•

34
. 35

challenge is to find wa
1992). The challenge stract
stract
002 L: how you found out you were a DES daughter,
narrator is not effaced,
narrator effaced, so she does not lose control
control over
over her words.
words. and what it was like
003
Orientation
Orientation -
Linked Stories and Meaning in Conversation
Linkéd Conversation 006 N: when I was around
around 19,
008 I was in college
Sociologist Bell
Sociologist Bell (1988)
(1988) studied
studied the narratives
narratives of
of DES daughters
daughters to see
Complicating action
Complicating
how they
how they understand
understand and respond
respond to risk
risk and how some transform
transform their
their 009 and I went, to a, a gynecologist
gynecologist to get birth control
experiences and become
experiences become politically active. The place
politically active. of DES (diethylstil-
place of (diethylstil­ 011
Oll he was, he knew that I was a DES daughter because I had adenosis
daughter because adenosis (1) um,
bestrol) history ofwomen's
bestrol) in the history of women's health
health is legendary.
legendary. From
From 1940 to 1971, 012 so he, told y'know
y'know he told me (2.5) "
drug was prescribed
the drug prescribed to prevent miscarriage, and between
prevent miscarriage, 500,000 and
between 500,000 O
O 16 I think shortly after that, 1..
l..
million U.S. women
3 million women were exposed
exposed prenatally. Their daughters
prenatally. Their daughters are now O
O 17 (my mother) told me, ·
O
O 18 saidd "1
um and I either sai already" or, (inhale)
"I know already"
vulnerable to a variety
vulnerable variety of
of reproductive
reproductive tract problems, including infertil-
problems, including infertil­
miscarriages, and vaginal
ity, miscarriages, vaginal and cervical
cervical cancer. Paradoxically,
Paradoxically, DES Resolution/coda
Resolution/coda
022 and I was so concerned
concerned at lhethe time about getting birth control,
daughters "must
daughters ''must retum
return to medicine-the
medicine-the very source
source of
of their
their problems-«
problems- 023 that I think it sort of didn't,
didn't, um
treatment'' (Bell, 1988, p. 99). ln
for information and treatment" In their interactions
interactions with
with 024 it never really, became the major part of my life
medical institutions,
medical institutions, they must cope continuously
continuously with risk and uncer-uncer­ 025 it sort of f' flitted in and out (tch) ( 1.5)
tainty because
tainty because the full extent
extent of
of the consequences
consequences of of DES exposure
exposure are
still unknown
still unknown and because
because medical
medical protocols screening and manage-
protocols for screening manage­ Transcript 2.2. Story 1: "it
Transcript ''it sort of f'flitted
f'flitted in and out"
ment are changing.
ment changing. SOURCE: Bell (1988). Reprinted with permission
permission by Ablex Publishing
Publishing Corp.
Some daughters
Some daughters get politicized
politicized and join Action, an organization
join DES Action, organization
that grew
that grew out of the women's
women's health
health movement.
movement. Bell, like Ginsburg,
Ginsburg, is
interested in how activism
interested activism happens,
happens, the connections
connections between
between personal
personal connect a period
connect of about
period of about 12 years
years in Sarah's
Sarah's life.
life. Taken
Taken together,
together, t~eyt~ey
biography and public
biography public action.
action. depict a transformation in identity: "how ''how Sarah has changed: from a passi pass1 ve
patient
patient to an active one, from an isolated isolated individual
individual to a participant
participant in a
NARRATIVE METHOD
NARRATIVE METHOD woman's health
woman's health organization"
organization'' (Bell,
(Bell, 1988, p. 109).
In Story
ln Story 11 (Transcript
(Transcript 2.2), Bell presented core narrative
presented the core narrative of of the first
first
Bell's (1988) approach
Bell's approach was to ask open-ended
open-ended questions,
questions, "listen
''listen with radical reduction
story, a radical reduction of
of a response
response to a skeleton
skeleton plot (Mishler,
(Mishler, 1986b
1986b ).
minimum of interruptions, and tie my questions and comments to the DES
a minimum Here Sarah
Here Sarah tells about when she first learnedlearned she was a DES daughter
daughter (she(she
daughters' responses
daughters' responses by repeating
repeating their
their words
words ...
... whenever
whenever possible''
possible" went for birth
went birth control
control in college)
college) and what the knowledge
knowledge meant
meant (it was
interview, women made
(p. 100). During the interview, made sense
sense ofof their
their experiences
experiences unremarkable). Labov's
unremarkable). Labov's (1972)
(1972) method
method of of transcription
transcription and his structural
bis structural
together with the listener by narration, telling stories that often linked
together linked at categories are used to construct
categories construct the text: Utterances.
Utterances. are pa.rsed .into .into
different points
different interview. Bell revealed
points in the interview. revealed a logic that links the stories,
stories, clauses Unes
clauses lines are numbered,
numbered, and the parts of the narrattve
parts of narrative are 1dent1fied
ìdentìfied
when analyzed
how when analyzed together
together the stories
stories show
show individuais
individuals changing
changing their
their by their
'•
their function
function (to orient,
orient, carry
carry the action,
action, resolve
resolve it, etc.).
.• .•
etc.). To mamtam
maíntam
consciousness about a health
consciousness health problem
problem and becoming
becoming politicized.
politicized. She also also focus ori the core narrative,
focus narrative, other
other parts of of the discourse
discourse have
have been deleted
been deleted
showed how meaning
showed meaning is produced
produced through
through the interaction
interaction ofof two speakers.
speakers. ((descriptions, asides, interactions
descriptions, asides, interactions between teller and listener,
between teller .ªº~ most
listener,.ªº~ most ~f~f
Sarah, a middle-class
Sarah, middle-class woman
woman in her early 30s, tells threethree stories
stories over
over evaluation), although
the evaluation), although these
these are attended
attended to at a later
later point
pomt m rn Bell
Bell s
course of a 11 Y2-hour interview
the course interview about
about how she carne
came to know
know she was analysis. Other
analysis. Other features
features of
of speech
speech are preserved represe~ta~on of
preserved in the represe~ta~on of
DES daughter
a DES daughter and how she transformed
transformed her knowledge
knowledge into political
política) narrative, for example,
the narrative, example, the narrator's
narrator's pauses (short
(short ones are
are md1cated
indicated
action. The stories, which
action. which at first appear
appear to be discrete
discrete and unconnected,
unconnected, by a comma,
comma, longer
longer ones by their
their numbers
numbers in seconds
seconds in parentheses).
parentheses). Foi:

\! (,'
(¡'

I
I
'
f¡
'
• •

I
'l 36 37 •
iI
•

Abstract
Abstract Abstract
Abstract •
, gnancy,
gnancy, 301 L: come to gel
how did you, come get involved
involved with
with DES Action
Action
203 of brought the whole issue ofDES
that sort ofbrought of DES (1.5) t'much more
more t'the forefront of
t'the forefront of my
my
mind
mind Complicating action
Complicating action
302
302 N:
N: (3.5) (tch)
(3.5) (tch) (inhale)
(inhale) heard
heard an ad on t.v. or the
the radio
radio (1.5)
(1.5)
204 made me much
and has made much more,
more, actively
actively concemed
concerned about
about it,
305 and I think
and think I it if they
they had
had the tape number
number
Orientation
Orientation 306
306 and I called
and called up
207 but, ah I, my first pregnancy, um, I had problems,
first pregnancy, due to DES
problems, due DES 307 and asked
and asked for information
information
Complicating action
Complicating action 308 sent me their
and they sent their little
little packet
packet
208 IIgot pregnant
pregnant 309 and I, joined
and joined
224 the, middle
and in the, middle ofof the night
night one night
night 311 and
and then a while
while !ater
later ,."
225 membranes broke,
my membranes broke, 312
312 they sent me a card,
they ··
226 (1.2) y'know
and (1.2) y'know MarkMark r'rushed
r'rushed me to the hospital
hospital 313 that they
um that they were
were having
having coffee
coffee one of
of the the one
one of
of those
those like
like th~
the one
one 'that
'that you
you
•
227 delivered a baby
and IIdelivered girl,
baby girl, went to,
went
228 who lived
(tch) who lived about
about eight
eight hours
hours 314
314 um and
um and II couldn't
couldn't goto
go to that
that
229 but she
she died
died 322 um, but then II sort
sort of like I had
of felt like had made
made an obligation
obligation to meet
meet these
these people
people
232 even then, when
and even when the, resident
resident the (1.5)
(1.5) (tch) doctor
doctor who
who was
was taking care of
taking care of me Resolution
Resolution
234 aftermath that
um, said, in the aftermath that maybe
maybe she
she thought
thought it was due
due to DES,
DES, 323 and, so I went
and, went ahead
ahead 1!1Dd met them
and met them you know
know
235 didn't believe
um, I didn't (1)
believe her (l) 324 and liked
and liked them
them
261 then I went
and then went back
back 325 and thought
and thought IIit was someing
someing [sic] something
something that
that II wanted
wanted to be more involved
be more involved in
265 she re- she
um she she had
had really
really done
done a lot of
of research
research
Coda
Coda
266 sort of, presented
and sort presented me with with a whole,
whole, scheme
scheme of how this could
could have
have happened
happened
327
327 have stayed
( 1.5) and have stayed that
that way
way
267 thought it was
and why she thought was related
related to the DES
270
270 then it was clear
clear that
that it probably
probably was,
Resolution/coda:
Resolution/coda: Transcript 2.4. Story 3: "1
Transcript longer can be, blithe
''I no longer not me"
blithe about it, and say not me''
277 (1) and that's
um (l) that's when
when I (1.2)
(1.2) um began accept the fact (l.2)
began to accept (1.2) SOURCE: Bel!
Bell (1988). Reprinted with permission
pennission by Ablex Publishing Corp.
278 y'know once
y'know once it made
made sense,
sense,

