Module 3.

A Brief History of Language Teaching 2

Integrating Approaches

In the 1980s and 90s, the EFL world slowly moved to a new approach: the
eclectic approach. Self-contained methods with all the answers had been
discredited, and teachers came to realize that they were the best decision
makers of what worked in their classroom. From then on, the eclectic
method has involved taking effective techniques and integrating them into
a personalized approach.

Multiple Intelligences- Based on the work of Howard Gardner, MI refers to

a learner-based philosophy that characterizes human intelligence as
having multiple dimensions that should be acknowledged in education. He
lists linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily/ kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist intelligences.

The Lexical Approach- The lexical approach takes the view that the
building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar,
functions, or notions, but lexis (vocabulary).

Competency Based Language Learning- Competency Based Education

focuses on the outcomes or outputs of learning. It is a kind of performance
based teaching: looking at what learners will be able to do with language,
regardless of how they learned it. Used in ESL contexts (particularly
Australia's Migrant Education Program)
Communicative Language Learning
Goals: to become communicatively able to use the language appropriate
for a given social context; to take responsibility for learning to manage the
process of negotiating meaning with interlocutors.
Communicative language learning is based upon a communicative model
of language and language use, where learners are involved as much as
possible in real communication (information gaps, etc.). The main aim is
communicative competence, the ability to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately. It stresses out the need to teach
communicative competence as opposed to linguistic competence; thus,
functions are emphasised over forms. Students usually work with
authentic materialism small groups on manufacturing provided tasks. The
communicative approach was developed mainly in the context of English
Second Language (ESL) teaching. Historically, it has been seen as a
response to the Audio-Lingual Method and as an extension or
development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. It places great
emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of
contexts and on learning language functions.
Based on counselling and psychology, CLL involves students and teacher
forming a community that works together to figure out the target language.
Teachers need special training in counseling techniques. By
understanding and accepting students’ fears, teachers help students feel
secure and overcome their fears, and thus help them harness positive
energy for learning. The syllabus used is learner- generated, in that
students choose what they want to learn to say in the target language.
The role of the teacher is to act as counsellor, supporting students with
understanding of their struggle of to master language in often threatening
new learning situation. The teaching/ learning process implies six
elements of a non-defensive learning style: security, aggression (students
have opportunities to assert, involve themselves), attention, reflection
(students think about both the language and their experience learning it),
retention, and discrimination (sorting out differences among target
language forms). In terms of interaction both students and teachers make
decisions in the class. A spirit of cooperation is encouraged. The teacher
routinely probes for students’ feelings about learning and shows
understanding, helping them overcome negative feelings. Language is for
communication, a medium of interpersonal sharing and belonging, and
creative thinking. Culture is integrated with language. At first, since
students design syllabus, they determine aspects of language studied;
later on, the teacher may bring in published texts.
Particular grammar, pronunciation points are treated, and particular
vocabulary based on students’ expressed needs. The use of native
language enhances students’ security. Students have conversations in
their native language: target language translations of these become the
text around which subsequent activities resolve. Also, instructions and
sessions for expressing feelings are in native language. Target language
is used progressively. Where students do not share the same native
language, the target language is used from the outset, through
alternatives such as pantomime are also used.
Means for evaluation: no specific means are recommended, but
adherence to principles is urged. Teacher would help students prepare for
any test required by school; integrative tests would be preferred over
discrete point tests: self-evaluations would be encouraged, promoting
students’ awareness of their own progress. Response to students’ errors:
non-threatening style is encouraged: modelling of correct forms.
Nunan's (1991) five features of Communicative Language Teaching are:
☺ an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the
target language,
☺ the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation,
☺ the provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on
language but also on the learning management process,
☺ an enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as
important contributing elements to classroom learning,
☺ an attempt to link classroom language learning with language
activities outside the classroom.

The following interconnected characteristics offered by Brown (2001: 43)

provide a useful overview:
1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical,
discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicative
competence. Goals therefore must intertwine the organizational aspects
of language with the pragmatic.
2. Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the
pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes.
Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather
aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those
purposes.
3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying
communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more
importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged
in language use.
4. Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language,
productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the
classroom. Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills
necessary for communication in those contexts.
5. Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process
through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the
development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.
6. The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide. The teacher’s role
is to facilitate students’ learning by managing classroom activities, setting
up communicative situations. Students are therefore encouraged to
construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others.
Students are communicators, actively engaged in negotiating meaning.

