truth: distinguished from contempla­
organ. ( 18) A thing is intellectual tion of it. 4. the interior effect of
inasfar as it is immaterial. In this thinking, as a concept, judgment,
lifetime, the proper object of the conclusion, theory, science, etc.: as,
human intellect is the essences of I have a thought. S. the principles,
bodies. (19) Knowledge begins with problems, usual beliefs and opinions,
the senses. An agent intellect ab­ mental interests, etc. that are current
stracts from sensible things. (20) In­ and general at a given period or in
telligible species abstracted from sen­ a given school: as, the thought of
sible things or their phantasms pro­ Plotinus; the thought of the medieval
vide a direct knowledge of universals. universities.
Spiritual things must be known tilde, n. the wave symbol ,...,, often
analogically by an intellect that be­ used in symbolic logic as the sign elf
gins with sensibles. (21) Will follows negation.
intellect and has both necessary and time, n. 1. "the number (numbering;
free acts. (22) Instead of intuitive measure) of movement in respect to
knowedge of God's existence, we before and after" (Aristotle); the
must know Him by one or more of measure of change of place or of
the five ways, beginning always with linear movement; the determination
created sensible effects. (23) Sub­ of a spread out movement by a con­
sistent Being (Ipsum Esse) is the stantly moving nature. 2. the cate­
essence of God and the root of His gory of time or when; the extrinsic
time 309 totality

accident of a sensible thing whose title, n. the concrete fact upon which
existence is continuous but not simul­ a definite person's right to a definite
taneous whereby a sensible thing has juridical object is based.
a certain position (moment) in the connatural (congenital) title, a
course of events, exists in an inter­ title coming to one from the very
val between changes, or has a dura­ fact of possessing human nature: as,
tion that is measurable by a uniform the right even of the unborn to life.
rate of local change. Sense 1 is time derived (secondary; subordi­
as such; sense 2 is the time of a be­ nate) title: ( 1) a title supplement­
ing or of a change of being or of ing a natural title. (2) a title acquired
duration of a being. Hence, sense 2 by the transfer of an original title
refers to that which is timed as be­ from one holder to another person.
ing in or during time. 3. internal or natural title, one based immedi­
evolutionary time. the intrinsic age ately on the natural law.
of a natural body as indicated by original (primordial) title, the
such features as its evolutionary de­ primary concrete fact or act whereby
velopment, its growth and stage of someone first acquires a right over
decay, its rate of radioactivity, etc.; some juridical object previously not
the effect on a thing of its cumula­ attached to any person.
tive internal changes. One of the positive title, one granted or recog­
difficulties of the Aristotelian notion nized by positive law.
is the fact that it is extrinsic and putative title, a presumed title,
cyclic (repeating the course of time based on a supposed or unproved
uniformly). Yet, even internal time fact.
is more intelligible when rated by ABBR. -tit.
extrinsic time. Note that every con­ tool, n. 1. an instrument, esp, if
ception of time is concerned with manual. See instrumental CAUSE. 2.
measuring change of bodies. 4. the older usage. an organ of the body
measurable rate of continuous suc­ considered as an instrument of the
cessive change. 5. frequency. 6. theo­ organism for a specific function or
logical sense. succession, even if dis­ task. 3. an instrument for learning,
continuous as in aevum. as the Organon or logical works of
absolute time, the calculation of Aristotle.
moments, intervals, and age since topics, title. Aristotle's treatise on the
the moment of the first existence of sources of probable arguments and
the changeable material universe, subjects suitable for rhetorical dis­
symbolized as T 0. cussion. From this work comes the
REF. - Categories, ch. 6; Physics, little used adjective topical, meaning
IV, ch. 10--14; S.T., I, 10, aa. 4-6; probable or dialectical.
46, a. 3 replies: St. Thomas, Ex­ totalitarian, adj. of, characteristic of,
position of Aristotle's "Physics,'' IV, or designating a government in which
lect. 17; John Wild, "Time : the one political party maintains com­
Measure of Change" from Intro-duc­ plete control, makes all opposition
to Realistic Philosophy, reprinted in illegal, and follows a policy of using
D. A. Drennen, A Modern Introduc­ any means at all that seem practica­
tion to Metaphysics, pp. 534-539; ble or useful for gaining the ends
Bruno Cardinal de Solages, "The of the state. Hence, such a govern­
Concept of Cyclic and Evolutionary ment and policy is a variation of
Time" from B. V. Schwarz, ed., The absolutism and Machiavellianism.
Human Person and the World of totality, principle of: as the parts of
Values, 49-56, reprinted in Drennen, the human organism exist for the
id., 546-552; J. F. Callahan, Four good of the whole, man, as steward
Views of Time in Ancient Philosophy, of his nature, must care for the parts
ch. 3, on Aristotle's view. for the good of the whole and may
touch 310 transmutation

consent to injury or sacrifice of a common to all the real; so broad in

part if it be proportionately and scope as to be irreducible to any
proximately necessary for his own category. See common MODE of being.
life, health, or bodily welfare. 3. In Kant, Husserl (1859-1938),
touch, n. 1. any one of the group of Heidegger, Marcel, and others. not
external senses concerned with feel­ derivable from experience, going be­
ing objects, whose end organs scat­ yond experience, and knowable only
tered through the body respond to by the a priori necessary conditions of
pressure, relative heat and cold, pain, human knowledge: e.g., the trans­
well-being, balance, etc.; the minimal cendental ego (self or soul), not
sense of an animal. 2. an act of any merely its acts. See EGO; THING in
one of these senses; tactile sensation. itself. Because of this doctrine about
3. contact with a body. 4. by analogy the way of knowing such realities,
to contact. the immediate experience Kant's philosophy is sometimes
of another being, material or spirit­ named transcendentalism.
ual, or of its causal contact with transeunt, adj. see TRANSITIVE, sense
the perceiver. 1.
trace, n. 1. a remote likeness to an­ transform, v.t. 1. to change the form
other in being or activity; vestige. of. 2. to change substantially by
See LIKENESS; IMAGE. 2. a mark left producing or educing a new sub­
by the action of another. 3. hence, stantial form and removing an actual
any evidence of the action, existence, prior form. The change itself is trans­
or perfection of another. formation or generation.
ABBR. - tr. transitive, adj. 1. transeunt; acting
trace, v.t. to go back from knowledge on something outside itself; having
(information; data; etc.) immediately an effect on another. ANT. - im­
present to find the sources, origins, manent. 2. acting on another in such
ultimate premises, etc., of some facts a way that there is or is thought
or conclusions. The logical tracing to be a passage of power or material
back to primary premises is also from agent to recipient: as, the act­
called reduction. ion of steam on a radiator is transi­
transcendence ( transcendency), n. tive. In formally transitive action,
1. surpassing excellence. 2. existence the agent actually loses something in
in an order and manner above and giving to another.
beyond all other things. 3. existence transmigration, n. the supposed pass­
apart from and superior to the uni­ ing of a soul at death into another
verse: opposed to partial or complete body.
pantheistic immanence of the divine transmission (translation; trans­
(absolute). fer; delegation) theory. the view
way of transcendence, see WAY of the origin of political authority
of eminence. and its original title that God di­
transcendent, adj. 1. supreme; of the rectly confers social authority on the
highest excellence. 2. so excellent that political community as a whole,
it surpasses the limits of created per­ which it exercises by itself or freely
fections and is really distinct from transfers to the ruler of its choice,
creatures. 3. in scholasticism prior to with or without certain reserved
Suarez. See TRANSCENDENTAL, sense rights of the community. Hence, the
2. 4. in Kant and others. See TRAN­ delegated ruler gets his power in­
SCENDENTAL, sense 3. directly from God and is responsible
transcendental, adj. 1. supremely ex­ to the community for use of his
cellent and distinct from others; power. See DESIGNATION theory.
transcendent. 2. going across and be­ transmutation, n. a change, esp. sub­
yond all categories and their defini­ stantial change of: (a) base metals
tions; all-inclusive; applicable to or into precious ones, or ( b) of complex
transubstantiation 311 truth

elements into simpler ones by radio­ truth (truth of thought; true knowl­
active decay or physical bombard­ edge), conformity of mind with
ment by particles. See PHILOSOPHER'S things; judgment conformed to real­
stone for a. ity; adequation (proportion; agree­
transubstantiation, n. This term of ment) of mind with the thing or
Christian theology is used by philoso­ formal object known; representation
phers in discussing change and the of the thing according to itself;
composition of substance with acci­ agreement between what is known and
dents. 1. the total change of one sub­ what is; assent to what is, denial of
stance, i.e., of both its matter and what is not. The famous definition,
form, into another substance. 2. "adequatio intellectus cum re," is a
specifically. the conversion of the correction of Avicenna (980-1037)
whole substance of bread and wine made by William of Auvergne (1180-
into the Body and Blood of Christ 1249). St. Thomas in Truth, q. 1, a. 1
at the consecration in the Holy Sacri­ cites a number of the celebrated
fice, while the accidents of the bread definitions of truth. 3. truth of being
and wine continue to be present. (ontological or metaphysical truth;
trope, n. 1. the predication of a term the true thing), the conformity of
in a figurative sense. Hence, the thing with mind. This conformity es­
tropical or tropicological sense of a sentially is with the exemplar of the
text is a figurative meaning put on being's intelligent maker; accidentally
the literal text. This is not the same and consequently, with the mind of
as an allegorical, mythical, or para­ the knower of its being. Hence, truth
bolic meaning which uses a story to of being is also described as the
suggest a more literal meaning. 2. intelligibility of being; the aptitude
skeptics. a mode of arguing that of being to manifest itself to intel­
shows the need for suspending judg­ lects; knowability of what is first
ment: as the tropes against causality. known by the mind of its maker. 4.
true, adj. 1. conforming to being; moral truth (truth in speech; truth­
agreeing with reality. See logical fulness; veracity), conformity of
TRUTH. 2. certain. 3. truthful. See formal speech with one's mind. See
moral TRUTH. 4. conforming to the LIE. 5. truth in the prudential judg­
idea of an intelligent maker; exact; ment, conformity between the judg­
accurate; right. See ontological ment and a rightly disposed will. The
TRUTH. 5. genuine; authentic. See contingencies of practical action make
ontological TRUTH. 6. conforming to it impossible that the judgment have
the essential characteristics of a to conform to future outcomes.
genus, class, etc.: as, a true rose. 7. Hence, this practical truth is very
rightful; lawful: as, true authority. different from speculative truth. 6.
8. faithful; loyal. correspondence with some standard
true by definition, true because of or measure: as, true to his promises;
an arbitrary definition or because it the true meaning of the first Amend­
follows from a definition. ment; a true philosopher. 7. a truth.
true by report, true because it a proposition or judgment that is true
states usage, as a dictionary states or corresponding with evidence. 8. a
how a word is used, not what the possible application or use of an
thing represented by the word is. axiomatic theory even though the
trust, n. hope based on the word of theory itself is independent of or
one who has promised his help. abstracted from the truth; hence,
truth, n. 1. in general. conformity of validity both within a system and in
mind and thing (or of thing and its applications, if any, outside a
mind). The types of truth depend on system.
which represents and which measures basic truth, in a demonstration,
the other. 2. primary sense: logical a premise that is immediately known
truth 312 type

