Chapter 5 and 6 (PaPoT)

Certificate in Accounting and Finance
CHAPTER
Principles of Taxation
Income from business – part one
Contents
1 Income from business
2 Method of accounting
3 Deductions against business income
4 Chapter review
© Emile Woolf International 119 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Principles of taxation
INTRODUCTION
Learning outcomes
The overall objective of the syllabus is to provide basic knowledge in the understanding of
objectives of taxation and core areas of Income Tax Ordinance, 2001, Income Tax Rules
2002 and Sales Tax Act 1990 and Sales Tax Rules.
Concepts
LO 4.1.2 Describe other definitions covered under relevant sections
LO 4.1.3 Apply definitions on simple scenarios
LO 4.2.1 Explain the chargeability of tax with simple examples
LO 4.3.1 Compute taxable income and tax thereon relating to salary, income from
property, income from business, capital gain, dividend, profit on debt, ground
rent, rent from sub-lease, income from provision of amenities, utilities or any
other services connected with rented building and consideration for vacating
the possession of building
LO 4.13.1 Apply rules relevant to learning outcomes specified against each topic on well
explained scenarios.
LO 4.14.1 Apply clauses relevant to learning outcomes specified against each topic on
well explained scenarios.

Chapter 7: Income from business – part one
1 INCOME FROM BUSINESS
Section overview
 Income from business

 Important aspects of income from business
 Speculation business
1.1 Income from business
Definitions “Business” [Sec 2(9)]

includes any trade, commerce, manufacture, profession, vocation or adventure or
concern in the nature of trade, commerce, manufacture, profession or vocation,
but does not include employment;
Section 18 of the Income Tax Ordinance, 2001 outlines the scope of income
under this head in the following manner:
Income from business
The following incomes of a person for a tax year shall be chargeable to tax under
the head “Income from Business”:
 The profits and gains of any business carried on by a person at any time in the
year;
 Any income derived by any trade, professional or similar association from the
sale of goods or provision of services to its members;
 Any income from the hire or lease of tangible movable property;
 The fair market value of any benefit or perquisite, whether convertible into
money or not, derived by a person in the course of, or by virtue of, a past,
present, or prospective business relationship. The word benefit includes any
benefit derived by way of waiver of profit on debt or the debt itself under
circular/scheme issued by the State Bank of Pakistan.
 Any management fee derived by a management company (including a
modaraba management company).
 Profit on debt where the person’s business is to derive such income (e.g.
banks and financial institutions). In other cases it will be chargeable to tax
under the head “Income from other sources”)
 Lease rentals derived by a scheduled bank, investment bank, development
finance institution, modaraba or a leasing company.
 Any amount distributed by a mutual fund or a private equity and venture
capital fund, out of its income from profit on debt, to a banking company or a
non-banking finance company shall be chargeable to tax under the head
income from business and not under the head income from other source.
1.2 Important aspects of income from business

General principles relating to taxation of business income are summarized below:
 A resident person is taxed on his worldwide business income whereas a non-
resident liable to tax in respect of his income to the extent it is Pakistan-
sourced.

 Income may be recorded using the cash or accrual basis of accounting.

Companies are, however, required to follow the accrual system of accounting
for its business income.
 Expenditure incurred wholly and exclusively for the purpose of business is
generally allowable in tax except for certain specific provisions of law which
are discussed later in the chapter.
 The profits which are taxed under section 18 are the real profits and not
notional profits. Therefore, gain arising from revaluation / impairment of fixed
assets / investments or unrealized gain or loss arising from revaluation of
foreign currency related debtors and creditors is not taxable as these are not
real profits and can only be taxed when these are actually realised.
 Profits can arise only out of the trading (revenue) receipts. Capital receipts are
not taxable unless expressly made taxable under the Income Tax Ordinance,
2001.
 Those profits and gains of a business are chargeable to tax which are carried
on by the taxpayer at any time during the tax year. However following receipts
are taxable even if the taxpayer does not carry on business during the tax
year:
 Recovery in cash or kind against a deduction/loss allowed previously
against business income [section 70]
 Gain on sale of depreciable assets [Section 22(8)]
 Recovery of bad debts allowed in preceding years [Section 29(3)]
 Trading liabilities or any portion thereof which is found not to have been
paid within the expiration of three years of the end of the tax year in which
it was allowed [Section 34(5)]
 Sum received after discontinuance of a business [Section 72(a) & (b)]
1.3 Speculation business

Speculation business is defined in section 19(2) of the Ordinance in the following
manner:
 Speculation business” means any business in which a contract for the
purchase and sale of any commodity (including stocks and shares) is
periodically or ultimately settled otherwise than by the actual delivery or
transfer of the commodity, but does not include a business in which:
 a contract in respect of raw materials or merchandise is entered into
by a person in the course of a manufacturing or mercantile business
to guard against loss through future price fluctuations for the purpose
of fulfilling the person’s other contracts for the actual delivery of the
goods to be manufactured or merchandise to be sold;
 a contract in respect of stocks and shares is entered into by a dealer
or investor therein to guard against loss in the person’s holding of
stocks and shares through price fluctuations; or
 a contract is entered into by a member of a forward market or stock
exchange in the course of any transaction in the nature of jobbing
(arbitrage) to guard against any loss which may arise in the ordinary
course of the person’s business as such member.

Tax implications for speculation business

Where a person carries on a speculation business:
 that business shall be treated as distinct and separate from any other
business carried on by the person;
 this part shall apply separately to the speculation business and the other
business of the person;
 section 67- Apportionment of deductions shall apply as if the profits and

gains arising from a speculation business were a separate head of income;
 any profits and gains arising from the speculation business for a tax year
computed in accordance with this part shall be included in the person`s
income chargeable to tax under the heading “Income from Business”
 any loss of the person arising from the speculation business sustained
for a tax year shall be set off only against the income of the person from
any other speculation business of the person chargeable to tax for that
year;
 If a speculation loss sustained by a person for a tax year is not wholly set
off, then the amount of the loss not set off shall be carried forward to the
following tax year and applied against the income of any speculation
business of the person in that year and so on, but no speculation loss shall
be carried forward to more than six tax years immediately succeeding the
tax year for which the loss was first computed.
Exercise: Speculation Business

M/s XYZ Enterprises deals in cloth trading. Total revenue from cloth trading was
Rs. 10,000,000 during the year 20YY. The gross profit from the trading business
was amounting to Rs. 2,000,000. During the year, the price fluctuations were
very high in cloth market. Considering this trend, M/s XYZ Enterprises also made
forward purchasing of cloth to reap the benefit of price fluctuations. In April
20YY, The enterprises agreed to purchase Bengali cloth of 20,000 bundles at the
rate of 100 per bundle, the delivery of which was expected in June 20YY. The
seller agreed to purchase the same goods at the rate ruling at the date of sale.
In June the price of Bengali cloth has been increased to Rs. 120 per bundle. M/s
XYZ Enterprises disposed of that cloth of 20,000 bundles to the seller at the
market prevailing rate without taking any delivery of stocks, Total revenue from
sale of cloth aggregates to Rs. 2,400,000, Therefore, the Enterprise earned
income of Rs. 400,000. Total administrative and general expenses of Rs.
1,000,000 were incurred during the year 20YY. Compute the taxable income and
tax liability. It is worth mentioning that carry forward loss of the Enterprise was
Rs. 1,000,000 in respect of business. Whereas speculation loss was Rs.
250,000.

