FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA SHAH ALAM

BACHELOR OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT (HONS)

BUILDING CONTROL AND PATHOLOGY II (BSS555)

ASSIGNMENT 2 (GROUP)

TITLE

NO. NAME MATRIC NO.

1. MUHAMMAD ANAS BIN ISMAIL 2019801934
2. SYED MUHAMMAD HAZIQ BIN SYED RAZALI 2019654146
3. MOHD AMINUDDIN ADLI BIN MOHD RIDZUAN 2019872048
4. SITI SURIANI BINTI MUHAMMAD 2019495406
5. MAIZATUL AMANISA BINTI MOHAMAD GHAZI 2019451614
6. NUR AMIRA SYUHADA BINTI MOHAMAD SALLEH 2019695558

PREPARED FOR:

TS. SR. DR. MOHAMAD RIDZUAN YAHYA, PJM (MRISM, MMBOT, MMIPFM,
MMAFM)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

1.1 Introduction
2.0 Literature Review
3.0 Defective Materials at Building Elements
3.1 Metal
3.2 Concrete
3.3 Plastic/HDPE/PVC//UPVC/ABS
3.4 Stone and Composite Stone
3.5 Timber
3.6 Bricks
4.0 Conclusion

References

2
1.0 INTRODUCTION

uilding defect occurs to either the new building or the old ones. Defect within new
buildings
is maybe of non-compliance with Building Code and published acceptable
tolerances and
standards. Meanwhile the older buildings, or building out of warranty period, may not
comply with
these standards but must be judged against the standard at the time of
construction or
refurbishment. (David Hall)
Defects and deterioration are common problems in any built structures.
However, various
defects are more common in an old structure (Ransom, 1981). As in BS 3811
(Code of Practice,
British Standard 1984) defects are defined as the deterioration of building features
and services to
unsatisfactory quality levels of requirement of the users.
According to California Civil Code 896, common types of building defects include:
structural
defects resulting in cracks or collapse; defective or faulty electrical wiring or lighting,
defective or
faulty plumbing, inadequate drainage systems, faulty ventilation, cooling or
heating systems,
insufficient insulation or sound proofing, and also inadequate fire protection
suppression systems.
Plus, dry rot, wood rot, mold, fungus, or termite or vermin infestation may also be the
result of a
building defect.
A building defect may also include damage caused by land movement or earth
settlement.
Proving a building defect commonly requires the hiring and testimony of a
highly trained and
experienced expert. An expert, such as an engineer or an architect, is the one who
will be able to
uilding defect occurs to either the new building or the old ones. Defect within new
buildings
is maybe of non-compliance with Building Code and published acceptable
tolerances and
standards. Meanwhile the older buildings, or building out of warranty period, may not
comply with
these standards but must be judged against the standard at the time of
construction or
refurbishment. (David Hall)
Defects and deterioration are common problems in any built structures.
However, various
defects are more common in an old structure (Ransom, 1981). As in BS 3811
(Code of Practice,
British Standard 1984) defects are defined as the deterioration of building features
and services to
unsatisfactory quality levels of requirement of the users.
According to California Civil Code 896, common types of building defects include:
structural
defects resulting in cracks or collapse; defective or faulty electrical wiring or lighting,
defective or

3
faulty plumbing, inadequate drainage systems, faulty ventilation, cooling or
heating systems,
insufficient insulation or sound proofing, and also inadequate fire protection
suppression systems.
Plus, dry rot, wood rot, mold, fungus, or termite or vermin infestation may also be the
result of a
building defect.
A building defect may also include damage caused by land movement or earth
settlement.
Proving a building defect commonly requires the hiring and testimony of a
highly trained and
experienced expert. An expert, such as an engineer or an architect, is the one who
will be able to
Building defect occurs to either the new building or the old ones. Defect within new
buildings is maybe of non-compliance with Building Code and published acceptable
tolerances and standards. Meanwhile the older buildings, or building out of warranty
period, may not comply with these standards but must be judged against the
standard at the time of construction or refurbishment.

Defects and deterioration are common problems in any built structures. However,
various defects are more common in an old structure. The common types of building
defects include, structural defects resulting in cracks or collapse; defective or faulty
electrical wiring or lighting, defective or faulty plumbing, inadequate drainage
systems, faulty ventilation, cooling or heating systems, insufficient insulation or sound
proofing, and also inadequate fire protection suppression systems. Plus, dry rot,
wood rot, mold, fungus, or termite or vermin infestation may also be the result of a
building defect. The case study was conducted at No 21 Jalan platinum 7/60A,
Seksyen 7, 40000 Shah Alam near to University Teknologi Mara.

However, a building defect may also include damage caused by land movement or
earth settlement. Proving a building defect commonly requires the hiring and
testimony of a highly trained and experienced expert. An expert, such as an engineer
or an architect, is the one who will be able to determine the construction problem
involved due to the result of improper design, material, or workmanship. Hence this
cases study will prevail the defect that found in the building. To enhance the data
collection data, it will use a camera as a method to collect data and diagnose of the
defect elements that found in the building.

4
Figure 1.1: Case Study House

5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Diagnosis

Before we plan our maintenance and repair works, building inspection and
condition assessment should be conducted for building diagnosis. As can be
specifically assessed by the observer, building inspection is all about the
overall and general conditions. It may consist of visual inspection, crack
mapping, measurement of deflection, measurement of settlement, and
observations of water leakage signs and corrosion of steel. It typically
involves taking samples for testing materials, measuring temperature,
humidity, half-cell electrical potential, vibration and delamination in situ, and
constant monitoring of movement and water leakage from time to time.
Registered Inspector, who must be a professional person, shall conduct the
building inspection as evaluated and authorized by the Department of
Buildings to carry out building inspection works (Kwan, 2015).

