English for Journalists

Introduction

English for Journalists offers instruction in English language development for

students who are studying journalism, or working journalists who want to improve

their English proficiency. Students with a basic understanding and interest in

journalism are encouraged to sign up.

a. Definition of jounalism

Journalism is the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting

news and information. It is also the product of these activities.

Journalism can be distinguished from other activities and products by certain

identifiable characteristics and practices. These elements not only separate

journalism from other forms of communication, they are what make it

indispensable to democratic societies. History reveals that the more

democratic a society, the more news and information it tends to have.

b. the purpose of journalism

“The purpose of journalism,” write Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel in The

Elements of Journalism, “is not defined by technology, nor by journalists or the

techniques they employ.” Rather, “the principles and purpose of journalism are

defined by something more basic: the function news plays in the lives of people.

c. What form of journalism are you interested in?

1. Presentation of the subject

This course - aimed at fourth year journalism students - will help participants to
develop the necessary language skills for communicating effectively and
confidently in English in a newsroom environment and aims to equip students
with the linguistic tools necessary for them to develop as professional journalists
in the future. The course adopts a hands-on approach. Students will work in
groups and individually as they improve their oral expression with reference to
current events and related professional matters, in addition to improving their
listening skills. Students will also be taught how to deal with grammatical issues
strictly related to the exercise of the profession (correctly constructing questions
or reported speech, for example) and simulated activities, such as press
conferences, job interviews and guest speakers, will be used to track their
progress. The course will adopt a flexible approach based on the abilities of the
group

2. Competences to be attained
Instrumental skills: To understand and interpret written academic texts in a
relevant and reasoned manner. To be capable of using both oral and written
English in an academic way (reading, writing and speaking in a mid to upper
register).

Personal skills: To be capable of working in a group, actively participating in the

assigned tasks and debating opposing views to come to an agreement. To accept
divergent points of view as a fundamental ingredient of academic life and
inseparable from modern society and to respect opposing views to your own. To
have developed or consolidated self discipline, personal motivation and a
thorough working manner, alongside organisation skills and timing.

Systemic skills: To have developed the sense of curiosity and the thirst for
knowledge which are essential in all parts of the educational process and in all
areas of professional life. To be capable of applying and adapting knowledge
acquired in new situations with flexibility and creativity. To be able to learn
independently.

Degree specific skills: Knowledge of English on a professional level within the

media. Knowledge of the evolution of journalistic methods and traditions in
different media. Knowledge of the makeup of different media, in so far as they
reflect different ways of life and different cultures, related to social context.
Knowledge of the main issues and events in media. The capacity to read and
analyse specialised texts and documents on whatever relevant subject. The basic
capacity to understand the news production process, both written and audiovisual,
in English.

Course specific skills: -Communicate effectively and confidently in English in a

specific academic and professional context, at both reception and production level

-Discuss current affairs and professional matters in English

-Ability to contact and interact with sources in English

-Capacity for reading specialised journalism texts in English

-Acquisition of basic skills to write news texts in English

-Speed-read in English in order to absorb high volumes of information in a short

time

-Correct telephone, email and social media skills in English

-Increase range of professional vocabulary

-Improve fluency training designed to improve accent, pronunciation, tone and

register

-Deliver speeches under simulated time / pressure constraints

-Remedial language training focussed on oral and written expression

-Fine tune general public speaking and presentation skills

3. Contents
In general terms, students will work on four areas of English language training,
which will be interwoven into 20 two-hour sessions:

Firstly, listening skills. Course content in this case will focus on improving
students' listening comprehension abilities. In order to do so, every class will
include listening exercises through online programmes designed specifically by
the BBC and the British Council for such purposes. Students will be taught how to
identify typical oral structures and linguistic formalities used when dealing with
the press. Course instructors will also introduce British, American and non-native
accents, in order to broaden the scope of oral comprehension.

Secondly, oral expression skills. Most classes will begin by a group look at
current affairs and all students will be expected to participate at both an informal
and then more formal level in in-class debates. Through the use of rotating
groups, students will be expected to form mini news teams and to inform the rest
of the group of the "headlines of the day" as if simulating an editorial meeting,
before closing the class out with a simulated five minute radio news bulletin. The
course instructor will take notes on student performance and then correct the most
frequent mistakes.