Answer
Particulars Speculation Trading Total

Business Business
Gross Revenue 2,400,000 10,000,000 12,400,000
Gross Profit 400,000 2,000,000 2,400,000
Expenditure
(1,000,000 x 193,548 806,452 1,000,000
2,400,000/12,400,000)
Net income 206,452 1,193,548 1,400,000
Carry forward loss 250,000 1,000,000 1,250,000
Taxable Income / (loss) for the

*(43,548) 193,548
year
*Speculation loss carried forward

** Loss of speculation business cannot be set off with trading business.
(Discussed in detail in chapter 11 of Study Text)

2 DEDUCTIONS AGAINST BUSINESS INCOME
Section overview
 Deductions admissible – general provisions

 Inadmissible deductions
 Deductions admissible – special provisions
2.1 Deductions admissible

It is the collection of the share of individual and organizational income by a
Section 20 of the Ordinance prescribes general principles with respect to
admissibility of deductions the said section states that:
 A deduction shall be allowed for any expenditure incurred by the person in
the year wholly and exclusively for the purposes of business.
 Deduction equal to the difference of the amount of actual cost of animals
used for the purposes of business or profession (otherwise than as stock in
trade) and the amount realized in respect of carcasses or animals shall be
allowed where the animals have died or become permanently useless for
such purposes.
2.2 Inadmissible Deductions

Section 21 of the Ordinance provides that no deduction shall be allowed in
computing the income of a person under the head “Income from Business” for:
 Any cess, rate or tax paid or payable by the person in Pakistan or a foreign
country that is levied on the profits or gains of the business or assessed as
a percentage or otherwise on the basis of such profits or gains;
Note: In case where sales tax/federal excise duty paid by a taxpayer is not
charged by him to his customer, such sales tax/federal excise duty paid
shall be allowed as deduction.
 Any amount of tax deducted at source under the provisions of the Income
Tax Ordinance, 2001 from an amount derived by the person;
 Any sum paid on account of salary, rent, brokerage or commission, profit

on debt, payment to non-resident, payment for services or fee paid by the
person from which the person is required to deduct tax, unless the person
has paid or deducted and paid the tax.
 any entertainment expenditure in excess of such limits or in violation of

such conditions as may be prescribed;

Limits prescribed for allowing any expenditure on entertainment are as

under (Rule 10).
Expenditure should be incurred in deriving income from business chargeable
to tax and should not be in excess of following limits or in violation of
condition specified:
(a) Such expenditure is:
(i) Incurred outside Pakistan on entertainment in connection with
business transactions: or
(ii) Allocated as head office expenditure; or
(b) Incurred in Pakistan on the entertainment of foreign customers &
suppliers;
(c) Incurred on the entertainment of customer & clients at the person’s
business premises
(d) Incurred on the entertainment at the meeting of shareholders, agents,
directors or employees
(e) Incurred on entertainment at the opening of branches.
Note: All these people (who are entertained) should be related directly to the
person’s business.
 Any contribution made by the person to a fund that is not a recognized

provident fund, approved superannuation fund, or approved gratuity fund or
approved pension fund;
 Any contribution made by the person to any provident or other fund
established for the benefit of employees of the person, unless the person
has made effective arrangements to secure that tax is deducted under
section 149 from any payments made by the fund in respect of which the
recipient is chargeable to tax under the head "Salary";
 Any fine or penalty paid or payable by the person for the violation of any
law, rule or regulation;
 Any personal expenditures incurred by the person;
 Any amount carried to a reserve fund or capitalised in any way;
 Any profit on debt, brokerage, commission, salary or other remuneration
paid by an association of persons to a member of the association;
 any salary paid or payable exceeding fifteen thousand rupees per month
other than by a crossed cheque or direct transfer of funds to the
employee’s bank account;
 Any expenditure paid or payable of a capital nature. However, depreciation
or amortization shall be allowed in respect of a depreciable asset,
intangible or pre-commencement expenditure; and
 Any expenditure for a transaction, paid or payable under a single account
head which, in aggregate, exceeds fifty thousand rupees, made other than
by a crossed cheque drawn on a bank or by crossed bank draft or crossed
pay order or any other crossed banking instrument showing transfer of
amount from the business bank account of the taxpayer:
However, online transfer of payment from the business account of the
payer to the business account of payee as well as payments through credit
card shall be treated as transactions through the banking channel, subject
to the condition that such transactions are verifiable from the bank
statements of the respective payer and the payee:

It is important to note that the above provisions shall not apply in the case of:
 expenditures not exceeding ten thousand rupees;
 expenditures on account of:
 utility bills;
 freight charges;
 travel fare;
 postage; and
 payment of taxes, duties, fee, fines or any other statutory
obligation;
Exercise:
Following payments of expenses are made otherwise than through crossed
cheque.
Head Of Account Amount
Rent Paid To Mr. X for Lahore office rented premises 120,000
Air Tickets purchased 220,000
Payment of salary of Mr Ali one month only 125,000
Bill paid for repair of car 120,000
Electricity bill paid 150,000
Telephone bill paid 140,000
Paid professional tax 200,000
Paid audit fee 350,000
Paid to tax consultant 150,000
Compute the addition under Section 21(l) of the Income Tax Ordinance, 2001
No addition is required on account of payments relating to Air Ticketing,
Electricity, Telephone and Professional Tax. The balance addition under section
21(l) is computed as under:
Nature of payment Amount
Rent paid to Mr. X for Lahore office rented premises 120,000
Payment of Salary to Mr. Ali 125,000
Bill paid for repair of car 120,000
Paid audit fee 350,000
Paid tax consultant 150,000
Addition under Section 21(l) 865,000
2.3 Deductions - Special provisions

 Depreciation of tangible fixed assets where they have a useful life of more
than 1 year.
 Initial allowance on eligible depreciable assets.
 Amortization of intangibles where they have a useful life of more than 1
year.
 Pre-commencement expenditure at the rate of 20% on straight line basis

 Expenditure incurred by an amalgamated company on legal and financial

advisory services and other administrative cost relating to planning and
implementation of amalgamation.
 Scientific research expenditures
 Employee training facilities expenditure
 Profit on debt if related to taxable business income
 Entertainment expenditures in the limits as prescribed
 Bad debts written off in the accounts subject to fulfilment of certain
conditions
Deductions in respect of depreciation, initial allowance, amortization and, pre-
commencement expenditures are discussed in detail in chapter 8 of the study
text whereas deductions on account of scientific research expenditure, employee
training, profit on debt and bad debts are discussed below:.
Scientific research expenditure (Sec-26)

 A person shall be allowed a deduction for scientific research expenditure
incurred in Pakistan in a tax year wholly and exclusively for the purpose of
deriving income from business chargeable to tax.
Definitions
 “Scientific research” means any activity undertaken in Pakistan in the
fields of natural or applied science for the development of human
knowledge;
 “Scientific research expenditure” means any expenditure incurred by a
person on scientific research undertaken in Pakistan for the purposes of
developing the person’s business, including any contribution to a scientific
research institution to undertake scientific research for the purposes of the
person’s business, other than expenditure incurred:
 in the acquisition of any depreciable asset or intangible;
 in the acquisition of immovable property; or
 for the purpose of ascertaining the existence, location, extent or
quality of a natural deposit; and
 “Scientific research institution” means any institution certified by the
Board as conducting scientific research in Pakistan.
Employee training and facilities (Sec-27).

 A person shall be allowed a deduction for any expenditure (other than
capital expenditure) incurred in a tax year in respect of:
 any educational institution or hospital in Pakistan established for the
benefit of the person’s employees and their dependents;
 any institute in Pakistan established for the training of industrial workers
recognized, aided, or run by the Federal Government or a Provincial
Government or a Local Government ; or
 The training of any person, being a citizen of Pakistan, in connection
with a scheme approved by the Board for the purposes of this section.

