International Peer Reviewed Journal

Vol. 27 · January 2017 JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced

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Women in Engineering Careers: Does

Parental Income Affect their Work Values?
IAN I. LLENARES
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9176-9098
ianllenares8@gmail.com
Technological Institute of the Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines

REALLYN J. LLENARES
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8493-8105
rheallenares@gmail.com
Pio del Pilar Elementary School
Manila City, Philippines

JAY A. SARIO
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4755-3510
jayasario@gmail.com
Metropolitan Medical Center College of Arts Science and Technology
Manila City, Philippines

ABSTRACT

Engineering is one of the male dominated careers, however, there is an

increasing women entry into the engineering profession in the Philippines.
Scholars have reported numerous factors on women entry in engineering
careers such as rewarding work opportunities, interest, and talent in science and
mathematics, etc. This different reason led women to enter into engineering
career which is worthy of study. The study assessed the effects of parental income
on work values of women in the engineering profession. A descriptive survey
research designed was used, 39 respondents were purposively selected from

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various Engineering programs (civil, mechanical, electrical, computer, electronics,

marine engineering, and environmental and sanitary). The study utilized One
way MANOVA with post hoc analysis. Results showed that the respondents have
“moderate” intellectual achievement orientations, interpersonal, and occupational
work values and they had “weak” familial, managerial, and material work values.
Further, the computed One way MANOVA reported that parental income affects
the intellectual-achievement orientation, interpersonal, managerial, material, and
occupational some work values of women engineers. This report has implication
on guidance and counseling practice on career placement of women in the
engineering industry.

Keywords — Social Science, engineering education, women engineers, work

values, parental income, descriptive-survey, Philippines

INTRODUCTION

The science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) jobs were

projected to grow 18% than non-STEM jobs in the U.S until 2018 (Langdon,
McKittrick, Beede, Khan, & Doms, 2011). The planned growth of STEM jobs
will provide opportunities to American and non-national to fill the occupational
gap. In the Philippines, an estimated 102,864 Filipino’s (men and women) who
works abroad in the field of engineering from 1993 to 2006 (Zosa & Orbeta,
2009). These STEM-related job opportunities on the international market
have improved the nation economy. STEM-related job was still an in-demand
profession. Also, science and technology expand new STEM-related position will
be created and require higher academic qualification such as masters and doctoral
degrees. Some authors hold the position that STEM jobs are the jobs of the
future (Langdon et al., 2011). They are essential for developing technological
innovation and global competitiveness of a nation. In the U.S and Canada, the
representation of women in STEM program has rapidly increased (McMullen,
Gilmore, & Le Petit, 2010; “Science and Engineering Indicators 2006, NSB
06-01,” 2006). Similarly, advancement of careers of Filipino women in non-
traditional areas was also evident; increasing the number of women who became
professionals occupying technical jobs; holding government key positions; and
becoming corporate executives (“Philippine Statistics Office: Gender Statistics on
Labor and Employment (GSLE), 2009-2013.,” 2014). These changes on women
work roles were brought by economic challenges (Edwards & Quinter, 2011;
Munyingi, 2012).
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STEM occupation has become an attractive career for women because of its
high remunerations, status and works demands in local and international labor
market (Bayog & Atie, 2012; “Occupational Employment and Wages,” 2015).
Scholars hold the position, that attitude, interest, and type of school (Llenares
& Deocaris, 2014). Exposure to successful female role models in STEM fields
(Stout, Dasgupta, Hunsinger, & McManus, 2011) and positive attitude towards
mathematics (Chipman & Wilson, 1985; Tocci & Engelhard Jr, 1991) affect
their decision to choose STEM fields.
Scholars, for example, (Hansen, Walker, & Flom, 1995) mentioned that
math achievement and exposure to math and science (Adelman, 1998, 2006;
Wang, 2013)The types of opportunities and experiences and support students
receive in college (Chang, Sharkness, Newman, & Hurtado, 2010) attract women
in STEM career. Research also showed a clear link between family supports
and STEM careers (Armstrong, 1985; Boswell, 1985; Casserly & Rock, 1985;
Chipman & Wilson, 1985; Ciccocioppo et al., 2002; Graham, 1997; Wilson &
Wilson, 1992). Furthermore, family income was found to have positive effects
on mathematics achievement (Dryler, 1998; Pong, 1997) and completion of
engineering degree (Huang, Taddese, & Walter, 2000). Women from higher
family income had educational advantages because of their capabilities to pay
enhancement activities (McNeal, 1999; Ware, Steckler, & Leserman, 1985;
Wilson & Wilson, 1992).
Despite underrepresentation of women in STEM careers, it is worthy to
investigate their work motivation and goal-directed behavior which underlie on
their work values. Knowledge of what goals they consider valuable and worth
striving is a vital interest of organization in a rational way in respect to work
effectiveness and productivity. This report hypothesized that parental income of
women in engineering career affects their work values.