A building or structure's visual inspection often relies on the subjective

opinions of the inspector and does not provide an accurate evaluation of the
condition of the building or structure under investigation. Various forms of
chemical analysis, on the other hand, may help solve building problems.
Infrared spectroscopy associated analytical method in more complex
situations, it can be used with great success to help diagnose defects (Lo,
2004).

2.2 Prognosis

Reported by Colville (1982), prognosis is complex yet vital process to

determine the competent remedial action towards a defect. The prognosis
process is combination of effects in reducing vulnerability and improvement
action to the structure. The process includes the provide a detail
recommended information for the corrective measure start with the cost
estimated and time taken due to satisfactory solution may come to either or
both of them. The prognosis designed to eliminate the defect for a long last
solution, eliminate the cause to avoid the repeating defect, and minimizing
vulnerability.

6
2.3 Definition of building defect

Building Defect is defined by something that missing in order to achieve the

target of perfectness in a building (Ahzahar, 2011). Other than that, defects
also is an improper condition that may affect the structure of building and
having a low quality performance of building (Bliss, 2004). Defects that
happened in a building not only affect the aesthetic but may also affect the
level of safety in a building (Che‐Ani, 2011).

Other than that, defects defined as not perfect and also faulty. Defect also is
a meant that something does not meet the expected requirement criteria.
The Webster Dictionary interprets the context of the deficiency that will cause
the consistency that should be impacted. A building defect can also be
described as any problem that can reduce the value of residential buildings
or houses, and if ignored, it is dangerous for building occupants.

In addition, building defects can be divided into two groups. The first is the
defect that eventually affects the structure's appearance, while the second is
the defect that affects the building structure's efficiency. A building defect is
either a breach of the relevant construction code and a violation of the
standard of care in the community in which the project is built or a violation of
the recommendations of the manufacturer. Design errors, inferior materials,
design errors, lack of maintenance, etc. may cause building defects.

The defects in buildings are typically structural defects that cause cracks,
defective ventilation, insufficient fire and sound proofing, etc. In addition,
because of building defects, timber rot, dry and wet rot, fungus and mold
infections may occur. In order to determine the root cause of the defects,
professionals such as qualified engineers or architects are needed to locate
the defects in a house.

7
2.4 Category of building defects

2.4.1 Structural defect

Bakri (2013) classified structural defect includes any defect in

structural features of a building due to faulty construction, defective
workmanship or material and mixed of them. Structural defect
comprises retaining wall, columns, beams and slab.
Moreover, according to the Engineering Encyclopedia, categorized
that cracking in foundation, floor or slab and wall in the field of
structural defect. As the result, the defective structural result by the
poor soil analysis, unsuitable site selection and defective material
usage. Contractor should apply and construct the building according
to the design and planning as cited in (Bakri,2013).

Bakri (2013) highlighted that corrective measures for structural defect

are vital to be carried out to avoid any continuous failures. Conduct a
regular inspection of the building structure to ensure the ling life of
building. Commonly, the defective structural comes from the steel
corrosion, cracking and deflection. Various factor of structural defect
such as deterioration, wear and tear, overloading and poor
maintenance

2.4.2 Non-structural defect

A non-structural defect result from the defective residential building

work in residential building (Bakri, 2013). Defect in brick work,
dampness in old structures and plastering defect are among the
example of the non-structural defect.

8
2.5 Type of Defects

2.5.1 Erosion of mortar

Bakri et al., (2014) defined mortar as an adhesive material filled

between individual block for both stones and bricks. The main
function of mortar joint is to even out the irregularities line of bricks
and stones. Due to ages of building element, mortar may erosion.
The defective mortar joint can clean by mechanical disc or extracted
out using knife.

Weathering is unavoidable. Weather action will damage the mortar.

High exposure of acid rain may drive the rapid hydration of mortar
join into several inches. Commonly, the weathering mortar led to
deterioration of brick.

2.5.2 Peeling paint

Kassim (2009) reported the painted surface may affect by lifting of

paint surface continue with paint cracking defined the peeling of
paint. The appearance of peeling paint on surface of building
elements, internal and external plastered wall, column and others.
The paint peel occurs due to rain and dampness. Water will
condense under the primer or finishes. A small cracking wall allow
the water to trap in the building render. A building near to water
sources such as sea may face greater risk of paint peeling at
external building wall. To eliminate the water route, the defective
element such as piping need to be treat well or replacement and
apply sealant on the wall surface. The exterior of aging building
surface may face the greater risk due to absence of water barrier and
building crack.

9
2.5.3 Cracking of walls / leaning walls

An ineffective of building structural may cause the cracking of wall

due imbalance of load distributing from building element and live
load. The wall cracking may be vertical or diagonal or both (Bakri,
2014).

A stable and strong basement is needed to construct a building to

support the load distribution and land settlement. Contractors need to
avoid or prepare land improvement in preventing cracking wall.
Kassim (2009) stated the deterioration may affect an aging building,
there a vital maintenance should be carried out to avoid the water
enter the building elements. Also cracking wall cause from the
shrinkage problem. It starts from the curing process of the mortar
and concrete. The maintenance activities will long life the building
and improve strength of structure.

2.5.4 Unstable foundations

According to Bakri (2014) mentioned that unstable of foundation will

cause wall cracking. However, the corrective measure of unstable
foundation will change nothing because of building foundation is the
permanents structural of building. In fact, Kassim (2009) mentioned
the building collapse, floor and wall crack and many other results by
unstable foundation.

In addition. by Kassim (2009), unstable foundation may cause by the

soil movement. The movement of soil because presence of water
flow underground. There is various factor of unstable foundation
such as faulty design, overloaded and natural disaster.

10
2.5.5 Roof defects

Defined roof as important of main structures of a building elements

provide weather protection and protect the building occupants from
rain and sun. Bakri (2014) divided the roof defect into structural and
waterproofing defect. Common roof defects are distortion either the
roof or wall of roof level. Usually, this defect can be foreseen and
conduct visual inspection. There are type of roof defect which is
improper installation, poor workmanship and defective material.