Profit on debt, financial costs and lease payments (Sec-28)

 Following amounts incurred in a tax year shall be allowed as deduction in
computing income under the head Income from Business:
 Profit on debt if and to the extent the proceeds of debt are utilized for
business purpose.
 Lease rentals of an asset to a scheduled bank, financial institution, an
approved modaraba or leasing company or a Special Purpose Vehicle
(SPV) on behalf of the Originator.
 Financial cost of securitization of receivables by an originator in respect
of SPV
 Share of profit under musharika scheme to a bank
 Share of profit to a certificate holder under a musharika scheme
approved by SECP and Religious Board under Modaraba Ordinance
 On funds borrowed from a modaraba or participation term certificate
holders
 By a bank to a person maintaining PLS account or a deposit with the
bank
 SBP‟s share of profit by House Building Finance Corporation, National
Development Leasing Corporation or Small and Medium Enterprises
Bank on any investment or credit line provided by the SBP.
Exercise:
XYZ Limited engaged in the business of manufacturing and sale of chemicals has
incurred the following expenditures for tax year 2016:
( i) Rs. 150,000 given as a scholarship to Mr. Sameel, a citizen of Pakistan, for
his technical training in connection with a scheme approved by the Federal
Board of Revenue under the relevant provision of the law. Mr. Sameel is
not an employee of XYZ Ltd.
( ii) Maintenance of XYZ’s shares records has been outsourced. The total
expenditure incurred was Rs. 400,000, including the fee paid of Rs.
245,000 to increase the company’s authorized capital.
(iii) Contribution of Rs. 200,000 to unrecognized provident fund. XYZ Ltd, in its
accounting system, has ensured that when any payment is made from the
fund to an employee, tax would be deducted at source from the amount of
the payment, if the amount is chargeable to tax as the salary income of
the employee.
(iv) Rs. 50,000 paid as motor vehicle tax on the company’s vehicles.
(v) Rs. 500,000 paid for the valuation of the assets of another company which
XYZ Ltd intended to acquire.
(vi) Rs. 45,000 paid as a penalty imposed by the Commissioner for late filing
of the annual return of income for the tax year 2016.
(vii) New computer purchased for Rs. 300,000 on 20 June 2016 for which
installation could not be made until 15 July 2016.
(viii) Compulsory annual fee of Rs. 200,000 paid in cash, to the Engineering
Development Board established by the Federal Government.
(ix) Donation in kind to a relief fund runs by the Government of Sindh.
( x) Rs. 1,530,000 out of travelling expenses, being the travel and hotel
expenses for XYZ’s technical manager’s visit to Japan. The travel to Japan
was entirely for business purposes. It was necessary for the firm’s
technical manager to travel to Japan for the purpose of selecting a second-
hand mixing machine, so as to ensure that the machine was compatible
with the company’s existing plant.

( x i) Cash flow statement shows that an amount of Rs. 2 million has been paid
as legal and professional charges to one of the company consultants. The
said amount was overdue since tax year 2009. XYZ Ltd has claimed this
amount as an expense in tax year 2016 also.
( x ii) XYZ Limited entered into a forward contract for the purchase of raw
materials used in its business of manufacturing edible oils to guard
against loss through price fluctuations. On the date of maturity of the
forward contract, XYZ Ltd did not take delivery of the raw materials but the
contract was settled by a payment of Rs. 950,000.
Required
Being tax consultant of the company you are required to explain the
admissibility/inadmissibility of the above along with reason keeping in view the
provisions of the Income Tax Ordinance, 2001
Answer
( i) Since the scholarship has been granted to a Pakistani citizen for his
technical training under a scheme approved by the Federal Board of
Revenue, the expenditure is admissible. The beneficiary of the scholarship
does not need to be an employee of the taxpayer. [S.27(c)]
( ii) The total amount of expenditure being of revenue in nature is admissible.
( iii) A contribution to a recognized provident fund is an allowable deduction. A
contribution made to an unrecognized provident fund is not deductible:
u/s 21(e) of the ITO, 2001 although admissible expenses u/s 21(f) as the
employer has made effective arrangements to ensure that tax would be
deducted from any payments made by the fund in respect of which the
recipient is chargeable to tax under the head ‘Salary’
(iv) Motor vehicle tax is for the purposes of business and revenue in nature.
Further, it does not fall in the list of inadmissible deductions. [S.20(1) read
with S.21(a)]
(v) Expenses incurred at Rs. 500,000 relate to the acquisition of another
company. The expense, therefore, being capital in nature, is disallowed.
[S.21(n)]
(vi) A penalty of Rs. 45,000 paid for the late filing of a return of income is an
inadmissible expense on either of the following two grounds:
(a) A penalty for the late filing of a return of income is included in tax
as defined in the Income Tax Ordinance, 2001 (the ‘Ordinance’).
Tax is an inadmissible deduction under the law. [S.21(a)]
(b) It was imposed for violation of the provisions of the Ordinance,
hence not admissible. [S.21(g)]
(vii) A computer costing Rs. 300,000 was not put to use during the year ended
30 June 2014 hence is not entitled to any Depreciation / initial allowance.
(viii) Any expenditure, in aggregate, under a single accounting heading in
excess of Rs. 50,000 other than by crossed bank cheque or crossed bank
draft or any other banking instrument is not deductible with certain
exceptions. One of the exceptions is any fee expenditure. Hence, the Rs.
200,000 paid, in cash, to the Engineering Development Board established
by the Federal Government is allowable and no adjustment is required.
[2nd proviso to S.21(l)]

( ix ) A donation in kind to a relief fund run by the Government of Sindh is not

for the purpose of business, hence not allowable as expenditure. However,
it is eligible for tax credit under the law. [S.20(1) & 61]
(x) The expenditure of Rs. 1,530,000 incurred solely to secure the purchase
of a mixing machine, is capital expenditure and is not deductible. Rs.
1,530,000 should be added to the cost of the mixing machine for tax
purposes.
( x i) Where a person has been allowed a deduction for any expenditure
incurred in deriving income chargeable to tax under the head Income from
Business and the person has not paid the liability or a part of the liability
to which the deduction relates within three years from the end of the tax
year in which the deduction was allowed, the unpaid amount of the
liability shall become chargeable to tax under the head Income from
Business in the first tax year following the end of those three years.
However, if the person subsequently pays the liability or a part of the
liability, the person shall be allowed a deduction for the amount paid in
the tax year in which the payment is made. [Ref: S 34(5) and 34(6)]
a. Therefore, amount will be added back to the taxable income of the
taxpayer in tax year 2013, whereas it will be again allowed as an
expense in tax year 2016.
( x ii) The forward contract entered into by XYZ Ltd for the purchase of raw
materials used in its business of manufacturing edible oils is in the
nature of a hedging contract which was entered into to guard against
loss from future price fluctuations. Such contracts have specifically
been excluded from the definition of speculative business [s.19(2)].
Therefore, the Rs. 950,000 paid to settle the forward contract is an
expenditure incurred in the normal course of business and is a
deductible expenditure
Bad debts (Sec-29)
 A person shall be allowed a deduction for a bad debt in a tax year if the
following conditions are satisfied, namely:
 The amount of the debt was:
 previously included in the person’s income from business

chargeable to tax; or
 in respect of money lent by a financial institution in deriving

income from business chargeable to tax;
 the debt or part of the debt is written off in the accounts of the person in
the tax year; and
 There are reasonable grounds for believing that the debt is
irrecoverable.
 The amount of the deduction allowed to a person for a tax year shall not
exceed the amount of the debt written off in the accounts of the person in
the tax year.

