Geoforum xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geoforum
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geoforum

Ecological corridors? The case of China-Pakistan economic corridor

⁎
Ramsha Munir , Umer Khayyam
Department of Development Studies, School of Social Sciences and Humanities (S3H), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Economic corridors are gaining global attention due to their negative impacts on the environment. The question
CPEC then raised is whether these corridors could ever be considered green initiatives? It is argued here that the multi-
Green development sectoral development projects related to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), despite potentially
Ecological corridors changing the economic portfolio of growth and development for Pakistan, can cause detrimental impacts to
Environment
national ecological health. Our intervention analyses globally executed economic corridors and hints at the
Society
Impacts
possible threats posed by CPEC projects to the ecological environment. Our review proposes the need to be
attentive to mitigation strategies on the global standards to protect the ecosystem, wildlife, habitat and ecology
of Pakistan, if these economic corridors are to be considered green initiatives.

1. Introduction ecosystem.
This reality contrasts with the principal position wherein CPEC
Developmental projects via economic corridors and their environ- projects are planned to benefit the national economy and concurrently
mental impacts have recently invited great global attention and criti- protect the fragile natural environment by eliminating the associated
cism. The debate also emerged out of the complex association between detrimental effects of this economic corridor. However, CPEC projects
anthropogenic activities and environmental health degradation are reportedly causing destruction to the natural environment (land, air
mounting on the vulnerability of Asia’s vast ecosystems. Large-scale and water pollution) at a large scale (Wolf, 2016). These projects are
developmental initiatives under China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), clogging environmental concerns, with potential to cause environ-
for instance, add to these threats. Other projects similar to the BRI, mental degradation beyond human imagination (Jaspal, 2017). The
although they may facilitate connectivity through trade and tourism, CPEC projects already changing atmospheric conditions as a result of
(often) forsake environment and habitat protection. In particular, rise in air temperature which is causing glacier melting (Hallett, 2002;
within BRI, the gigantic developmental projects which have been Change, 2007; Haeberli and Hohmann, 2008). Furthermore, they have
planned and executed under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor also caused an increase in flooding caused by glacier-receding, which
(CPEC) are detrimental to the natural environment of Pakistan. destroys agricultural and water systems (Ashraf, Naz and Iqbal, 2017;
Road buildings and highways in the region are shown to increase Tribune, 2017; Baloch, 2018).
natural resource exploitation and displacements of people and animals Thus, anthropogenic developmental activities under the CPEC po-
and result in immense environmental degradation (Brown et al., 2018, tentially impacts the natural environment and counter calls for the
Chan et al., 2019, Ruwanpura et al., 2020). Thus, it remains pertinent protection of biodiversity. Since biological or ecological corridors, in
to critique and expose the BRI and the threat to natural assets at distinct contrast to economic corridors, conserve meta-populations of different
scales with limited plans to manage the destruction. Pakistan is home to species and provide them with a cost-effective way to reproduce and
significant indigenous biodiversity which contributes to the natural migrate, we explore their value in this short intervention. Wildlife ha-
ecosystem, and these developments compound ecosystem degradation bitats and ecosystems are in danger of ever-rising anthropogenic ac-
(IUCN, 2012). The continuous disturbance due to topographic changes, tivities due to CPEC. The stresses due to CPEC projects can further
which is rising in both intensity and scope, is increasing vulnerability of detriment the biological areas. Human-induced environmental frag-
the ecosystem in the northern areas of Pakistan (Abbas, et al., 2016, mentation and the loss of natural habitats for a range of species is de-
Wahlen, 2019, Gilgit-Baltistan Wildlife Department, 2017; Arshad pendent on specific ecological characteristics (Cushman et al., 2013;
et al., 2013). These changes need to be accounted for in projects around Van der Sluis et al., 2004). Economic corridors, for instance, amplify
economic corridors, through pro-active mitigative measures to protect barriers to free mobility of species, which otherwise constitutes an

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ramsha-munir@hotmail.com (R. Munir).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.06.023
Received 24 January 2020; Received in revised form 26 June 2020; Accepted 27 June 2020
0016-7185/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Ramsha Munir and Umer Khayyam, Geoforum, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.06.023
R. Munir and U. Khayyam Geoforum xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