2.5.6 Honeycombing

Kassim (2009) refer the honeycomb as void appear on building

structure surface. Honeycomb defect cause of lack of concrete filling
between the aggregate spaces. The defect come from the formwork
which stripped and presence of air void in formwork. The honeycomb
defect may extent to other structure members. Problems of
honeycomb will disturb the aesthetic value and the durability
performance of the affected structure and strength of other structure
member. It will damage the concrete and reinforcement bar in
structure exposed to serious attack.

2.5.7 Dampness

Dampness is one of the building defects where the building expose

to the high humidity in interior and water sources for the exterior of
building (Bakri, 2014). Various of factor which effect the dampness
such as water penetration. Water penetration normally occur through
exposed wall to the high humidity, rainwater and piping leaking.
Cracking between the walls allow the water to penetrate to trap the
moisture in hard renders help with existing gravity. Also, by gutter
and down pipes leaking, defective drain and condensation process in
interior of building (Bakri).

11
2.6 Causes of Defects

2.6.1 Design deficiencies

Building Defect is defined by something that missing to achieve the

target of perfectness in a building [ CITATION Ahz11 \l 17417 ]. Other than
that, defects also are an improper condition that may affect the
structure of building and having a low quality performance of building
[ CITATION Bli04 \l 17417 ]. Defects that happened in a building not only
affect the aesthetic but may also affect the level of safety in a
building [ CITATION Che11 \l 17417 ]. In addition, building defects can be
divided into two groups. The first is the defect that eventually affects
the structure's appearance, while the second is the defect that affects
the building structure's efficiency. A building defect is either a breach
of the relevant construction code and a violation of the standard of
care in the community in which the project is built or a violation of the
recommendations of the manufacturer. Design errors, inferior
materials, design errors, lack of maintenance, etc. may cause
building defects.

The defects in buildings are typically structural defects that cause

cracks, defective ventilation, insufficient fire and sound proofing, etc.
In addition, because of building defects, timber rot, dry and wet rot,
fungus and mold infections may occur. In order to determine the root
cause of the defects, professionals such as qualified engineers or
architects are needed to locate the defects in a house.

12
2.6.2 Material deficiencies

The failures and defects in the building are caused by materials. The
consequences of the use of low content grades will also slowly start
to take effect. For instance, the bricks delivered to the site may have
defects, or if the driver delivers to the site, the bricks may not be
protected and exposed to hot weather and rainwater conditions. This
can decrease the bricks' consistency and lifespan.

Sometimes, reckless groups, such as subcontractors plan to reduce

the quality of the materials such that the expense of the materials
can be reduced. This would eventually reduce the consistency of the
materials and cause defects to occur more rapidly in new buildings.

2.6.3 Specification problems

If the work is not consistent with the specification, the contractor

should work in accordance with the specification provided by the
architect and report to the architect. In order to avoid any unintended
mistakes during construction work, a successful project has its own
procedures to be followed. The designer also will provide the
contractor with the requirements to follow, but some contractors will
prefer to apply their work expertise and experience instead of using
the designer specification.

13
2.6.4 Workmanship deficiencies

In Malaysia Construction Industry, poor on-site workmanship issues

have always been highlighted by the media, especially through
newspapers, and the result of poor workmanship and poor quality of
materials used, which have been identified as major causes of
defects in construction projects when new buildings are built
[CITATION Abd10 \l 17417 ] . In addition, the factors leading to poor
workmanship include lack of supervision, lack of skill and
competence from the staff, language barriers and lack of
communication are factors that can contribute to poor workmanship.

Newly designed residential buildings that have suffered defects due

to the contractor or developer's bad workmanship [ CITATION Ant13 \l
17417 ]. However, when designing homes, the contractor plays an
important part in the construction site. This is because all the work
from the piling of work to the completion of the project needs to be
supervised. If no proper monitoring is performed, without the notice
of the site workers, the employees may simply create the structure. It
is therefore necessary to always supervise the work of the workers
when concrete work takes place.

Other than that, the lack of labour experience and expertise is also a
factor that can contribute to poor workmanship. Without
implementing best working practices, efficiency cannot be
accomplished by speed and harder work [ CITATION Kas06 \l 17417 ].
The construction company likes to hire short-term workers in the
country of Turkey, and most of them have little experience and
knowledge of construction work [ CITATION Kaz05 \l 17417 ].

Lastly, the language barrier and lack of contact can contribute to bad
construction site workmanship. This is because of the different
language used between the international laboratories by local labor.

14
3.0 DEFECTIVE MATERIALS AT BUILDING ELEMENTS

3.1 Metal
i. Defect: Rusting
Diagnosis: Discoloration from the original color

Building Element Air-conditioning unit

Material Metal
Defect Rusting at the outdoor condensing unit
Photos Nature Easy to rust
Symptoms The rusting covered the
actual steel of air-
conditioning unit
Causes Expose to rain and sun
Specification One set of air-conditioning
units
Preventive Using rust-inhibiting primer
Measures to avoid rusting

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove the rust of the condensing unit

2. Scrap the surface with metal brush
3. Paint the condensing unit with a rust-inhibiting primer and two coats
of exterior paint to prevent it from rusting again
4. Clear all the debris

Prognosis: The air-conditioning unit cover might be broken

ii. Defect: Rusting

Diagnosis: Discoloration from the original color

15
Building Element Door
Material Metal
Defect Rusting on doorknob
Photos Nature Easy to damage
Symptoms The color of doorknob is
changing from silver to
brown
Causes Due to old age of
doorknob
Specification One set of doorknobs
Preventive Use spray doorknob
Measures

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace the doorknob with a new one

2. To prevent rust from coming back to soon spray doorknob with paint
or other protective coating

Prognosis: The doorknob will be less function

iii. Defect: Rusting

Diagnosis: Discoloration from the original color

Building Element Window

16
Material Steel
Defect Broken and rusting of window grill
Photos Nature Easy to rust
Symptoms The color of grill is changing
from its original color
Causes Exposed to weather change
Specification Window grille
Preventive Use metal primer to avoid
Measures further rust

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Saturate a clean rag in white vinegar and soaked rag over the rusty
area
2. Scrub the rust away with steel wool
3. Use a spatula to spread small layers of rust converter
4. Fill in any holes with fiberglass putty
5. Sand down the fiberglass putty to match the texture of the sill
6. Paint over with a clean metal primer to protect sill from further rust.