FRAMEWORK

This study can be understood from the perspectives of work values. Work
values defined as a psychological state, relationship or material condition that
a person holds important (D. E. Super (1980). Also, this refers to individual
preferences towards certain job characteristics and features of work environments
(Furnham, Forde, & Ferrari, 1999; Hofstede, 1998; Lofquist & Dawis, 1978; D.
E Super, 1973).
Super’s ‘Life-Span, Life-Space Theory’ explained a longitudinal view of
career development. The theory states that career development occurs in 5
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stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement.

The ‘growth’ phase focuses on achieving independence and developing self-
esteem. Then, ‘exploration’ stage the goal is for an individual to discover the
vocational identity and choose a career. The ‘establishment’ stage, an individual,
developed new skills set to meet work demands. When work-related skills and
knowledge continue until the person takes lesser work responsibilities this is
called ‘maintenance’ stage. Lastly, ‘disengagement’ stage occurs when a person
with lesser responsibilities begins to plan for retirement (D. E. Super, Savickas,
& Super, 1996). An individual career development cycles through each of these
stages support career transition. Understanding the stages of career development
would help guidance counselors and psychologists identify an individual’s place
in the career development continuum.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to: 1) Determine the level of work values of women in
engineering profession; and 2) Identify the effects of parental income on women
work values.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design
This study utilized a descriptive survey research design. The respondents
recruited in the study were the thirty-nine (39) 4th year female engineering
students of Technological Institute of the Philippines, Quezon City campus in
SY 2013-2014. The respondents were purposively selected based on the following
criteria; a) female b) forth year level c) regular students d) enrolled in engineering
program e) enrolled in On-the-Job Training (OJT).

Research Setting or Locale

This study was conducted at Technological Institute of the Philippines,
Quezon City (TIPQC) campus on SY 2013-2014. TIPQC is a recognize higher
education institution whose flagship programs were engineering and information
and communications technology. The school offers BS degree programs on
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, computer engineering, electronics
engineering, industrial engineering, marine engineering, environmental and
sanitary engineering. It also offers BS information technology, computer science,
information system, and associate on computer technology. Furthermore, the
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school has other academic offerings such as BS education major in SPED, science,
English and mathematics, BS architecture, and BS Business education program.

Respondents
The respondents aged 19.76 + 1.06 years (range: 19-24 years) from
engineering programs such as civil engineering (33.33%), electrical engineering
(15.4%), mechanical engineering (12.8%), computer engineering, electronics
engineering and industrial engineering (10.3%), environmental and sanitary
engineering (5.1%) and marine engineering (2.6%) programs. Their family
income status were P12,000 - P19,999 (33.33%) (Equivalent to USD 445<: 1US
dollar = 45pesos), P20,000 – P59,999 (33.33%) (USD 450 to USD 1,333), and
P60,000 and above (33.33%) (>USD 1,334).
Engineering programs were taken in 5 years for two semesters/year. As the
curriculum requires OJT training or internship during the junior year, part of the
inclusion criteria is that the students must had sufficient career orientation and
exposure in the work place prior to the conduct of survey. Career orientation was
conducted at the school’s career center. With the OJT and career orientation on
the 4th year of the degree program, it was assumed that the student respondents
may have clearer idea of their work preferences.

