Transforming Agricultural Science, Research and Technology Generation

Irrigation of a fruit tree as a case study

Ehud Gelb
Center for Agricultural Economic Research
9 Hagalil St., Rehovot, 76601, Israel
Tel: +972 8 9411677, <gelb@agri.huji.ac.il>
Abstract
This paper reviews a case study of ICT transforming agricultural science, research
and technology generation and the constraints involved in adopting applications
which could feasibly achieve significant development impact. The case study outlines
routine relevant to these applications up take by economically and technologically
developing countries into their national agricultural sectors. The example includes a
rural region infrastructure model which has long-term potential for such a
development impact. It details an immediate development pathway with a focus on
stakeholder participation in ICT Adoption. Generalizing this case study suggests that
agricultural science, research and technology generation together lack a focus on
"How to Adopt' in-hand innovations, in addition to research results and the ongoing
commercial efforts to promote relevant products. This paper recommends three such
focused priorities – all with ICT comparative-advantage:
• Focus on end user/stakeholder needs by including "bottom up" involvement;
• Integrate all agricultural and rural ICT related areas in priority definitions;
• Adaptation of existing innovations and applied agricultural research results is
a potent regional priority.
Introduction
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) supported Irrigation is
demonstrated here as "application of water to a tree based on monitoring each tree's
needs to optimize its yield". To circumvent abstract generalities Fig 1 illustrates and
details the specifics of the current state of the art: ICT monitors each tree's real time
water and nutrient consumption and needs. The system in turn remotely activates an
ongoing, optimized supply of water and nutrients suited to the current climate, soil
conditions and the farmer's production plan. This process continues till season end.
This ICT frontier application example, if practiced properly, elicits optimized
economic and long term cultivation results. Such ICT supported Precision Agriculture
is a classic example of ICT transforming agricultural science, research and technology
generation as detailed below.

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Fig 1. The Agro Naan irrigation evaluation and application system.
a. Sensors placed within the tress’s dense root system measure physical and chemical
information such as moisture, nutrient and oxygen uptake and their rate of uptake;
b. A online computer "ingests" the tree’s data, adds climate readings and forecast,
calculates irrigation and fertilization needs and instructs the system accordingly ;
c. The system remotely activates irrigation and fertilizer applications via pressure
compensated non-drainage drip lines or drippers to each tree individually.
(Source: www.naandanjain.com and Goldschmidt, Lakso 2007)

Background
"Water" is and will continue to be one of the most, if not the most important element
of agricultural production, rural viability, economic and social structure and
environmental concerns. The contribution of ICT to all aspects of "water" cannot be
overemphasized in facilitating efficiencies of traditional production practices,
adoption of revolutionizing innovations, forming new management structures and
creating new knowledge.
With agricultural science ICT are at the forefront of development and improvement of
water resources, water engineering, technicalities and knowledge water application
fine points to plants, social and technical collaboration to share knowledge, manage
irrigation facilities and water application, generation of new knowledge and sharing
with horizontal (number and scope of participants) and horizontal (water source to
product in the market place) partners via collaboration, cooperation and development
at local, regional, national and international levels. In many instances this is
accompanied by changing political and social traditions, community hierarchies and
regional organizations. Appendix A demonstrates the direct economic potential for
science and technology development in the international "Water applications" market.
The overall economic impact is larger by far.
Irrigation from early civilization (source of civilization?) encompassed the best of
human engineering ingenuity while in turn establishing comprehensive social entities
and fabric, management hierarchies, communities and shared knowledge systems. The
result was that by supplementing irrigation to rain fed agriculture, comparatively
spectacular and reliably consistent yields were attained. These results supported urban
societies, scientific endeavors and "progress". Irrigation logistics frameworks were
simple: supply water to crops – for a fee or tax – payable to the "public" entity which
built the necessary facilities and cared for their upkeep. Basically this equation is still
prevalent worldwide notwithstanding agricultural inefficiencies, waste of water and
foregone superior irrigation alternatives.
Agricultural science is traditionally intimately involved with all aspects of
horticulture. "Water" research is at the forefront of such research which provides an
ongoing stream of innovative updates of crop growing technologies and knowledge
bases. These are flexible and adapted to all varieties and types of fruit trees - their
characteristics, physical constraints, economic considerations, resource availability,
alternatives, environmental considerations and cultural norms. ICT as applied to
"Water" research furthermore enhances a deeper understanding of biological
fundamentals translated into incremental, sequential improvements or paradigm
innovations - their dissemination, adaptation, and adoption. These in turn support the
economic and social mechanisms that enable fruit adoption tree growers to benefit
from them.