As for grammar and written skills, it must be stressed that the course is not a
general English course but rather offers specific help to students who wish to
improve their level in a professional news environment. Exercises, which may be
completed both in class or outside class time, will be strictly related to the field of
journalism. Students will be presented with 'classic mistake' scenarios, relevant
case studies and the necessary vocabulary and professional jargon needed to work
in the press, radio, television, internet and social media.

Finally, improving personal language skills will be included towards the end of
the course. Given that the class makeup is one of second-term fourth-year
students, language training oriented towards presentation, curriculum and
interviewing skills will be introduced to enable the student to face professional
challenges in an English-language environment.

4. Assessment
The course characteristics inevitably lead to a continuous assessment model.
Students will be equally graded on all four main blocks of the course (4 x 25%):

-25% Listening /Oral Comprehension = in-class exercises + outside activities

-25% Oral expression = participation in current debates + newsroom bulletins in

groups

-25% Written comprehension = case studies, vocabulary tests, news articles

-25% Personal language skills = interviewing skills, presentation exercises

It must be pointed out that students will be graded on their progression during the
course.

Students who initially fail the course will have a further opportunity to pass at the
end of April, by taking a two-hour test. It will be divided into four half-hour
blocks, each worth 25% of the final mark. Students will be tested on listening /
oral comprehension; oral expression; written comprehension and personal
language skills. The test will be based on language skills covered during the
English for Journalists course, with students expected to demonstrate knowledge
of these specific areas, rather than a general level of English

5. Bibliography and teaching resources

5.1. Basic bibliography

EVANS, Harold. Essential English for Journalists. Pimlico: 2000.

HYCKS Winford. English for Journalists. Taylor & Francis , 2006

MURPHY. R. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge. 2004

5.2. Complementary bibliography

HYCKS, Wynford. Media Skills. 3rd Edition. Routledge, 2007

5.3. Teaching resources

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/specials/2009/03/090316_spe
cials_cojo.shtml

http://www.britishcouncil.org/professionals-specialisms-journalism-intro.htm

http://www.slideshare.net/RockyS11/english-for-journalistsdoc

6. Metodology
Given the nature of the course, the large number of students in class (due to its
obligatory nature) and the difference in ability among participants, classes will
adopt a flexible method. In general, however, a 'standard' two-hour class would
use the following 'script':

- Classes begin with an overview of the key ideas of the previous class. Students
will be asked to demonstrate that they have absorbed the material taught in the
previous class.

- Students will then be asked to improve their oral skills by participating in a

structured debate on current events. One group will be asked to offer the main
headlines from the Catalan, Spanish and international press.

- Short listening exercises will be introduced, using relevant audio documents to

increase variety.

-Written and grammar activities will then be introduced to fine tune writing skills.
These exercises may be corrected in class or later by the instructor, to be returned
in the following class.

-Classes will finish with a five-minute news bulletin simulation presented by a

group of four to six students, who will take on roles of presenter or section head
(politics, economics, international sport, culture...etc). Other class members will
grade their performance.

-Students can submit written exercises and news articles to be published in

accordance with the "News Agencies" course of the UPF and the Catalan News
Agency.

7. Planning of activities
Week 1: Course explanations, personal presentations

Weeks 2-8: Listening, oral expression, writing, grammar, vocabulary exercises

Week 9: Personal language skills, professional orientation in English, (CVs,

interviews)

Week 10: English for Journalist language individual diagnosis, all completed
exercises

English for Journalists offers instruction in English language development for

students who are studying journalism, or working journalists who want to improve

their English proficiency. Students with a basic understanding and interest in

journalism are encouraged to sign up.

In this communication course, you will learn about key topics that are essential to

journalists working around the world. These topics include:

 The job of the journalist

 Ethics in journalism

 Inclusive journalism

 Local vs. Global journalism

 Citizen journalism

Issues in English vocabulary, idioms, and grammar are explored as well.