and appropriate to the topic of the documents reporting the event. (2)
demonstration. philosophical truth. the ultimate
consequent truth, a judgment or causal explanation of some event;
proposition about a contingent matter specifically, the reason why some
that follows from a contingent fact event is regarded to be beyond the
or choice but is not necessarily true power or course of nature. See
since the fact or choice was not an­ MIRACLE. (3) theological truth. the
tecedently necessary. Leibnitz (1646- reference of some event to God as
1716) and C. Wolff (1679-1754) call its author because of the kind of
this truth of fact: distinguished from power needed to perform it and the
truth of reason, which is necessarily circumstances of purpose, manner of
true and whose opposite is contra­ causing it, and direct results, all of
dictory. which are worthy of God's action.
eternal truth, a proposition that truth of meaning, correct refer­
is necessarily and ever true: as, ab­ ence to what is meant or understood.
stract mathematical relations. From truth function of a proposition,
such truths an argument is attempted see FUNCTION.
to the existence of an eternal intelli- truth of the will, moral rectitude,
•
gence that knows them. see sense 6
living truth, a truth founded on truth table, a schema that presents
human experience in living. all possible combinations of the truth
mere truth: (1) a purely specula­ and falsity of related simple proposi­
tive judgment. (2) an object that is tions or of the components of a com­
knowable or known, at least by God, posite proposition; a list, usually in
but has no being of its own; an ob­ columnar form, of the implications of
ject whose whole reality is to be truth and falsity of the opposite, con­
known. Some scholastics, however, verted, and otherwise immediately re­
have given the possibles and futur­ lated propositions when the truth or
ibles an objective truth, an objective falsity of the original proposition is
knowable essence, and have not re­ assumed.
garded them merely as terms of truth value of a proposition, the
divine intelligence. fact that a specified proposition is
necessary truth, see necessary either true or false.
MATTER; eternal TRUTH. REF.-Met., IV, ch. 7; VI, ch. 4;
primitive truth, according to some X, ch. 10; N. Eth., IV, ch. 7; VI,
epistemologists, a primary truth that ch. 2; S.T., I, q. 16; Truth, q. 1, aa.
everyone knows with absolute cer­ 1-2.
tainty and that founds other judg­ truthfulness, n. the moral virtue, re­
ments: as, my own existence, the lated to justice as a potential part,
principle of noncontradiction, etc. that habitually inclines one to tell in
The list of such truths varies some­ a fitting way the truth of what he
what with different theorists. knows, especially when it is due to
transcendental truth, the truth the other.
of being. Logical and moral truth are type, n. 1. the exemplary idea. 2. an
not transcendental attributes. external model. 3. a symbol. 4. a class
truth of events. the truth of what (genus, species, or group), having
has happened. For analytic testing common distinguishing characteristics.
and criticism of events of special im­ 5. the distinguishing characteristics of
portance, it has become customary to the members of a class. 6. an in­
distinguish a threefold truth of dividual person, thing, event, or se­
events: ( 1) historical truth. the facts lected example that very well repre­
about the event, the competence and sents the distinctive characteristics of
veracity of its witnesses, and the au­ a class: as, the human eye is a type
thenticity and genuineness of the of natural finality.
 u
ubication (ubiety), n. I. the presence a power of awareness or with a power
of a body in a definite place; location of self-awareness. 2. not aware of
in space. 2. the accident by which (something); not knowing (it). 3.
a sensible body has its being in a temporarily deprived of conscious­
place; the category of place. ness, as by a drug. 4. not done with
ubiquitous, adj. really or seemingly deliberate attention and intention; not
present at the same time in all places; human as a human act should be;
omnipresent. done with slight deliberation. 5. hav­
*ultima ratio regum, Lat. phrase·. ing to do with forgotten or suppressed
lit., the last reason (argument) of experiences that one is unable to
princes. Hence, the appeal to force; bring back to conscious view. The
the threat or start of war. psychoanalytic term, the unconscious
ultimate, adj., see LAST. (better: the subconscious) refers to
ABBR.- ult. the mass of images, feelings, desires,
ultradualism, n. the view that man fears, impulses, thoughts, past experi­
is two complete beings, material body ences, etc. of which one is not con­
and spiritual soul, accidentally united scious or which one has repressed but
in some way; psychological dualism. which still influence one's conscious
ultrarealism, n. a name for any phi­ life.
losophy that is excessive in its real­ undecidable, adj. describing a propo­
ism or that holds that things exist sition in a system that one cannot
outside the mind as they are repre­ prove to be either true or false within
sented in the mind. It is applied: ( 1) that system.
chiefly, to a Platonist view that ob­ undergoing, adj. being acted upon;
jects are universal, antecedent to the being moved; subjected to; the cate­
mind's operation, that somehow the gory of passion.
universals as such exist in themselves; understanding, n. I. immediate and
and (2) to a Manichaean view that certain knowledge; judgmental knowl­
evil is a positive kind of being. edge. ANT. - science. 2. knowledge
*ultra vires, Lat. phrase. beyond of a thing in its causes; explanation
one's (its) legal powers or authority. through causality. 3. the intuitive
uncaused, adj. not caused; unpro­ habitual knowledge of the first specu­
duced; not created; self-existent. lative principles; intellectus princi­
uncertainty, n. lack of certainty. This piorum. See HABIT. 4. a grasp of some
is a more indefinite term than doubt. subject gained by a general and con­
uncommunicated, adj. 1. not shared; nected view of related truths, facts,
exclusive. See INCOMMUNICABLE. 2. texts, etc. 5. good judgment in dis­
not belonging to another as a part covering the equitable. 6. a grasp of
of it and not united with some other the essence of something; insight;
to constitute one whole suppositum. clear penetration to the meaning of
unconditioned, adj. I. absolute; in­ something. This sense applies to ap­
finite; without limiting causes or con­ prehension as well as to judgment.
ditions; unaffected by conditions. 2. 7. any act of intelligence, including
(The U-). in some philosophies. a reasoning. Careful scholastic writers
name of God. 3. psychology. un­ avoid understanding in senses 6 and
learned; natural or native; not modi­ 7. 8. the possible intellect; the power
fied by experience or association: as, of understanding. 9. the gift of the
an unconditioned reflex. Holy Spirit that perfects the virtue
unconscious, adj. 1. not endowed with of faith.

313
undesirable 314 unit

simple understanding, God's principle of uniformity of na·

knowledge of all the possibles. ture, the general truth about physi­
undesirable, adj. 1. (a) what cannot cal causality: "Necessary agents un­
be desired. ( b) what ought not be der the same complete set of con­
desired. 2. hence, in some way evil. ditions always do the same thing in
The undesirables include the wicked, the same way and in the same
harmful, useless, unpleasant, painful, degree."
deformed, etc. union, n. 1. the act of joining into
undetermined, adj. see INDETERMIN­ one or bringing together wholes, parts,
ATE. or members that of themselves are
undistributed, adj. 1. not used ac­ distinct or separate. 2. the state of
cording to the whole of its extension. being combined together; the unity
2. not used universally at least once resulting from the act of uniting or
in a categorical syllogism: said of being united. 3. agreement of minds
the middle term. The fallacy of the and wills; oneness of mind and of
undistributed middle (term) is equiv­ purpose. 4. a group or society made
alent to a fallacy of four terms or into a single social whole by mutual
the lack of a common term with agreement of its members: as, a state
which to compare subject and predi­ is a more perfect union.
cate. contractual union, a unity arising
undivided, adj. one; whole. from contractual consent of two or
unequivocal, adj. 1. not equivocal; more.
not multiple in meaning; not ambigu­ intentional union: ( 1) agreement
ous; plain; clear. 2. hence, decisive. of the mind with the object known;
The word seems to be used less accu­ a unity of relation between knower
rately for the certain. and known. (2) sometimes. a social
unessential (inessential), adj. I. not union or union of minds and wills.
of the essence or the essential prop­ mode of union, see MODE.
erties. 2. accidental; contingent. 3.
moral union, an agreement of the
not needed. 4. not important, though
minds and wills of two or more to
relevant.
pursue a common end. See SOCIETY.
unformed, adj. 1. lacking form. 2.
personal (hypostatic) union: (1)
without its complete or best form;
a composite unit in which distinct
not fully actualized. 3. said of a vir­
natures are combined in and pos­
tue. lacking the influence, in motiva­ sessed by one hypostasis or person.
tion and direction to the end of man,
(2) specifically. the unity of the In­
that (supernatural) charity supplies.
carnate Word; the union of the di­
unicity, n. uniqueness; unity that ex­
vine nature and of the human nature,
cludes all others from sharing in it;
born from Mary, in the one Person
incommunicable oneness: as, the uni­
of the Son of God.
city of God's being.
tendential union, the relation be­
uniformitarianism, n. the hypothesis
tween an appetite or outgoing tend­
or doctrine of natural sciences (a)
ency and its object: as, the tendential
that the same physical, natural agen­
union of loving act and beloved good.
cies are operating today as in the
unique, adj. 1. the only one of its
past with the same intensities and
kind; different from all others. 2.
in the same general way; and ( b)
the only possible one of its kind;
that all over the universe today,
excluding by nature all members or
wherever the same materials, forces,
equals from its type: as, Divinity
and conditions prevail, the same ac­
tions and results are occurring. is unique. 3. without alternative: as,
uniformity of nature, phrase, the a unique hypothesis.
highly regular course of nature. See unit, n. Two basic senses occur, as in
s.V. NATURE. the case of the adjective one: the
unit 315 unit

metaphysical (real) sense and mathe­ Divisions pertain to the metaphysi­

matical (numerical) sense. cal sense.
I. metaphysical senses. 1. some­ absolute (metaphysical; simple)
thing that is one; something undi­ unit, the indivisible; a simple being.
vided in itself and distinct from accidental unit (*unum per ac­
everything else. 2. a single whole of cidens), a group of individuals con­
some kind. nected together by some bond other
II. mathematical senses. 3. the than that of a single form.
principle of number or measurement; artificial unit, the accidental one­
some fixed quantitative measure used ness that belongs to a combination of
as a standard. This standard will be distinct or separate wholes: as, a
regarded as one unit, e.g., a foot, house, garden, or implement.
watt, bushel, year, etc. 4. a magni­ composite unit, a single whole
tude or number regarded as an un­ that has natural parts.
divided whole. 5. the smallest whole juridic unit: ( 1) a plurality of
number: one (1), the cardinal num­ persons who are legally regarded as
ber. one body or corporation, having a