ecological network and provides spatial cohesion between ‘core areas’ by; Ministry of Climate Change (MOCC-Pak), Environmental Protection
and ‘buffer zones’ (ECNC, 2004). Thus, the disconnect between devel- Department, Department of Forest Environment & Wildlife, Environ-
opment paradigms under the CPEC and green development amplifies mental Protection Agency (EPA-Pak), The World Conservation Union
the vulnerability of ecosystems in Pakistan. (IUCN-Pak), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP-Pak) and
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-Pak) aim to maintain ecosystem’s
2. Global economic corridors and ecological degradation quality. Yet, often their actions are limited to protect the ecosystem and
biodiversity corridors of Pakistan. Therefore, the country is in dire need
The initiation of economic corridors for trade and development of conserving the natural environment by controlling the unpredictable
projected successful cases of energy generation, industrial and infra- and large-scale effects of the CPEC. For this reason, the guiding prin-
structure development. Despite praiseworthy collaboration and co- ciples from global ecological corridors can help to effectively protect
operation among different actors and sectors to contribute towards the biodiversity in Pakistan.
sustainable economic development, the outcomes of these economic
corridors are not without environmental problems. Like the CPEC, the 3. Global biological corridors’ as conservation: lessons for CPEC
Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) economic corridor was planned to
establish a network of transport, energy and telecommunication to The execution of targeted programs, such as Biodiversity
enhance and strengthen trade and logistics intended to access the global Conservation Corridor Initiative (BCI) and Core Environment Program
market (Thi, 2008). In the case of GMS, the three-pronged strategy of (CEP), by Asian Development Bank (ADB) are effective in maintaining
3C’s (i.e., Connectivity, Competitiveness and Community) was fol- environmental quality and its conservation. Yet, to achieve it requires
lowed. The plans were to develop infrastructure, free flow, improve- sustained monitoring and evaluation, private sector partnership for
ment in transport, institutional transformation and human resource execution, deployment of low carbon emitting and polluting freight
development (Banomyong, 2010). As a holistic program, the GMS fleets and promotion of renewable resources (biofuels etc.), as was
corridor stayed as a cost-effective and efficient project to contribute to successfully adopted in GMS. It can help Pakistan to conserve its bio-
economic growth. diversity through resource management and ecosystem restoration by
Without exception, this economic corridor had repercussions in the engaging the private sector. Similarly, schemes, such as the Core
form of environmental degradation. It was detrimental to the ecosystem Environment Program and Biodiversity Conservation Initiative (CEP-
and biodiversity. The loss to biological capital was coupled with soil BCI) planned by other societies for capacity building through coherence
erosion, deforestation, wildlife hunting and trafficking, land segmen- between development and environment (e.g., tourism, climate change,
tation, illegal logging, wildlife destruction, species endangerment and institutional support, integrated spatial and strategic approach) remain
industrial pollution (Thi, 2008). It involved massive infrastructure de- effective in addressing environmental degradation issues (ADB, 2011).
velopment at the cost of parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks. These proposals remain efficacious for green corridor implementa-
Likewise, the social activities pose a negative outcome for the en- tion. Pakistan also has to adopt policies that ensure the safety of human
vironment. Such negative outcomes are linked to lower agricultural settlements and involve the management of hazardous waste, such as
incentive, migration, exploitation of natural resources, air and water safe and sustained agricultural and rural development to strengthen the
pollution. All such pollutants not only pose health issues to the com- role of farmers. There is also a great need to activate trade unions to
munities that are residing along the corridors, but also result in tarn- ensure the transfer of environmentally sound technology. Morever,
ished environment and hinder sustainability. public awareness campaigns and new partnerships that have helped the
Similar concerns can be found elsewhere. For example, the Lamu SADC initiative can help Pakistan to ensure environmental equity along
Port South Sudan Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET), which is an with economic progress (SADC, 1997). Similarly, the development of a
economic and transport initiative based on an oil pipeline from Biological Conservation Complex (B2C2), based on Bhutan’s model, can
Northern Kenya to the coast. This initiative aimed to provide a cross- conserve national parks and wildlife sanctuaries throughout Pakistan
country livestock marketing route for local farmers to stimulate new (MoA, 2004).
agricultural growth in the region. Likewise, the Nacala corridor in Further, the experience of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
Mozambique is intended to faciltate coal transportation along with the (MBC), under which biodiversity sites are being protected along with
flow of capital, commodities and ease of communication for people. socio-economic development (Miller, Chang & Johnson, 2001), may
Frighteningly, these developmental initiatives too caused communities help Pakistan to halt natural resource exploitation and resource pov-
to displace, with fatalities of children and among the elderly population erty. In this regard, World Bank funded projects, such as Nicaragua
occurring. Further, adverse impacts on livestock and overall environ- Atlantic Biological Corridor Project (1997–2005), Honduras Biodi-
mental degradation were also noted (Enns, 2018). versity in Priority Areas Project (1997–2005), Panama Atlantic Me-
The impetus of the broader Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), under soamerican Biological Corridor Project (1998–2005), the Costa Rica
which the CPEC was initiated, is also not free of repercussions. BRI was Eco markets Project (2000–06) and the Mexico Mesoamerican Biolo-
embarked upon to bring about cost-effective trade, transborder com- gical Corridor Project (2000–09) have shown potential in strengthening
munication and technology integration, energy generation and to con- regulations to counteract the damages of developmental activities
nect between special economic zones to facilitate regions for growth (Brown et al., 2014). All of these projects have the potential to serve as
and development (Luft, 2016). This broad-based economic corridor too effective models for Pakistan, as they allow for both industrial expan-
is precipitating a significant number of environmental problems, such sion and biodiversity conservation, based on globally recognized in-
as watershed losses, deforestation, damage to plants, decreased wildlife itiatives of green development projects (Fig. 1). Such ventures poten-
population, disturbed acoustic communication system of birds due to tially reduce the disadvantageous and irrevocable long-term ecological
noise population, lowered groundwater levels and habitat fragmenta- impacts in Pakistan.
tion. Hence, the wave of global economic corridor creation has detri-
mental impacts on existing biological corridors. 4. Conclusion
It is estimated that economic corridors have so-far damaged 32% of
protected areas, threatened 1739 bird species, and that 46 hotspots The mega extended developmental projects under the CPEC are
have overlapped with 265 threatened species. Thus, the concept of declared as the leading source of natural resource depletion, defor-
biodiversity conservation to increase the resilience of the ecosystem estation, habitat fragmentation, coastal and marine ecological dis-
remains indispensable in the global societies (Jongman, Külvik, & turbances, decreased tourism, extinction of species, etc. These ha-
Kristiansen, 2004; Wangchuk, 2007). The national policies and actions zardous impacts of the CPEC projects alter the ecological environment

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Fig. 1. Environmental impacts and mitigation strategies.

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