“English for Journalists” is sponsored by the U.S. Department of State, and

developed in partnership with the Regional English Language Office in Central

and Southeastern Europe, the Voice of America, and English language educators

across Central and Eastern Europe. This course is being offered by UC Berkeley

as part of the U.S. Department of State’s MOOC Camp.

What you'll learn

 Understand current issues facing journalists globally

 Improve your English vocabulary and grammar in order to write more

effective stories

 Communicate more effectively with others in interviews and reports

  Understand issues of ethics, equality, and fairness as they apply to

journalism

Definition of journaism

Journalism is the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news

and information. It is also the product of these activities.

Journalism can be distinguished from other activities and products by certain

identifiable characteristics and practices. These elements not only separate

journalism from other forms of communication, they are what make it

indispensable to democratic societies. History reveals that the more democratic a

society, the more news and information it tends to have.

What is the purpose of journalism

“The purpose of journalism,” write Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel in The

Elements of Journalism, “is not defined by technology, nor by journalists or the

techniques they employ.” Rather, “the principles and purpose of journalism are

defined by something more basic: the function news plays in the lives of people.

The 5 Principles of Ethical Journalism

The core principles of ethical journalism set out below provide an excellent base

for everyone who aspires to launch themselves into the public information sphere

to show responsibility in how they use information.

There are hundreds of codes of conduct, charters and statements made by media

and professional groups outlining the principles, values and obligations of the

craft of journalism.

Most focus on five common themes:

Five Core Principles of Journalism

1. Truth and Accuracy

Journalists cannot always guarantee ‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the

cardinal principle of journalism. We should always strive for accuracy, give all

the relevant facts we have and ensure that they have been checked. When we

cannot corroborate information we should say so.

2. Independence

Journalists must be independent voices; we should not act, formally or informally,

on behalf of special interests whether political, corporate or cultural. We should

declare to our editors – or the audience – any of our political affiliations, financial

arrangements or other personal information that might constitute a conflict of

interest.

3. Fairness and Impartiality

Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no obligation to present every

side in every piece, stories should be balanced and add context. Objectivity is not
always possible, and may not always be desirable (in the face for example of

brutality or inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and confidence.

Journalism ethics and standards comprise principles of ethics and of good

practice as applicable to the specific challenges faced by journalists. Historically

and currently, this subset of media ethics is widely known to journalists as their

professional "code of ethics" or the "canons of journalism".[1] The basic codes and

canons commonly appear in statements drafted by both professional journalism

associations and individual print, broadcast, and online news organizations.

While various existing codes have some differences, most share common

elements including the principles of truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity,

impartiality, fairness, and public accountability, as these apply to the acquisition

of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public.[1][2][3][4]

Like many broader ethical systems, journalism ethics include the principle of

"limitation of harm". This often involves the withholding of certain details from

reports such as the names of minor children, crime victims' names or information

not materially related to particular news reports release of which might, for

example, harm someone's reputation.[5][6]

Some journalistic codes of ethics, notably the European ones,[7] also include a

concern with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual

orientation, and physical or mental disabilities.[8][9][10][11] The Parliamentary

Assembly of the Council of Europe approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the

Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the presumption of

innocence, in particular in cases that are still sub judice.[12]

Evolution and purpose of codes of journalism

While journalists in the United States and European countries have led in

formulation and adoption of these standards, such codes can be found in news

reporting organizations in most countries with freedom of the press. The written

codes and practical standards vary somewhat from country to country and

organization to organization, but there is a substantial overlap among mainstream

publications and societies. The International Federation of Journalists (IFJ)

launched a global Ethical Journalism Initiative in 2008 aimed at strengthening

awareness of these issues within professional bodies. In 2013 the Ethical

Journalism Network was founded by former IFJ General Secretary Aidan White.

This coalition of international and regional media associations and journalism

support groups campaigns for ethics, good governance and self-regulation across

all platforms of media.

One of the leading voices in the U.S. on the subject of journalistic standards and

ethics is the Society of Professional Journalists. The Preamble to its Code of

Ethics states:
...public enlightenment is the forerunner of justice and the foundation of

democracy. The duty of the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and

providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Conscientious

journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with

thoroughness and honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a

journalist's credibilit

The primary themes common to most codes of journalistic standards and

ethics are the following.