DIVISIONS OF A UNIT (THE ONE)

(largely applicable also to composition, union, and order)

metaphysical { unique
(simple) common
essence and esse
natural (intrinsic; essential parts
unum per se; (matter-form)
physical (having
natural whole) organic parts
component parts
integral parts
or principles)
continuous extension
substance and proper
accidents
Real
subject having contingent accidents
distinct wholes naturally ordered to each other
(a physical system; quasi-organic unit)
artificial (extrin-
principal cause with instruments
sic; unum per
connected series or sets; the really related
accidens multa
mechanical unit (strictest sense of artificial
per se i unity of
unit): machines a nd artefacts
I real relation)
aggregations (heaps, etc.), merely related in place
or time or by chance; static combinations

Moral
{l natural
conventional
h
supernatural (e.g., t e hypostatic union of the Word made flesh)

{
(social)
juridic
math. objects, abstractions, measures, equations,

Logical
l mathematical

{
etc.
number as measure of multitude
definitions; classes; genera; species
systems ; proofs; propositions
second intentions
grammatical relations
signs and signified
unity 316 universal

common end, and sharing joint re­ specified: as, a universal cause; a
sponsibilities, liabilities, and rights. universal principle. 2. that which is
( 2) a moral person acting officially or is thought to be common to many.
according to its legal authority. 3. that which is shared or shareable
logical unit, a single whole that is by all of a specified class or group.
made one only by an act of the mind: 4. of or describing some one form
as, the relation between sign and or note that is or is thought to be
signified or between the parts of a common to many, that can be speci­
proof. fically the same in many, and may
metaphysical unit, a unit without be univocally predicated of each of
parts; a simple being or nature. the many that have the specified
moral unit, a plurality of persons form: as, a universal concept. The
who become socially one and morally analogously common is not universal.
responsible as though together they ANT. - singular; particular; individ­
were one person. ual. In this sense, universal is often
natural unit (*unum per se): (1) used as a noun with the article tire.
something that is one by its own 5. general. ANT. - special.
nature or by its very nature. (2) See CONCEPT; DEFINITION; PREDI­
something that is undivided because CABLE; distributed SUPPOSITION; com­
it has only one act of existing or mon TERM.
only one form. ( 3) a moral whole direct universal, the absolute na­
based on the natural powers, desires, ture.
and needs of man: as, a family. ANT. -reflex universal, below.
organic unit, a single organism. John of St. Thomas (1589-1644)
This is a natural composite unit. calls this the metaphysical universal.
physical unit, a composite natural A few say the direct universal is the
unit. common nature; this may mean the
real unit, an existing undivided same as the absolute nature.
thing, either natural or artificial. formally universal (universal
simple unit, a metaphysical or ab­ form): (1) that which is one and
solute unit; an indivisible whole. many as such; a form that is in
R EF. -Met., V, ch. 6; X, ch. 1; some way one and many; one form
S.T., I, q. 11; 30, a. 3; C.G., II, ch. that is specifically common to many
56. and may be univocally predicated of
unity, n. see UNIT; AGREEMENT. many; hence, the absolute nature;
formal unity: (1) the unity of a the essential definition of a thing; the
being because it has only one sub­ abstracted form that many can have.
stantial form. (2) the unity of many (2) Platonism. an individual form
because they have the same type supposed to be both one and many;
of form; the unity of a class. This a real universal thing, form, or Idea;
may be generic or specific unity. a universal in re because, though one,
( 3) the unity of analogy or propor­ it is a universal res: as, the Idea
tion between those that have an im­ of Good. See ULTRAREALISM.
perfectly similar form. fundamentally universal, the
numerical (transcendental) unity, basis or objective feature (ratio)
the indivision or undivided wholeness in finite things that justifies and gives
of a single real being. meaning to a universal concept and
transcendental unity, the prop­ common term. This will be explained
erty of indivision that belongs to rather differently by Platonism, vari­
each being. ants of modern realism, terminism,
universal, adj. 1. belonging to, char­ etc. These different explanations
acteristic of, existing for, influencing, should not, however, change the defi­
including, or applicable to all mem­ nition of fundamentally universal;
bers or to the whole of something they change the identification of it
universal 317 universal

in the concrete. Some call whatever universal form, the formally uni­
universality or justification for uni­ versal, in both senses.
versality there is in the individual universal in causing, a universal
things of a class the universal in re. cause; a being that can or does
John of St. Thomas (1589-1644) calls produce many different effects. See
it the material universal. Suarez sense 1.
seems to mean this by his physical universal in essence, one nature,
universal (also universal in re; mate­ numerically or specifically the same,
rially universal), i.e., the existent na­ that can be, is, or is thought to be
ture itself. Many moderate realists in many distinct individuals; for­
identify the fundamental universal as mally universal.
the real essence or real nature or universal in intention: ( 1) uni­
that real note in a concrete individual versal in representation. (2) universal
that can be abstracted for the formal in predication.
universal concept, i.e., for the repre­ universal in predication, desig­
sented common nature. See also nating a term for a typical form that
MATERIALLY, sense 7. can be affirmed of or is attributed
logical universal (a post-Thom­ to many in a univocal and distributed
istic term): (1) Scotus. the univer­ sense; one name applied in exactly
sal in the strict sense, i.e., the meta­ the same sense to many objects taken
physical universal conceived reflexly singly. See common TERM; distributed
in its predicability and analyzed into SUPPOSITION.

its constituent notes; the reflex univer­ metaphysically, physically, and

sal. (2) Suarez. universale post rem. morally universal, this triple divi­
metaphysical universal: (1) sion of the universal in predication
Scotus. the common nature not as refers to its extension or applica­
it actually exists in individuals, but bility to all without exception, to
with the characteristics it has from all by physical necessity, or to all
intellectual abstraction, namely, posi­ by moral necessity. See moral
tive indetermination and proximate NECESSITY, sense 2, for a parallel.

potency to be predicated of many universal in representation, that

individuals. (2) John of St. Thomas. which represents something univocally
the nature itself. ( 3) Suarez. the common to many individuals; a uni­
universale ante rem. versal concept, whether direct or
a natural universal (Ockham), a reflex.
universal concept regarded as a fact *universale ante rem, the uni­
of nature, found among all men, and versal prior to the (individual) thing;
not a convention, consisting in a the idea of the type.
natural sign, prior to and independent *universale in re, the universal
of any verbal expression or identifi­ in the individual thing; the form in
cation, and predicable of many. the individuating matter; the real
universal. This may be understood
physical universal (a post-Thom­
istic term): ( 1) Scotus. the specific or identified in a variety of ways:
as formally or fundamentally uni­
nature existing really in individual
versal; as a likeness between finite
objects. It cannot exist extramen­
forms; the specific finite form; the
tally without hecceity but it is sus­
finite form itself; Scotus' common
ceptible of various hecceities. (2)
nature; a Platonic form; a mere be­
Suarez. the universale in re.
ing of reason; as a simple error.
reflex universal, that which is ex­
Suarez calls this the physical or
plicitly recognized to be one and material universal.
common to many; something known *universale post rem, the uni­
to be a species or genus. See logical versal after the (individual) thing;
UNIVERSAL, sense 1. hence, a universal concept or a term
universe 318 unnatural

representing a universal concept. univocal, adj. I. having only one

No writer's terminology on meta­ meaning; single-valued in meaning. 2.
physical, physical, and logical uni­ having exactly the same meaning
versal has become common modern when used of many; applicable either
usage. to one or to the individual mem­
The problem of universals is an bers of a class in an identical mean­
aspect of the problem of the one ing. 3. having the same nature or
and the many; and it has many form or objective characteristic as
facets. It concerns the reality or de­ others so that an identical essential
gree of reality of the universal na­ definition may be truly predicated of
ture, the reality of natural classes, it and of the others.
the truth of universal concepts, the univocation, n. the property of be­
right or wrong meaning of common ing univocal in nature, in meaning, or
terms, the truth of any general prin­ in representation.
ciples and their applicability to exis­ univocity, n. that property of a con­
tents, the validity of generalized laws cept or term by which it refers to
of nature and moral precepts, etc. different objects in the identically
Can a nature in any sense be both same sense.
one and many? Can a single concept unjust, adj. contrary to justice in
representing a single form truly rep­ general or to any species of justice;
resent many objects? Are universals unfair.
only convenient words without uni­ efficaciously unjust, actually, ex­
versality in meaning? The positions ternally infringing on another's right;
roughly are grouped as terminism, actually causing injustice, not merely
nominalism, conceptualism, moderate planning it.
realism, ultrarealism (Platonism). formally unjust, deliberately at­
ABBR. -univ. tacking another's right, knowing that
REF. - On the many aspects of one's act is unjust; unjust in in­
the problem and meanings of univer­ tention.
sal, see E. Gilson, History of Mediae­ materially unjust, attack on an­
val Christian Philosophy in the West; other's right in fact, but without in­
A. Maurer, C.S.B., A History of tention to do so: as, "theft" by
Medieval Philosophy; F. C. Coples­ one who absent-mindedly walks away
ton, History of Philosophy, II, ch. 14. with another's book.
universe, n. I. the totality of crea­ unknowable, adj. I. that cannot be
tures regarded as constituting some known. 2. that cannot be known by
type of unit. 2. the world regarded man under the given conditions for
as one comprehensive order. human knowing of the nature of what­
moral universe, the totality of ever object is said to be unknowable.
relations of persons considered as 3. that cannot be known by man un­
moral beings, with their human dig­ der the conditions postulated by a
nity, moral knowledge, human acts, particular theory of knowledge.
responsibilities, rights, merits, etc. : NorE -The unknowable is not to
distinguished from physical universe be confused with the mysterious, with
or physical nature. the incomprehensible, and with the
universe of discourse, phrase. I. obscurely and partially known.
the restricted, fictional, or hypotheti­ The Unknowable, God or abso­
cal order, system, or framework in lute reality, according to some sys­
which certain things are said to be tems of philosophy. See sense 2.
true or false. 2. the totality of as­ the unknowable, anything outside
sumed facts, ideas, definitions, and the range of merely sensible experi­
rules within a limited or arbitrary sys­ ence, according to various philoso­
tem or discussion; an admittedly phies. See sense 3.
partial view. unnatural, adj. contrary to nature be-
unparticipated 319 utilitarianism