Prognosis: The grill will be less functioned if it is not repaired

iv. Defect: Peeling

Diagnosis: Discoloration from the original color

Building Element Door

Material Steel
Defect Peeling of paint at door grill

17
Photos Nature Easy to peel off and rusting
Symptoms The steel color is expose
Causes - Exposed to rain and sun
- Human activities
Specification 1m x 2m
Preventive Measures Use latex paint

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Scrape away loose paint using the paint scraper
2. Sand the column over the repaired areas to make it smooth before
applying the primer
3. Wipe off the column with the tack cloth to remove dust.
4. Apply the primer to the door grill to seal the grill and prevent moisture
problems.
5. Use the paint roller to paint the grill. Allow the primer to dry according
to the drying time recommended on the paint can.
6. Apply the latex paint in the same manner as the primer then allow the
paint to dry.

Prognosis: Less esthetic value of building

18
 v. Defect: Discolouration and fragile
Diagnosis: The grill become discoloration and fragile

Building Element Window grill

Material Mild Steel
Defect Discolouration and fragile
Photos Nature Mild steel product can easily
rusty
Symptoms Presence of orange colour
and the part are easily be
tear off/fall apart
Causes Exposes to water and air
Specification 460mm x 1570mm
Preventive Add protective coating to
Measures prevent form oxidize

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace all the part with a new set of frames

Prognosis: if prolong, can easily broken

vi. Defect: Rusty

19
 Diagnosis: Discoloration from the original color

Building Element Door

Material Metal
Defect Rusting on ironmongery
Photos Nature Easy to damage
Symptoms The color of doorknob is
changing from silver to
brown
Causes Due to old age of
ironmongery
Specification One set of ironmongery
Preventive Use spray ironmongery
Measures

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace the ironmongery with a new one

2. To prevent rust from coming back to soon spray ironmongery with
paint or other protective coating

Prognosis: The door will be less function

20
 3.2 Concrete
i. Defect: Peeling of Paint
Diagnosis: Appearance of cement on the surface

Building Element Wall

Material Concrete
Defect Flaking of paint at concrete wall
Photos Nature Easy to broke
Symptoms Exposure of wall plaster
Causes Low quality of paint
Specification External concrete wall and
column
Preventive Measures Use double coat of paint

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove loose and flaking paint with a scraper or wire brush.
2. Apply a patching compound with a putty knife to make sure it smooth and
let dry.
3. Cover the area with primer, allowing the surface to dry
4. Apply a first coat evenly over the peeling off paint area.
5. Apply a second coat and let it dry

Prognosis: Might cause to damage of wall if there is no remedial work done

21
 ii. Defect: Crack
Diagnosis: Appearance of hairline crack present on the wall

Building Element Wall

Material Concrete
Defect Crack at concrete wall
Photos Nature Easy to be broke
Symptoms Existence of small hole at the
wall
Causes Due to ground movement
Specification External concrete wall
Preventive Measures Do a further inspection on
overall wall at the building

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Enlarge the crack with a chisel and hammer
2. Clean debris from the crack using a wire brush
3. Prime the area with a concrete bonding adhesive
4. Apply multiple coats of concrete patching with a putty knife
5. Add texture to the patched area before it dries.

Prognosis: The crack will be getting worse and affect the structure of the
building

iii. Defect: Spalling

Diagnosis: Appearance of wall plaster

22
Building Element Wall
Material Concrete
Defect Spalling of concrete wall
Photos Nature Easily damage
Symptoms The wall plaster is expose
Causes The cement plaster is too
dry because the building is
old enough
Specification External concrete wall
Preventive Use anti-rusting paint
Measures

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove the concrete at spalled area to expose the corroded steel bar.
2. Scraped and clean the exposed steel bar and use a wire brush to
remove any rust.
3. Apply 2 coat of anti-rusting paint to steel bars.
4. Apply a bonding agent to the affected surface to ensure proper
adhesion.
5. Patch the hacked area using polymer modified cement mortar.
6. Let the cement dry and paint over the patched area to match the rest of
your ceiling

Prognosis: The wall will be damage in the future if there is no action taken

23
 iv. Defect: Dampness
Diagnosis: Appearance of green-wish layer on the wall

Building Element Wall

Material Concrete
Defect Dampness at concrete wall
Photos Nature Easily damage
Symptoms Existence of mould
Causes Expose to weather change
Specification External concrete wall
Preventive Repair the roof first in order
Measures to avoid dampness

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Clean any leaves or other debris out of the gap between the flashing
and chimney.
2. Use a chisel to remove any hardened roofing cement.
3. Apply a generous amount of roofing cement behind the flashing.
4. Use masonry nail or screw to reattach the flashing thigh against the
chimney.
5. Cover any nails or screw with the roofing cement.
6. Apply the roofing cement to the joint between the flashing and brick.
7. Smooth the roofing cement with a paint stirrer or putty knife.