Accuracy and standards for factual reporting

 Reporters are expected to be as accurate as possible given the time allotted

to story preparation and the space available, and to seek reliable sources.

 Events with a single eyewitness are reported with attribution. Events with

two or more independent eyewitnesses may be reported as fact.

Controversial facts are reported with attribution.

 Independent fact-checking by another employee of the publisher is

desirable.

 Corrections are published when errors are discovered.

 Defendants at trial are treated only as having "allegedly" committed

crimes, until conviction, when their crimes are generally reported as fact

(unless, that is, there is serious controversy about wrongful conviction).

  Opinion surveys and statistical information deserve special treatment to

communicate in precise terms any conclusions, to contextualize the results,

and to specify accuracy, including estimated error and methodological

criticism or flaws.

Slander and libel considerations

 Reporting the truth is almost never libel, [15] which makes accuracy very

important.

 Private persons have privacy rights that must be balanced against the public

interest in reporting information about them. Public figures have fewer privacy

rights in U.S. law, where reporters are immune from a civil case if they have

reported without malice. In Canada, there is no such immunity; reports on public

figures must be backed by facts.

 Publishers vigorously defend libel lawsuits filed against their reporters,

usually covered by libel insurance

Harm limitation principle

During the normal course of an assignment a reporter might go about—gathering

facts and details, conducting interviews, doing research, background checks,

taking photos, and recording video and sound—harm limitation deals with the

questions of whether everything learned should be reported and, if so, how. This

principle of limitation means that some weight needs to be given to the negative
consequences of full disclosure, creating a practical and ethical dilemma. The

Society of Professional Journalists' code of ethics offers the following advice,

which is representative of the practical ideas of most professional journalists.

Quoting directly:[4]

 Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by

news coverage. Use special sensitivity when dealing with children

and inexperienced sources or subjects.

 Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of

those affected by tragedy or grief.

 Recognise that gathering and reporting information may cause

harm or discomfort. The Pursuit of the news is not a license for

arrogance.

 Recognise that private people have a greater right to control

information about themselves than do public officials and others

who seek power, influence or attention. Only an overriding public

need can justify intrusion into anyone's privacy.

 Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.

 Be cautious about identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex

crimes.

 Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal

filing of charges.

 Balance a criminal suspect's fair trial rights with the public's right

to be informe
Ethics and standards in practice

Main articles: journalism scandals, media bias, media ethics, and yellow

journalism

One of the most controversial issues in modern reporting is media bias,

particularly on political issues, but also with regard to cultural and other issues.

Sensationalism is also a common complaint. Minor factual errors are also

extremely common, as almost anyone who is familiar with the subject of a

particular report will quickly realize.

There are also some wider concerns, as the media continue to change, for

example, that the brevity of news reports and use of soundbites has reduced

fidelity to the truth, and may contribute to a lack of needed context for public

understanding. From outside the profession, the rise of news management

contributes to the real possibility that news media may be deliberately

manipulated. Selective reporting (spiking, double standards) are very commonly

alleged against newspapers, and by their nature are forms of bias not easy to

establish, or guard against.

This section does not address specifics of such matters, but issues of practical

compliance, as well as differences between professional journalists on principles

Standards and reputation

Among the leading news organizations that voluntarily adopt and attempt to

uphold the common standards of journalism ethics described herein, adherence

and general quality vary considerably. The professionalism, reliability and public

accountability of a news organization are three of its most valuable assets. An

organization earns and maintains a strong reputation, in part, through a consistent

implementation of ethical standards, which influence its position with the public

and within the industry.

Genres, ethics, and standards

Advocacy journalists—a term of some debate even within the field of journalism

—by definition tend to reject "objectivity", while at the same time maintaining

many other common standards and ethics.

Civic journalism adopts a modified approach to objectivity; instead of being

uninvolved spectators, the press is active in facilitating and encouraging public

debate and examining claims and issues critically. This does not necessarily imply

advocacy of a specific political party or position.