 Where a deduction is allowed in a tax year for a bad debt written off and in
a subsequent tax year the person receives in cash or kind any amount in
respect of that debt, a computation shall be made as under:
a- b
Here
(a) is amount received against the written off debt; and
(b) is the difference between whole amount of bad debt and bad debt
allowed as a deduction under Income Tax Ordinance, 2001.
If (a) is greater than (b), the difference shall be treated as income of the
person. In other case, where (a) is less than (b) the difference shall be
treated as bad debts for the year in which the amount is received.
Exercise:
Ms. Shagufta is running a business in the name of Al Nafay Business Solutions. In
the tax year 2015, she claimed bad debts of Rs. 1,000,000 and Rs. 1,500,000
from its clients Mr. Junaid and Mr. Nawaz. She was allowed deduction of bad
debts of Rs. 750,000 and Rs. 800,000 with respect of receivable from Mr. Junaid
and Mr. Nawaz in Tax year 2015. During 2016, she received following sums from
these two debtors:
Mr. Junaid Rs. 900,000
Mr. Nawaz Rs. 500,000
Work out the amount to be added/allowed on account of bad debts in the tax
year 2016
Solution
Mr. Junaid
Amount Received Rs. 900,000
Less:
Difference between:
Actual Bad debts Rs. 1,000,000
Less: Bad Debts Actually allowed as
Deduction Rs. 750,000
Rs. 250,000
Excess income to be added in the income for the tax year 2016 Rs. 650,000
MR. Nawaz
Mr. Junaid
Amount Received Rs. 500,000
Less:
Difference between:
Actual Bad debts Rs. 1,500,000
Less: Bad Debts previously allowed as
Deduction Rs. 800,000
Rs. 700 000
Less amount received will be allowed deduction
for the tax year 2016 (Rs. 200,000)

3 TAX ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 General accounting
 Method of accounting
 Cash basis accounting
 Accrual basis accounting
 Stock in trade
 Long term contract
3.1 General accounting

The question arises how to compute the income under this head of income.
Therefore, it is essential to know the method of accounting required by the law in
order to ascertain the actual income of a taxpayer:
3.2 Method of accounting

 A person’s income chargeable to tax shall be computed in accordance with
the method of accounting regularly employed by such person.
 A company shall account for income chargeable to tax under the head
“Income from Business” on an accrual basis, while other persons may account
for such income on cash or accrual basis.
 The Board may prescribe that any class of persons shall account for income
chargeable to tax under the head “Income from Business” on a cash or
accrual basis.
 An application may be made by a person, in writing, for a change in the
person’s method of accounting to the Commissioner. The Commissioner may
by an order, in writing approve such an application but only if he is satisfied
that the change is necessary to clearly reflect the person’s income chargeable
under the head “Income from Business”.
 If a person’s method of accounting has changed, the person shall make
adjustments to items of income, deduction, or credit or to any other items
affected by the change so that no item is omitted and no item is taken into
account more than once.
3.3 Cash Basis Accounting (Sec-33)

A person accounting for income chargeable to tax under the head “Income from
Business” on a cash basis shall derive income when it is received and shall incur
expenditure when it is paid.
3.4 Accrual Basis Accounting (Sec-34)

 A person accounting for income chargeable to tax under the head “Income
from Business” on an accrual basis shall derive income when it is due to
the person and shall incur expenditure when it is payable by the person.
 An amount shall become due to the person when the person becomes
entitled to receive it or is liable to pay it even if the time for receipt /
payment is postponed or the amount is payable by instalments.

 An amount shall become payable by a person when all the events, that
determine liability, have occurred and the amount of the liability can be
determined with reasonable accuracy.
 If the liability or a part of the liability for which the deduction claimed is not
paid within three years from the end of the tax year in which the deduction
was allowed, the unpaid amount of the liability shall be chargeable to tax
under the head “Income from Business” in the first tax year following the
end of the three years.
 If an unpaid liability which is charged to tax as above is subsequently paid
in full or in part, the person shall be allowed a deduction for the amount
paid in the tax year in which the payment is made.
 Where a person has been allowed a deduction in respect of a trading
liability and such person has derived any benefit in respect of such trading
liability, the value of such benefit shall be chargeable to tax under head
“Income from Business” for the tax year in which such benefit is received.
3.5 Valuation of stock in trade (Sec 35)

 The cost of stock-in-trade disposed of by the person in the year shall be
computed in accordance with the following formula, namely:
(A + B) – C
Where:
A is the opening value of the person’s stock-in-trade for the year;
B is cost of stock-in-trade acquired by the person in the year; and
C is the closing value of stock-in-trade for the year.
 The opening value of stock-in-trade of a person for a tax year shall be:
(i) the closing value of the person’s stock-in-trade at the end of the
previous year; or
(ii) Where the person commenced to carry on business in the year, the fair
market value of any stock-in-trade acquired by the person prior to the
commencement of the business. This fair market value shall be
determined at the time the stock is ventured in the business.
 The closing value of a person’s stock-in-trade for a tax year shall be the
lower of cost or net realisable value of the person’s stock-in-trade on hand
at the end of the year.
 A person accounting for income chargeable to tax under the head “Income
from Business” on a cash basis may compute the person’s cost of stock-in-
trade on the prime-cost method or absorption-cost method, and a person
accounting for such income on an accrual basis shall compute the person’s
cost of stock-in-trade on the absorption-cost method.
 Where particular items of stock-in-trade are not readily identifiable, a
person may account for that stock on the first-in-first-out method or the
average-cost method but, once chosen, a stock valuation method may be
changed only with the written permission of the Commissioner and in
accordance with any conditions that the Commissioner may impose.

In this section:
Definitions
 “Absorption-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting
principle under which the cost of an item of stock-in-trade is the sum of
direct material costs, direct labour costs, and factory overhead costs;
 Prime-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting principle
under which the cost of stock-in-trade is the sum of direct material costs,
direct labour costs, and variable factory overhead costs;
 “Direct labour costs” means labour costs directly related to the
manufacture or production of stock-in-trade;
 “Direct material costs” means the cost of materials that become an
integral part of the stock-in-trade manufactured or produced, or which are
consumed in the manufacturing or production process;
 “Factory overhead costs” means the total costs of manufacturing or
producing stock-in-trade, other than direct labour and direct material costs;
 “First-in-first-out method” means the generally accepted accounting
principle under which the valuation of stock-in-trade is based on the
assumption that stock is sold in the order of its acquisition;
 “Average-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting
principle under which the valuation of stock-in-trade is based on a weighted
average cost of units on hand;
 “Stock-in-trade” means anything produced, manufactured, purchased, or
otherwise acquired for manufacture, sale or exchange, and any materials
or supplies to be consumed in the production or manufacturing process,
but does not include stocks or shares; and
 “Variable factory overhead costs” means those factory overhead costs
which vary directly with changes in volume of stock-in-trade manufactured
or produced.
3.6 Long Term Contracts (Sec. 36)

 A person accounting for income from business, on an accrual basis, under
a long-term contract shall compute income for a tax year on the basis of the
percentage of completion method.
 The percentage of completion of a long-term contract in a tax year shall be
determined by comparing the total cost incurred before the end of the year
with the estimated total contract costs as determined at the commencement
of the contract.
 Definition of terms used:
“long-term contract” means a contract for manufacture, installation, or
construction, or in their relation, the performance of related services, which
is not completed within the tax year in which work under the contract
commenced. However, long term contracts shall not include a contract
estimated to be completed within six months of the date on which work
under the contract commenced.
“percentage of completion method” means the generally accepted
accounting principle under which revenues and expenses arising under a
long-term contract are recognized with reference to the stage of completion
of the contract.

Key points for solving construction contract numerical

Income derived from construction contract is either taxed under the
presumptive mode of taxation or on the basis of net taxable income (normal tax
regime).
Public company listed on registered stock exchange in Pakistan
Income of the public contractor company listed on registered stock exchange in
Pakistan is calculated under the normal tax regime and any withholding tax
deducted at source is adjustable against the final tax liability.
Other taxpayers
In case of all other taxpayers, tax deductible at source on gross amount of
payments (including mobilization advance and retention money) is treated final
tax liability of the contractor. Construction costs and other expenditure are not
tax deductible.
Application of section 36
Section 36 (Accounting for long term contracts) becomes applicable only when
income of the contractor is assessed under the normal tax regime.
In order to solve a construction contract question under the normal tax regime,
it is very important to firstly determine whether the contract is short term or
long term.
Short term construction contract
A Short term construction contract is a contract that:
(i) Commences and is completed within one tax year or
(ii) Does not last for a period of more than six months even though spread
over two tax years.
Taxation of short term contracts in case of resident taxpayers
Net taxable profit or loss from a short term contract is computed by deducting
the contract costs from contract revenues. Contract revenue will be determined
under the generally accepted accounting principles.
Long term contracts
A long term contract is defined to mean a contract which is not completed
within the tax year in which work under the contract is commenced. However, a
contract which is estimated to be completed within six months from the date on
which work under the contract commences is not considered a long term
contract even though its execution is spread over two tax years.
Taxation of long term construction contracts
Net profit or loss for a tax year is computed by using a percentage of completion
method.
Under the generally accepted accounting principles, contract cost estimates are
revised and taken cognizance of to determine the percentage of completion and
net contract income at the end of each accounting year. However the Income
Tax Ordinance, 2001 states that contracts costs estimated at the
commencement of the contract are to be used from year to year to determine
net contract income.