Survey Instrument
A survey questionnaire was used to obtain participants’ demographic
information such as age, gender, parental income, and academic programs. The
Filipino Work Values Scale (FWVS) with a cronbach alpha (α = .81) with an
inter-item correlation of 0.22-0.55. FWVS is a standardized psychological test
used to determine the work values of study participants. The instruments were
rated using a 5-point scale (1‘strongly disagree’ – 5 ‘strongly agree’) and consisted
of 80 items.
Validation of FWVS was previously done by Cervera (1999) based on the
responses of 616 students enrolled in 13 BS degree programs (education, computer
engineering, chemistry, mass communication, management, accountancy,
psychology, medicine, social work, business administration, biology, computer
science and physical therapy). The norms were based on 2,665 college students
enrolled in various program in 9 schools (3 - public schools, 3- private sectarian
schools, and 3- private non-sectarian schools) in Metro Manila, Philippines.
Norms were expressed in terms of percentile rank equivalents of the raw scores.
The work value scores are interpreted as follows: a) ‘very strong’ (range =
80.1-99.9) which describes a firm conviction and adherence to a specific
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work values. If the person perceives that a particular work value is upheld by
a majority of co-workers, he/she would likely to report high job satisfaction.
If these values are violated, tendencies for job withdrawal, or for impulsive
and reactionary behavior that are intend to dissociate the employee from the
organization e.g. of such behavior is retaliation, quitting or early retirement; (b)
‘strong’ (range = 60.1-79.9) implies that if the work value is in harmony with
that of the organization, the person is likely to be satisfied with the job or the
workplace. If a particular work value were violated, the individual may display
varying levels of work withdrawal behaviors, e.g. tardiness, absenteeism, leaving
work early, etc. (c) ‘moderate’ (range = 40.1-59.9) implies that if a work value
is compatible with that of the majority of the individual’s co-workers, then he/
she may be comfortable with the work environment. Additionally, the person
does not mind any minor violations to his/her work values; (d) ‘weak’ (range
= 20.1-39.9) indicates that a particular variable is in the lower hierarchy of an
individual’s work values. Also, violation of the work value is allowed in exchange
for the maintenance of other stronger work values or concerns in the workplace
e.g. ‘low salary – good companionship’. The employee simply re-frames his/her
mind-set regarding the workplace to make the environment more tolerable; and
(e) ‘very weak’ (range = 0.10-19.99) refers to a work value that the employee least
considers in decision making. Even if the worker is dissatisfied with the job, he/
she may not be empowered to make necessary changes to improve his/her work
conditions (Cervera, 1999).
An operational definition or definition of terms was cited on this report see
Table 1.

Table 1. Operational definition of the work values (Cervera, 1999)

Work Values Scale Definition
Familial Related to the family – family cohesion, family unity,
emotional closeness and security in the household, firm loyalty
to the family ties in activities, family-oriented achievement
motivation, and respect for parents.
Associated with work, which 1) provides an opportunity for
Intellectual-Achievement independent thinking and for learning how and why things
Orientation work, and 2) gives one feeling of accomplishment in doing a
job well (Donald E Super, 1962).
Related to persons – “amor propio”, “hiya”, “utang na loob”,
Interpersonal use of intermediaries, or go-between, the value of loyalty,
hospitality, “pakikisama”, emotional closeness, respect for
authority.

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Work Values Scale Definition

Related to work, which involves the coordination of human
Managerial and material resources to accomplish the objectives of a work
organization.
Associated with work, which enables one to gain prestige,
Material security and economic returns.

Related to the exercise of one’s occupation. Subsumed in

Occupational this are the following: fairness, competence, altruism, self-
regulation/ occupational autonomy and public service.

Data Collection
Permission to conduct a study was communicated to the research and
development office (RDO) and VPAA office prior to the survey. Recruitment
of the participants was communicated to the Guidance and Counseling
Center of TIPQC to assist in the distribution of survey questionnaires.
Consenting participants were handed the pen-and-paper instrument. Prior to
the administration of the survey questionnaire, the participants were given an
orientation on the purpose of the study and were told: a) that there are no right
or wrong answers, b) not to leave any items unanswered and c) to take their time
in answering carefully the instrument. To ensure confidentiality, identity of the
participants was not divulged.

Ethical Considerations
Ethics approval was obtained from the research ethics committee of the
Technological Institute of the Philippines, Quezon City prior to the conduct of
study.

Data Analysis
The Shapiro-Wilk test was performed to examine the normality of data
and to look for possible outliers. One way Multivariate Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA) was tested using Levene’s statistics and Box test. Levene’s statistical
data was computed to test the homogeneity of variances and box test of equality
of covariance matrices at p<0.05. The Mahalanobis distance was also calculated
to know if there are multivariate outliers. The correlation of dependent variables
was examined to note the strength of relationship (moderate to weak) and to
find out if there are violations prior to the use of MANOVA (Pallant, 2013).
Example, strong to very strong interaction (possible outliers to occur) between

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dependent variables may affect the MANOVA results irrelevant. The One way
MANOVA with post hoc analysis (SPSS version 17.0) was used to determine
the effects of parental income to work values of female engineering students at
p<.05. One way MANOVA was used to determine whether there are differences
between independent groups on more than one continuous dependent variables
(Warne, 2014).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General Observations on the Work Values of Female Engineering Students