Transcript
Transcript 2.3. Story 2: "and
''and that's when I um began to accept the fact" which she is told, by a woman physician,
physician, and Sarah begins take her
begins to take
SOURCE: Bell (1988). Reprinted with permission
permlssion by Ablex Publishing Corp. identity as a DES daughter
identity daughter seriously. The language
language of
of the second
second narrative
narrative
shift in consciousness,
shows a shift consciousness, and the logic connecting
connecting the two
two moments
moments
Sarah's life is evident
in Sarah's evident in contrasts,
contrasts, as Bell (1988, p.112) displayed:
displayed:
Bell's interpretive
Bell's interpretive purposes, level of
purposes, this levei of detail is absolutely
absolutely necessary.
Unlike Ginsburg, she is interested
Unlike interested not only in the content
content of of the narrative
narrative Story 11 Story 2
038 mind
out of my mind 203 t'the forefront
t'the mind
forefront of my mind
and plot line but how the story
story is told in another
another sense-the
sense the structures
structures and
038 actively put it out
put actively 204 more actively concemed
more concerned
language narrators
language narrators chose
chose in collaboration
collaboration with a listener
listener to represent
represent the 022 concerned at lhe
I was so concerned the 204 concerned about
concerned about [the
[the whole
whole issue
issue
experience of
experience of change
change in political consciousness.
political consciousness. time about
time about getting
getting birth
birth control
control of DES]
ofDES]
Attention to details
Attention details of
of the discourse
discourse shows how SarahSarah's's first and second
second
stories are linked. The second
stories second story (see Transcript
Transcript 2.3), told about 15 Sarah'ss repetition
Sarah' repetition of
of words makes
makes each story more powerful, when viewed
powerful, when viewed
'!
minutes after the first, tells how Sarah became
minutes actively concerned
became actively concerned about
about alongside the other, and shows
alongside shows how context
context and Sarah's
Sarah's response
response to it
I
I after a miscarriage.
DES after miscarriage. She is no longer
longer an adolescent
adolescent exploring
exploring her Without Bell's
have altered. Without Bell's method
method of transcription
transcription and close
close attention
attention
;
1 sexuality but a married
sexuality married woman trying to have a baby. The meaning
woman trying meaning ofof the evidence for transformation
to word choice, we would not see the evidence transformation in
earlier diagnosis
earlier diagnosis changes
changes in this second
second context,
context, as does the manner
manner in •
consciousness.
consciousness. •

'
 -,
!~,

• '
•
• 38 39
39
'

In a third story
ln story that emerges
emerges toward the end o
249 I said, "now don't be ridiculous,"
ranscnpt . n:-,, arah tells how she joined
----+:-----"fr:raniîfil"sccir"iï1pïlt~. joined DES Action and became actively
actively 250 L:mhm
involved. The core narrative
involved. narrative is sparse
sparse and factual,
factual, recounting
recounting Sarah's
Sarah's 251 um because I did
interactions with DES Action. Action. She has moved
moved from being
being "actively
''actively
-
interactions 252 I mean she was feeling awful
concerned'' about
concerned" about her exposure
exposure to DES (Story
(Story 2) to acknowledging
acknowledging others 253 L:mhm
exposed to DES and joining
exposed joining an organization
organization built
built on this commonality
commonality 254 She was really d-
255 1l mean we were ai!
all distraught
between women
between women (Story(Story 3). 256 but y'know, to have her think that she had something to do with my losing the baby

daughter has coped

Taken together, the three stories show how this DES daughter
257 was more than I could tolerate, ,.
"·
responded to her exposure
with and responded exposure to DES. She explains
explains how circumstances
circumstances In the aftermath
ln aftermath of the miscarriage,
miscarriage, neither
neither her doctor nor nor h.er
h~r m~ther
m'òther
changed, how her perceptions
have changed, perceptions of events have changed,
changed, how her coping persuade Sarah that the tragedy was due to DES. Neither Neither could
could
could persuade
changed, and how these changes
has changed, changes are related to each other
other and to her
penetrate the anguish. Sarah
penetrate Sarah could not allow
allow herself
herself to know, so soon after
evolving status as a political
evolving political woman. (Bell, 1988, pp. 103-104)
losing the baby. A few weeks later in another
Iosing another conversation
conversation with the doctor
doctor
who had done "a ''a lot of research,"
research," she was presented
presented with "a
''a whole
whole scheme
scheme
resolve puzzles
To resolve puzzles in the three stories, Bell must must go beyond
beyond the core
happened ....
of how this could have happened .... [l]t made sense."
sense."
I narratives, which exclude
narratives, exclude the evaluation.
evaluation. For example,
example, we know from
The full version of the third story shows how, over time, time, Sarah
Sarah has
Story 2 that Sarah carne came to "accept
''accept the fact" that she was a DES daughter,
daughter,
incorporated the voice of medicine
incorporated medicine into her life world, but also how she
but what did it mean to her? What What were the emotions
emotions that accompanied
accompanied
oppositional consciousness
is resisting some of its limitations. An oppositional consciousness emerges.
emerges.
consciousness? Sarah, like all narrators,
the shift in consciousness? narrators, conveys
conveys meaning
meaning with
Sarah's logic has expanded:
Sarah's expanded: "Medicine
''Medicine had prescribed
pres.cribed DES to .her
her mother.
mo~~er.
modify, by repeating
asides that modify, repeating words
words or phrases,
phrases, by expressive
expressive sounds
Medicine has caused her miscarriage
Medicine miscarriage (by exposing
exposing her to DES and failing
failing
silences. The reduction
and silences. reduction to a core narrative,
narrative, although
although useful at the first
reproductive risk associated
to warn her of reproductive associated with this exposure).
exposure). Thus,
analytic stage, excludes important
analytic important features that are essential
essential to a fuller
" medical Iogic
medical logic is fallible"
fallible'' (Bell, 1988,
1988, p. 116). blame for
116). Sarah shifts the biame
interpretation.
interpretation.
miscarriage to medicine
her miscarriage medicine in the evaluation
evaluation of the third story:
examined the long and complex
Bell examined complex texts, the full versions
versions of the three
stories, to see how Sarah moves away from a narrow narrow view of DES to an
329 (inhale), well,
329 well, the more I had ti- the more removed I got from from what had happened
understanding of her health in a social and emotional
understanding emotional context.
context. Drawing
Drawing tome
of Mishler (1984) with medical interviews,
on the work ofMishler interviews, she analyzed
analyzed the 330 and
330 and the longer
longer it,it, the more time went by then the angrier
angrier I got about, some
some of
of the
the
dialogue between
dialogue between the voice of medicine medicine and the voice of the life world in that happened to
things that to me,
Sarah's account. Both voices are present
Sarah's present throughout,
throughout, but the relative
relative 331 um,
331 um, and
and the,
the, II really felt
felt like (4)
(4)
332 the
332 the fact
fact that I that' that I shouldn't
shouldn't have lost that
that first
first baby
power of each changes
power changes ooverver the course of the three stories, and this change
333 and
333 and that
that something
something different
different should
should have
have been done
done (1.5)
(1.5) (p.
(p. 116)
116)
contributes to and
contributes and reflects
reflects Sarah's
Sarah's politicization.
politicization. The
The voice ofof medicine
medicine
is present
is present in in the first
first and
and second
second stories
stories in
in obvious
obvious ways: TheThe doctor
doctor inin
There is
There is ambiguity
ambiguity here, as as Bell
Bell discussed.
discussed. Does
Does Iine
line 332
332 refer
refer to Sarah's
Sarah's
first story
the first story "knew
''knew II was aa DESDES daughter
daughter because
because II had adenosis,"
adenosis," andand
own sense
own sense of
of responsibility
responsibility for for the miscarriage
miscarriage (she
(she had put DES
DES "out''out of
of
doctor in
the doctor in the second
second story
story "presented
''presented me with aa whole, scheme
scheme ofhow
of how
[her] mind"),
[her] mind"), oror does
does itit refor
refer toto the fact
fact that DES
DES was was prescribed
prescribed to her
could have happened
this could happened ... ... why she she thought itit was due
due to DES."
DES.'' The
The
mother? The
mother? The Iine
line could
could also
also refor
refer to
to another
another error-her
error her doctor
doctor should
should have
voice ofof the life
life world, andand the complex
complex emotions
emotions that carne
came with knowing,
knowing,
known that sheshe was at
at risk of of miscarriage
miscarriage andand protected
protected her.
her. But
But "some-
''some­
emerge in
emerge in an
an aside
aside to Story
Story 22 about
about the miscarriage:
miscarriage:
different should
thing different should have been done,"done," and
and she
she is
is now involved
involved inin aa social
social
action organization
action organization that does
does just
just that, for
for ali
all DES
DES daughters.
daughters.
''
 ,.