Exercise:
Umar Gul Limited (UGL) a public company registered on Karachi Stock
Exchange is engaged in the construction business for the past many years. In
July 2013, KPK Government awarded a contract of Rs. 9 million to UGL for
construction of 3 dams in Peshawar over a period of three years. The company
expects to earn a profit of 25% of the contract value. The project was scheduled
to start in July 2013 and be completed on 30 June 2016.
The amount received and costs incurred by UGL on the contract over the period
of three years were as under:
Tax year Receipts Costs
2014 3,000,000 3,105,000
2015 3,000,000 2,632,500
2016 3,000,000 1,012,500
Required:
Under the provisions of the Income Tax Ordinance, 2001 calculate the taxable
income for each of the above three tax years.
Answer
Tax year Revenue Percentage of Completion Taxable income
W-1 & W-2
2014 2,250,000 46% 1,035,000
2015 2,250,000 39% 877,500
2016 2,250,000 15% 337,500
Workings:
W-1
Estimated profit = Total contract price- total costs
2,250,000 = 9,000,000- 6,750,000
W-2
Percentage of completion method = Contract costs incurred
Total contract costs
Tax year Percentage of completion

2014 3,105,000/6,750,000 x 100 = 46%
2015 2,632,500/6,750,000 x 100 = 39%
2016 1,012,500/6,750,000 x 100 = 15%

4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
Before moving on to the next chapter check that you now know:
 Meanings assigned to term “Business” and what incomes are covered with in
the heading of income” income from Business” under the Income Tax Law?
 List down deductions which are not admissible under the head income from
business.
 Specific deductions against the business income.
 Different prescribed methods of Accounting and what is the procedure for
change of a method of accounting?

Certificate in Accounting and Finance
CHAPTER
Principles of Taxation
Income from business – part two
Contents
1 Depreciable assets and depreciation
2 Intangibles
3 Pre-commencement expenditures
4 Assets
5 Chapter review

INTRODUCTION
The overall objective of the syllabus is to provide basic knowledge in the understanding of
objectives of taxation and core areas of Income Tax Ordinance, 2001, Income Tax Rules
2002 and Sales Tax Act 1990 and Sales Tax Rules.
Concepts
LO 4.1.2 Describe other definitions covered under relevant sections
LO 4.1.3 Apply definitions on simple scenarios
LO 4.2.1 Explain the chargeability of tax with simple examples
LO 4.4.3 Explain with simple examples the provisions relating to disposal and
acquisition of assets, cost and consideration received
LO 4.13.1 Apply rules relevant to learning outcomes specified against each topic on well
explained scenarios.
LO 4.14.1 Apply clauses relevant to learning outcomes specified against each topic on
well explained scenarios.

Chapter 8:Income from business –part two
1 DEPRECIABLE ASSET AND DEPRECIATION
Section overview
 Depreciable assets and general principles relating to depreciation

 Initial allowance
 First year allowance
 Accelerated depreciation to alternate energy projects
1.1 Depreciable assets (Sec-22)

Section 22 of the Ordinance deals with the depreciation in the following manner:
 A person is allowed a deduction for the depreciation of the person’s
depreciable assets used in the person’s business in the tax year.
 The term depreciable asset is defined in sub-section (15) of section 22 of the
Ordinance ibid in the following manner:
Definition: Depreciable Asset

“Depreciable asset” means any tangible movable property, immovable property
(other than unimproved land), or structural improvement to immovable property,
owned by a person that:
 has a normal useful life exceeding one year;
 is likely to lose value as a result of normal wear and tear, or obsolescence;
and
 is used wholly or partly by the person in deriving income from business
chargeable to tax,
but shall not include any tangible movable property, immovable property, or
structural improvement to immovable property in relation to which a deduction
has been allowed under another section of this Ordinance for the entire cost of
the property or improvement in the tax year in which the property is acquired or
improvement made by the person; and
“Structural improvement” in relation to immovable property, includes any
building, road, driveway, car park, railway line, pipeline, bridge, tunnel, airport
runway, canal, dock, wharf, retaining wall, fence, power lines, water or sewerage
pipes, drainage, landscaping or dam.
 Depreciation shall be allowed on the written down value (WDV) of the asset
at the beginning of the year at the rates specified in Third Schedule, as given
below:
Sr. Type of Asset Rate

No
I. Building (all types). 10%
Furniture (including fittings) and machinery and plant (not

II. otherwise specified), Motor vehicles (all types), ships, 15%
technical or professional books.

Sr. Type of Asset Rate

No
Computer hardware including printer, monitor and allied

III. items, Machinery & Equipment used in manufacture of IT 30%
Products, aircrafts and aero engines.
In case of mineral oil concerns the income of which is liable

to be computed in accordance with the rules in Part-I of the
Fifth Schedule.
IV. (a) Below ground installations 100%
(b) Offshore platform and production

Installations. 20%
A ramp built to provide access to persons with disabilities not

V. 100%
exceeding Rs. 250,000 each.
 Depreciation is allowed on proportional basis if the asset was also used for
the purpose other than deriving business income in a tax year.
 The written down value of a depreciable asset of a person at the beginning of
the tax year shall be:
(i ) where the asset was acquired in the tax year, the cost of asset to the
person as reduced by any initial allowance in respect of the asset
under section 23; or
(i i ) in any other case, the cost of the asset to the person as reduced by
the total depreciation deductions (including any initial allowance under
section 23) allowed to the person in respect of the asset in previous
tax years.
Example
First year Rupees

Cost of building 500,000
Initial allowance @ 15% 75,000
Depreciation on Rs. 425,000 42,500
(Rs. 500,000-75,000) @ 10%
Written down value carried forward 382,500
Second year Rupees
WDV Brought forward 382,500
Depreciation @ 10% 38,250
WDV carried forward 344,250
Third year Rupees
Depreciation @ 10% 34,425
WDV carried forward 309,825

 WDV of the asset, in case asset is used partly for business and partly for non-
business purpose, shall be computed on the basis that the asset has been
solely used to derive business income. It means that depreciation allowed as
well as disallowed shall be deducted from the cost of the asset in arriving at
the WDV. However, the WDV of the asset shall be increased by the amount
of depreciation disallowed on account of non-business use at the time of
disposal.
Example
Computer equipment partly for business use and partly for non- Rupees
business
Used for business purpose 80%
Used for private purpose 20%
Annual depreciation @ 30% (100,000 x 30%) 30,000
Fair proportional depreciation deduction for business purpose 24,000
(80% of Rs. 30,000)
WDV carried forward (WDV minus annual depreciation i.e. 70,000
100,000- 30,000)
 The total deductions allowed to a person on account of depreciation and

initial allowance during the period of ownership of a depreciable asset shall
not exceed the cost of the asset.
 Where a person disposes of a depreciable asset in any tax year,, no
depreciation deduction shall be allowed in that year. Further, on disposal
(i ) if the consideration received exceeds the written down value of the
asset at the time of disposal, the excess shall be chargeable to tax in
that year under the head “Income from Business”;
(i i ) If the consideration received is less than the written down value of the
asset at the time of disposal, the difference shall be allowed as a
deduction in computing the person’s income chargeable under the
head “Income from Business” for that year.
 An asset owned by a financial institution or leasing company and leased to
another person is treated as used in the financial institution or leasing
company’s business and the depreciation deductions allowed to a leasing
company, investment bank, a modaraba, a scheduled bank or a development
financial institution in respect of assets owned by them and leased to another
person shall be deductible only against the lease rental income derived in
respect of such assets.
 The cost of a depreciable asset being a passenger transport vehicle not
plying for hire shall not exceed two and half million rupees.
 In case of disposal of such vehicle, sale consideration of the passenger
transport vehicle shall be computed according to the following formula:-
Cost of vehicle on which
Depreciation is allowed
 Amount received on disposal of vehicle
Actual cost of vehicle