To describe the work values of female engineering students mean score was
computed, Figure 1 shows the characteristics of their perceived work values.
The respondents have ‘moderate’ work values on intellectual-achievement
orientation, occupational, and interpersonal. The results suggest that female
engineering students have realistic expectation of his or her job. He or she may
find his job a comfortable place to work given a satisfying and or dissatisfying
condition, for example, a job that is challenging and offers advancement of skills
and talents (intellectual-achievement orientation) and a job aligned with education
and training (occupational) or an organization where colleagues and coworkers
have smooth working relations (interpersonal). They are likely a ‘realistic’ type
of worker who can stay longer in the company because they can endure the
dissatisfying condition.
Data also show female engineering students scores on familial, managerial, and
material work values as ‘weak’. The result suggests that student may compromise
certain condition in their workplace in exchange for a bigger concern. For
example, he or she may be willing to work for companies that may not provide
high salary and offers various fringe benefits like housing, SSS insurance or
vacation (material) as long as smooth relations with boss and colleagues are
present or a job that takes away time for family (familial) or even a job that offers
proper handling of resources (managerial). They are potentially a ‘kangaroo’ type
of worker who jump from one job to another job in exchange for better and
bigger opportunities.

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Figure 1. Women Engineers’ Work Values

Table 2 shows the results of computed MANOVA. Data revealed that there
is a significant difference between parental income and work values of female
engineering students (Pillai’s Trace = 1.85, F (12, 64) = 66.10, p<.001). The result
suggests that dependent variables have significantly contribute to the model
(interaction between parental income and work values).
Consider the results from dependent variables separately, Bonferroni
correction was used to reduce the chances of obtaining false positive results. The
only difference to reach statistical significance, using a Bonferroni adjusted alpha
of .017 were intellectual-achievement orientation, interpersonal, managerial,
material, and occupational. This means that the five work values individually
showed positive effect on parental income. In this case, only familial work values
did not reach higher statistical results.

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Table 2. The Effects of Parental Income on Work Values

Partial Ob-
Dependent
Source Value df M² F Sig. Eta served
Variables
Squared Power

Pillai’s Trace 1.85 12, 64 66.10 <.001 .92 1.000

Familial work 2, 36 5.564 3.271 <.05 .15 .585
values
Intellectual- 2, 36 176.718 69.151 <.001 .79 1.000
achievement
orientation
work values
Interpersonal 2, 36 14.179 5.711 <.001 .24 .835
Parental work values
Income Managerial 2, 36 29.846 10.271 <.001 .36 .980
work values

Material work
2, 36 115.154 47.947 <.001 .73 1.000
values
Occupational
2, 36 76.949 26.875 <.001 .60 1.000
work values

Table 3 shows the Posthoc analyses of MANOVA F Test using Tukey’s HSD
test conducted to determine all possible pairwise contrast. The following pairs
of groups were found to be significantly different based on their scores on
intellectual achievement orientation work values: groups 2 ‘students from average
income family’ and 3 ‘students from high family income’ and groups 2 ‘students from
average income family’ and 1 ‘students from borderline family income.’ The results
suggest that level of parental income affects the study participant’s preferences to
look for a job that is challenging, promote independent thinking, and a sense of
accomplishment. Groups 1 ‘students from borderline family income’ and 3 ‘students
from high family income’ emerged to have high desire for intellectual achievement
orientation work values.
Furthermore, the data show significant differences between the scores of
different groups of interpersonal work values: groups 2 ‘students from average
income family’ and 3 ‘students from high-income family’ and groups 2 ‘students from
average income family’ and 1 ‘students from borderline income family.’ The results
suggest that level of parental income affect the students’ preferences to look for
a job where smooth interpersonal relations (SIR) were exercise among colleagues
and immediate superior. Groups 1 ‘students from borderline income family’ and

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3 ‘students from high-income family’ appeared to have the strong preference for
interpersonal work values.
About managerial work values, the groups remain significantly different:
groups 3 ‘students from high-income family’ and 1 ‘students from borderline income
family’ and groups 3 ‘students from high-income family’ and 2 ‘students from
average income family.’ Findings suggest that level of parental income affect the
study participants’ preferences to look for a job where training on the handling of
resources (people, budget, and schedule) was exercise. Group 3 emerged to have
a high desire for managerial work values.
Data show the groups were found significantly different on material work
values: groups 1 ‘students from borderline income family’ and 2 ‘students from
average income family’ and groups 1 ‘students from borderline income family’ and 3
‘students from high-income family’ have different scores on material work values.
Results suggest that level of parental income affects the students’ preferences
to look for a job where job security, performance incentives, and bonuses, and
employee benefits such as SSS benefits, paternal and maternal leaves, sick and
vacation leaves given to staff. Group 1 ‘students from borderline income family’
appeared to have the high preference for material work values.
Lastly, the groups were found significantly different in occupational work
values: groups 3 ‘students from high-income family’ and 1 ‘students from borderline
income family’ and groups 3 ‘students from high-income family’ and 2 ‘students from
average income family.’ Findings suggest that level of parental income affects the
study participants’ preferences to find a job align with education and training.
Group 3 ‘students from high-income family’ emerged to have the strong desire for
occupational work values.
In the study, parental income was used to measure its effects on engineering
students work values. The result suggests that indirectly socioeconomic conditions
affect the development of their work values. The differences on the scores of study
participants on work values may seem to be affected by family backgrounds e.g.
parents’ educational attainment and occupations, family support, etc. which were
not included in the report. Scholars like (Dahl & Lochner, 2012; McLoyd, 1990)
mentioned that parents from stable socioeconomic condition could nurture and
improve children life circumstances (achievement in mathematics and reading
achievement, etc.). Children born into poor economic situations, specifically
single-parent homes are less likely to benefit parental attention and resources that
stimulate soft skills (McLanahan, 2004). Furthermore, the study supported the
results of previous scholarly work of (McNeal, 1999; Ware et al., 1985; Wilson