Prognosis: Lead to Sick Building Syndrome to the occupant of the building

v. Defect: Peeling of paint

Diagnosis: Appearances of cement in staircase

24
Building Element Staircase
Material Concrete
Defect Peeling of paint
Photos Nature Easy to damage because
of low quality of paint
Symptoms Exposure of the concrete
color
Causes Expose to human daily
activity
Specification One stair riser
Preventive Use highest quality of paint
Measures

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove loose and flaking paint with a scraper or wire brush.
2. Do the preparation for the new coating of paint.
3. Repaint the area with the highest quality of paints

Prognosis: Cause danger to the occupant of the building

vi. Defect: Dampness

Diagnosis: The formation of water in the surface

Building Element Wall

Material Concrete
Defect Dampness at concrete wall

25
Photos Nature Bulging when it is exposed to
dampness
Symptoms Bulging at the wall
Causes Leaking from the tank above
Specification Concrete wall
Preventive The tank needs to maintain
Measures well

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Firstly, repair the leaking at tank
2. Identify the type of wall.
3. Check the area that have defect.
4. Remove the wall defection.
5. Replace the new wall.
6. Paint new wall.

Prognosis: The dampness will affect to damage of wall

3.3 Plastic/HDPE/PVC//UPVC/ABS
i. Defect: Hole and Improper Installation
Diagnosis: Appearance of hole on switch socket

Building Element Internal Wall

Material PVC
Defect The socket burnt due to overloaded circuit

26
Photos Nature Too brittle that easily melted if
excessive heat.
Symptoms The surface of the socket
turns to yellowish due to burn.
Causes Extreme heat and high in
voltage amount.
Specification 80mm x 80mm wall socket
type UPVC.
Preventive Measures Apply the good quality of
socket that can withstand with
high amount of voltage

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Turn off the power. Use inductance tester to make sure there is no
power running.
2. Remove the socket plate and inspect the wires.
3. Remove the wires in the following order (black, white then ground
wire). Use a wire cutter.
4. Attach new outlet receptacle. Install new socket and test

Prognosis: Unpleasant appearance and the possibility of insect attack

may occur inside the hole.

ii. Defect: Crack

Diagnosis: Hole on the PVC Ground Pipe

Building Element Ground pipe in the bathroom

Material PVC
Defect Crack due to high temperature
Photos Nature PVC are easily crack and
at higher temperatures, the
strength of plastic pipes

27
 reduces.
Symptoms The surrounding area of
the pipe become damp.
Causes Excessive pressure
towards the surface.
Specification 150 mm diameter.
Preventive Replace the affected area
Measures with the new part.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Digging a hole into the ground to find the pipe area.
2. Cut out the crack section with measure two inches either side of the
crack section.
3. Replace with new pipe
4. Lastly, re-fill the hole with fin gravel around the pipe.

Prognosis: Can causes flood in the bathroom

iii. Defect: Crack

Diagnosis: Improper Installation

Building Element Electrical Conduit pipe

Material PVC
Defect Crack due to Improper wire, and breakage in PVC
piping system
Photos Nature Bending or Vibration or over
tightened threaded connection
Symptoms Crack around the pipe, electric
system not working.
Causes Due to bending or vibration

28
 failure,
Specification 1 ½ or 2 inch
Preventive Measures During the installation
process, PVC flanges and
other piping components
frequently suffer from heavy
loads. For the mating of two
flanges, all sealing surfaces
must be parallel and aligned.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Shut off the electricity flow
2. Measure the size of conduit needed to replace the removed conduit.
3. Place the wire through the new conduit.
4. Screw the conduit supports back where they were.
5. Turn the electricity back on.

Prognosis: It can cause electric short

iv. Defect: Mosses on Gutter

Diagnosis: Exposed to nature

Building Element Gutter

Material PVC
Defect Overflow gutter
Photos Nature Exposed by environment
Symptoms Growth of vegetation, water
running down the external
wall and full of leaves/debris.
Causes Blocked gutters due to
organic debris such as fallen
leaves and even birds’ nests.
Sagging and twisting due to
their age, lack of support

29
 from broken brackets.
Specification Size
- Up width – 130mm
- Height – 103mm
- Bottom width – 85mm
Shape
– round and square box
gutter
Preventive Measures Trim trees and tall hedges
away from roof’s edge. At the
same time inspect and clean
downspout monthly.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Blow off leaves and debris in gutter

Prognosis: It will be leak again due to full of debris Most professionals will
only recommend to clean gutters two times a year (spring and fall season).

v. Defect: Leakage
Diagnosis: Appearances of mould in wall

Building Element Downpipe

Material UPVC
Defect Facture due to leaking
Photos Nature Improper installation.
Symptoms Property wet, stained or
slimy external walls.
Causes Cracked and broken
pipes. uPVC downpipes
can be vulnerable to
impact damage.
Specification Scope of BS EN 12200
- Nominal sizes
from 82mm-
110mm (building

30
 not exceed 5
storey)

Preventive Fitted brackets with

Measures spacers to prevent the
pipe contacting the wall.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace the old downpipe.
2. Use a drill to drive the screws through the back of the hanger into
concrete behind the downpipe.
3. Cleaning a clog such as spray with a strong jet of water.

Prognosis: It will be leak again if improper installation

vi. Defect: Mosses on socket

Diagnosis: Appears of fungus in socket

Building Element Wall

Material PVC
Defect Appears of fungus in socket
Photos Nature Lightweight and durable
material
Symptoms The surface of the socket
turns green to black like
substances
Causes Wet/Dirty hand when using
the socket
Specification 80mm x80mm
Preventive Measures Ensure that the hand is clean
before using

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Scraping the surface of the socket
2. Turn off main switch
3. Replace the socket with a new one

31
 4. Turn on the main switch

Prognosis: The mosses can cover all the socket surfaces

3.4 Stone and Composite Stone

i. Defect: Tiles loss form walls
Diagnosis: Improper Installation

Building Element External Wall Finishes

Material Stone tiles
Defect Stone tiles fall off due to Loss of adherence or
loosening of the stone tiles
Photos Nature Easy corrode.
Symptoms Shows a powdering of the surface.
Causes Adverse environmental conditions
and Defective placing of the stone
slab. Also, maybe no drip collector
in parapets and copings of
facades. Incorrect design,
improper choice of materials or
poor execution of the adhesive
layer.
Specification 500mm in length and 180mm in
width.
Preventive Repositioning or replacement of
Measures stone slabs or rerouting of
rainwater or repair of infiltration

32
 spots. Replacement of stone slab
fixing system with a better one.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove the mastic that stuck to the tile backing.
2. Scrape off with a flat spackling knife or a chisel.
3. Scrape off any mastic from wall using the same method.
4. Skim coat the wall with cement-based thinset to get the wall flatten.
5. Next, use the same thinset to adhere the tile to the wall.
6. Then, install the tile.