cause: (a) it is contrary to the order means to a determined end. Some

of reason, or ( b) degrading to the prefer to say guided rather than
special dignity of man, or ( c) deliber­ commanded by reason. See supra,
ately preventive of the natural pur­ p. 147. 3. passive use. any act of the
pose of the act being performed. See will or other powers controlled and
contrary to NATURE. impelled by the prior voluntary act
unparticipated, adj. unshared; exclu­ known as active use; obedience
sive; unique (in sense 2); having to the executive order of the will.
being and pure perfections by (from) 4. the rightful enjoyment of prop­
its own essence. erty: as, by dwelling on it, eating
unreal, adj. 1. in no way existing; its products, etc. 5. treating or em­
having at most logical being. 2. fanci­ ploying something as an instrument.
ful; not actual. 6. usefulness; utility.
unreasonable, adj. 1. not using rea­ use of a term, see formal SUP­
son. 2. willfully refusing to use reason POSITION.

when one ought to do so. 3. showing use right, right to use. Ordinarily,
poor practical judgment. 4. immoder­ it means mere use right or indirect
ate; excessive; not based on reason ownership permitting use of what
or without appeal to reasonable peo­ another owns.
ple. 5. contrary to right reason, e.g., use value, see VALUE.
to the norm of morals; hence, morally useful, adj. that which is suitable as
evil in the sense of objective im­ a means to an end; that which an
morality. agent desires and uses not for its
unreceived, adj. not existing in some own sake but for its help in gaining
subject and not communicated to an­ some other good.
other coprinciple; subsistent. *ut sic, Lat. phrase specifying what
untrue, adj. 1. false; contrary to precedes it. lit., "as such." referring
logical truth. 2. untruthful. 3. not back to the thing, idea, term, etc., just
genuine; not actual; contrary to mentioned; as it is in its pure, natu­
metaphysical truth. 4. unfaithful; not ral, unmodified state. The commonest
keeping one's agreements, contracts, use is in the phrase ens ut sic, being
oaths, promises, vows, pledge of as such, i.e., being as being, q.v.
loyalty, etc. utilitarianism, n. 1. in general. a view,
*unum per accidens, Lat. phrase. doctrine, or practice that judges the
accidental UNIT, q.v. worth or value of anything solely
*unum per se, Lat. phrase. natural or chiefly by its usefulness to some
UNIT, Q.V. specified person, interest, government,
unwillingness, n. 1. involuntariness policy, etc. 2. specifically: (a) in
in the act of the will: distinguished theory of knowledge. the doctrine
from willingness and simply not will­ that truth depends on usefulness for
ing. 2. acting with reluctance, slow­ X, or that what is expedient is true;
ness, strain, etc. in accepting, con­ hence, it is a pragmatic criterion of
senting, doing, giving, suffering, or truth. ( b) in ethics. the doctrine that
any active or passive use of the will. what is useful for X is morally good,
*urstoff, n., German. the primitive esp. if it promotes the greatest happi­
material out of which the universe
ness of the greatest number now.
evolved. See primordial CREATION;
( c) in ethics. the doctrine that the
YLEM.
end justifies the means. (d) in poli­
use, n. 1. exercise of one's powers in
view of an end; practice. 2. active tics. the doctrine that, if it is for the
use. the act of the executive will, good of the state or if it "works,"
commanded by reason, applying the it is right. (e) in art. the view that
powers to use definitely selected only the functional is beautiful.
 v
vacuum, n. a place or space not oc­ value, n. 1. in general. the good; any
cupied by any body; completely good; worth; anything that in any
empty space. The term is also associ­ way appeals to a conscious agent, esp.
ated with the Greek atomists' theory to a human will. 2. logic. logical
of the origin of the ordered universe validity; soundness; correctness. 3.
by chance movement of the plenum metaphysics. (a) the perfective good.
(full) through the vacuum (void) In this sense it agrees, too, with
until the elements fell together into genuine ethical value. ( b) the esti­
a cosmos. mated good of an object rather than
valid, adj. 1. having legal force; le­ its intrinsic good, i.e., its goodness
gally and morally binding. 2. effec­ to me (to a subject) or its degree
tive; firm. In this sense an act may of good in my judgment. (c) the
be valid though illicit. 3. sound; useful good; esp. in the adjective,
based on evidence and capable of valuable. 4. ethics. the good worthy
withstanding criticism. 4. correct or of man and conformed to the moral
consecutive according to the rules of standard; the good as object and esp.
logic: as, a valid conclusion. Com­ as acceptable object of moral choice.
pare LICIT. 5. property. the estimated equivalent
validate, v.t. 1. to make valid; to or price for some material good.
make some act (contract, promise, Modern philosophical writing often
law, etc.) binding in law or morals. prefers the term value for the good,
2. to make good or legally sound a goodness.
previously invalid or null act. Re­ emotive theory of ethical value,
validate is sometimes used for this the view of logical positivism that
sense. ethical value judgments express hu­
validity, n. the fact, property, or state man feelings but not facts about ob­
of being valid, correct, binding, or jective good or evil in human acts
valuable. and their formal objects.
objective validity of a concept, exchange value (cf. sense 5):
the fact that a concept truly corre­ ( 1) the aptitude of a thing to obtain
sponds to some extramental object or other things in return for handing
feature of reality; a logically true it over. ( 2) market value.
concept because measured by objec­ hierarchy of values: ( 1) the ob­
tive evidence; as, the objective valid­ jective comparative worth of differ­
ity of a universal concept must some­ ent goods or activities: as, the rela­
how be found in singular things. tive good of pleasures, health, rights,
valuation, n. 1. an estimation of the learning, honor, virtues, self, God, etc.
evidences for or against the merit, ( 2) one's set of values; one's esti­
utility, truth, expected success, etc. mates or preferences of the compara­
of something. 2. the integral part of tive importance of different goods,
prudence which rightly judges the ad­ goals, and activities.
vantages and disadvantages of various intrinsic value, the worth or good­
means and methods available or pro­ ness of some natural object or human
posed to accomplish some good pur­ activity considered in itself or in its
pose. The term may be used also for natural function, independently of
the potential part of prudence known human esteem, desire, compensation
as good judgment. 3. determining the for it, etc.; objective value: as, the
price or value of something. 4. the intrinsic value of working for one's
known or estimated price. living may differ from the wage actu­
ABBR.-val. ally received.

320
vanity 321 verify

market value (cf. sense 5). the on one who has sinned: distinguished
price that a commodity can be ex­ from revenge. See VINDICATE.
pected to bring when sold in a given Venn's diagrams, phrase. named
market. from the mathematician John Venn
philosophy of value, an investi­ (1834-1923). A system of graphic
gation of the objects that move the presentation of subjects and predi­
human will. This is a material, not cates in propositions and syllogisms
a proper, object. by using overlapping circles, by shad­
subjective value: (1) valuation. ing certain areas for the universal
(2) the worth put upon a thing by term, and by marking the area of
the person desiring, offering, or using the particular or of the class member
it even if its objective or natural by x.
value is much higher or lower. See veracity, n. truthfulness.
sense Jb. verb, n. a word expressing action,
truth value, see TRUTH. existence, occurrence, presence, or
use value, the current suitability passion (receiving of action). Verbs
of an object or service to meet human signify action, consignify time. Verbs,
needs. as such, are not terms.
ABBR.-val. verbal, adj. 1. concerned merely with
vanity, n. the habit or act of desir­ words; nominal: as, a verbal dis­
ing praise beyond one's worth, for tinction. 2. of, in, or by words or
what one has not done, or from those merely in words: as, a verbal report.
who would overestimate its degree verbalism, n. 1. any expression in
of worth; boastful display of one's words. 2. words only; any nearly
worth; excessive pursuit of glory. meaningless phrase, form of words,
Vainglory is intense vanity. distinction, etc. 3. use of words with­
variable, n. 1. in a predicate calculus. out any real meaning; nominalism.
a symbol used to designate any term 4. a tendency to use, play with, and
whatsoever. Hence, any noun or pro­ quarrel over words, without serious
noun may be substituted for it, for attention to things and to truth.
it functions as a placemarker for a Verbum, n. the Son of God; the
name. 2. in a propositional calculus. Word; the Christian Logos or divine
a symbol standing for any proposi­ Wisdom. See WORD.
tion whatsoever. Hence, the symbol verbum, n. the interior word. See
(p, q, r ...) that has no determinate, WORD.
independent, unchanging meaning. See verify, v.t. 1. to prove to be true
APPENDIX, logical notation. by the evidence of facts, testimony,
vegetal, adj. 1. having or belonging to demonstration, revelation, or addi­
the nature of plants. 2. having the tional confirmation of what is already
properties common to plants and ani­ established as true. 2. to test or check
mals but not those specific to ani­ the accuracy or correctness of, as by
mals or men: sc., nutrition, growth, repeating an experiment, reexamining
irritability, reproduction. a process of reasoning or reducing it
vegetative ( vegetive), adj. having to first principles, comparing with
or describing the functions of plants a standard, etc.
or of animals, too, insofar as they verifiability, the aptitude of some
have the functions of plants. proposition to have its truth, its ob­
velleity, n. 1. mere wishing without ject's stated existence, or its correct­
any purpose of acting; a wish with­ ness proved or disproved. Verifiabil­
out action. 2. a very weak desire. ity, then, will depend upon what tests
3. a desire for what is known to be are set up by a philosopher. scien­
impossible. tist, historian, etc.
vengeance, n. an act of justice by verification, principle of, some
which a superior inflicts a penal evil general standard to justify the truth
veritable 322 virtually