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& Wilson, 1992) that women from higher family income had educational
advantages because of their capacity to finance academic-related activities.
In contrast, the groups were not significantly different in familial work
values as observed on their scores. Findings suggest that parental income did
not affect preferences of students to find a job that promote work life balance
such as time for family activities and gathering.

Table 3. Tukey’s HSD Multiple comparisons (n = 39)

Descriptive Mean Dif-
Dependent Std.
(I) groups (J) groups ference Sig.
Variables Error
M SD (I-J)
Average 19.62 1.45 1.0000 0.51
Borderline
High 19.38 0.96 1.2308 0.51
Borderline 20.62 1.45 -1.0000 0.51
Familial Average
High 19.38 0.96 .2308 0.51
Borderline 20.62 1.45 -1.2308 0.51
High
Average 19.62 1.45 -.2308 0.51
Average 41.15 1.52 6.3077* 0.63 **
Borderline
High 47.62 1.61 -.1538 0.63
Intellectual- Borderline 47.46 1.66 -6.3077* 0.63 **
achievement Average
orientation High 47.62 1.61 -6.4615* 0.63 **
Borderline 47.46 1.66 .1538 0.63
High
Average 41.15 1.52 6.4615* 0.63 **
Average 48.62 1.45 1.8462* 0.62 **
Borderline
High 50.38 1.61 .0769 0.62
Borderline 50.46 1.66 -1.8462* 0.62 **
Interpersonal Average
High 50.38 1.61 -1.7692* 0.62 *
Borderline 50.46 1.66 -.0769 0.62
High
Average 48.62 1.45 1.7692* 0.62 *
Average 27.46 1.61 .7692 0.67
Borderline
High 30.38 1.61 -2.1538* 0.67 *
Borderline 28.23 1.88 -.7692 0.67
Managerial Average
High 30.38 1.61 -2.9231* 0.67 **
Borderline 28.23 1.88 2.1538* 0.67 **
High
Average 27.46 1.61 2.9231* 0.67 **

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Average 30.23 1.59 4.1538* 0.61 **

Borderline
High 28.62 1.45 5.7692* 0.61 **
Borderline 34.38 1.61 -4.1538* 0.61 **
Material Average
High 28.62 1.45 1.6154* 0.61 *
Borderline 34.38 1.61 -5.7692* 0.61 **
High
Average 30.23 1.59 -1.6154* 0.61 *
Average 39.62 1.45 -1.2308 0.66
Borderline
High 43.08 1.80 -4.6923* 0.66 **
Borderline 38.38 1.80 1.2308 0.66
Occupational Average
High 43.08 1.80 -3.4615* 0.66 **
Borderline 38.38 1.80 4.6923* 0.66 **
High
Average 39.62 1.45 3.4615* 0.66 **
The mean difference is significant at the *.05 and ** .001 level

CONCLUSIONS

Results showed that women in engineering career who came from different
socioeconomic class (parental income) affect some of their work values. Women in
engineering professions aspiration varied on intellectual achievement orientation,
interpersonal, material, managerial, and occupational work values.
However, this report could not generalize the findings because of the
limited number of respondents. A stratified or cluster sampling techniques was
recommended to use considering Higher Education Institution (HEI’s) offering
engineering programs in the Philippines. Future studies may also consider
millennial as cohort among women in engineering profession. The use of
newer version of instrument that measure global values of women and other
characteristics that affect the development of work values.

TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH

The guidance program (group process module) was designed to attend the
needs of women in engineering careers. A memorandum of agreement (MOA)
may be established among partnered industry to prepare women for the
engineering profession.

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