 The cost of immovable property or a structural improvement to immovable

property shall not include the cost of the land.
 For computing gain on disposal of immoveable property, the consideration
received shall be treated as the cost of the property if the consideration
exceeds its cost (Gain on disposal shall be equal to the depreciation
previously allowed) .
 Where a depreciable asset that has been used by a person in Pakistan is
exported or transferred out of Pakistan, the person shall be treated as having
disposed of the asset at the time of the export or transfer for a consideration
received equal to the cost of the asset. (Gain on disposal shall be equal to the
depreciation allowed).
Example:
During the tax year 2016, CFG (Pvt.) Limited disposed off the following assets:
(a) Immoveable property was sold for Rs. 150 million. The cost of the
property was Rs. 100 million. Upto tax year 2015, tax depreciation of
Rs. 30 million had been allowed on the immoveable property.
(b) A machinery used in the business in Pakistan, was exported to USA. The
export proceeds amounted to Rs. 45 million. The cost and written down
value of the machinery was Rs. 35 million and 28 million respectively.
(c) Two buses were disposed off for Rs. 2.5 million. They were acquired in
tax year 2015. The tax written down value of buses at the beginning of
the tax year 2016 was Rs. 2.4 million. The trucks were being used partly
i.e. 60% for business purpose. Tax rate of depreciation is 15%.
Required
Calculate tax gain on loss on disposal of above assets
Answer
(a) Rs. In Million

Sale Proceed 150
Cost (Note) 150
Depreciation allowed 30 120
Gain on disposal 30
Note: For computing gain on disposal of immoveable property, the consideration

received shall be treated as the cost of property if the consideration exceeds its
cost (Gain on disposal shall be equal to the depreciation allowed).
(b) Rs. In Million

Consideration received equal to actual cost 35
WDV at the time of disposal 28
Gain on disposal 07
For computing gain on disposal of depreciable asset by way of export that has
been used previously in Pakistan, the consideration received shall be treated as
the cost of asset (Gain on disposal shall be equal to depreciation allowed)

(c) Rs. In Million

Sale proceed 2.5
Less WDV at beginning of the year (2.4)
Depreciation not allowed
(2.4/0.85 x 0.15 x 0.40) (0.17)
Loss on disposal (0.07)
WDV of the asset, in case asset is used partly for business and party for non-
business purpose, shall be computed on the basis that the asset has been solely
used to derive business income. It means that depreciation allowed as well as
disallowed shall be deducted from the cost of the asset in arriving at the WDV.
However, the WDV of the asset shall be increased by the amount of depreciation
disallowed on account of non-business use at the time of disposal.
1.2 Initial allowance (Sec-23)

The aforesaid provision elucidates that the written down value shall be computed
after deduction of initial allowance. The provision regarding initial allowance is
contained in section 23 of the Ordinance and the said section states that:
1) A person who places an eligible depreciable asset into service in
Pakistan for the first time in a tax year shall be allowed an initial allowance
provided the asset is used by the person for the purposes of his business
for the first time or the tax year in which commercial production is
commenced, whichever is later.
Definition: Eligible Depreciable Asset

“Eligible depreciable asset” means a depreciable asset other than:
a. any road transport vehicle unless the vehicle is plying for hire;
b. any furniture, including fittings;
c. any plant or machinery that has been used previously in Pakistan; or
d. any plant or machinery in relation to which a deduction has been allowed
under another section of the Ordinance for the entire cost of the asset in
the tax year in which the asset is acquired.
2) The amount of initial allowance of a person shall be computed at the rate of

25% for plant and machinery and 15% for building.
3) The rules contained in section 76 shall apply in determining the cost of an
eligible depreciable asset. .
4) An initial allowance allowed to a lessor in respect of assets owned by him
and leased to another person shall be deductible only against the lease
rental income derived in respect of such assets.

1.3 First year allowance (Sec-23A)

1) Plant, machinery and equipment installed by an industrial undertaking set
up in specified rural and under developed areas or engaged in the
manufacturing of cellular mobile phones and qualifying for exemption under
clause (126N) of Part I of the Second Schedule, and owned and managed
by a company shall be allowed first year allowance in lieu of initial
allowance under section 23 of Ordinance at the rate of 90% against the
cost of the “eligible depreciable assets” put to use after July1, 2008.
2) The Federal Government may notify “specified areas” for this purpose.
4) First year allowance allowed to a lessor in respect of assets owned by him
and leased to another person shall be deductible only against the lease
Definition: Industrial Undertaking

“Industrial undertaking” means —
a) an undertaking which is set up in Pakistan and which employs,—
i. ten or more persons in Pakistan and involves the use of electrical
energy or any other form of energy which is mechanically transmitted
and is not generated by human or animal energy; or
ii. twenty or more persons in Pakistan and does not involve the use of
electrical energy or any other form of energy which is mechanically
transmitted and is not generated by human or animal energy:
and which is engaged in,—
i. the manufacture of goods or materials or the subjection of goods or
materials to any process which substantially changes their original
condition; or
ii. ship-building; or
iii. generation, conversion, transmission or distribution of electrical
energy, or the supply of hydraulic power; or
iv. the working of any mine, oil-well or any other source of mineral
deposits; and
b) any other industrial undertaking which the Board may by notification in the
official gazette, specify.
Section 2(29C) of the Ordinance
1.4 Accelerated depreciation to alternate energy projects (Sec-23B)

1) Any plant, machinery and equipment installed for generation of alternate
energy by an industrial undertaking set up anywhere in Pakistan and
owned and managed by a company shall be allowed first year allowance in
lieu of initial allowance under section 23 of Ordinance, at the rate of 90%
against the cost of eligible depreciable assets put to use after first day of
July, 2009.
3) Accelerated depreciation allowed to a lessor in respect of assets owned by
him and leased to another person shall be deductible only against the lease

Example: Depreciation
Opening tax WDV of plant and machinery 1,000,000
Purchase of plant during the year eligible for initial allowance 500,000
Tax WDV of disposals during the year 200,000
Compute the tax depreciation and initial allowance on the above assets for the
tax year 2016.
Answer
Particulars WDV Depreciation
Opening WDV 1,000,000
Less: Tax WDV on disposal of P& M
as no depreciation is charged in 200,000
the year of disposal
Balance WDV--- A 800,000
Additions during the year 500,000
Initial Allowance @ 25% 125,000 125,000
Balance WDV--- B 375,000
WDV for Normal Depreciation A+B 1,175,000
Normal Depreciation 1,175,000 @15% 176,250
Total Depreciation 301,250

2 INTANGIBLES
Section overview
 Introduction
 Intangibles eligible for amortisation
 Method for computation of amortisation on intangibles
 Gain / loss on disposal of intangibles
2.1 Introduction
The nomenclature of this term gives the impression that it only includes the cost
of non-physical assets. However, definition of this term under the tax law is far
wider than this general impression. The definition of intangible is given in section
24 of the Ordinance in the following manner:
Definition: Intangibles (Section 24)