Prognosis: Reduce the aesthetic of building

ii. Defect: Discoloration

Diagnosis: Appearances of redding in wall

Building Element External Walls

Material Sandstone
Defect Discoloration: Redding due to exposed to heat
Photos Nature Cannot withstand with iron
oxide.
Symptoms Reddening of block of
stone.
Causes Oxidation of iron minerals
to ferric Reddening of
block of stone oxide
caused by exposure to
fire. Discoloration of
isolated suggests re-use of
stone from an earlier
structure.
Specification Sandstone
Preventive Clean the patches area
Measures and apply pointing.
Pointing as common
practice was simply to
strike off the bedding

33
 mortar at the face

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Use power-washing with plain water.
2. Turn it to high pressure to slide the color out from the wall.

Prognosis: Reduce the aesthetic of building

iii. Defect: Staining

Diagnosis: Changing of colour

Building Element Flooring Surface

Material Calcareous Stone
Defect Change color due to Staining
Photos Nature Sensitive to acidic
cleaning product.
Symptoms Darken the stone,
change color
Causes Cooking oil spills to
floor, scratch by
cosmetics items,
caused by acids
(alcohol) on surface of
the stone.
Specification Heavy material
Type – Marble and
lime stone
70% to 75% of all
stones
Radio-opaque
Preventive Keep the tiles dry
Measures Keep the stone
surfaces sealed

34
 Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:
1. Prepare the poultice by using powder (mix with cleaning agent or
chemical paste) or using paper, soak the chemical and let it drain.
2. Apply the poultice to the stained area about 1/4” thick by using wood
spatula to spread the poultice evenly.
3. Prepare the stain area with wet it with water.
4. Cover the poultice with plastic
5. Allow the poultice to dry about 24 hours.
6. Remove the poultice from the stain with distilled water.

Prognosis: It will change color due to staining, crack due to aging.

iv. Defect: Grow of mould and moss

Diagnosis: Appearances of mould

Building Element Wall

Material Brick Stone
Defect Grow of mold and moss
Photos Nature Grow due to exposure
heat, rain and
environment.
Symptoms Plant, mould on the stone.
Smells and wet.
Causes Stone is damaged in the
quarry if it is extracted by
the use of explosives
which may cause internal
fractures and unsightly.
Specification ½ m of mould in wall
Preventive Spray on a solution of
Measures chlorine bleach and water

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Use power-washing with plain water.
2. Turn it to high pressure to slide the vegetation out from the wall.
3. Bleach the wall with water to kill any spore or remaining growth.

Prognosis: Reduce the appearances of wall

35
 v. Defect: Brown Staining
Diagnosis: A brownish rust appear on walls

Building Element Floor

Material Floor Tiles
Defect Brown Staining on tiles
Photos Nature Cannot withstand iron
oxide
Symptoms Rust colored stains often
appear on floor tiles due to
nature
Causes Brown stains on stone
appear on the floor
Specification About 1m on floor
Preventive 1. Ensure the floor
Measures tiles were maintain
was avoid them in
the first place which
not exposing the
stone surface to
water
2. Use a sealer to
protect the surface
on the natural stone

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Brush off any loose debris, dust and dirt from the surface of the stone
2. Using stain remover direct to the rust stain by paint brush or cloth
3. Leave the surface for 15 minutes to act on the rust

36
 4. Agitate with a white emulsifying pad and rinse the surface with clean
water

Prognosis: It will make stone look dull and can cause the stone to break.

vi. Defect: Crack

Diagnosis: Appearances of hairlines cracks on the walls

Building Element Wall

Material Stone Block
Defect Crack
Photos Nature Cracks
Symptoms The cracks are formed
frequently and slowly
become
wider
Causes This occurs when the
conditions of the ground
below the footings of the
foundation change
Specification The dimension of the
stone
block is 300x150x100 mm.
Preventive Provide necessary
Measures foundation depth for
foundation system

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Remove broken crack stone
2. Prepare the surface that broken by brushing and washing the surface
3. Fix new stone thoroughly in the broken spots
4. Do curing and finishing of the stone up to 7 days

Prognosis: Not safe to be used

37
 3.5 Timber
i. Defect: Timber Attack
Diagnosis: Timber excavation where the timber is hollow. This results in
undulating or corrugated surface.

Building Element Wall Plate

Material Timber
Defect Insect or termite infection
Photos Nature Grain
Symptoms 1. Damages: As termite
workers consume wood,
they create honey combed
galleries which run parallel
to the grain of the wood.
2. Shelter Tubes: Termites
build mud tubes to protect
themselves from dry air and
sunlight.
Causes 1. Termites attack wood that
lives close to the ground and
in damp conditions
2. Groans conducted by
mushrooms can cause wood
to rot
Specification 1500 m x 2400 m
Preventive 1. Trenching: Dig a narrow
Measures trench on the bottom of soil
to block the entering of
termite.
2. Inspection: Check wood
paneling and other wall

38
 partition for termite shelter
tubes
3. Ensure the wood stays dry
and treat with creosote oil

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Change and replace wood products or furniture that have high
impact and presence of termites, beyond any limit of
reparation.
2. Broadcast spraying can be applied to termiticides to kill it from
reproduce

Prognosis: Termite defect that not been treated will causes the timber wall
structure to cause such extensive damage and could literally fall apart.