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The conceptual irrigation scenario was and remains straightforward: how to get the
maximum economic and social return from a unit of water - per a unit of land, labor
and/or capital invested within an existing geographical, political and social
framework. Science, research and technology are dedicated to this goal. In this case
by Cultivating (1.1 million Google references) and/or growing (3.2 million Google
references) fruit tress.
Fruit trees are a perennial agricultural endeavor, a long term investment, sensitive to
market and demand dictates, adapted to all countries, climates, geographical regions
soils, water quality and cultural dictates regardless of a country's social and political
affiliations or arbitrary definitions such as a developing, developed, industrialized or
emerging economy. Fruit tress can support economically viable rural communities by
providing growers and the "market" a practically endless variety of "healthy" products
that can be consumed fresh, preserved, as dietary supplements, raw materials for other
products, industrial input and more.
One way to help understand and address the unique contribution of ICT to
transforming agricultural science, research and technology generation - their direct
and indirect impact, considerations and ongoing solutions for e.g. economically and
technologically developing countries - is to extract and focus on some specific aspects
of a defined ICT case study for example ICT adoption for irrigation of fruit trees. The
following aspects selected for this paper demonstrate this unique ICT contribution;
1. Equalizing achieved results
2. Facilitating irrigation practice,
3. Rationalizing a regional water program
4. Consolidation of a regional institutional infrastructure

Irrigation state of the art

Irrigation, by supplementing rain fed agriculture can attain spectacular and reliably
consistent yields. Irrigation enables the farmer to control the crop's rate of growth, its
maturation schedules, soil nutrient management (in addition to fertilization) and
adaptation of crops to seasonal variations.
Since the pre-historic norm of flooding fields irrigation's state of the art progress has
evolved within a (very simplified) generalized sequence:
• Indiscriminate flooding crop areas till soil saturation:
• Replenishing the whole crop area with the measured amount of water utilized;
• Replenish the measured amount of water used but only to the plant's root area;
• Measure the plant's ongoing water consumption directly and replenish it;
• Measure the change in the rate of evapotranspiration, use of nutrients, etc and
e.g. drip irrigate/fertilize re prescribed formulas - usually all by remote
control.
All these irrigation modes and their numerous variations are currently practiced
worldwide. They reflect variable levels of efficiency, management capabilities,
knowledge availability and utilization, extension support and the adoption of the
continuously challenging agricultural science innovations. All these potentially
improve irrigation results, sometimes substantially – at least by attaining higher
"average" yields and income while edging ever closer to realizing the crop's (fruit
trees) genetic potential. At present medium and long term adoption of the most
innovative ICT supported irrigation applications is to a large extent dependent on

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market forces – see Prahalad 2004. Short term adoption efforts are often delegated to
national and/or regional extension services and farmer organizations. These market
forces are not necessarily indifferent to farmer's constraints. For example the systems
illustrated in Fig. 1, 2a and 2b were initiated, developed and are now owned by
farmers. Taragula and Gelb 2007 surveyed in detail the reasons for different rates of
ICT adoption in Horticulture (cost, illiteracy, better alternatives, tradition, and more).

Fig 2a. demonstrates PhytTech ICT supported irrigation frontiers and options:
(Source http://www.phytech.com PhyTech Phytomonitoring systems)

Fig 2b. demonstrates Galcon ICT supported irrigation frontiers and options:
(Source: http://www.galcon.co.il Grove and regional irrigation systems)