of a statement or the existence of tempered wth mildness and mercy; it

the object as stated. The modern use, does not mean emotional, vengeful,
taken from A. J. Ayer by logical excessive, and often unjust action.
positivists, insists on objects of sen­ 4. to succeed in defending a claim
sory experience as only verifiable. to innocence, rights, merits, etc.;
Scholasticism appeals to objective evi­ hence, to establish innocence of the
dence, which includes the intelligible. accused or suspected or to take pos­
veritable, adj. 1. true; corresponding session of a right.
to the truth. 2. having all the at­ violence, n. 1. action contrary to the
tributes of the person, thing, or class nature of a thing. 2. formerly. force
specified. Here the meaning is close making an element move from its
to ontological truth. 3. absolutely as natural place. 3. physical force or
stated. moral threat externally applied to a
verity, n. 1. logical truth. 2. esp., a moral agent and tending to compel
fundamental principle or permanent him to act contrary to his own in­
truth. clinations or his own truly free choice.
eternal verities, eternal truths. See FORCE and fear.
vestige, n. 1. a trace; mark; remote virtual, adj. NoTE -This term and
likeness to another: as, a footprint its adverb, virtually, seem to be de­
is a vestige of a man. 2. a trifling rived from the fourth sense of virtue,
relic or faint sign of something that sc., power, efficacy. Virtual is inter­
has disappeared or is not directly mediate between actual (formal) and
and properly knowable: as, grass is nominal (merely apparent). 1. of or
a vestige of God's beauty. See LIK E­ proceeding from the power of a thing.
NESS. 2. having potency; being effective.
via, n. way; method. See WAY. 3. present in a latent, masked, equiva­
*quinque viae, Lat., the five ways lent, or partly undeveloped form; pre­
of St. Thomas in S.T., I, q. 2, a. 3 contained. 4. having the equivalent
to demonstrate that God exists. perfection, value, power, usefulness,
viator, n. see *HOMO VIATOR. etc. as something else. 5. having the
vice, n. 1. any bad operative habit; same or nearly the same effect as
a habit that disposes a subject another, though not having the same
wrongly. 2. specifically. a moral bad nature, form, appearance, etc.; alike
habit. or equal from the viewpoint of prac­
capital vice, one that serves as tical results: as, synthetic substitutes
a final cause to incite other evil acts for natural substances; errors that
to gratify the passions involved in accidentally lead to discoveries; hom­
the vice. As virtue is a mean between ologous structures.
extremes, vices may occur by defect virtuality, usually pl., n. qualities,
or by excess of the true good: thus, accidental forms, and proper acci­
rashness and cowardice are both vices dents hidden or precontained in a
against courage. nature, but considered to be not yet
vicious circle, phrase. see CIRCLE. fully actual or not yet evident.
vindicate, v.t. 1. to clear from blame, virtually, adv. 1. by way of active
criticism, persecution, suspicion, etc. potency; after the manner of a cause.
2. to uphold a person or cause by See natural LAW virtually considered.
good evidence; to defend against op­ 2. not actually or formally, but equiv­
position. 3. to defend the common alently, implicitly, efficaciously, and,
good, its authority, rights, etc. against sometimes, even eminently. Illustra­
criminals or external enemies, esp. by tions of this difficult term: the good
imposing legal penalties. This defen­ in an effect is said to be virtually
sive act is known as vindicative or in its cause; the properties (some­
retributive justice. Unlike vindictive­ times called the virtualities) are vir­
ness, vindication is virtuous and is tually in the essence; the particulars
virtue 323 virtue

are virtually known in the universal; center on which a cluster of related

the conclusion is virtually in the virtues depends for its special intel­
premises; the whole law is virtually ligibility and classification. The parts
contained in its primary principles; or members of any cardinal virtue,
the soul by intrinsic union with the considered as a genus, are of three
body is virtually material; the forms kinds.
of lower levels of life and of the integral parts, constituent dis­
biochemical elements of the human positions and acts of the soul that
body are virtually contained in the are required for a perfect act of
one form, the spiritual soul; the hu­ a virtue, though not all of them
man soul virtually contains its body are essential to the being of a vir­
but is not contained by it; being is tue and not all of them are exer­
virtually prior to the transcendental cised every time that an act of
properties; man's natural end is vir­ the virtue is performed. Some of
tually attained in his supernatural them, especially the sense of shame
end; any one divine perfection is and the sense of propriety con­
virtually many perfections; an act nected with temperance, are called
with a good and bad motive is a quasi-integral parts.
virtually multiple act; efficient causa­ potential (analogous; allied;
tion is virtually transitive though no affiliated) parts, virtues somewhat
being or accident proceeds into the like one of the cardinal virtues or
patient. like one of its species, but lacking
virtue, n. 1. a good operative habit the complete nature of the cardinal
in man; an operative habit perfect­ virtue, and each having a distinct
ing rational powers so that they act formal object. The term, quasi­
according to the rule of reason; a potential parts, also occurs, esp. in
human habit that makes its possessor reference to prudence.
good and his work good. The point subjective parts, complete spe­
of human control of the virtue should cies of a cardinal virtue, specifi­
be noticed, as in the case of HABIT. cally distinct from each other.
2. general moral excellence; justice in Christian virtue: ( 1) one spe-
the broad sense. 3. a good and lasting cially taught and recommended by
characteristic of some thing or occu­ Christ. It need not be a theological
pation; worth. 4. effective and last­ virtue. (2) a virtue practiced, em­
ing power or force. This is especially phasized, and brought to higher per­
associated with ability to heal or to fection by Christ and His followers.
strengthen: as, the virtue of cortisone. form of virtue, see FORM.
5. a member of the fifth order of general virtue, a virtue that can
angels. influence all other virtues; hence, jus­
cardinal virtue, any one of the tice, religious service of God, and
four principal moral virtues; a proxi­ magnanimity.
mate genus of moral virtue. The infused virtue, a good habit given
name cardinal seems to come from to the soul by God, not acquired by
St. Ambrose (c. 333-397). The word the action of man; "a good quality
may mean: ( 1) principal, as treating of the mind by which we live righ­
a fuller type of human goodness than teously, of which no one makes bad
merely intellectual virtues; (2) gen­ use, which God works in us without
eral, as meeting a general need in us" (St. Augustine, On Free Will, II,
leading a good life; or ( 3), lead­ ch. 19). Infused virtues may be theo­
ing or controlling (a) because these logical, moral, or intellectual.
habits control stronger passions or intellectual virtue, a good habit
( b) are concerned with an end to of the intellect, e.g., the arts and
which the other virtues of their group sciences. Prudence is a moral virtue
are means. Each cardinal virtue is a though its subject is the intellect.
virtue 324 virtue

mean of virtue, see MEAN, sense feet virtue: as, interracial kindness is
6. natural to a young child.
mode of virtue, the good man's political virtue, any of the vir­
way of practicing virtue, namely, de­ tues that make a person a good
liberately, for the sake of the good, member of the state; civic goodness
regularly, and according to the mean. of the reasonable man. These virtues
moral virtue, a good habit of the include legal justice, patriotism, polit­
will whose formal (immediate) ob­ ical prudence, and distributive justice
ject is a type of means by which the in rulers.
last end of man is attained; "a supernatural virtue, an infused
state of character concerned with virtue whose principle of origin is
choice, that consists in a mean deter­ God's grace, whose formal object is a
mined by a rational principle such supernatural means or supernatural
as the man of practical wisdom would end for man, and whose ultimate pur­
use" (Aristotle). Moral virtues in­ pose is man's supernatural destiny.
clude all those connected with the theological virtue, a supernatural
four cardinal virtues. They may be virtue whose immediate object is
natural or supernatural. God. Besides the famous trinity of
natural virtue: ( 1) one whose faith, hope, and charity, some of the
causes of origin and of development, gifts of the Holy Spirit would fall
into this category.
end, and object are natural to man.
NoTE -Acts of the virtue often
(2) St. Thomas. a natural disposi­
have the same name as the habit; but
tion or tendency in a moral agent
again, the habit may be practiced by
to some human perfection; a seed of many kinds of acts, as charity is
virtue or an imperfect virtue: dis­ practiced by forgiveness, alms, com­
tinguished from an acquired or per- passion, etc.

THE MORAL VIRTUES

1. A set of natural (acquired) moral virtues

2. A set of supernatural (infused) moral virtues

Cardinal Subjective parts Potential parts Integral parts

(Genus) (Species) (allied; associated; (constituent disposi-
relative to the cardinal tions; acts needed
virtue) for fullness)

PRUDENCE In self-direction
(personal
prudence)
Counsel (eubulia)
Good judgment
(discretion)
{ memory
synesis docility to counsel
and to training
In home-direction gnome correct practical
(domestic; Ability in command reasoning
economic) Ability in execution valuation
In statecraft (diligence) quickness of percep-
(political) tion (quick wit)
Add: inventiveness
business man- foresight
agement circumspection
school admin- caution (carefulness)
istration promptness
military plan- decisiveness
ning and finesse (tact)
leadership
----------------------------------------------------
virtue 325 virtue

JUSTICE Commutative To God: Give another his right

justice Religion; Penance or due
Distributive To subjects: Avoid injury to
Legal (con­ Equity ; Vindication others
tributive) To parents:
Social ? Piety
To all superiors:
Obedience; Respect
( reveren ce; observance)
To country and fellow
citizens:
Patriotism
To private benefactors:
Gratitude
To fellowmen:
Truthfulness; Fidelity;
Trust; Friendliness ( nat­
ural l ove) ; Liberality

{
TEMPERANCE Frugality Continence; Modesty; Sense of shame
(moderation; (abstinence) Self-restraint or penance Sense of propriety
self-control) Sobrie for control (not for (of decency)
Chas- unmarried reparation) ; Meekness Taste; tact
tity spouses (control of pride) ; Calmness (emotional
of widowed Clemency (mildness ; balance)
Good temper control of anger) ; Right-
ful care of one's hon-
or (philotomy; self-
respect) ; Care of one's
health ( ?) ; Simplicity
of life; Care of prop-
erty (stewardship) (?);
Studiousn ess; Good
manners (including dig-
nity); Merriment (eu-
trapelia) ; Proper adorn- Wonder: for studi­
ousness
ment; Fr i e n d l i n e ss;
Mercy

----------------------·---- -------------------------

COURAGE (None) Potential parts have the A.