39
 ii. Defect: Dry Root
Diagnosis: Appears of fungus which have a lemon yellowish tinge to it

Building Element Door threshold

Material Timber

Defect Dry Rot

Photos Nature Shrink and Swelling
Symptoms 1. Lose strength, develop
cracks in brick-shape
patterns.
2. Dry and powdery that it can
easily be crumbled in the
hand.
Causes 1. Caused by a fungus that
feeds on the cellulose
found mainly in the outer
layers of a growing tree.
2. By certain fungi that
deteriorate timber in
buildings and other
wooden construction
seemingly without an
apparent source of
moisture.
Specification 2400 mm x 152 mm
Preventive 1. Dry rot normally requires
Measures chemical treatment and
cutting out and replacing
the defective timber.
2. Creating ventilation to

40
 make a dry environment,
diagnosis of fungal growth
and the removal of
defective timber

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Identify and eliminate every possible moisture source to ensure the
rapid drying of the structure
2. Remove all the fruiting bodies and visible pores that affected the
timber cause by dry rot

Prognosis: Affect the integrity of the structural timber and cause the sudden
collapse.

41
 iii. Defect: Sagging and Bending
Diagnosis: The timber roof structure does not align straightly as the structure
weaken

Building Element Purlin and Rafter

Material Timber
Defect Sagging and Bending
Photos Nature Permeable
Symptoms 1. Wood frame are wet due to
sagging and leakage at roof
2. The sagging and bending
floor are clearly seen

Causes 1. Timber pest damage with

weakened structural timbers
unable to support normal
loading
2. Overloading the wall.

Specification 100 mm x 75 mm

Preventive 1. Rectifying the timber as soon

Measures as possible
2. Remove the loading inside
the building

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Bolstering of the beam of roof is one of the solutions to sagging roof.
2. Add an additional purlin and struts
3. Cut out defective purlin then supported and replaced on new metal
hangers

42
 Prognosis: The roof structure will bend and cause the water not flowing down
smoothly. Structure will be weakening and possible to collapses.

iv. Defect: Crack

Diagnosis: The fascia board break and cause the paint to peel out

Building Element Fascia board

Material Timber
Defect Crack
Photos Nature Timber absorbs water and
expands when it gets wet.
Symptoms Fungal decay, brown, dry
and wet timber rot.
Causes Not paint the fascia timber
and due to expose to rain
and sun.
Specification 1. Size varies in
depth
2. Most are between
150mm-225mm
deep Shape –
Ogee shaped
Preventive Ensure that all external
Measures timber frames are
adequately painted to
protect the timber from
ingress of water.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Inspect the fascia board regularly
2. Put a paint as protective layer on the timber surface
3. Replace the crack fascia board with new timber

Prognosis: The fascia board will tear off from the roof and collapse which can
give danger to the occupants

43
 v. Defect: Decay
Diagnosis: The surface paint chalky and wrinkled or blistered because the
amount of the constant wind, rain, and sun received.

Building Element Doors and windows

Material Timber softwoods.
Defect Decay of timber frame, Putty failure
Photos Nature Timber absorbs water and expands
when it gets wet.
Symptoms Material wet, rotten wood, and
smells.
Causes 1. Occurs when the area is
exposed to excessive rain
and dampness
2. Exposure and/or poor
protection, lack of slope to
weathered surfaces.
Specification Frame
1. External 1.340M x 2.180M
2. Solid hardwood frame grade
B timber.
3. Doors Thickness shall be
minimum 37 mm and width
varies as per standard size
available.
Preventive Paint helps to prevent decay by
Measures protecting wood from intermittent
wetting.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace the decay timber softwood with new component
2. Provide a shading on the door area to avoid it expose to sun and rain

Prognosis: The door will become rotten and cause growth of fungus because
of the dampen

vi. Defect: Fungus

44
 Diagnosis: The black spot tends to appear on the floor surface

Building Element Floor

Material Timber
Defect The fungus grows on the floor
Photos Nature Timber is likely to crack,
wrap and decay.
Symptoms The sporophores grows on
the floor are an orangey-
red colour.
Causes Caused by a plumbing leak
in an adjacent cloakroom.
Specification 800mm in length and
300mm in width.
Preventive The floorboards have been
Measures removed causing the red
dust (spores) that can be
seen on the skirting boards
and replace with the new
one and use of
preservative chemicals.
Next, ensure there is
sufficient ventilation to the
sub-floor area including a
through flow if possible.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Replace the timber floor that affected over it
2. Put a paint as a protective layer to prevent any dampness that cause
fungus to growth

Prognosis: The floor timber will break apart and cannot withstand big load.
This creates danger to the occupant

3.6 Bricks
i. Defect: Horizontal Crack
Diagnosis: The crack pattern shows long crack

45
Building Element Brick Foundations
Material Engineering brick
Defect Horizontal Crack
Photos Nature Hard, Strong
Symptoms Wall begin to bow and leaning.
Causes 1. Pressure that being put on the
wall from the outside if
foundation.
2. Lateral pressure
3. Expansion and contraction of
the RCC slab. It is due to the
gain of heat from the sun and
loss of heat by radiation
Specification 248 mm x 121mm x 70mm
Preventive 1. Install wall anchors or carbon
Measures fiber strips to add long lasting
support to bowing leaning wall
2. Create slip joints under the
support of concrete slab on
walls. Provide horizontal
movement joints between the
top of brick panel and
reinforced cement concrete
beam and slab.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Installation of high strength strapping on the interior of the foundation
to keep the wall from bowing further

Prognosis: Can cause the wall to collapse and unexpectedly. It can be much
dangerous if the nearest heavy structure restrains the one side movement of the
slab

ii. Defect: Salt Crystallization

Diagnosis: Fine whitish crystals on the surface of the exposed brick. This
cause by dissolve excessive salt and entry of moisture.