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1. Equalizing achieved results:
Fig 3 compares the average amounts of water needed to grow a ton of crops in
different countries. In this context of variable results for the "same" crop ICT's
contribution to transforming agricultural science, research and technology generation
has many, well known, proven, common knowledge, straightforward attributes. They
include for example
a. ICT enabled methodologies for transferring data, information and knowledge
which increase awareness of what others have attained, details of how to
duplicate the results – in production and economic returns; transfer of
knowledge, transfer of technique, transfer of proficiency and identifying
attainable goals;
b. ICT enabled identification of production bottle necks including knowledge
gaps, surmountable production constraints – such as matching recycled water
details with fruit quality, marketing deficiencies, information timing
inadequacies;
c. ICT enabled transfer of horticultural technique and the proficiency to use
them; and more.
To a large extent Fig 3 illustrates that these ICT attributes in transforming agricultural
science, research and technology generation are country and geography neutral. This
is mainly due to current ICT proliferation characteristics, ubiquitousness and cost
benefit ratios. The Fig 3 comparison demonstrates that agricultural science's potential
can deliver results at various regional, national and international levels. Why then are
the results so different between countries if science can alleviate the constraints? In
turn what can ICT contribute to stimulate research that will obliterate these constraints
enabling all countries to achieve these best attained results?
,

Fig. 3 (Source: www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13447271)

To be vey specific - if e.g. fruit tree genetics can craft cultivars that provide solutions
to constraints that were identified, extension knows how to ensure awareness to these
proven cultivars which are locale specific, affordable and available why are they not
the standard? In terms of the paper theme - how can ICT cause Science, Research and
Technology to do better – by getting better results via better solutions - improved and
stakeholder friendly - with innovative ICT supported disciplines (such as
bioinformatics, nanotechnologies, genomics) and their adoption. (Appendix B lists
several points for consideration regarding ICT's contribution in general to this
science, research and technology generation imposition).

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2. Facilitating irrigation
Fig 1 focuses this question further. It defines the water application zone of a tree –
any tree among many in a groove, each with its specific characteristics within the
context of Fig 2b. ICT supported sensors measure, monitor and collate vital tree
statistics and calculate from them the tree's water requirements subject to the
producer's production plan e.g. what size should the fruit be and when the fruit should
mature, what nutrient reserves should be carried over to the next fruition period, etc.
Obviously an optimized match between the tree's genetic potential with an ongoing
optimized supply of water and nutrients, both suited to the climate, soil and
production plan should produce the "best" results. This being the case and state of the
art refining the following issues re ICT's contribution to adoption of innovative
irrigation is helpful:
a. why is this state of the art not universally adopted;
b. what is the contribution of ICT to the attempts by Agricultural Science,
research and technology to provide solutions to the core issues and identified
constraints standardizing and adopting state of the art applications;
c. which available ICT supported irrigation practices could feasibly achieve
development impact through take-up into national systems in economically
and technologically developing countries;
d. how would ICT help facilitate such long-term potential for development
impact when there is a lack of an immediate development pathway?
(For a general overview of these issues see Gelb, Offer 2007).
One model of a regional water program which answers some aspects of these issues
follows.

3. Rationalizing a regional water program

Rationalizing a regional (fruit tree) irrigation program involves close regional
collaboration in assigning fruit tree research priorities. This has to be based on
comprehensive and accurately verified data sets of seasonal water availability
including recycling, water quality and water resourcing options, knowledge gaps in
water utilization and innovative technologies – e.g. nanotechnology, fruit production
plans and demand expectations, collective marketing feasibility evaluations, and
more. A region where these issues are incorporated into the overall fruit growing
considerations is in the Israeli Upper Galilee see Appendix D.
The collaborative regional water program addresses in practical terms the above
issues. These go beyond irrigation and water management technicalities and involve a
focus on the rationalization of inner community (Kibbutz and Moshav) collaboration
and the ongoing collaboration of these communities together. It recognizes that to
succeed ICT research issues biased towards agriculture must incorporate the
contribution of ICT to the social sciences. Specifically they should be geared to
facilitating the inner and inter community relationships and reflecting their interaction
with the agricultural issues involved. Understanding such abstraction and interaction
generalities needs demonstration. It is provided by a current, illustrative and
informative review which relates utilization of innovative nanotechnology to rural
agricultural and social "clean water" program issues in detail See the SciDev Site at
http://www.scidev.net/en/nanotechnology/nanotechnology-for-clean-water.
The review explores the challenges of nanotechnology for clean water with a special
assertion that stakeholder involvement is a prerequisite for success. This supports the

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above ICT research focus – namely that a regional water research program as part of a
comprehensive, long term regional irrigation program must have inherent communal
aspects in order to succeed. Implementation of this water infrastructure program and
its interaction with e.g. fruit tree irrigation research is a major concern of the Upper
Galilee regional agricultural research entity Migal as detailed at www.migal.org.il.