Creative nonfiction and literary journalism use the power of language and literary

devices more akin to fiction to bring insight and depth into the often book-length

treatment of the subjects about which they write. Such devices as dialogue,
metaphor, digression and other such techniques offer the reader insights not

usually found in standard news reportage. However, authors in this branch of

journalism still maintain ethical criteria such as factual and historical accuracy as

found in standard news reporting. They venture outside the boundaries of standard

news reporting in offering richly detailed accounts. One widely regarded author in

the genre is Joyce Carol Oates, as with her book on boxer Mike Tyson.

Investigative journalism often takes an implicit point of view on a particular

public interest, by asking pointed questions and intensely probing certain

questions. With outlets that otherwise strive for neutrality on political issues, the

implied position is often uncontroversial—for example, that political corruption or

abuse of children is wrong and perpetrators should be exposed and punished, that

government money should be spent efficiently, or that the health of the public or

workers or veterans should be protected. Advocacy journalists often use

investigative journalism in support of a particular political position, or to expose

facts that are only concerning to those with certain political opinions. Regardless

of whether or not it is undertaken for a specific political faction, this genre usually

puts a strong emphasis on factual accuracy, because the point of an in-depth

investigation of an issue is to expose facts that spur change. Not all investigations

seek to expose facts about a particular problem; some data-driven reporting does

deep analysis and presents interesting results for the general edification of the

audience which might be interpreted in different ways or which may contain a

wealth of facts concerned with many different potential problems. A factually-

constrained investigation with an implied public interest point of view may also

find that the system under investigation is working well.

New Journalism and Gonzo journalism also reject some of the fundamental ethical

traditions and will set aside the technical standards of journalistic prose in order to

express themselves and reach a particular audience or market segment. These

favor a subjective perspective and emphasize immersive experiences over

objective facts.

Tabloid journalists are often accused of sacrificing accuracy and the personal

privacy of their subjects in order to boost sales. The 2011 News International

phone hacking scandal is an example of this. Supermarket tabloids are often

focused on entertainment rather than news. A few have "news" stories that are so

outrageous that they are widely read for entertainment purposes, not for

information. Some tabloids do purport to maintain common journalistic standards

but may fall far short in practice. Others make no such claims.

Some publications deliberately engage in satire, but give the publication the

design elements of a newspaper, for example, The Onion, and it is not unheard of

for other publications to offer the occasional, humorous articles appearing on

April Fool's Day.

Relationship with freedom of the press

In countries without freedom of the press, the majority of people who report the

news may not follow the above-described standards of journalism. Non-free

media are often prohibited from criticizing the national government, and in many

cases are required to distribute propaganda as if it were news. Various other forms

of censorship may restrict reporting on issues the government deems sensitive. In

the United States, freedom of the press is protected under the First Amendment in

the Bill of Rights. Under the First Amendment, the government is not allowed to

censor the press. The government does not have the right to try to control what is

published and cannot prevent certain things from being published by the press.

The Prior constraint is a term used to describe an attempt by the government to

prevent the expression of ideas before they are published. Some countries that

have freedom of the press are the U.S., Canada, Western Europe and Scandinavia,

Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Taiwan and a handful of countries in South

America.[16]

Variations, violations, and controversies

There are a number of finer points of journalistic procedure that foster

disagreements in principle and variation in practice among "mainstream"

journalists in the free press. Laws concerning libel and slander vary from country

to country, and local journalistic standards may be tailored to fit. For example, the

United Kingdom has a broader definition of libel than does the United States.

Accuracy is important as a core value and to maintain credibility, but especially in

broadcast media, audience share often gravitates toward outlets that are reporting

new information first. Different organizations may balance speed and accuracy in

different ways. The New York Times, for instance, tends to print longer, more
detailed, less speculative, and more thoroughly verified pieces a day or two later

than many other newspapers.[citation needed] 24-hour television news networks tend to

place much more emphasis on getting the "scoop." Here, viewers may switch

channels at a moment's notice; with fierce competition for ratings and a large

amount of airtime to fill, fresh material is very valuable. Because of the fast turn-

around, reporters for these networks may be under considerable time pressure,

which reduces their ability to verify information.