Teaching /learning process: activities are communicative they represent

an information gap that needs to be filled; speakers have a choice of what
to say and how to say if require feedback from the listener that will verify
that a purpose has been achieved. Some of the most frequently classroom
activities used in communicative language teaching are: Role-play,
Interviews, Information Gap, Games, Language Exchanges, Surveys,
Pair Work. Authentic materials are used. Students usually work in small
groups. Teacher initiates interactions between students and sometimes
participates. Students interact a great deal with each other in many
configurations. The emphasis is on developing motivation to learn through
establishing meaningful, purposeful. Individuality is encouraged as well as
co-operation with peers which both contribute to sense of emotional
security with the target language.

Examples of times when a guided discovery lesson may be used include:

the introduction of using a thesaurus, the exploration of a book corner or
computer centre, or preparation for using choice time. This process gives
learners an opportunity to creatively and actively engage with the new tool
or area, ask questions and practise, making appropriate choices with
regard to the focus of the discovery.

A lot of CLT classrooms use a Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP)

model of teaching today. During the presentation stage, the teacher first
‘presents’ the new language, possibly by playing a recorded dialogue or
getting the learners to read a written text. The language items are
introduced in real-life contexts in conformity with some clear criteria:
meaning, form, pronunciation and register. The stage is completed by
Concept Questions to check the meaning conveyed and drilling of the
form. They are neater and more effective than the teacher’s simpler
explaining meaning and they are not to be confounded with
comprehension questions or instruction check. The next stage, practice,
allows learners to ‘practise’ the new language in a controlled pair work
practising similar dialogues. Finally, during the production stage, the
learners ‘produce’ the language in a freer activity that allows them to
communicate, hopefully using the language they have just studied.

The Natural Approach- Similar to Communicative Language Learning, the

Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Kraschen,
who refer to it as a communicative approach. It focuses on the difference
between acquisition (unconscious language uptake) and learning
(conscious language uptake) and attempts to encourage the former.
There are two other major theories involved:
a. The input hypothesis states that we learn best by understanding
language slightly beyond our level.
b. The affective filter hypothesis states that we learn best if relaxed and
comfortable.

Co-operative Language Learning is an approach to teaching that makes

maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of
learners in the classroom. It is designed to foster cooperation, critical
thinking skills, and develop communicative competence.

Content Based Instruction is based around the content or information that

students will acquire. It is primarily used in ESL. People learn language
more successfully when they use it as a means of acquiring information
rather than as an end in itself. CBI better reflects learners' needs for
learning a second language.

Task Based Language Learning reflects the processes that students

attempt rather than the content or outcomes. It is strongly linked to
Communicative Language Learning. TBL focuses on the process of
communicating by setting learners tasks to complete using the target
language. It is claimed that during this process the learners acquire
language as they try to express themselves and understand others. The
tasks can range from information gap to problem solving ones. The
advantage is that learners are given the opportunity to use the full range
of skills and language they have at the same time, rather than in discrete
units, which is the case with the CLT model. A typical task sequence may
include pre-tasks, tasks-proper and post-tasks. Pre-tasks are activities
which prepare learners to complete a task, for example, by guiding
learners through an example of the task they will have to do. There can
be several pre-tasks in one lesson. Tasks-proper form the main body of
the lesson and can involve a number of steps: learners working in pairs or
groups may first complete the task, then prepare and finally present a
report to the class.
Post-tasks move away from the activities designed to promote fluency to
those designed to promote accuracy. An example of a task might be to
plan a journey by coach. The class is divided in groups and each learner
in the group has information which the rest of the group of the learners
need: departure and arrival times, routes, stops, ticket prices, etc. By
sharing this information the group can successfully plan the trip and in
doing so consolidate and extend their language ability. This method is not
a perfect one, as what language the learners acquire depends on how the
task is performed. It is difficult to state what language will be learnt, as the
learners may avoid learning or using new language and make do with the
language they already have. On the other hand, from the point of view of
the learners, they may feel they are not ‘learning’ or ‘being taught’, as
there is no formal input or practice stage. Moreover, some learners feel
that interacting with L2 speakers rather than the teacher is a waste of time,
as with CLT.