40 41

In sum, Bell
ln Bell offers
offers one
one ode , econ , what aspects of narrative serve as the basis for interpretations?
clarifies identity
clarifies identity transformation.
transformation. By studying
studying the sequence
sequence of of stories
stories in Obviously, Bell attended
Obviously, attended to the narrativenarrative segments
segments in the stream stream of of talk
talk
interview, and the
an interview, the thematic
thematic and linguistic
linguistic connections
connections between them,
between them, of the interviews,
of interviews, specifically
specifically three,three, and the linguistic
linguistic connections
connections be­ be-
investigator can see how individuais
an investigator individuals tie together significant events
together significant events and tween them. She attended
tween attended to sequence
sequence both within and across
both within across thethe stories.
stories.
important relationships
important relationships in their lives. The
their lives. The analyst
analyst identifies
identifies narrative
narrative We are not not told aboutabout other
other narratives
narratives in the interview
interview and and what
what their their
segments, reduces
segments, stories to a core, examines
reduces stories examines how how word choice,
choice, structure,
structure, topics are, nor are we told much
topics much aboutabout the nonnarrative
nonnarrative discourse.
discourse. Bell's Bell's
and clauses
and clauses echo one another,
another, and examines
examines how how the sequence
sequence of action
action purpose
purpose was to show show how Sarah Sarah usedused her
her DES experience
experience to become become a
one story builds on a prior
in one emphasis is on language-
prior one. Importantly, the emphasis Ianguage=­ political woman, and the three
political woman, three narratives
narratives serve
serve this focus.
how people
how people say what they do and who they are--and are-and the narrative
narrative structures
structures Bell used
Bell ''narrative'' synonymously
used "narrative" synonymously with "story," ''story," which
which she she defined
defined
they employ
they employ to construct
construct experience
experience by telling
telling about
about it. The
The approach
approach structurally. Narrative
structurally. Narrative theory, as reviewed reviewed earlier,
earlier, posits important- dis-
posits important- dis­
brings into view the interpersonal
brings into interpersonal context:
context: the connections
connections between
between teller
teller tinctions: "Narrative"
tinctions: ''Narrative'' is an encompassing
encompassing term ofrhetoric,
of rhetoric, whereás
whereás "story"
''story''
listener that are the bedrock
and listener bedrock of of all human
human interaction,
interaction, including
including re-re­ limited genre. Bell's
is a limited Bell's method
method of of analysis
analysis preserves
preserves the the sequential
sequential
search interviews.
search interviews. organization her informant
organization informant chooses,
chooses, in collaboration
collaboration with the the listener,
listener, to
recapitulate experience.
recapitulate experience. Bach Each story
story has a recognizable
recognizable beginning
beginning and and endend
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS (coda) and
(coda) and "consists
''consists of of linked
linked categories
categories (episodes),
(episodes), connected
connected to each each
I other temporally
other temporally and/orcausally"
and/or causally'' (Bell, (Bell, 1988, p. 101). Labov's
Labov's structural
structural
'
•,
First, how did Bell
First, Bell transform
transform talktalk into
into written
written form and how how are framework (orientation,
framework (orientation, complicating
complicating action, action, evaluation,
evaluation, resolution)
resolution) is
narrative segments determined?
narrative segments determined? She gave gave us two kindskinds of of texts,
texts, the
the core
core essential to Bell's
essential Bell's interpretive
interpretive method.
method.
of the three
of three stories
stories (as she has constructed
constructed them)
them) and a "fuller"
''fuller'' account
account There is also a relational
There component, not
relational component, emphasized by Labov,
not emphasized Labov, namely,
namely,
that includes
that includes asides,
asides, evaluation,
evaluation, and the conversation
conversation in which which the core core the reciprocal
reciprocal actions of of teller
teller and
and listener
listener in beginning
beginning and ending ending a story story
narratives are embedded.
narratives embedded. Some Some might
might say the "fuller"
''fuller'' texts are too full; and the
and the listener's
listener's needsneeds to encodeencode and interpret
interpret it. 1nsight
1nsight aboutabout the the
they are difficult
they difficult to read,
read, especially
especially if if one
one is used ''cleaned'' speech
used to "cleaned" speech (the collaborative nature
collaborative nature ofof story
story telling
telling (see
(see Paget,
Paget, 1983) shaped shaped how how Bell Bell
kind Ginsburg
kind Ginsburg and most most qualitative
qualitative analysts
analysts present). Bell's texts
present). Bell's texts cer-
cer­ represented the interview;
represented interview; the listener/questioner's
listener/questioner's utterances
utterances are are in- in­
tainly make
tainly make more demandsdemands on the reader
reader than
than Ginsburg's
Ginsburg's do; they require require cluded and
cluded and analyzed.
analyzed. ln ln fact, the listener
listener supplies
supplies the abstract
abstract for
for the core core
attention to disfluencies,
attention disfluencies, pauses,
pauses, breath
breath intakes,
intakes, lexical
lexical sounds
sounds (mhm,
(mhm, narrative in Story 11 (see Transcript
narrative Transcript 2.2, lines 002-003),
002-003), an unusual analytic
unusual analytic
etc.), and interaction.
etc.), interaction. Viewed
Viewed from Scheff'sScheff''s (1990)
(1990) microsociological
microsociological step but
step one that fits with Bell's
but one Bell's position interactional production
position on the interactional production
frame, Bell
frame, Bell gave
gave prominence
prominence to the conversation
conversation that that creates
creates andand sustains
sustains of stories.
of stories. One One way to read read Bell's
Bell's texttext is as an analysis
analysis of of the process
process of of
social bonds,
social bonds, in this casecase between women in a research
between women research interview.
interview. Such Such a attunement in social
attunement social interaction
interaction (Scheff,
(Scheff, 1990), how through through language
language
focus requires
focus requires minute
minute attention
attention to not onlyonly what
what is said but how it is said. mutual understanding
mutual understanding and connection connection are are accomplished,
accomplished, cognitively
cognitively and and
Silences, for example,
Silences, example, offer
offer occasions
occasions for the other other to speak.
speak. Her Her text
text emotionally, between
emotionally, between women.
women. The shape shape of of Sarah's
Sarah's story,
story, with
with clearclear
displays the typically
displays typically invisible
invisible process of how two women
process ofhow women understand
understand one orientation and building
orientation action followed
building action followed by resolution, is related
by resolution, related to Bell'sBell's
another.
another. role as attentive
role attentive listener.
listener. She questioned,
questioned, listened,
listened, and responded
responded to what what
expected in this kind
As is expected kind ofanalysis,
of analysis, Bell
Bell (1988)
(1988) specifiedin
specified in a lengthy
lengthy Sarah said
Sarah said and, in tum, turn, Sarah
Sarah clarified
clarified and developed
developed her her account.
account. A
I footnote her
footnote her transcription
transcription conventions,
conventions, how how spoken
spoken language
language was trans- trans­ different type
different type of of interaction
interaction mightmight have have produced different story.
produced a different story.