4. Consolidation of a regional Institutional infrastructure

This last theme complements the above issues and concept that Research serving a
community – in this case rural communities engaged in horticulture – must be
integrated with the community needs, priorities and long term aspirations. ICT's
unique contribution in terms of institutional infrastructure would integrate into
research facilities and priorities all aspects of regional water issues and in turn water
management. The base level would be research priorities derived from Fig 1, 2a and
2b state of the art issues. The next step would be their regional aggregation up-scaled
incrementally up to designing and implementation of regional, umbrella planning
functions of management facilities. A point in mind would be the fact that in many
cases this applied agricultural research would be adaptation of "imported" innovations
and empirical evaluation of local field trials and experiments. These in fact commonly
result in contribution of "bottom up" innovations. This fact indicates strong evidence
of ICT's contribution to scientific research and technology generation based on
stakeholder contributions. Such a model intuitively translates into recommending it as
a major agricultural research priority.
The Upper Galilee region is incorporated as an economic unit "Pituach Hagalil" (PH).
It is an umbrella organization that consolidates the regional institutional
infrastructure. In our example PH oversees the two regional water supply companies
that supply water for irrigation and drinking, ensure its quality and efficient use and
Migal which deals directly with applied agricultural research. Research facilities
include two experimental fruit tree farms and a fruit storage laboratory. The regional
water and research infrastructure is backed up by the PH entities which include the
regional financial services company and all the regional agricultural services (a fruit
packing house, fruit processing facilities, product transportation services, marketing
and marketing research, regional planning including employment, demographic
planning, community services and much more). ICT unique contribution of
integrating agricultural science, research and technology generation into the Upper
Galilee infrastructure derives from PH rationalizing all these umbrella functions with
a concerted and continuous focus on stakeholder involvement, feedback and
initiatives. An illustrative example would be the coordination of existing planning,
financing and evaluation of regional fruit tree field trials with feed back to locally
installed Fig 1 and Galcon systems. (Galcon - www.galcon.co.il – is a local factory
producing Fig 1 systems marketed worldwide). The regional research entity Migal,
coordinated with growers, would study the long term impacts – which would be
shared with e.g. Galcon, users of Fig 1. systems, neighboring regions and national
research – in the while providing employment with a venue and opportunities for
young local scientists. This infrastructure is not scale sensitive. It remains valid for an
unlimited up-scaling of all the described functions. The current Israeli example's forte
would be the collaboration of such regional infrastructures to facilitate representation
in national agricultural research priorities, formulation of policies to attain rural
sustainability and more. For example a national policy for a nanotechnology
contribution to enhance the quality of locally recycled water for irrigating fruit trees –
a major crop in an area with a limited supply of fresh water. To repeat - ICT unique

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contribution is stakeholder involvement. The challenge to research is how to make it
relevant and effective.
This configuration is suitable for the Israeli Upper Galilee. Its adapted application
elsewhere could feasibly achieve major development impact through take-up into
other regional or even national systems including economically and technologically
developing countries. Successful adaptation would involve strengthening existing
linkages and partnerships, perhaps social structures, rural community hierarchies,
providing gender and youth opportunities and much more. ICT would play a decisive
role in these adaptation eventualities. Being new and innovative they will present an
urgent challenge for local agricultural science, research and technology generation.
The benefits can reasonably be expected to have long-term potential for sustainable
rural viability. Consideration of what can be perceived as insurmountable adoption
and adaptation problems with a lack of an immediate development pathway would
only be an additional challenge. Successful results are not guaranteed with appendixes
B and C listing potential ICT Adoption dangers and pitfalls.
Discussion
The above fruit tree case study expounds the frontier of Precision Farming as one
component instrumental in consolidation of a region's agricultural infrastructure. It is
only one of an unlimited number of examples suitable to define the potential of ICT to
enhance transforming agricultural science, research and technology generation.
Adopting and adapting the above regional model to other regional, national and
international systems, including those of economically and technologically
developing countries, presents daunting challenges. This paper recommends three
priorities for science, research and technology generation – all with ICT comparative-
advantage involvement:
• Focus on end user/stakeholder needs by including "bottom up" involvement;
• Integrate all agricultural and rural ICT related areas in priority definitions;
• Adaptation of existing innovations and applied agricultural research results is
a potent regional priority.