( fortitude ; same names as the in- Active fortitude:
bravery ) tegrals but concern less (concerning doing)
difficult deeds: Magnanimity (nat-
Natural hope (rather than ural confidence and
confident magnanimity) love of e xcellence
Love of honor (rather in deeds)
than love of excellence) Gen erosity ,
Liberality (rather than including:
magnificence or muni - magnificence
ficence) munificence
Constanc y in virtue
B
(rath�r than persever-
. P�ssive fortitude:
ance m great hardship)
(concerning bea r­
ing)
Patience
Perseverance
virtue 326 virtue

SOME INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES

I. Arts a) liberal
servile
b) fine
useful
c) practical
productive
d) operative
cooperative
e) master (architectonic)
subordinate
II. Sciences
intuition of first principles (intellectus principiorum)
mathematics

{
natural sciences (physics, chemistry, geology, etc.)
life sciences (botany, zoology, etc.)
A. of the speculative
metaphysics
intellect
natural theology
wisdom
Christian (revealed) theology: dogmatic
theology
philosophy of nature
philosophy of man
a) normative and operative
b) practical sciences
productive sciences
synderesis (habit of first moral
principles)
B. of the practical ethics
intellect
practical political philosophy
wisdom political science?
jurisprudence
moral theology
canon law jurisprudence

SUPERNATURAL VIRTUES

The infused moral virtues and their parts:

Prudence·
Justice
Temperance
Fortitude
The theological virtues:
Faith
Hope in God
Charity
The gifts of the Holy Spirit:
Wisdom
Understanding
Knowledge
Counsel
Fortitude
Piety
Fear of the Lord
virus theory of origin of life 327 voluntary

REF-N. Eth., II, ch. 1, 3, 5, 6, 9; an open space or gap, as on a surface.

St. Augustine, On Free Will, II, ch. See discrete QUANTITY.
19; S.T., I-II, 55, a. 4; 58, aa. 2, 3; volition, n. 1. the will. 2. preferred
60, a. S; 61; II-II, 48; 51; 137, a. sense. any activity of the will; exer­
2; 0. Lattin, 0. S.B., "Les premieres cise of the will.
definitions et classifications des vertus volitional, adj. 1. belonging to, char­
au Moyen Age," Revue des Sci­ acteristic of, using, or proceeding
ences Philosophiques at Tkeologiques, from the will. 2. that which proceeds
XXVIII (1929), 369-407. from conscious reason and deliberate
virus theory of origin of life, choice. See HUMAN act.
phrase. see BIOGENESIS. *volitum, n. 1. an object of mere
*vis aestimativa, Lat. phrase. see wish. See WISH, sense 3. 2. anything
INSTINCT for animals; estimative willed.
SENSE for man. voluntariness, n. 1. a quality or state
*vis cogitativa, Lat. phrase. the of the will. 2. specifically. liberty
cogitative sense. See SENSE. rather than natural compulsion or
naturally necessary action. 3. a qual­
*vis et metus, Lat. phrase. force
ity of some act commanded or ef­
and fear. See FORCE.
fected by the will. This is an extrinsic
vision, n. 1. the act of sensory percep­
denomination because of the relation
tion or of immediate intellectual
to the will.
knowledge of an existent immediately
negative voluntariness, a willing
present to the knower. 2. a power that
not to do something or not to act.
performs such acts; hence, usually
voluntarism, n. any doctrine that
sight and the possible intellect. 3. the
strongly emphasizes the will by teach­
contemplation of perfect truth. 4. the
ing one or more of these doctrines:
object or objects immediately known.
(a) that all being is ultimately a will
beatific vision: ( 1) the intellectual or like a will; ( b) that will is the
sight of God immediately present to supreme perfection in God; (c) that
those who attain supernatural beati­ the will is the supreme power in
tude. (2) God Himself as immedi­ man, altogether superior to the intel­
ately known. lect; and by consequence, that love
ABBR. - V. is altogether superior to knowledge;
vitalism, n. 1. any doctrine holding ( d) that the human will is free in
that there is an essential difference all its acts; (e) that all morality
between living and nonliving bodies. depends on the free will of God or
2. any doctrine explaining life by an the free agreement of man; hence,
essential constituent other than the moral positivism with little or no in­
chemical and physical constituents trinsic morality; (/) that the will of
and properties of all bodies. A num­ the superior by itself is sufficient to
ber of such vital forces or principles make law [e and f are power
are suggested: growth-force; biotic theories] ; (g) that feeling and will­
energy; genetic energy; substantial ing are the primary and principal
form; etc. 3. specifically. the doctrine elements of experience; (h) the Freu­
originating in Aristotle that a vital dian theory: that the wish is the
principle is the one or the chief sub­ hidden instinctual impulse behind
stantial form in any living organism; seemingly rational action.
the theory applying hylemorphism to voluntary, adj. The term describes
living bodies in such a way that every either A, the act of the will, or B,
living body is essentially composed of the object of willing. A. 1. acting
matter and a vital principle (soul) as on one's own initiative; consciously
its substantial form. moving one's self to action. 2. pro­
void, n. 1. empty or unoccupied space; ceeding from the will, either spon­
a vacuum containing no matter. 2. taneously (necessarily) or freely. The
voluntary 328 voluntary

volitional or human act better states thing willed; the involuntary is what
freedom of choice than the neutral causes the agent pain or repentance
word, voluntary. 3. acting without because it is against his will; some­
compulsion or undue persuasion. 4. what like the involuntary is the con­
intentional, not accidental. 5. able to ditional voluntary object (effect,
will; having the power to choose or etc.), that which is consented to or
decide or consent. 6. not obligated to chosen by the agent, not for itself,
do or not to do; neither commanded but only as an undesirable means or
nor forbidden to act in a certain way concomitant of what the agent ab­
or in a certain capacity; ready and solutely wills: as one bears great ex­
willing to volunteer. B. 7. brought pense to get needed medical care.
about by the will. 8. done freely. 9. directly (per se) voluntary, what
controlled by the will. is willed in itself as an end or a
Divisions of group A, act of will. means; the known immediate object
imperfect voluntary act, willing of willing.
under conditions that limit knowledge indirectly (per accidens) volun­
or deliberation and, by consequence, tary (voluntary in cause), what the
also diminish full choice or weaken will permits or deliberately does not
freedom. prevent when the agent foresees it to
perfect voluntary act, willing with be a consequent or incidental result of
sufficient attention to the matter the object that he directly wills.
willed, with full deliberation, and Hence, it is secondary to, attached to,
with unimpeded choice. and, as far as the agent is concerned,
Divisions of group B, object accidentally connected with the di­
willed. rectly voluntary object. See indirect
nonvoluntary (according to Aris­ EFFECT. See chart of acts of man and
totle), what an intellectual agent does HUMAN act.
in ignorance of particular circum­ REF. -N. Eth., III, ch. 1; S.T.,
stances of his action; what is not I-II, q. 6; C.G., IV, 22.
foreseen to be connected with some-
 w
wage, often pl. wages, n. I. money same state. Contemporary usage also
or other compensation paid to an refers to the serious threat of using
employee for work done and usually armed force, if necesary, as war or
figured on an hourly, daily, or piece­ cold war.
work basis. 2. anything given in re­ defensive war, war in defense of
turn for work or services; reward. justice against certain injustice. This
This sense includes salary or fixed ethical sense does not exclude mili­
compensation calculated on a longer tary initiative during the course of
period of service. 3. the compensation the war.
or restitution to be paid for what one total war: ( 1) the view that all
has done; earnings; merits or de­ persons and places in the enemy's
merits: as, "the wages of sin is territory are legitimate objects of at­
death." 4. labor's share in the total tack in war and that all effective
product of industry. Ethical discus­ means may be legally or even morally
sions use the fairly evident divisions: used in attack or defense. (2) war
annual wage, guaranteed annual wage, waged without regard to any limita­
family wage, just wage (though the tions imposed by moral or inter­
kind of justice is disputed), and liv­ national law.
ing family wage. war of aggression, unjust mili­
going wage, the current usual tary attack on the independence, ter­
wage in a given community for a ritory, property, persons, or other
given type of work. rights of another state.
real wages, the wage measured by way, n. 1. a means of passing mentally
how much it can buy rather than by from one known thing to another;
its monetary value (called nominal a particular course or process of
wages). thinking. 2. a method of inquiry,
wage contract (work-wage con­ proof, discussion, or defense. 3. an
tract; and equivalently, services­ actual argument or proof, valid or
salary contract), the agreement be­ invalid, esp. when there is more
tween employer and employees or than one available line of reasoning
their representatives about the terms to the same conclusion: as, the five
of payment for work (or services) ways of St. Thomas to prove that
performed. Today the wage contract God exists. 4. the special set of facts
is often a part of the work contract, or the characteristic premise among
which, besides terms of work and of those that may be offered for the
wages, specifies conditions of safe same conclusion. 5. the initial position
work, grievance procedure, sick leave, from which a theory is developed: as,
terminal notice and pay, union repre­ the Platonic way is a theory of the
sentation, etc. existence and knowledge of Ideas in
want, n. 1. the fact or state of priva­ which sensible reality participates in
tion; the lack of something desired some formal degree. 6. an habitual
or needed or of enough of it. 2. manner, usual situation, or constant
a lack of the necessaries of life; pov­ mode: as, contemplation is a way of
erty. 3. a desire or craving for some­ living.
thing. 4. something desired or needed affirmative way, reasoning from
but lacking; need. knowledge of creatures to some
war, n. the use of armed force by knowledge of God's perfections and
a state against a state or by a faction nature as the cause of created per­
against another faction within the fections and the possessor of all pure