formed into
formed into written
written discourse-the
discourse the transcribing
transcribing process Figure 1.1. She
process in Figure Bell did not discuss
Bell discuss how she she interpreted
interpreted the boundaries
boundaries of of the
the stories,
stories,
acknowledged that her transcripts
acknowledged transcripts "are
''are not fully equivalent
equivalent to the talk" talk'' (p. that is, defined
that defined beginnings
beginnings and and endings.
endings. (As noted earlier, this
noted earlier, this is by no
They certainly
103). They certainly exclude
exclude the gestures,
gestures, gáze,
gaze, and other other nonverbal
nonverbal means straightforward
straightforward in every every case
case and can be an importantimportant interpretive
interpretive
II aspects of
aspects of communication
communication that carry carry meaning
meaning in conversation.
conversation.
means
decision.) She did attend to language,
decision.) language, scrutinizing
scrutinizing certain words and clauses clauses
1
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42 43 ''11
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ow women are patronìzed," how "there are
readings of words, she revealed the indeterminacy of language-how it women out
women out there
there who don't
don't know
know thatthat this is a problem." interpretive
problem." My interpretive
is a system of signs that renders meaning ambiguous. questions were
questions were partially answered; 1I now tend
partially answered; tend to agree
agree with
with Bell's
Bell's reading
reading
Fin.ally, who determines what the narrative means and are alternative of the
of the story, although
although another
another reader
reader might
might not see Sarah
Sarah as political. But ·-
political. But
11'
readings possible? ln a very real sense meaning is collaboratively accom- 1I am still
still puzzled
puzzled by the flatness
flatness of of Story
Story 3 and wonder
wonder about
about the the interview
interview '
plished, involving teller, listener/analyst, and reader. The original speak- context that
context that preceded reader can enter
preceded it. A reader enter into
into the meaning-making
meaning-making
ers' words are not effaced; they are present in all their ambiguity and process (Level 5) only when the full narrative
process (Levei narrative is included,
included, or made made avail-
avail­
messiness. The analyst controls meaning to the extent that she selects what able from
able from the author.
features of the discourse between the women will be the subject of her Generalizing from the example, one application
Generalizing application ofBell's
of Bell's analytic
analytic stratêgy
stratêgy
text, and she interprets the discourse. Bell decided what each of the three reduce interview
is to reduce interview responses
responses to core core narratives
narratives and compare
compare tltesethese
stories is about, but even here the teller is given a voice: The title of each across a sample.
across sample. Narratives, especially those
Narratives, especially those about
about important
important life' experi-
experi­
of the three stories comes from Sarah's words. Determining the point of ences, are typically long, full of
ences, of asides, comments,
comments, flashbacks, flashforwards,
flashforwards,
a narrative is an interpretive issue (Mishler, 1986b), but it can be done orientation, and evaluation.
orientation, evaluation. lt It is naive
naive to think
think one can "just present the
present the
with more or Iess attention to the language ofthe subject, who may or may without some systematic
story" without systematic method
method ofreduction.
of reduction. The core core narrative,
narrative,
not make the point of her narrative explicit. The reader can see how the kind of
a kind of radical
radical surgery, is a way of of rendering
rendering the "whole story'' into
"whole story" into a
interpretations were derived and can imagine altemative ones (the fifth form that allows
form allows for comparison.
comparison. (ln (In Chapter
Chapter 3, 1I provide further guidance
provi de further guidance
levei of representation in Figure 1.1 ). about how to do narrative
about narrative reduction.)
reduction.) Material
Material that
that is excluded
excluded from from the
As a reader, 1 found myself questioning Bell's interpretation of Story 3 core, such as evaluation,
core, evaluation, can then be reintroduced,
reintroduced, as Bell did, did, to interpret
interpret
as a move to political action. 1 wondered how political Sarah really is. variation in meaning
the variation meaning of of apparently
apparently similar
similar plots. investigator could
plots. An investigator could
What, for example, is she doing because of her experience as a DES combine Bell's
combine Bell's textual
textual approach
approach with Ginsburg's
Ginsburg's plot/story distinction.
plot/story distinction.
daughter to change the medical care system for women? Story 3 is flat,
lacks elaboration and emotionality, and is occupied with concrete detail Structures and
Poetic Structures and Meaning
Meaníng
about how Sarahjoined DES Action-hearing the ad, calling up, receiving The last
The last example
example is drawn
drawn from my own work. Divorce Talk (Riessman,
work. Divorce (Riessman,
the packet and card, meeting the women at a coffee. The process sounds 1990a) examined
1990a) examined how a samplesample ofof divorcing
divorcing individuais
individuals make
make sense
sense of
of
more social than political. True, once the commonality with other women their marriages
their marriages and themselves
themselves andand how the process accomplished
process is accomplished
is discovered, organizing can begin (Ruzek, 1979). And the passage that differently by women
differently women and and men.
men. Divorce
Divorce brings stead considerable
brings in its stead considerable
immediately follows the core narrative (lines 329-333) says she's angry emotional difficulty
emotional difficulty for both genders and
both genders and distinctive
distinctive health
health problems
problems for
at the "things that happened to me." But it still was not clear to me that each. 1I wanted
each. emotional difficulties
wanted to see how emotional difficulties were
were voiced,
voiced, and thus
Sarah had shifted biame, collectivized her understanding of her situation, constructed, differently
constructed, differently by women
women and men. 1I compared
compared the talktalk about
about
and taken political action. To resolve the interpretive issues, 1 examined distress of
distress of each
each gender
gender group
group and looked
looked at the relationship
relationship between these
between these
the full text of Story 3 (Bell makes these available upon request to the results anda
results and a traditional
traditional quantitative
quantitative analysis
analysis ofof depression
depression for the
the sample.
sample.
reader) and found the following passage, separated from the tines about in- The two methods
Toe methods yielded
yielded very different
different findings
findings and showed
showed that
that women
women
dividual anger by a long pause, suggesting a transition in thought process: and men
and men have distinctive vocabularies
have distinctive vocabularies of of emotion
emotion thatthat have
have not
not been
been
sufficiently acknowledged
sufficiently acknowledged in mainstream
mainstream mental
mental health
health research.
research.
335 if there
(2.5) and if there was something
something that
that I could
could do to either
either help
help DES daughters
daughters be
• NARRATIVE METHOD
NARRATIVE METHOD
more assertive
more assertive
336 and get better medical care
better medical care ((1.5)
1.5) right away,
obstetricians, be more
337 or, help, obstetricians, more aware
aware ...
... I examined
examined in some detail
detail the talk
talk of
of six members
members of sample (N =
of my sample
wanted to do that
338 that that I wanted including Cindy
105), including Cindy (a pseudonym),
pseudonym), portions of whose
portions of whose ·narrative
'narrative are
•
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44 45