References
.

Gelb,E., Offer, A., 2007 ICT in Agriculture, Perspectives of Technological

Innovation. http://departments.agri.huji.ac.il/economics/gelb-main.html
Gelb, E., Pollack, D., Spar, A., Reisman, D., Dinoor,A., 1976. Economics of
Information: A Leaf Rust case study. Case Western Tech. Report #375.
Goldschmidt, Lakso, 2007. Fruit Tree models: Scope and limitations.
http://departments.agri.huji.ac.il/economics/gelb-fruit-8.pdf
Prahalad, C.K. 2004. The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty
Through Profits.
Taragula, N., Gelb, E., 2007 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Adoption in Horticulture: A Comparison to the EFITA Baseline
http://departments.agri.huji.ac.il/economics/gelb-hort-14.pdf

Appendix A
The international "Irrigation" market (excluding water)

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Technical irrigation details involve the endless modes of water application practices
and monitoring them, existing and renewable water resources, innovative water
technologies, irrigation's impact on crop development, water and irrigation cost
benefit considerations, environmental and public policy priorities, and many more.
The international market for traditional irrigation equipment is currently estimated to
grow at more than 5% annually whereas the market for innovative equipment is
expected to grow by more than double that. The international market for "water"
equipment is currently estimated at $400 Billion with around 30% of that amount
supplied by the largest 15 international "Water" companies and 55% being supplied
by about 2000 additional smaller companies. A breakdown of the products is 65% for
infrastructure and irrigation products, 25% for water quality treatment and the rest for
R&D mainly focused on water recycling, desalinization, monitoring and ICT. Only
seven countries have till today focused and defined their "water" designated policies
(UK, Holland, Australia, Singapore, France, Denmark and Israel). In addition Sweden
and Japan have established national water information centers.
With the above in mind the current local, regional, national and international "Water"
industry linkages and partnerships reflect this market's potential. The core "water"
needs are well known – mainly the result of the declining "world population/global
food production" ratio, climate deterioration, quality of life expectations for ever
increasing urban societies, expectations for the rural sector's viability and more.
(Source – personal communications)

Appendix B.
Points for consideration while imposing on ICT a role of
transforming agricultural science, research and technology
generation
• Change of expectations – leaps and bounds, new areas – not slow linear,
• There is a new type of scientist with new tools, in new fields of research
• ICT enables efficient Integration and Collaboration counter to players interests
• The time horizon for research, verification of results and their dissemination can
be in "real time" while eliminating intermediaries
• Scientific verification flattens scientific hierarchies, ICT enables circumventing
academic bureaucracy;
• There is a political impact due to a "Loss of individuality"
• Players and stakeholders can be independent of local infrastructure e.g. by
sharing resources with field trials being the source of information;
• There may e a disruptive gap between ICT availability and wide spread
applicability – because of price and infrastructure constraints
• Rationalization of resources – mainly Human Capital and energy may disrupt
vested interests
• Virtual reproducibility e.g. simulation– animal and human characteristics –
inherited and engineered can disrupt hierarchies
• Participation – consumer and producer Tracking and & Traceability interaction
can and will redesign existing production and marketing models.