Laws with regard to personal privacy, official secrets, and media disclosure of

names and facts from criminal cases and civil lawsuits differ widely, and

journalistic standards may vary accordingly. Different organizations may have

different answers to questions about when it is journalistically acceptable to skirt,

circumvent, or even break these regulations. Another example of differences

surrounding harm reduction is the reporting of preliminary election results. In the

United States, some news organizations feel that it is harmful to the democratic

process to report exit poll results or preliminary returns while voting is still open.

Such reports may influence people who vote later in the day, or who are in

western time zones, in their decisions about how and whether or not to vote. There

is also some concern that such preliminary results are often inaccurate and may be

misleading to the public. Other outlets feel that this information is a vital part of

the transparency of the election process, and see no harm (if not considerable

benefit) in reporting it.

Objectivity as a journalistic standard varies to some degree depending on the

industry and country. For example, the government-funded BBC in the United

Kingdom places a strong emphasis on political neutrality, but British newspapers

more often tend to adopt political affiliations or leanings in both coverage and

audience, sometimes explicitly.[17] In the United States, major newspapers usually

explicitly claim objectivity as a goal in news coverage, though most have separate

editorial boards that endorse specific candidates and publish opinions on specific

issues. Adherence to a claimed standard of objectivity is a constant subject of

debate. For example, mainstream national cable news channels in the United

States claim political objectivity but to various degrees, Fox News has been

accused of conservative bias and MSNBC accused of liberal bias. The degree to

which these leanings influence cherry-picking of facts, factual accuracy, the

predominance of non-news opinion and commentators, audience opinion of the

issues and candidates covered, visual composition, tone and vocabulary of stories

is hotly debated.

News value is generally used to select stories for print, broadcast, blogs, and web

portals, including those that focus on a specific topic. To a large degree, news

value depends on the target audience. For example, a minor story in the United

States is more likely to appear on CNN than a minor story in the Middle East

which might be more likely to appear on Al Jazeera simply due to the geographic

distribution of the channels' respective audiences. It is a matter of debate whether

this means that either network is less than objective, and that controversy is even

more complicated when considering coverage of political stories for different

audiences that have different political demographics (as with Fox News vs.

MSNBC).

Some digital media platforms can use criteria to choose stories which are different

than traditional news value. For example, while the Google News portal

essentially chooses stories based on news value (though indirectly, through the

choices of large numbers of independent outlets), users can set Google Alerts on

specific terms which define personal subjective interests. Search engines, news

aggregators, and social network feeds sometimes change the presentation of

content depending on the consumer's expressed or inferred preferences or

leanings. This has both been cheered as bypassing traditional "gatekeepers" and

whatever biases they may have in favor of audience-centric selection criteria, but

criticized as creating a dangerous filter bubble which intentionally or

unintentionally hides dissenting opinions and other content which might be

important for the audience to see in order to avoid exposure bias and groupthink.

Taste, decency, and acceptability

Audiences have different reactions to depictions of violence, nudity, coarse

language, or to people in any other situation that is unacceptable to or stigmatized

by the local culture or laws (such as the consumption of alcohol, homosexuality,

illegal drug use, scatological images, etc.). Even with similar audiences, different

organizations and even individual reporters have different standards and practices.

These decisions often revolve around what facts are necessary for the audience to

know.
When certain distasteful or shocking material is considered important to the story,

there are a variety of common methods for mitigating negative audience reaction.

Advance warning of explicit or disturbing material may allow listeners or readers

to avoid content they would rather not be exposed to. Offensive words may be

partially obscured or bleeped. Potentially offensive images may be blurred or

narrowly cropped. Descriptions may be substituted for pictures; graphic detail

might be omitted. Disturbing content might be moved from a cover to an inside

page, or from daytime to late evening when children are less likely to be

watching.

There is often considerable controversy over these techniques, especially concern

that obscuring or not reporting certain facts or details is self-censorship that

compromises objectivity and fidelity to the truth, and which does not serve the

public interest.

For example, images and graphic descriptions of war are often violent, bloody,

shocking and profoundly tragic. This makes certain content disturbing to some

audience members, but it is precisely these aspects of war that some consider to be

the most important to convey. Some argue that "sanitizing" the depiction of war

influences public opinion about the merits of continuing to fight, and about the

policies or circumstances that precipitated the conflict. The amount of explicit

violence and mutilation depicted in war coverage varies considerable from time to

time, from organization to organization, and from country to country.