“Intangible” means any patent, invention, design or model, secret formula or
process, copyright, trade mark, scientific or technical knowledge, computer
software, motion picture film, export quotas, franchise, licence, intellectual
property, or other like property or right, contractual rights and any
expenditure that provides an advantage or benefit for a period of more than
one year (other than expenditure incurred to acquire a depreciable asset or
unimproved land).
The above definition reveals that it also includes any expenditure that provides
an advantage or benefit for a period of more than one year. Therefore,
amortisation of any cost which has useful life of a period exceeding one year is
allowed.
Section 24 of the Ordinance explains the provision regarding intangibles and the
said section states that:
2.2 Intangibles eligible for amortisation [Section 24]

 A person shall be allowed an amortisation deduction in a tax year for the
cost of the person’s intangibles:
(i) that are wholly or partly used by the person in the tax year in deriving
income from business chargeable to tax; and
(ii) That has a normal useful life exceeding one year.
 The terms cost as used in the aforesaid provision is defined in the following
manner in the Ordinance:
Definition: Cost of Intangible Asset
“cost” in relation to an intangible, means any expenditure incurred in acquiring or
creating the intangible, including any expenditure incurred in improving or
renewing the intangible
 No amortisation deduction shall be allowed if a deduction has been allowed

under any other section of the Ordinance for the entire cost of the intangible
in the tax year in which it was acquired.
The total deductions allowed to a person in the current tax year and all
previous tax years in respect of an intangible shall not exceed the cost of
the intangible.

2.3 Method for computation of amortisation charge on intangibles:

 The amortization deduction of a person for a tax year shall be computed
according to the following formula, namely:
A/B
Where:
A is the cost of the intangible; and
B is the normal useful life of the intangible in whole years.
 An intangible which:
(i) has a normal useful life of more than ten years; or
(ii) does not have an ascertainable useful life,
shall be treated as if it had a normal useful life of ten years.
 If an intangible is used in a tax year partly in deriving income from business
chargeable to tax and partly for another use, the deduction allowed for that
year shall be restricted to the fair proportional part of the amount that would
be allowed if the intangible were wholly used to derive income from
business chargeable to tax.
 Where an intangible is not used for the whole of the tax year in deriving
income from business chargeable to tax, the deduction allowed under this
section shall be computed according to the following formula, namely:
A x B/C
Where:
A is the amount of amortization computed in accordance with the above
provisions
B is the number of days in the tax year the intangible is used in deriving
income from business chargeable to tax; and
C is the number of days in the tax year.
2.4 Gain / loss on disposal of intangibles

 Where, in any tax year, a person disposes of an intangible, no amortisation
deduction shall be allowed for that year and:
(i) if the consideration received by the person exceeds the written down
value of the intangible at the time of disposal, the excess shall be
income of the person chargeable to tax in that year under the head
“Income from Business”; or
(ii) If the consideration received is less than the written down value of the
intangible at the time of disposal, the difference shall be allowed as a
deduction in computing the person’s income chargeable under the head
“Income from Business” in that year.
 For the purpose of calculating any gain or loss on disposal of intangible:
(i) the written down value of an intangible at the time of disposal shall be
the cost of the intangible reduced by the total deductions allowed to the
person under this section in respect of the intangible or, where the
intangible is not wholly used to derive income chargeable to tax, the
amount that would be allowed under this section if the intangible were
wholly so used; and

(ii) The consideration received on disposal of an intangible shall be

determined in accordance with section 77 of the Ordinance (explained
later in this chapter).
An intangible that is available for use on a day (including a non-working
day) is treated as used on that day.
Exercise:
Briefly explain the tax treatment in respect of each of the following independent
situations for the Tax year 2016:
( i) Aiza (Pvt.) Ltd has revalued its Building in accordance with International
Accounting Standards and consequently charged depreciation on the
revalued amount.
( ii) Aiza (Pvt.) Ltd during the year has opened an overseas office in France
and has claimed initial allowance and depreciation on eligible
depreciable assets purchased by the office.
( iii) Uzair Limited has charged impairment in respect of one of its depreciable
assets. The Commissioner is of the view that impairment expense will not
be allowed as an expense.
(iv) Uzair Limited has discontinued a major product line of its business and
envisages selling off the machinery related to this product line over a
period of one to two years to get the right price. Uzair Ltd wants to claim
depreciation on the idle machinery until disposed of.
(v) Ms. Sana sells a number of personal vehicles in a tax year and makes a
significant amount of profit in the process. She is of the view that the said
income is exempt from tax.
(vi) XYZ Ltd has recorded a gain on revaluation of its foreign currency
balances at the year end. The gain comprises of both realized and
unrealized amount.
(vii) On May 2016, Ms. Sana purchased a vehicle not plying for hire
amounting to Rs. 4,210,000 to be used solely for the purpose of her
business. While preparing the tax return she has claimed initial allowance
and depreciation as per the prescribed rates given in the Income Tax
Ordinance, 2001 for the full year on Rs. 4,210,000.
(viii) In April 01, 2016 Mr. Azhar purchased accounting software amounting to
Rs. 5 million for his business. The software has a useful life of 13 years.
Mr. Azhar has charged full year amortization on straight line basis over
the useful life of the software.
( ix ) Entertainment expense payable amounting to Rs. 210,000 has been
debited to profit & loss account of ABC Ltd. The company has not
deducted any tax on the said expense.
( x) ABC (Pvt.) Ltd has charged depreciation according to the rates admissible
under the tax law amounting to Rs. 125,000 on machinery taken on a
finance lease from a scheduled bank in August 2010. Lease rentals paid
during the tax year 2016 amounted to Rs. 220,000. The leased
machinery was transferred to owned assets on maturity on 30 April
2016. On maturity the accounting WDV of the assets was Rs. 500,000,
market value was Rs. 800,000 whereas residual value of the asset was
Rs. 50,000.

Answer
( i) Deduction for depreciation is associated with tax written down values of
assets calculated with reference to specific provisions. Accounting
revaluation of assets has no bearing on tax written down value of assets.
Consequently, depreciation will be allowed on tax written down values of
building without taking into account the effect of revaluation. [Ref: S
22(5)]
( ii) Initial allowance is only available on assets used in Pakistan. Accordingly,
the company will not be entitled to deduction on account of initial
allowance on assets purchased by the branch for use in business outside
Pakistan. The company will however be allowed to claim normal
depreciation on all depreciable assets. [Ref: S 23 (1) and S 22]
( iii) The contention of the Commissioner is correct. Charge for impairment of
fixed assets is not a tax deductible expense. As the impairment charge
will be ignored for tax purpose, the written down value of assets will not
be reduced by the charge and depreciation will be calculated as if no
impairment has taken place.
(iv) One of the criteria for an asset to qualify as ‘depreciable asset’ is that it
should be used partly or wholly for deriving business income. As the
product line has been discontinued and the machinery is no more in use,
therefore, it ceases to qualify as a ‘depreciable asset’. Accordingly, no
deduction will be allowed for depreciation. [Ref: S 22 and S75(3A)]
(v) Income from sale of personal motor vehicles is not taxable under the
head Capital Gains. If the vehicles are bought and sold with the motive of
trade, the resultant gain will constitute business income. However, vehicle
intended for personal use are excluded from the definition of capital
assets. [Ref: S 37(5) (d)]
(vi) Unrealized gain on revaluation of foreign currency balances is notional
income in nature and is not liable to tax. Foreign exchange gains will be
included in the taxable income for the tax year in which realized.
(vii) Full year depreciation should be charged on restricted value of Rs.
2,500,000. As vehicle is not an eligible depreciable asset, therefore,
initial allowance cannot be claimed.
(viii) Amortization should be allowed for 91 days over the useful life of 10
years only. (S. 24(4),24(6))
( ix ) Tax is required to be deducted only at the time of payment. Since the
expense is still payable, therefore, company has rightly claimed the said
expense.
( x) In case of assets taken on finance lease, lease rentals are an admissible
deduction instead of depreciation. Further, as the asset was transferred
during the tax year 2016, therefore, full year depreciation will be allowed
on the residual value of the asset if the residual value has not been
claimed as lease rentals.. No initial allowance will be allowed as the asset
was already in use. (S. 22, S.28 (1) (B) S 23).