represented in Transcript 2.5. A oun sin le aren esen a ton, m y s speech (probably like all speech, lin­
epression score
a epress1on score on the quantitative
quantitative measure
measure thatthat was near near the
the top of of guists argue)
guists argue) has a stanza
stanza form,
form, which
which lends coherence
coherence to the the narrative.
narrative.
range for. women.
the range women. As she put it, "Things "Things are are very
very very hard."hard." She Stanzas
Stanzas are a series lines
series of lines on a single topic that have parallel structure
single topic that have a parallel structure
described four
described four aspects
aspects ofof her
her life that
that were causing
causing her difficulty,
difficulty, and these sound if
and sound as if they together by tending
go together tending to be said said at the sarne
same rate
rate and
and --
very nearly mirror mirror the four role strains
strains that
that predict depression for the
predict depression the entire
entire little hesitation
with little hesitation between
between lines.lines. Gee
Gee (1985,
(1985, 1986, 1991) argued argued thatthat
sample of
sample of women
women in the the quantitative
quantitative analysis:
analysis: children,
children, money, worry worry stanzas are
stanzas are a universal
universal unitunit in planning speech and
planning speech and that poetry, fact,
poetry, in fact,
about support
about support payments,
payments, and lack lack of of help
help (see Riessman,
Rìessman, 1990a).
1990a). builds
builds on whatwhat we each do all the time. Poetry Poetry "fossilizes"
"fossilizes" and and ritualizes
ritualizes
The formform of of Cindy's
Cindy's narrative
narrative intrigued
intrigued me. I did not interview
interview her, my what speech. ln
everyday speech.
what is in everyday In Cindy's
Cindy's case,
case, she givesgives in stanzas
stanzas 3-6 3-6 a
coinvestigator did, and she departed
coinvestigator departed from the structured
structured set of of questions
questions four-part explanation
four-part explanation for why she feels so burdened, explanation tliat
burdened, an explanation tñat
after administering
after administering the depressiondepression scalescale (perhaps
(perhaps because
because of the many many expands in the narrative.
she later expands narrative. As she lists the four areas that in her mind mind
symptoms noted)
symptoms noted) and asked asked about
about "things
''things that
that had been hard'' lately.
been hard" causing her
are causing her such difficulty-money,
difficulty money, school, school, childchild care,
care, and
and no timetime
Cindy spoke
Cindy spoke at lengthlength about
about the difficulties
difficulties she was facing facing and and the
the herself. she moves from the outside
for herself-she outside in, in, from
from thethe most
most macro
macro to the the
emotions she
emotions she was experiencing.
experiencing. The response
response "felt"
"felt" like
like a narrative
narrative when most micro
most micro issues.
issues. The
The tight
tight stanza
stanza structure
structure articulates
articulates a sense
sense of of con-
con­
6
attempted to code
I attempted code it. I found
found myself
myself not wanting
wanting to fragment
fragment it into straint; the roles of of provider, student, and mother mother create
create conflict because
because the the
discrete thematic
discrete thematic categories
categories but to treattreat it instead
instead as a unit discourse;
unit of discourse; expectations of
expectations of each are so. discordant,
discordant, creating
creating insoluble
insoluble emotional
emotional
it "sounded"
"sounded" like like a narrative
narrative when I went to retranscribe
retranscribe it into into a form dilemmas. ln
dilemmas. In moving
moving from the social social to the personal, sequence of
personal, the sequence of the
the
suitable for that
suitable kind of
that kind of analysis.
analysis. It seemed
seemed to be structurally
structurally and themati-
themati­ stanzas also suggests
stanzas suggests that
that Cindy
Cindy has tumedturned the responsibility
responsibility for for change
change
cally coherent
cally coherent and tightly tightly sequenced.
sequenced. But it did not meet meet Labov's
Labov's (1972,
(1972, outside inward.
from the outside inward. She feelsfeels the dilemma
dilemma is hers hers to resolve,
resolve, person­
person-
criteria: There
1982) criteria: There was no plot traditional sense,
plot in the traditional sense, few narrative
narrative ally and privately,
privately, despite the fact that the sources of of her distress are social.
social.
clauses, and
clauses, and verbs were were often
often in the present tense, not the simple
present tense, simple past.past. Having outlined
Having outlined her
lier four problems
problems in four four stanzas,
stanzas, Cindy
Cindy develops
develops eacheach
These puzzles
These puzzles prompted
prompted me to search search for other
other models
models for representing
representing theme, amplifying
theme, amplifying in sequential
sequential orderorder each
each of of the causes
causes of her her distress.
distress.
discourse, other
the discourse, other ways of of understanding
understanding how Cindy Cindy organized
organized her In the first
ln first part explores the problem
part she explores problem of money. She describes describes her her
narrative and
narrative and how she achieved achieved coherence,
coherence, so as to better grasp its
better grasp struggle to support
struggle support herself
herself and explicitly
explicitly locates
locates the causecause ofof the
the problem
problem
•
meaning.
meaning. social environment
in the social environment (i.e., "a "a lot ofit
ofit has to do with the welfare welfare system
system
Transcript 2.5 displays
Transcript displays my structural
structural analysis
analysis of of Cindy's
Cindy's narrative,
narrative, changing"). She
changing"). She tells a narrative
narrative to explain
explain "what
"what happened,"
happened," reconstruct-
reconstruct­
informed in part
informed part by the work of of James
James Gee (1985,(1985, 1986,1986, 1991) on the reinterpreting how state
ing and reinterpreting state budget cuts, changing
budget cuts, changing welfare
welfare policies,
policies,
poetic features of
poetic features of language.
language. This
This is an ideal
ideal realization
realization of of the text, because
because workfare, and the uncertainties
workfare, uncertainties of of her job have made
job have made her financial
financial situ-
situ­
excludes interactions
it excludes interactions between teller and listener,
between teller listener, false
false starts,
starts, pauses,
pauses, ation "completely
ation "completely unstable."
unstable."
discourse markers,
discourse markers, nonlexical
nonlexical expressions,
expressions, and other other features
features of spoken
spoken time of
At the time of the interview,
interview, CindyCindy is experiencing
experiencing the effects effects of of the
the
language. (For
language. (For the full narrative,
narrative, see Riessman,
Riessman, 1990a,
1990a, pp. 131-134.)
131-134.) Reagan budget
first of the Reagan welfare expenditures
budget cuts in welfare expenditures and the beginnings
beginnings
Cindy frames
Cindy frames the narrative
narrative with a metaphor
metaphor that binds binds the beginning
beginning of of a new workfare
of workfare program,
program, which which requires
requires that that she register
register for job job
narrative inextricably
the narrative inextricably to its conclusion.
conclusion. She begins likening her
begins by likening her training as soon
training soon as herher child tums
turns 6 (he was 5\1:i). BecauseBecause she is in a 4-year4-year
state of
state of mind
mind to walking,
walking, with a cloud cloud over
over her, unable
unable to see clearly clearly baccalaureate
baccalaureate program considered "training"
program (not considered "training" by the welfarewelfare depart-
depart­
through it. She
through She refers
refers to her unsettled emotions with this
unsettled emotions this sarne
same image
image ment in her
ment her state),
state), she stands
stands a good chance chance of of being "forced out
being "forced out ofof
again, 10 minutes
again, minutes later
later in the interview,
interview, at the end of of her
her long
long account
account school," with only
school," only one year year to go before graduating and, presumably,
before graduating presumably,
("I'
(''I'mm walking
walking aroundaround waiting
waiting to decide").
decide''). The metaphor
metaphor lendslends structural
structural becoming
becoming more more employable.
employable. CaughtCaught in the irrationality
irrationality of thesethese policies,
policies,
coherence to the narrative
coherence narrative and suggests
suggests how how it is bounded,
bounded, that that is, where
where Cindy decides
Cindy decides to quit quit welfare.
welfare. As a consequence,
consequence, she must must rely on on child
child
I
it begins
begins and and ends.
ends. Thematically,
Thematically, the metaphor suggests motion
metaphor suggests motion and lack lack support payments
support payments from her former former spouse
spouse that, she tells tells us .elsewhere
_elsewhere in in
I
I of resolution.
of resolution. Cindy Cindy has not arrived
arrived on some firm emotional emotional ground.
ground. interview, are irregular
the interview, irregular and thus thus a source
source of of worry. ,
:
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46 47 i
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Frame 59 there
there was no wa
60 And also with workfare looming ahead •