Reporters have also been accused of indecency in the process of collecting news,

namely that they are overly intrusive in the name of journalistic insensitivity. War

correspondent Edward Behr recounts the story of a reporter during the Congo

Crisis who walked into a crowd of Belgian evacuees and shouted, "Anyone here

been raped and speaks English?"[18]

Campaigning in the media

Many print publications take advantage of their wide readership and print

persuasive pieces in the form of unsigned editorials that represent the official

position of the organization. Despite the ostensible separation between editorial

writing and news gathering, this practice may cause some people to doubt the

political objectivity of the publication's news reporting. (Though usually unsigned

editorials are accompanied by a diversity of signed opinions from other

perspectives.)

Other publications and many broadcast media only publish opinion pieces that are

attributed to a particular individual (who may be an in-house analyst) or to an

outside entity. One particularly controversial question is whether media

organizations should endorse political candidates for office. Political

endorsements create more opportunities to construe favoritism in reporting, and

can create a perceived conflict of interest.

Investigative methods
Investigative journalism is largely an information-gathering exercise, looking for

facts that are not easy to obtain by simple requests and searches, or are actively

being concealed, suppressed or distorted. Where investigative work involves

undercover journalism or use of whistleblowers, and even more if it resorts to

covert methods more typical of private detectives or even spying, it brings a large

extra burden on ethical standards.

Anonymous sources are double-edged—they often provide especially newsworthy

information, such as classified or confidential information about current events,

information about a previously unreported scandal, or the perspective of a

particular group that may fear retribution for expressing certain opinions in the

press. The downside is that the condition of anonymity may make it difficult or

impossible for the reporter to verify the source's statements. Sometimes news

sources hide their identities from the public because their statements would

otherwise quickly be discredited. Thus, statements attributed to anonymous

sources may carry more weight with the public than they might if they were

attributed.

The Washington press has been criticized in recent years for excessive use of

anonymous sources, in particular to report information that is later revealed to be

unreliable. The use of anonymous sources increased markedly in the period before

the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[19]

Examples of ethical dilemmas

One of the primary functions of journalism ethics is to aid journalists in dealing

with many ethical dilemmas they may encounter. From highly sensitive issues of

national security to everyday questions such as accepting a dinner from a source,

putting a bumper sticker on one's car, publishing a personal opinion blog, a

journalist must make decisions taking into account things such as the public's right

to know, potential threats, reprisals and intimidations of all kinds, personal

integrity, conflicts between editors, reporters and publishers or management, and

many other such conundra. The following are illustrations of some of those.

 The Pentagon Papers dealt with extremely difficult ethical dilemmas faced

by journalists. Despite government intervention, The Washington Post,

joined by The New York Times, felt the public interest was more

compelling and both published reports. (The cases went to the Supreme

Court where they were merged and are known as New York Times Co. v.

United States, 403 U.S. 713.[20]

 The Washington Post also once published a story about a listening device

that the United States had installed over an undersea Soviet cable during

the height of the cold war. The device allowed the United States to learn

where Soviet submarines were positioned. In that case, Post Executive

Editor Ben Bradlee chose not to run the story on national security grounds.

However, the Soviets subsequently discovered the device and, according

to Bradlee, "It was no longer a matter of national security. It was a matter

of national embarrassment." However, the U.S. government still wanted

The Washington Post not to run the story on the basis of national security,
 yet, according to Bradlee, "We ran the story. And you know what, the sun

rose the next day."[21]

 The Center for International Media Ethics, an international non-profit

organisation "offers platform for media professionals to follow current

ethical dilemmas of the press" through its blog. Besides highlighting the

ethical concerns of recent stories, journalists are encouraged to express

their own opinion. The organisation "urges journalists to make their own

judgments and identify their own strategies."[22]

 The Ethics AdviceLine for Journalists, a joint venture, public service

project of Chicago Headline Club Chapter of the Society of Professional

Journalists and Loyola University Chicago Center for Ethics and Social

Justice, provides some examples of typical ethical dilemmas reported to

their ethical dilemma hotline and are typical of the kinds of questions

faced by many professional journalists.