Building Element Wall

Material Stone
Defect Salt Crystallization
Photos Nature Porosity, Hard, Hollow

46
 Symptoms Show powdering on
surface
Causes 1. Affect amount of
water entering and
moving through
stone
2. Salt accumulates
through the pore
when dries out
Specification High tensile strength
Preventive 1. Use paint as a
Measures protective layer on
stone surface
2. Controlling the
ingress of salts and
water, removing
any damaging salts
already present.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Brushing and washing the affected surface regularly

2. Desalination and environmental control which to control temperature
and relative humidity

Prognosis: The surface of the brickwork gets disfigure and presents a dirty look

iii. Defect: Vertical Crack

Diagnosis: A vertical foundation crack is a crack that goes straight up and
down or slightly diagonal within 30 degrees of vertical.

Building Element Brick foundation

Material Engineering brick
Defect Vertical Cracks
Photos Nature Hard, strong
Symptoms Long crack from top and bottom
Causes 1. Different settlement in foundation

47
 due to expansion
2. It because concrete is very strong
under compression but cracks
easily under tension
3. Most of the building materials
expand when they absorb
moisture from atmosphere and
shrink when they are dry.
Shrinkage can be of plastic or dry.
The factors causing shrinkage in
cement concrete or cement
mortar.

Specification 248mm x 121mm x 70mm

Preventive 1. Do not use excessive cement in
Measures the mortar mix
2. Create slip joints under the
support of concrete slab on walls.
Provide horizontal movement
joints between the top of brick
panel and reinforced cement
concrete beam and slab.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Routing and sealing. In this method, the crack is made wider at the
surface with a saw or grinder, and then the groove is filled with a flexible
sealant.
2. Filled the crack with epoxy injections or grouting solutions to seal the
water out and prevent further water damage

Prognosis: Can cause sudden building collapse. Bulged brick structural walls
are likely to be a bond-brick or bond-course failure. It potentially extremely
dangerous and very urgent.

48
 iv. Defect: Crumbling
Diagnosis: The mortar joints between the bricks fail

Building Element External wall

Material Brick
Defect Crumbling
Photos Nature Excessive water and moisture
contents.
Symptoms The brick face becomes
weathered and eroded and
efflorescence. Also, the brick
surface peel, pop out or flake
off.

49
 Causes Due to water damage. It
occurs when water enters the
brick or mortar and forces the
surface.
Specification Size – 215mm (L) x 102.5 (W)
x 65mm (H).
Bound together with lime
mortar (10mm thick bed)
joints.
Preventive Measures If decorated the external wall
with brick faced, unpainted,
then try to apply some form of
glaze or covering during
manufacture, which will give
the house some protection.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Cleaning out damaged bricks and replacing them with new bricks and
well-matched mortar.
2. If only the front side of the brick is damaged, the brick can be turned
around and reused.

Prognosis: Brick masonry will begins to deteriorate to the point chunks of brick
are falling from the structure. Spalling starts off as small cracks that grow into
bigger cracks until the entire surface deteriorate

v. Defect: Bulging
Diagnosis: Unusual swelling in the brick

Building Element Solid wall

Material Masonry/brick wall
Defect Bulging or leaning masonry to some degree.
Photos Nature Overloaded structure.
Symptoms The stability of the wall more
25mm of distortion. The walls
plumb line falls outside that the
centre of gravity.
Causes Caused of vibration from road
traffic, increasing the floor loads
or building on additional floors
and lack of lateral restraint

50
 between the external walls and
floor joists, beams and
partitions.
Specification Minimum thickness – 230mm
Size – 215mm (L) x 102.5 (W) x
65mm (H).
Bound together with lime mortar
(10mm thick bed) joints.
Preventive Put channel section or brick
Measures buttressing. Remedial wall tying
has been used to repair bowed,
leaning or bulging walls.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. The mason will inject lime into the bulging section and add specific
screws or ties to solidify the wall.
2. Install a steel beam to support the affected area
3. Change the all brick that supported

Prognosis: The brick wall will bend and can cause the structure to collapse
which cause danger to occupant

vi. Defect: Penetrating Damp

Diagnosis: A wet patch appears on the surface of wall

Building Element Internal wall

Material Brick
Defect Penetrating Damp
Photos Nature Excessive water and moisture
contents.
Symptoms Damaged plasterwork, mould
growth and discoloration.
Causes Old Building. Also cause a
large amount of rainwater to
flow over a small section of
masonry. On the other hand, it
exists due to failed or non-
existent DPC or when the
DPC has been bridged.
Specification Size – 215mm (L) x 102.5 (W)

51
 x 65mm (H).
Bound together with lime
mortar (10mm thick bed)
joints.
Preventive Measures Dry seal waterproofed is one
of the best ways to keep your
masonry waterproof. Missing
bricks and cracks in masonry
can allow damp into the wall.

Remedial Works complete with Estimated Cost:

1. Need to remove any wallpaper and plaster back to the brick or
substrate. Then check the DPC has not been bridged in any way
before proceeding with the injection of a new DPC (Damp proof
membrane)

Prognosis: The brick wall structure will become weaken. Brick may crush
because the component not hard enough because of the wetness

4.0 CONCLUSION

It should be pointed out that, entire buildings are subjected to the various forms of
defects, failures, deterioration and variation. The literature has explored a number of
building defects and its contribution factors which can be associated to the major
theme of this paper. It is significant to appraise each defect and failure in every part
of building and find out the primary causes of each individual defect and failure.
Then, remedy them correctly. The contribution factors to these defects and failures
must be investigated intensely. Once founding out the possible causes of the defects
and failures, it is imperative to distinguish how to keep away from it in the future and
reduce the effect to the minimum.

52
53
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