Recent Developments

Recent developments, especially in technology, hint at revolutions to

come in the world of EFL, but it seems likely that any innovations would
be integrated into current theoretical frameworks rather than embraced as
replacements. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) - One of
the newest areas in EFL recently, CALL has been further enhanced in the
spread of broadband internet and online class management technologies.
It seems likely that computers will continue to play increasingly important
roles in language learning, whether through advances in language
learning software or by facilitating the development of virtual classrooms.
Corpus Linguistics- Corpus linguistics uses computers to analyze huge
databases of language (corpora) and determine word frequencies and
usages. It has been used to make a new generation of dictionaries and is
set to revolutionize how we think about language. Machine Translation-
Not so much teaching, but rapid advances in machine translation could
conceivably eliminate the need to learn foreign languages at some point
in the future!
 According to Mitchell and Myles (2004: 261) “there can be ‘no one best
method’…which applies at all times and in all situations, with every type
of learner”, we recognise that the diversity of contexts requires an
informed, eclectic approach. Furthermore, Nunan states: “It has been
realized that there never was and probably never will be a method for all,
and the focus in recent years has been on the development of classroom
tasks and activities which are consonant with what we know about second
language acquisition, and which are also in keeping with the dynamics of
the classroom itself” (Nunan 1991: 228).
Every teacher develops his own method over a period of time, trying out
different techniques, adapting those that suit not only him/her, but also the
subject matter he/she is dealing with, according to what and to whom is
being taught. To sum up, we are at the point where the emphasis is on
both teachers and learners making their own choices about how to teach
and learn.
Glossary of ELT terms

Approach- formally: a general idea or theory which is being applied;

informally: meaning something closer to method, e.g. A teacher should
vary his approach when teaching different types of class (this does not
mean that the teacher should change his theoretical beliefs for each type
of lesson). An approach describes how language is used and how its
constituent parts interlock, in other words it offers a model of language
competence. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge
of the language and makes statements about the conditions which will
promote successful language learning (Richards and Rodgers 1985:16).
Technique- one, single procedure used in class.
Method- a set of procedures or a collection of techniques, probably
arranged in a specific order and used in a systematic way which it is hoped
will result in efficient learning. A method is the practical realisation of an
approach.
Procedure- a procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques. For
example, a popular dictation procedure starts when students are put in
small groups. Each group then sends one representative to the front of
the class to read (and remember) the first line of a poem which has been
placed on a desk there. Each student then goes back to their respective
group and dictates that line. Each group then sends a second student up
to read the second line. The procedure continues until one group has
written the whole poem. A procedure is a sequence which can be
described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that.... Smaller
than a method, it is bigger than a technique.
Technique- a common technique when using video material is called
'silent viewing'. This is where the teacher plays the video with no sound.
The 'finger technique' is used by some teachers who hold up their hands
and give each of their five fingers a word, e.g. He is not playing tennis,
and then by bringing the is and the not fingers together, show how the
verb is contracted into isn't.
To model - used to describe typical procedures or sets of procedures,
usually for teachers in training.
Drill- an activity where the teacher provides prompts and the learners
would produce a sentence using the appropriate grammatical structure.
Realia- real objects, examples of the world outside brought into the
classroom.
Target Language- the language being taught.
Guided discovery- an approach where the teacher or the materials writer
intervenes in the induction process. Teachers use it in order to introduce
new materials, explore centres or areas of the classroom, and prepare
learners for various aspects of the curriculum.

References
Anthony, Edward M. 1963. “Approach, method and technique.” English Language Teaching 17: 63-57
Brown, H. Douglas 2001 Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy
Longman/ Pearson Education, White Plains, New York.
Ben Shearon Chief ALT Advisor Miyagi Board of Education, TEFL, Teaching Theories and Approaches
Coltrane, Bronwyn & Morrison, Sally (2002). TESOL Certification: What Are The Options? Retrieved
February 2005, from the Center for Applied Linguistics web site:
http://www.cal.org/resources/langlink/nov02feature.html
Harmer, J., The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, London, 1991.
Hubbard, P., Jones, H.- A Training course for TEFL, OUP, 1994.
Larsen-Freeman,D. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching , OUP, 2011.
Nunan, D. 1991 Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers New York: Prentice-Hall.
Quist, G., 2000 “Language Teaching at University: A Clash of Cultures.” Language and Education 14.2:
123-139.
Prator, C.H. and Celce-Murcia, M. 1979. An outline of language teaching approaches. In Celce-Murcia,
M. and McIntosh, L. (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. New York: Newbury
House.
Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S. 1985. “Method: Approach, design and procedure”,
Chapter 2 in Richards, Jack C. The Context of Language Teaching Cambridge University Press.
Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://www.tefl.net/teacher-training/qualifications.htm
http://www.cambridgeesol.org/teaching/celta.htm