04 in this for the last month or so 61 I was worried that I' I'dd get
05
OS feeling that things are very very hard 62 forced out of school
06 like I have a cloud over me and I'm
I'm very confused
confused 63 and I only have like a year
year to go
64 so because I didn't
didn't want to take a chance
chance
Affect and conflict
conflict
65 of
of being forced out ofof school
09 I feel like Stanza
Stanza 11
66 I just
just quit welfare.
10 I am too burdened
burdened
75 IIdon't
don't know how long my job job is going to hold out
li
11 and I can't
can't imagine
imagine how
78 So my financial situation is justjust
12 to be less burdened
burdened
13 I feel like Stanza 2 79 completely
completely unstable at this point. "·
14 I need
need to be doing everything I'mI'm doing Part 2: School
School •
15 and so I don't
don't know how to 80 And I ended up taking two incompletes
incompletes Stanza 7
Stanza 7
16 take some of of the burden 81 of three classes I was taking in school.
out of
17 off
off of myself
myself
Summary
Summary
19 Well I need to work
work Stanza 3 82 So it's
it's making me think that Stanza 8
Stanza
20 in order to earn a li ving
living (money) 83 trying to go to school ..
21 I need to Stanza4
Stanza4 84 and work and be a good mother
mother is too much
23 goto
go to school (school) 85 but I don't
don't know how I can not do it
it
23 so that I won't
won't always have to work for nothing
24 I need to Stanza 5
Stanza Part 3: Care
Care of
of children
25 be a good mother ((care
eare of children)
children) 86 And at the sarne
same time for some reason Stanza 9
Stanza
26 'cause
'cause that's
that's very important to me 87 my son's
son's going through a really clingy spell
spell again
27 And l'I'dd like to Stanza 6 88 And he probably does it right when I can least
least
28 find a little free time (time for self) 89 afford to deal with it you know.
29 ifl
ifl can Summary
Summary
Part 1: Money
Money (narrative)
(narrative) 90 justaa lot of
So it's just of stuff all at once Stanza
Stanza 10
33 alot of it has to do with the welfare system changing
changing 91 in the last month or so.
35 Well I used to be on welfare Part 4: Self
Part Self (narrative)
(narrative)
37 ...
... they cut me a whole lot 92 and so I' ve been
38 because I work also
because 93 with ali
all this other stuff I've
I've been
48 but so my choice at that point was 94 actually
actually needy myself
49 either
either to go off
off completely
completely 95 you know wanting
50 and get money from him 96 wanting
wanting someone to come home to
51 or quit working 97 who would say "Hey sit down
52 and I 98 1'11
I'll fix you a drink
53 at that point it sounded like a good idea 99 let's
let's chit chat about the day"
54 to quit work 100 you know someone to nurture me.
55 so that I could 101 And so I'veI've been more aware of not having that person
person
56 go to school and not feel
Frame
Frame (retum
(return to affect and conflict)
conflict)
57 like I had so many things to do
102 I feel like Stanza li
Stanza 11
58 but um financially Ijust
I just couldn't
couldn't do it
103 I have to make a decision
105 I don't
don't know what to decide so
Transcript
Transcript 2.5. Cindy's Narrative 106 I'm walking around waiting to decide.
SOURCE: Adapted
Adapted from Riessman
Riessman (1990a). Reprinted by permission
pennission from Rutgers University
University Press and
lhe
the author.

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48
. 49
49

-----1-----_,....,..c_,,,indyleaves the narra ti ve mode after summarizin the first art in lin '---·--+----------+ll'.~§l].~ Êw:filt'1..~!WJJ~\i)\~[¡[[\[\i/ l:mt~\(f [~fi~(!1f#.1f:1ili~]tJ]if~1[it~~t~~ii~~~i:r:i1ti~\~t~ff~~~~~:~t?!li1~:it~f0ß~t~fr00(]1~1(1¡;;¡~~~?@.~f:)f i@~:~ :)fµ¡'g;.I:if;i~~!\1---------
. ee oes oes notnot tel1
tell another
another formalformal narrative
narrative again
again until
until later
later but
but /il.·,,;-· ,,.-.·,·······~········
:!iilifiiiií}:fö¡¡;¡;¡¡fi,:I;;ftll1i\liaiW~;l;;;;;;)!)l;;J;Ii:;;;;:
·.··~·········· -~···-;-•.·,·.•.·:··········~Ul"i-1.lJ... ;. -~~:.-.·, ..-.-.;,·.·:·:· ··········· ·············· , ,.•.....-,.·~····· ···:·

instead uses
instead uses nonnarrative
nonnarrative forms forms in in the
the middle
middle twotwo parts
parts (Parts
(Parts 22 and
and 33 of
of t/'il!tJJ;tiilittllti:ftitiiiitiiitWii¡/¡!)JiilttJ?i.\f/fi!ti!tiJfäfiiiliiiti.ittii

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'
Transcript 2.5) to explain
Transcript '

conflicts they create

conflicts
explain the sources
create in her. The second
sources of her distress
second part-about
distress and the emotional
part about the strain
emotional
strain associated
associated
I
I

I school merely reports

with school-merely reports in a couplet,
couplet, succinctly
succinctly and tersely, how she
I resolved
resolved the dilemma
dilemma of role overload.
overload. Like earlier statement
her earlier statement aboutabout
I
financial strain
financial )
strain ("I(''I just
just quit welfare"),
welfare''), the active active voice here
here says how she Tension
resolved her dilemmas
resolved dilemmas ("I (''I ended up taking taking two incompletes").
incompletes''). As if if to
summarize, she then explicitly
summarize, explicitly restates
restates the theme of being being burdened
burdened in a
' 4-line stanza
4-line stanza in lines 82-85. The stanza stanza captures
captures the essence
essence of the bind •

i welfare policies
that welfare policies have created created for Cindy: Holding Holding a jobjob is necessary
necessary
I because
because of welfare
welfare cuts and workfare,
workfare, but going to school is necessary
necessary to
' I

' decent job.

get a decent job.
'
' In the third part, Cindy elaborates on her problems being a good parent-
ln I parent­
! S-year-old son is "going
her 5-year-old ''going through
through a really really clingy
clingy spell again."
again." He'sHe's
I
doing this ata at a time when she can "least ''least afford to deal with it." The irony Figure 2.1.
Figure
in her choice of the word "afford" ''afford'' is apparent:
apparent: Her emotional
emotional resources
resources
for parenting
parenting are as limited limited as are her financial financial ones.
In the summarizing
ln summarizing couplet couplet of lines 90-91, Cindy makes a statement statement returns in lines 102-106 to the metaphor
returns metaphor of walking, walking, the present present tense, tense, the
that ties the three parts together. The recent past has been especially difficult, difficult, phrase
phrase (''I
("1 feel like'')
like") and the stanza
stanza structure
structure with which she began
began the
she says, becausebecause of the combination
combination of money, school, and child-care child-care narrative
narrative many minutes before. She is preoccupied
preoccupied with making
making a decision
decision
demands ("a
demands (''a lot of stuff
stuff all at once").
once''). It It is the piling up of role strains
strains that mentions this three times in four lines),
(she mentions lines), but exactly exactly what decision decision is
makes her feel burdened, burdened, not any single problem. problem. ambiguous.
ambiguous. What is clear is that Cindy
Cindy feels overwhelmed
overwhelmed in the face ofof
The fourth part, lines 92-101, picks up on a theme Cindy put forward multiple
multiple pressures
pressures with no one to help. Although
Although at one level
levei the origins
origins
earlier (no time for herself) but gives it a twist. ln
earlier In the context
context of "ali''all this problems are distinctly
of her problems distinctly public, public, her experience experience of them is personal personal
other stuff,"
other stuff," she's
she's been feeling "actually ''actually needy"needy'' herself. It It is not time and private.
private. As she assesses
assesses her situation,
situation, it will be ''resolved''
"resolved" by some
alone that she wants as much as somebody somebody to support support and nurture
nurture her. decision
decision she has yet to make. No political
political movement
movement is present
present in Cindy's
Cindy's
The focus of the fourth part is not on events that have happened happened but account, as in Kay's and Sarah's,
account, Sarah's, that could provide provide alternative alternative under- under­
events she wishes would happen, and consequently consequently Cindy tells a hypo- hypo­ standings
standings and collective
collective solutions. solutions.
thetical narrative.
thetical narrative. Through
Through dialogue,
dialogue, she she creates
creates aa text within aa text, aa Figure 2.1 represents a schematic
Figure schematic of of the essential essential tension, as as I see see it, in"
multivoiced narrative
multivoiced narrative (Wolf(Wolf & Hicks, 1989)
& Hicks, 1989) with texture and and dimension-
dimension­ the structure
structure of of the discourse.
discourse. Lines 3-29
3-29 and and lines 102-106
102-106 speak of speak of
ality that is
ality is emotionally
emotionally affecting
affecting both because of of what sheshe says
says and
and how enduring conditions
enduring conditions that form
form the context
context for for two narrative
narrative segments. segments.
she says
she says it.it. To
To convey
convey the fantasy, fantasy, she she constructs
constructs aa hypothetical
hypothetical conver-
conver- Enduring portions of
Enduring of the discourse discourse are are not narrative; they last last and and have
sation in
sation in lines
lines 96-101.
96-101. Like Like her son, son, sheshe wants someone
someone to hold on on to. an ongoing quality
an ongoing quality that testifies
testifies to the durative,
durative, the progressive,
progressive, and and the
'
Cindy concludes
'
concludes the narrativenarrative but does does not resolve the dilemmas
dilemmas it sets sets nonspecific.
nonspecific. It It is within these enduring
enduring states, states, which begin and end the
end
i
' forth. Unlike many narratives
forth. narratives about about events
events that have happened
happened in the past, discourse,
discourse, that the two narrative
narrative segments segments are embedded,
embedded, the first aa story
first story
Ione, concerning
this one, concerning role strains strains and and distress,
distress, lacks
lacks firm
firm resolution
resolution and and about aa specific
about specific past event event involving involving welfare and and workfare workfare (lines (lines 33-79) 33-79)
closure
closure because the narrator is still
still inin the middle of
of the conflict.
conflict. She She and the second
second a hypothetical
hypothetical narrative
narrative about a dream ofof being
being nurtured
nurtured ,
'i
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I
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I
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50 51