329
way 330 whole

perfections found in creatures. It is matical, and statistical methods; or

also called the way of signs, namely, the use of hypotheses.
of God in creatures. wayfarer, n. a person tending to
the way of ascent: ( 1) the way beatitude but still living in a state
of discovery or of investigating; the of probation and of imperfect happi­
analytic method. See ANALYSIS, sense ness. See *HOMO VIATOR.
5. (2) the way of the intellectual ANT. - the beatified person.
creature's return to God by knowing, well-being, n. the state of being well,
loving, and serving Him our last end. prosperous, or happy; welfare. It
the way of descent: ( 1) the way means more than just being or meet­
of teaching; the synthetic method. ing minimum needs. Beatitude would
(2) the way of judgment. (3) the be perfect well-being.
procession of creatures and of knowl­ *Weltanschauung, n., German. 1.
edge of God from God, as first lit., "a looking at the world." 2.
efficient cause. hence a world view. See WORLD views.
the way of eminence (excel­ 3. one's philosophy of the universe
lence; transcendence), the method and of human life as a whole.
of thinking and speaking about God Weltansicht, less commonly used,
as far better than any created being has about the same meaning.
and created perfections: as, eminent whatness, n. essence; what a thing
perfections are first cause, infinite is, i.e., the answer to the question
wisdom, etc. "what is it?" asked about the nature,
the way of judgment: ( 1) a de­ class, or property of a being; quid­
ductive method that organizes the dity.
elements of a science by moving from when, n. the time (moment, period,
essence (nature) or necessary cause date, age) of a sensible being or
to acts and consequences and proper­ event. This is time as a category of
ties. Thus, man, being a unit with being, not time as a measure extrinsic
bodily and spiritual principles, must to beings.
be able to speak, to cook, to improve where (whereabouts), n. 1. the
physical natures, etc. (2) the syn­ proper place of a sensible thing rela­
thetic method. tive to the direction and distance of
the middle way: ( 1) the golden the surfaces of other bodies. This is
mean of virtue; the prudent way. the category of place. 2. the place
(2) any political or economic system, or scene of an event; the location
institution, or practice that avoids at or near which something occurred.
extremes. (3) any philosophical posi­ whole, n. 1. an entire composite unit,
tion that stands between extremes: containing all the parts or members
as, theism is a middle way between necessary to constitute a distinct be­
atheism and pantheism. ing; something undivided and un­
the negative way (way of puri­ diminished; a complete unit, lacking
fication or of remotion), the method no part needful for its completeness.
of reasoning to God by denying to 2. a complete organization of parts;
Him the imperfections and limita­ an entire system.
tions in perfections which a creature form of the whole, see FORM.
may have; knowing that God is none logical whole, a class, either a
of the things He has made; knowing species or genus; a universal whole.
God by a negative judgment, not by It is called a whole because it im­
a concept of His essence. plicitly contains all the members of
the way of teaching (of the its class.
teacher; of doctrine), the method moral whole, a single society; one
of synthesis. Other methods are sel­ group of persons with some common
dom referred to as ways, e.g., dialecti­ purpose and common leadership.
cal, experimental, maieutic, mathe- physical (natural; real) whole:
will 331 will

(1) an actual individual natural body. in choice, the intensity of the will's
(2) any composite unit. act, or the mode of its execution.
potential whole, a unit having un­ bad will and good will, more or
equal powers or parts: as, the human less constant attitudes of the will
soul is a potential whole made of toward evil or good; more or less
spiritual and sentient and vegetative constant dispositions to treat others
powers. unfairly or fairly. See sense 6. ma­
will, n. 1. any act of tending to an levolence and benevolence.
intellectually known good or of mov­ conditional will, an act of will
ing away from an intellectually known that freely adds some condition that
evil. Such acts include agreement, restricts its effectiveness, e.g., the
allowing, choice, consent, desire, fear, teacher intends to award you an A
hate, hope, intention, joy, liking, Jove, if you deserve it. Such conditions
obedience (and all acts of the moral are often attached to contracts, prom­
virtues), spiritual production, prefer­ ises, trusts, wills, etc.
ence, refusal, use, volition, wishing consequent will, an act of the will
well, etc. See VOLUNTARY. 2. the ra­ following upon some previous act,
tional appetite; the power of a spirit­ usually upon some previous act of the
ual substance or of a human soul by will itself. Thus, a person who notices
which it tends towards a good known himself wishing to do some evil may
by the intellect or away from an evil will to concentrate on the disad­
recognized by the intellect. NOTE - vantages of the proposed course of
Ockham (1300-1349?) and others who action in order to weaken his desire
do not admit a distinction between for the evil.
the soul and its powers define will to executive will, the will carrying
be the substance of the soul as able out its intentions and choices by using
to will or as capable of opposites, its power to move man's other pow­
(thereby also identifying will with its ers, to make something external to
liberty). 3. the voluntary act of itself, or to exercise authority over
transferring property to another, to other persons. The executive will of
take effect upon one's death. 4. the God is the activity of divine creation
legal document or statement of one's and government.
wishes for the disposal of one's prop­ free will, the will as able to act
erty after one's death. 5. what one freely or as acting freely. See FREE­
wills. 6. an inclination or habit of DOM.
willing. general will, J. J. Rousseau's
absolute will: (1) a will con­ (1712-1778) theory that the will and
sidered merely according to its ca­ purpose of the state (nation; govern­
pacity to will or exercise power. (2) ment) is the conscious sum and ex­
a will regarded as very firm in its pression of the wills of its members.
adherence or decision. ( 3) a superior's internal will, a living voluntary
will or voluntary acts regarded as act, considered as present in the will
being unchecked by any higher law itself; an elicited act of the will;
or will. (4) the will of God con­ volition.
sidered merely in its omnipotence objects of will, what one can or
apart from its guidance by divine does will. See OBJECT; VOLUNTARY.
wisdom and apart from its identity ordinate (ordinary) will, the ex­
with the holiness, justice, love, and ercise of the executive will as regu­
other perfections of God. See ab­ lated by considerations of prudence,
solute and ordinate POWER. justice, etc. ANT. - absolute will.
antecedent will, an act of the will permissive will, deliberately al­
that precedes such feelings or knowl­ lowing something to happen though
edge as would ordinarily tend to one could physically stop it, even
modify the motives and alternatives when this action by others is con-
willful 332 wisdom

trary to what one wills or has ordered. deliberate; actually willed: as, willful
servile will, an act of the will that ignorance 2. esp., unreasoningly de­
obeys God or other authority purely siring and following one's own way in
for motives of fear of consequences spite of contrary advice, unfavorable
to one's self if one does not obey, circumstances, etc.
unmoved by any considerations of willing, adj. 1. favorably disposed;
love, gratitude, the common good, consenting; not objecting; gladly
etc. permitting. 2. acting, giving, helping,
sign of will: (1) an operation in­ etc., readily and cheerfully. 3. volun­
dicating what the internal will of a tary; what is done, given, offered,
person is. Thus, five signs of will are etc., gladly and readily. 4. of the
named: operation by the one willing; power of choice; free.
not hindering; giving a precept; pro­ wisdom, n. 1. in general. the best or
hibiting; persuading or counseling. highest kind of knowledge. What such
(2) an effect of will that gives a knowledge is, will be disputed by
univocal or analogical knowledge of different thinkers. 2. specifically. the
an act of will: as, punishment is a science of the first causes of all
sign of anger on the part of the ruler. things. This intellectual virtue may
REF.-5.T., I, 19, aa. 11-12. refer to philosophy in general, to
truth of the will, moral rightness. metaphysics, to natural theology, or
signified will, objects or acts that to revealed Christian theology. 3.
one wills, made known to subjects in a judgment made in the light of first
particular, by some natural or con­ causes. 4. an integrated knowledge
ventional sign. of different branches of learning; in­
will as nature, the will considered tegral comprehension of the truth.
in its natural tendency to the good; 5. excellence in a particular art or
the will impelled by its natural neces­ science. 6. in monastic theology.
sity for happiness in general; the will knowledge through love or religious
acting necessarily for the necessary experience of the truth, esp. in re­
end of man. gard to Christ, His religion, or the
will as reason, the will choosing, soul. See chart on intellectual VIR­
following contingent judgment about TUES.
the object chosen. philosophic wisdom, intuitive un­
will by participation: (1) a sensi­ derstanding of first principles com­
tive appetite (because it somewhat bined with scientific knowledge of the
resembles the spiritual appetite and naturally highest objects of thought;
works along with it). (2) any power hence, metaphysics, including natural
that shares in the perfection of the theology. It is speculative knowledge.
will or depends upon it in its activi­ practical wisdom: (1) ethics. (2)
ties to some end. prudence or one of its species. (3)
will of God: (1) the being of knowledge of the way to live accord­
God considered as loving , using ing to an ideal. ( 4) any excellent
power, freely creating, exercising kind of practical knowledge; excel­
moral authority over man, rejoicing, lence in any art of doing or of mak­
etc. (2) the eternal law or any por­ ing.
tion of the eternal law: as, the natural supernatural wisdom: ( 1) Chris­
law is also the will of God. (3) tian theology. This is not merely
what God wills that creatures do or faith, but a science. (2) the gift of
not do. the Holy Spirit whereby a man un­
REF. - V. J. Bourke, The Will in derstands and rightly judges of things
Western Thou ght, presents eight by divine ultimate standards or "from
senses of will. God's point of view" because of an
willful (wilful), adj. 1. done or said infused connatural loving union with
with deliberate intention; voluntary; divine things.
wi1b 333 world

ABBR. - wisd. the grammatical name for a sign;

REF. - Met., I, ch. 1-2; N. Eth., term is the logical name. A word
VI, ch. 5, 7, 8, S.T., II-II, 9, a. 2; is potentially a term. 4. the image
45; C.G., I, ch. 1; IV, ch. 12. of the vocal sound. 5. what is sig­
wish, v.t. and i. 1. indefinitely. to nified by a word. 6. what is ef­
will; desire or like something. 2. to fected by a word. 7. St. Augustine
desire something that one knows is and some Augustinians. (a) an act
not achievable. 3. merely to wish, of the mind. ( b) any judgment. ( c)
without effective willing of means, any true knowledge. ( d) loving
etc. The object thus desired is known knowledge.
as volitum rather than as voluntary. the Word (the Eternal Word):
See COMPLACENCY, senses 1, 2. Note (1) the Second Person of God as
the differences between not to wish God's personal knowledge of Himself;
(non velle), inaction of the will, and the divine Logos or divine Wisdom
to be unwilling (nolle), displeasure, as the Second Person in the Blessed
reluctance, refusal to consent. See Trinity. (2) the Incarnate Word,
also INVOLUNTARY, NONVOLUNTARY, Jesus Christ, the Second Person of
and VOLUNTARY: i.e., against the will, God as the one who became man and
without the will, and with the will, reveals God to men. See LOGOS, sense
respectively. 2.
witness, n. 1. a person who can or the third word, the copula or
does testify to facts of which he has linking verb, to be, in a proposition.
experience. 2. the evidence or testi­ word of the heart, the tendential
mony given by a witness; the first­ species; the immanent product of
hand report of the observer or, at willing within the will; produced love.
least, the personal opinion of a wit­ ABBR.-W.
ness. 3. an authentic source or record REF. - Aristotle, Interpretation,
of the witnesses' reports. ch. 1; S.T., I, 34; C.G., IV, ch. 11;
wonder, n. 1. philosophical curiosity St. Thomas, Truth, q. 4, a. 1, c. and
and inquiry about the meaning, ad 1; Power, q. 8, a. 1; B. ]. F.
causes, and order of some facts or of Lonergan, "The Concept of Ver bum
some general feature of the universe. in the Writings of St. Thomas
2. awe, fear, or surprise at the sub­ Aquinas," Theological Studies, VII,
limity or depth of a truth. This is 349-392; VIII, 35-79, 404-444; X,
the old-fashioned sense of admiration. 3-40; 353-393.
3. a keen desire to learn: an integral work (labor), the philosophy of, a
part of studiousness. 4. an object philosophical consideration of topics
of philosophical curiosity. 5. a rare concerned with work and workers as
event that excites unusual attention, the material object of study. These
e.g., a seemingly miraculous event. topics, chiefly ethical, study the hu­
word, n. 1. interior (mental) word; man dignity of work, its personal and
word in the mind; word of the intel­ social values, liberty or alienation
lect. the concept or judgment pro­ of man in working, the duties and
duced by the intellect within itself, rights of workers, commutative and
considered as an expressed likeness social justice due to workers, virtues
of the object or enuntiable. Hence, it involved in a life of work, a workers'
is the immanent term of knowledge. humanism, work as art and as causal­
2. the exterior word. any outward sign ity, errors about the nature and value
(whether an articulate sound, written of work, etc.
symbol, gesture, etc.) that refers to world, n. 1. creation; all natural ob­
the interior concept (word) and has jects. 2. ethics. secular and purely
a meaning. 3. any conventional sign temporal life; the ambitions, atti­
which by human agreement refers to tudes, honors sought, pleasures,
a definite idea. NOTE-Word is riches, and favorite occupations of
worship 334 wrongdoing