Appendix C.
ICT adoption dangers and pitfalls

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Appendix C attempts to identify dangers and pitfalls inherent in the adoption of ICT
for agricultural science, research and technology generation. These have been
identified early on in Wheat production by Gelb, et. al., 1976. The lessons indicated
then that adoption of an innovation with a proven benefit does note necessarily elicit
the best results. In fact it can result in an inferior yield result, long term damage, a
smaller profit, lost prestige and more. The following lists some detrimental outcomes
and dangers to be considered in the context of transforming agricultural science,
technology generation and implementation in Agricultural production, decision
making, national policies, impact on rural communities and national agricultural
priorities.
1. Agricultural production
• Ease of use of unsuitable sophisticated methodology – e.g. statistics
• Multiple choice of methodology is a source for problems – misunderstanding
of method and interpretation of results
• Potential spread of unverified data, results, information, "knowledge"
• Easy copying of (good, bad, irrelevant) results
• Easy doctoring up of results on various scales
• Premature publication of results without suitable verification
• Repetition of mistakes in methodology, evaluation and implementation
• Encourages "laziness" – e.g. taking a result and letting ICT do the home work
• Lack of necessary proficiency for looking for the correct data/results,
proficiency of screening accessed data/results, ability to evaluate info and the
reliability of its source
• Kills intuition
• Sidesteps proven beneficial tradition and accumulated experience
2. Decision making
• Ease of use of unsuitable sophisticated methodology – e.g. statistics;
• Spread of unverified data, information "knowledge";
• "Automatic" decision making by (applications, sensors) etc;
• Sharing decision making with "unsuitable" partners – e.g. cooperative
members within marketing arrangements;
3. Rural structure and viability
• Disruption of traditional family hierarchies and responsibilities
• Disruption of traditional communal social fabric - hierarchies and
responsibilities;
• Disruption of communal decision making processes;
• Disruption of traditional agricultural employment patterns;
• Detrimental exposure
4. National priorities
• Wide choice of alternatives to national policies – e.g. national crop priorities
• Alternatives to national environmental priorities
• Different allocation of human capital resources
• Deviation from and disruption of nationally planned supply and demand
priorities
• Unmet economic and social expectations
• Change of traditional business models and loss of national priorities
(globalization)

Appendix D.

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Upper Galilee brief
The Upper Galilee is one of the northern regions of Israel with approximately 155,000
residents living mainly in Kibbutz and Moshav communities, several villages and
small towns. The region is peripheral to Israel's population centres and is
characterized by the highest average age in Israel with only 38% of the population
taking part of the workforce. 9.3% of the regional work force is employed in
agriculture (compared to the 2.1% national average) producing 14% of all Israeli
agricultural production. The region is economically vibrant averaging $35,700 per
capita. The main economic activities are industry, agriculture, tourism, education,
research and services. The region has two academic colleges and a regional
agricultural research entity – "Migal" www.migal.org.il. All three are active in
biotechnology and ICT research.
Migal is closely integrated with the regional agricultural production issues and is
responsive to this sectors needs. More than of a third of its research activities are
focused on applied agricultural research. In addition Migal collaborates closely with
the regional farmer organizations, the extension service, the national agricultural
research programs and a local Technology incubator initiative which is part of the
national R&D efforts. Migal is accredited to award M.Sc. degrees. This in turn helps
to offset the region's "brain drain" to the center of Israel. Regardless the region has a
negative immigration balance. Consequently the region is actively attempting to
attract young, high-educated population. These efforts include the two regional
Academic Colleges (with their 7000 resident students) along with region initiatives
providing employment opportunities in research, services, tourism, industry and
agriculture.
The social infrastructure of the Upper Galilee evolved during the past decades into a
close knit structure. It is formally a regional council (municipality) with an intimate
interaction with the regional economic umbrella organization "Pituach Hagalil".
Together they formulate regional development policies, integrate and synchronize
them with the national policies and implement them. One example is the regional
water infrastructure and its management. It includes development of the regional
water sources (the Jordan river, two brooks, fresh water and hot springs and seasonal
water catchment flows), water facilities, management of water allocation, ongoing
monitoring of water quality, agricultural water research via Migal, financing all these
via the regional services, etc. This same cohesiveness characterizes all economic and
social aspects of the region. It represents the best of a "top down" – "bottom up"
collaboration methodology. In the case of innovative agricultural research, product
development and adoption it suggests an almost fool proof recipe for optimizing a
regions agricultural potential. Recognizing the critical role of ICT in enabling and
supporting this model the region established early on an ICT R&D and services
company – another example of a successful public private partnership supporting
agricultural research and innovation adoption.
The details of the Upper Galilee can be a successful model for sustaining a rural,
agriculture oriented, regions in economically and technologically developing
countries. It is conducive to transforming agricultural science, research and
technology generation and a major contributor to rural community viability. Success
of this model is however conditional on adapting it, in detail, to each region's local
and national specifics, exercising political will and ensuring stakeholder involvement.

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