92-101). Although
(lines 92-101). Although there
there are parts between, these
parts in between, these two ~-'----\----~·~· lh!!''ttt , nzas m a narrative. ound that each of
, w 1cic attests
attests to an essential
essential dilemma:
dilemma: the actual
actual and the four parts of Cindy's
parts of Cindy's narrative
narrative (see Transcript
Transcript 2.5) is, in fact, set off
off
the possible, wished-for. Just
possible, the real and the wished-for. Just as Cindy's
Cindy's explanation
explanation with such a marker. As I became more familiar
became more familiar with the transcription
transcription
pivots thematic contrasts
pivots on thematic contrasts (welfare
(welfare vs. school,
school, child
child vs. self), so too conventions, I heard structure:
conventions, structure: the building
building blocks of the narrative,
blocks ofthe narrative, groups
groups --
does its form, juxtaposing nonnarrative and the narrative,
juxtaposing the nonnarrative narrative, the story
story form of
of lines said together about a single topic, a vignette, in the fonn
of of a stanza.
stanza.
and the dream.20 20 Like
Like the previous examples, this is a narrative
previous two examples, narrative about
about
discordance: the breach
discordance: expected course
breach in the ordinary, expected course of
of a human
human life, Each stanza is a particular "take"
''take'' on a character, action, event, claim, or
theme that
a theme that Cindy
Cindy realizes
realizes through
through the tight
tight organization
organization ofof a narrative.
narrative. piece of infonnation,
Information, and each involves a shift of focal participants, focal
summarize, my approach
To summarize, approach offers another
another model
model for analyzing
analyzing ex-
ex­ events, or a change in the time or framing of events from the preceding
precedi~
tended stretches
tended stretches of
of talk in research
research interviews
interviews that feel like like narratives.
narratives. It stanza. Each stanza represents a particular perspective, not in the sense er
involves reducing
involves reducing a Iong
long response,
response, parsing according to a set of
parsing it according of rales
rules who is doing the seeing, but in terms of what is seen; it represents an jmage,
Imagé,
into lines,
into lines, stanzas,
stanzas, and parts, examining its organizing
parts, examining organizing metaphors,
metaphors, and ''camera'' is focused on, a "scene."
what the "camera" ''scene.'' (Gee, 1991, pp. 23-24)
structure a very different
creating a schematic to display the structure--a different form of of
analysis than in the previous
analysis examples.è!
previous two examples. 2 1 (Chapter
(Chapter 3 gives
gives more detail
detail The transcript represents a reduction based on my hearing, with the ear- ear­
reduction was made.)
on how the reduction made.) phones
phones ofof Gee's
Gee's theory on my head, of of how Cindy
Cindy said her reply reply to the
question about
question about "things
''things that had
had been hard" lately. The form of
been hard" of represen-
represen­
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
tation draws
tation draws attention
attention to the transcribing/analyzing
transcribing/analyzing interface
interface in Figure
Figure
decisions about
1.1, namely, how decisions about displaying
displaying talk are inseparable
inseparable fromfrom thethe
Because this is my work, I find it more difficult
Because difficult than with the previous
previous process of interpretation.
process of interpretation.
examples to critically
two examples critically examine
examine it, but Ietlet me try. First,
First, how has talk Ironically, certain
Ironically, certain features
features ofof speech
speech that
that are criticai
critical to analyzing
analyzing the
been transformed into a written text, and how are narrative narrative segments
segments deter-
deter­ structure of
structure of the narrative
narrative are excluded
excluded from the representation
representation of of it ((e.g.,
e.g.,
Cindy's long response
mined? Cindy's response is reduced, not to a core narrative
narrative or skeleton
skeleton pauses discourse markers);
pauses and discourse markers); The interaction
interaction between teller and
between teller and listener
listener
plot which would
plot-which would leave
leave practically nothing-but with reference
practically nothing-but reference to Gee's
Gee's that produced
that produced the narrative
narrative is also not represented. There is no
represented. There no place
place for
(1985, 1986, 1991) theory
(1985, theory ofthe
of the units of
of speech. He draws
draws on oral rather
rather emotional moment
an emotional moment between narrative ends
between the women as the narrative ends (immedi-
(immedi­
than written,
than text-based models
written, text-based models oflanguage
of language and emphasizes
emphasizes prosodic
prosodic and ately after
ately after the hypothetical
hypothetical narrative
narrative in Part
Part 4, there
there is a long pause, broken
paralinguistic aspects, such as changes
paralinguistic aspects, changes in pitch and intonation.
intonation. To discern
discern by what sounds like sniffling, followed by joint laughing). It could even be
joint laughing).
patterning, attend to how the narrative
patterning, I attend narrative is said, that
that is, the organization
organization Gee's method strips the interview context
argued that Gee's context from the narrative.
narrative.
of the discourse
of discourse system into lines, stanzas, and parts. The representation
representation of of (Because of
(Because of this concern,
concern, I elected Divorce Talk to present
elected in Divorce present the full
talk and mode
talk mode of of analysis
analysis could
could be accused
accused ofof formalism
formalism (for(for a response
response response and Transcript
response Transcript 2.5, a strategy
strategy that
that required
required some persuasion
persuasion of of
criticism see Gee,
to this criticism Gee, 1991, pp. 15-16), and one potential
potential publisher
publisher my editor.)
called my approach
called approach "pretentious."
''pretentious." What is the definition
What definition of
of narrative
narrative here?
here? I use the termterm two ways:
ways: first,
first,
When I began working on Cindy's
began working Cindy's Iong
long response
response with Gee's
Gee's theory
theory ofof describe Cindy's
to describe Cindy's entire
entire response,
response, which
which meets
meets general
general criteria
criteria (se-(se­
discourse units,
discourse initially skeptical.
units, I was initially skeptical. I wondered
wondered whether
whether speech
speech is, quence, thematic,
quence, thematic, and structural
structural coherence);
coherence); and, second,
second, to describe
describe Parts
Parts
structured as he argues and still prefer
in fact, structured think of
prefer to think of poetic structures
poetic structures 11 and 4 which
which meet more more limited
limited criteria
criteria (temporal
(temporal order, evaluation).
evaluation). ln In
as a way to represent discourse, not intrinsic
represent discourse, intrinsic to it. Whatever
Whatever the philo­
philo- I am departing from Gee's
Figure 2.1, Iam Gee's method
method but make a similarsimilar argument
argument
sophical differences,
sophical differences, repeated listening to tapes sensitized
repeated listening sensitized me to subtleties
subtleties complex discourse
for a complex discourse form: embedded
embedded narrative
narrative segments
segments within
within an
of language
of language that
that I never
never was aware of before, certainly never
before, and certainly never attended
attended overarching narrative
overarching narrative that includes
includes nonnarrative
nonnarrative parts. Labov's
Labov's (1972,
to in previous transcripts intonation contours,
previous transcripts-intonation contours, rising
rising and falling
falling pitch,
pitch, Labov & Waletzky, 1967) theory and the relatively
1982; Labov simple stories
relatively simple stories
pauses discourse markers
pauses and discourse markers (well,
(well, and, so, nonlexical
nonlexical expressions
expressions likelike analyzes do not provide
he analyzes adequate model
provide an adequate model for subjective
subjective experiences,
experiences,
"'
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52 53