persons devoted chiefly to the good ence offered immediately to God.

things of the present life. To this exterior (external) worship, the
sense is applied the adjective, worldly. outward expression of internal wor­
lived world, the world as we ex­ ship in vocal prayers, hymns, sensi­
perience it: contrasted with the ob­ ble rites, etc.
jective world of sciences. indirect worship: (1) honor and
problem of the eternity of the reverence given to some person or
world, the question whether the object as representative of, symbolic
whole material universe is created in of, or connected with another person.
time or in eternity and whether either Thus, honor may be given to a supe­
side of the controversy can be proved rior with the religious attitude that
by reason. he represents God's authority; respect
problem of the origin of the is given to a church as God's house;
world, the problems: (1) whether both would be indirect worship of
the world is or is not created from God. (2) improperly. obedience to
nothing, and (2) whether it was the divine law or divine wills.
created more or less in its present interior (internal) worship, any
condition or has evolved by radical act of the mind and will whereby
changes from a primitive condition. one gives due honor and reverence
This then, is the same as the problem to God.
of a fixed (special) or evolving crea­ liturgical worship, public worship
tion. of a community under religious au­
world image, a genera! image or thority and using authorized rites.
construct that attempts to represent social worship, public honor paid
the kind of unity and operating inter­ to God by the members of a society
dependence of the parts of the uni­ acting together as a moral person
verse: as, the image of a machine, subject to God.
of a blizzard, of a living animal, etc. ABBR.- wp.
world soul, a hypothetical uni­ written upon the heart, phrase (St.
versal principle of life, unifying and Paul's phrase about the natural law).
ordering the world, conceived to be given by the Author of nature to
analogous to the soul in an individual human nature almost as though the
organism. divine communication were written
world view, a philosophical con­ inside oneself, to be read from the
ception of the material universe, of natural tendencies of man to know
its origin, nature, type of unity, func­ and pursue the moral good. Heart
tions, purpose, and future. These may be understood as an Hebraic
views may be named according to name for the self, the person.
their sponsors: as Aristotle's world written upon the mind, phrase. held
view, St. Augustine's, Galileo's (1564- firmly in mind or memory.
1602), Darwin's (1809-1882), de wrong, adj. 1. logic. (a) incorrect
Chardin's (1881-1955), etc.; at other in method or terminology. ( b) in­
times they are labeled by a central valid in consequence. 2. epistemology.
tenet of the view as anthropocentric, false; mistaken. 3. ethics. (a) not
theocentric, mechanistic, organic, directed to the true end of man;
quasiorganic, evolutionary, static, etc. not according to right reason. This
See MODEL, WORLD image. may refer to the judgment, the act
worship, n. the honor and rever­ being done, or the thing to be done.
ence due to or offered to someone; ( b) hence, evil; sinful; immoral.
adoration. The term today is usually (c) imprudent. (d) esp., unjust; in­
reserved to honor due to God, i.e., jurious.
divine worship or !atria. See RELI­ wrongdoing, n. 1. an injury volun­
GION. tarily inflicted contrary to law. 2.
direct worship, honor and rever- a sin.
 y
Yahweh (Yahwe; Jahve; Jahveh), divine name and merely means, "I am
n. the name that God used for Him­ whoever I am." Recent linguists sug­
self when He answered Moses' re­ gest other possible meanings: abso­
quest to know who was speaking to lute existence; the maker of all be­
him at the incident of the burning ing; the being at hand to deliver
bush. Hebraic reverence for this in­ you - hence, a promising of con­
communicable name left it unuttered stant divine presence and help. As
in public reading and substituted the the Hebrew word has four consonants,
word Adonai (Lord), having the it is called the tetragrammaton. Some
same vowel points as Yahweh. The modern versions of the Old Testa­
original meaning of the name may ment indicate the occurrence of the
be lost. The Septuagint translators Hebrew, Yahweh, by printing THE
of Exodus (3 : 13-14) rendered the LORD in capitals whenever a Yah­
name into Greek as "I AM WHO weh text appears. Other passages use
AM " "HE WHO IS' " "THE BE­ the name Elohim.
ING." The name, thus translated, has *yle, n. matter. A Greek translitera­
strongly influenced patristic and scho­ tion for hyle. See HYLEMORPHISM.
lastic theologians and many Christian ylem, n. in theories of cosmogony. the
philosophers. They often single it out first material substance or absolutely
as the proper name of God, meaning primeval state of natural bodies from
subsistent Being, Ipsum Esse. Some which even the elements are supposed
theologians regard it as an indefinite to have been formed.
name that keeps the secret of the

335
 APPENDIX: LOGICAL NOTATION

No single system of symbols is used for either traditional or symbolic

logic. A reader must watch each book or text for its system; but the
following are very common. Some of these descend from the medieval
logicians; many come from Russell and Whitehead, Principia Mathematica;
and a few come from Jan Lukasiewicz. As a special language, the letter
symbols are usually italicized.

Symbols and
alternates Name and interpretation

A E I 0 - syllogistic operators respectively for any universal

affirmative proposition (A), any universal negative
(E), any particular affirmative (I), any particular
negative (0).
A v -capital A; wedge: alternation; "either or both";
"and/or"; the logical sum; the copula in the weak
or inclusive disjunction.
a b c etc.-early small letters of the alphabet; the correspond­
ing micron letters of the Greek alphabet are also
used; the sequence indicates the sequence of occur­
rence of the names in a proposition or propositions:
constant names; place-markers in which a constant
name may be substituted for the nominal symbolic
constant.
C ::::> �-capital C followed by two propositional symbols; or
horseshoe facing to the left propositional symbol; or
arrow to right: conditional proposition; "if ...then";
implies; includes.
D /-not both p and q.
t: - Greek mikron epsilon: is a member of.
/-stroke through Greek mikron epsilon: is not a mem­
ber of.
f - factually so.
F -¥- O - capital F; capital F through the line; zero: false
(in truth tables).

337
Logical Notation 338 Logical Notation

:;t. A - handwritten capital F; inverted wedge: "either • • •

or"; strong or exclusive disjunction.

I- invalid.
iff - � - sign of equivalence; "if and only if" biconditional
sentence; identity of dependence between two propo­
sitions; reciprocal conditional sequence or depend­
ence; identity in meaning of two propositions ( occa­
sional use) .
is = - sign of equality; identity in meaning between two
terms.
K • - capital J5. written before the terms; period above the
line written between the connected items: "and";
logical product copulative proposition; conjunction.
M - ( 1) middle term. ( 2) major premise.
m - ( 1) minor premise. ( 2) "implies the truth of"; ma­
terial implication.
N is not ,_, - I R (or other letter)
- symbols of negation: capital N followed by two nomi­
nal symbols; the words of negation; the tilde or
wave; long dash; right angle pointed downward; bar
above the symbol for a term (or sentence): "It is
not the case that ..."; "It is false that ... "; denies
the proposition; contradiction, but not necessarily a
self-contradiction; hence, called contradictory func­
tions.
P - ( 1) a constant or variable predicate of a proposition.
( 2) the predicate of the direct conclusion of a cate­
gorical proposition; hence ( 3) the major term.
P Q R S etc.- prime sentences; simple propositions, either as they
stand or as they have become by reduction of a
composite proposition.
p q r s etc.- propositional variables; place-markers in which a

proposition may be written; the sequence shows the

succession in which the propositions occur.
R - is related to.
S- (l)the term that is the subject of a proposition. (2)
the subject of the direct conclusion of a categorical
syllogism; hence, ( 3) the minor term.
T -1!- 1- capital T; T cutting through the line, numeral:
true (in truth tables).
Logical Notation 339 Logical Notation

T-(1) major term. (2) major premise.

t - minor term.
V f= -valid.
x y z - final small letters of the alphabet: place-markers
for a nominal variable in a proposition.
" (x)" - (the same bracketing is used for y and z) a universal
"
quantifier: ((for all x (for every, each, none, any­
thing that is) .
"( 3 x)" - existential quantifier; particular quantifier; "There
is at least one x such that ..." ; ((There is some
(thing) that is ... "
c - horseshoe open at right: the term before the shoe
is included in the term after the shoe.
I- Sheffer stroke functor: not both (true and false).

It is also conventional to use the capital of the first letter of a definite

term when it is substituted for a constant or variable symbol: as W for
wheat.
A (alternation), C, K, and N belong to the Lukasiewicz system.
Periods, commas, etc, are not used for abbreviations or for punctua­
tion. Brackets have to be used in most systems for punctuating groups of
symbols that follow a single operator. The position of the operator must
be noticed in all systems except Lukasiewicz's in which it always precedes.
The symbols for reduction to the first figure of the syllogism are given
in almost all fuller texts of Aristotelian and medieval logic.