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events that
events that unfold
unfold overover time time and
and even
even extend
extend~1~·n~to~th~e:_p~re~se~n~t~,
into the present, ~as~C~in~d~'!S
as Cind 's _ _:___ l- 1Ni!o!1t~esL
Notes ~--------~i
-----lt-----f ·· as as muc
mue aa out out aa ective
ectíve "actions,"
"actions," things things the the Contestedlives(Ginsburg,
17. Conteste 1989a)hashadaverymixedreactio~fromferninists.For
d Lives (Ginsburg, 1989a) has had a very mixed reaction from ferninists. For
narrator feels
narrator feels and says to herself,
and says herself, as it it is about
about "what happened'' in
''what happened" in a more
more aa review
review which,
which, among
among olher
other lhings,
things, criticizes
criticizes lhe
the book
book forfor aa Jack
lack of
of attention
attention to to race
race and.
and_
objective sense.22
objective sense.22 class, see Bennett (1989). As I suggest in the fifth levei level of Figure 1.1, a life history has an
Second, what
Second, what aspects
aspects of of the
the narrative
narrative constitute
constitute the the basis for interpre-
basis for interpre- afterlife: Audiences respond to lhe the published work (Blackman, 1992).
tation? Obviously
Obviously not not interaction,
interaction, the the focus
focus of of attention
attention herehere is
is on on linguis-
linguis- 18.
18. Within the life history tradition, some
Wilhin lhe life history tradition, some scholars
scholars do do include
include lhethe interaction
interaction that pro-
that pro-
tation?
duced a particular narrative in lhe the analysis (see Anderson & Jack, 1991).
tic choices Cindy makes and
tic choices Cindy makes and the patterning the patteming of her
her discourse, or how the
discourse, or how the For an
19. For
19. an example
example of of different
different understandings
understandings of of lhe
the word
word dependent
dependent in in aa study
study of of
text spoken. Gee
text is spoken. Gee (1991) argued argued that that many
many interpretations
interpretations are are ruled
ruled outout depressed women,
depressed women, see see Jack
Jack (1991).
(1991).
by the structure
by the structure of the the spoken
spoken narrative.
narrative. My My interpretation
interpretation takestakes account
account 20. I1 thank Dennie Wolf for her insights about structural tension in Cindy's narrativê narratívê and
structural properties
of structural (frames, stanzas,
properties (frames, stanzas, parts),
parts), key key metaphors
metaphors (walking),
(walking), for Figure 2.1, which she drafted. 1..
l..
key words
key words ("afford"),
(''afford''), verb verb tense
tense ("I(''I got
got cut
cut wayway down"
down'' vs.vs. "I ''I just quit
just quit 21.
21. ln Divorce Talk,
In Divorce Talk, II combined
combined lhe the approach
approach wilh
with aa statistical
statistical analysis
analysis of
of lhe
the entire
entire sample
sample
(Riessman, 1990a). Close attention to Cindy's experience provided a context for interpreting
welfare"), how substantive themes get developed
welfare"), how substantive themes get developed through these, and other through these, and other aa multiple-regression
multiple-regression equation,
equation, for for example.
example. Lack
Lack ofof money
money becamebecame moremore than
than aa variable
variable
linguistic
linguistic choices.
choices. I go beyond the
go beyond the text
text and
and make
make inferences
inferences about
about context,
context, that predicted
that depression: Emotional
predicted depression: Emotional distress
distress is
is produced
produced in in Cindy's
Cindy's case
case by social policies
by social policies
informed by
informed by mymy politics, notably changing
politics, notably changing welfare welfare policies
policies and and their
their that force women to make choices, between job, school, and welfare eligibility, lhat
lhat that compro-
effect on the situation of single mothers
effect on the situation of single mothers U.S. society. in U.S. society. their efforts to become self-stJpporting
mise lheir selï-supportìng and bring depression in their stead. Similarly,
By excluding
excluding the the interaction
interaction between teller andand listener
listener that
that produced Cindy's
Cindy's experience
experience with with aa clingy
clingy son son and
and her
her longing
longing for for care
care herself
herself show
show what what other
other
By between teller produced
variables in lhethe quantitative model-child
model-child care and Jack lack of help-actually mean in context.
the
the narrative, treat it as sole-authored,
narrative, I treat sole-authored, as "inside" ''inside'' the the designated
designated narra- narra- 22. For more
22. For more onon Cindy's
Cindy's narrative
narrative against
against Labov's
Labov's criteria,
criteria, seesee Riessman
Riessman (1990a,(1990a,
tor. The situation of its telling
The situation telling is not part of the
not part the interpretation,
interpretation, that that is, howhow PP· 253_254).
pp. 253-254).
the account
the account takes
takes a particular
particular shape shape and and meaning
meaning becausebecause of the the interac-
interac- 23. Some might argue for a different interpretation. Although not working with Cindy's
tional context.
tional context. It It could
could be argued,
argued, for for example,
example, that that Cindy
Cindy develops
develops her her narrative
narrative butbut with
with oneone Gee
Gee (1991)
(1991) presents, aa very very experienced
experienced studentstudent in in mymy doctoral
doctoral
narrative this this way
way because qualitative
qualitative analysis
analysis class
class said
said its
its meaning
meaning was was self-evident,
self-evident, that that Gee'
Gee'ss elaborate
elaborate structural
narrative because both speakers agree
both speakers agree on on aa topic,
topic, "things
''things that that structural
analysis was not needed to make sense of ofit.
it. The text we were discussing was the long account
have been hard
have been hard lately."
lately." A different
different kind kind of interaction
interaction might might have have pro-pro- of aa woman
of woman suffering
suffering fromfrom schizophrenia,
schizophrenia, which which Gee
Gee represents
represents in in lines,
Jines, stanzas,
stanzas, and and
duced
duced a different account.
different account. (For (For an extension of Gee's
extension of Gee's approach approach to dis-
dis- strophes that
strophes that convincingly
convincingly display
display coherence.
coherence. TheThe next
next week,
week, as as an
an exercise,
exercise, I presented the the
course between
course speakers, see
between speakers, see Mishler,
Mishler, 1992.) class with a different representation of the sarne same stretch of talk, transcribed the normal way,
Finally, who
Finally, determines what
who determines what thethe narrative
narrative means,means, and and are
are alternative
alternative that is, in continuous lines. Most agreed that in lhis this representation lhe the woman's talk was
readings possible? Cindy's words words and and my my interpretations
interpretations are are both avail- incoherent,
incoherent, andand the
the clinicai psychology students
clinical psychology were quick
students were quick to read it
to read it as
as "loose,"
"loose," aa "flight
"flight of of
readings possible? Cindy's both avail-
ideas," prima facie evidence of schizophrenic thought process. The text had a different
able,
able, although
although they
they are
are conflated
conflated byby the
the way
way talk
talk is represented
represented (the(the case
case meaning. The
meaning. The exercise
exercise moved
moved us all and
us ali and convinced
convinced everyone
everyone (except
(except perhaps
perhaps the the skeptical
skeptical
in all three examples). The basis for my interpretations, particularly
all three examples). The basis for my interpretations, particularly about about student) lhat,
student) that, allhough
although texts
texts can
can be open to
be open to severa)
several (but
(but not
not infinite)
infinite) readings,
readings, meaning
meaning and and
structure, is not
structure, not visible
visible in Transcript
Transcript 2.5, onlyonly in the
the full
full response
response (por-
(por- textual representation are dependent on one another.
tions of
tions of which
which are reproduced Chapter 33).
reproduced in Chapter The teller
). The teller has,
has, if not
not the
the final
final I
word, at least
word, least the first
first word
word on which
which interpretation
interpretation depends.
depends.
When II was
When analyzing Cindy's
was analyzing Cindy's long narrative, IIwas
long narrative, led into
was led into my
my sense
sense
of it by organization. She
by its organization. She could
could have
have said
said what
what she
she had
had to say
say in severa!
several
different ways.
different ways. What
What did
did the
the form
form she
she chose signify? IIclaim
chose signify? claim that
that we
we can
can
come close
come close to seeing
seeing into
into her
her subjective
subjective experience-what
experience what life
life "means"
"means"
her at the
to her the moment
moment of of telling-through
telling through experiencing
experiencing the the tension
tension in thethe
structure of
structure of the
the narrative
narrative (the
(the juxtaposition
juxtaposition of the the real
real and
and the
the wished
wished for,
the story
the story and
and the dream).
dream). 23
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