3 PRE-COMMENCEMENT EXPENDITURE
Section overview
 Definition and tax treatment of Pre commencement expenditure
3.1 Pre commencement expenditure (Sec-25)

Section 25 of the Ordinance deals with the admissibility of pre- commencement
expenditure and the said section states that:
 A person shall be allowed a deduction for any pre-commencement
expenditure @ 20% per annum on straight line basis.
 The term pre-commencement expenditure is defined in section 25 of the
Ordinance in the following manner:
Definition: Pre Commencement Expenditure

“pre-commencement expenditure” means any expenditure incurred before the
commencement of a business wholly and exclusively to derive income chargeable
to tax, including the cost of feasibility studies, construction of prototypes, and trial
production activities, but shall not include any expenditure which is incurred in
acquiring land, or which is depreciated or amortised under section 22 or 24 of the
Ordinance.
 The total deductions allowed under this section in the current tax year and all
previous tax years in respect of an amount of pre-commencement
expenditure shall not exceed the amount of the expenditure.
 No deduction shall be allowed under this section where a deduction has been
allowed under another section of this Ordinance for the entire amount of the
pre-commencement expenditure in the tax year in which it is incurred.

4 ASSETS
Section overview
 Disposal of assets
 Acquisition of assets
 Cost
 Consideration received
4.1 Disposal of assets (Sec-75)

 An asset shall be treated to have been disposed off at the time the owner
parts with the ownership of the asset. This shall include when the asset is
(i) sold, exchanged, transferred or distributed; or
(ii) cancelled, redeemed, relinquished, destroyed, lost, expired or
surrendered.
 The transmission of an asset by succession or under a will shall be treated
as a disposal of the. asset by the deceased at the time asset is transmitted.
 The application of business assets (including stock or depreciable asset) to
personal use shall be treated as a disposal of the asset by the owner of the
asset at the time the asset is so applied.
 Where a business asset is discarded or ceases to be used in business, it
shall be treated to have been disposed off.
 A disposal shall include the disposal of a part of an asset.
4.2 Acquisition of assets (Sec-75)

 A person shall be treated as having acquired an asset at the time the
person begins to own the asset, including at the time the person is granted
any right.
 The application of a personal asset to business use shall be treated as an
acquisition of the asset by the owner at the time the asset is so applied
4.3 Cost (Sec-76)

The cost of acquisition under different situations is explained in section 76 of the
Ordinance in the following manner:
 The cost of an asset purchased by a person shall be the sum of the following
amounts, namely:-
(i). consideration given for the asset, which shall include:
(a) fair market value of any consideration given in kind; plus
(b) any cash or cash equivalent paid as consideration.
(ii). any incidental expenditure incurred by the person in acquiring and
disposing of the asset; and
(iii). any expenditure incurred by the person to alter or improve the asset

Example: Cost
Example – Purchase of a moulding machine in exchange for old machine

Particulars Amount
(Rupees)
Purchase price paid – Cheque drawn on business bank account 100,000
+Bringing to present location – Transportation freight paid in cash 5,000
+Making fit for intended use – Installation expenditure paid 10,000
+Non-cash benefit given – Fair market value of old moulding 25,000
Machine
+Debt incurred – Bank paid to the supplier against loan repayable
in ten monthly instalments 75,000
Cost of the moulding machine for the purposes of depreciation 215,000
deduction
 The cost of a personal asset treated as acquired by the business shall be the
fair market value of the asset determined at the date it is applied to business
use.
 The cost of an asset produced or constructed by a person shall be the total
costs incurred by the person in producing or constructing the asset plus any
expenditure incurred by the person on the alteration, improvement or disposal
of such asset.
Example: Cost
Example – Boiler Produced in house by the entity for its factory Amount
(Rupees)
Cost incurred to produce
Material 50,000
Wage 7,500
Consumables (Welding rods etc.) 3,000
Fuel and power (electricity, gas, etc.) 2,000
Factory overheads 1,500
Cost of the boiler for the purposes of depreciation deduction 64,000
 Cost of depreciable asset acquired by the lessee on maturity or pre-mature

termination of finance lease agreement is the residual value or bargain
purchase price as the case may be.

Example: Cost
Motor vehicle Amount
Cost at the time acquired 1,000,000
Finance obtained under finance lease 1,000,000
Bargain purchase price:
Before payment of 7th installment 1,000,000
After payment of 7th but before payment of 11th installment 750,000
Residual value on maturity of lease 70,000
Monthly lease rentals 60,000
No. of installments 22
Answer
Cost of motor vehicle for the purpose of depreciation
deduction
Before payment of 7 installment 1,000,000

After paying 7 installment 750,000
On maturity of lease i.e. after paying 22 installments 70,000
 If an asset has been acquired by a person with a loan denominated in a

foreign currency and, before full and final repayment of the loan, there is an
increase or decrease in the liability of the person under the loan as expressed
in rupees, the amount by which the liability is increased or reduced shall be
added to or deducted from the cost of the asset, as the case may be.
Explanation: Difference, if any, on account of foreign currency fluctuation,
shall be taken into account in the year of occurrence for the purposes of
depreciation.
In determining whether the liability of a person has increased or decreased,
account shall be taken of the person’s position under any hedging agreement
relating to the loan.
 Where a part of an asset is disposed of by a person, the cost of the asset
shall be apportioned between the part of the asset retained and the part
disposed of in accordance with their respective fair market values determined
at the time the person acquired the asset.
 Where the acquisition of an asset by a person is the derivation of an
amount chargeable to tax, the cost of the asset shall be the amount so
charged plus any amount paid by the person for the asset.

 Where the acquisition of an asset by a person is the derivation of an

amount exempt from tax, the cost of the asset shall be the exempt amount
plus any amount paid by the person for the asset.
 The cost of an asset does not include the amount of any grant, subsidy,
rebate, commission or any other assistance (other than a loan repayable with
or without profit) received or receivable by a person in respect of the
acquisition of the asset, except to the extent to which the amount is
chargeable to tax under this Ordinance.
 The Board may prescribe rules for determination of cost for any asset.
Example:
Burewala Express Limited (BEL) is in the business of manufacturing and sale of

component parts for automobile assembly industry. On 1 January 2014, BEL took
a loan of US$ 1,000,000 from GHI Bank, USA, which was utilized for purchasing
the plant. The loan is repayable in 10 equal instalments in US Dollars. The rate of
exchange on 1 January 2014 was US$ 1 equal to Rs.98 and the loan liability was
recorded in the books of account of BEL atRs.98,000,000. Other information:
1. The Project was completed in June 2015, but was only commissioned for
use on 31 July 2015. The total amount spent by BEL on the plant was
Rs.200,000,000
2. On 1 July 2015, the Government of Pakistan (GOP) voluntarily paid BEL
Rs.10,000,000 as a subsidy in respect of the plant installed in the Project.
3. The first instalment of US$ 100,000 towards repayment of the US Dollar
loan was paid to GHI Bank on 30 June 2016. The rupee equivalent of US$
100,000 at the then rate of exchange was Rs.10,000,000 (US$ 1= Rs.100).
Required:
Calculate the initial allowance, depreciation and written down value of the plant
on 30 June 2016 for preparing the tax return for tax year 2016.
Answer
Description Note Amount
Cost of the plant 200,000,000
Subsidy 1 (10,000,000)
Exchange fluctuation 2 200,000
Cost of the plant 190,200,000
Initial allowance @ 25% 47,550,000

Written down value 142,650,000
Depreciation @ 15% 21,397,500
Written down value 121,252,500

Notes:
N-1:
In determining the cost of an asset for tax purposes the actual amount spent by a
person in acquiring an asset is required to be reduced by the amount of any
grant, subsidy, rebate, commission or any other assistance received or receivable
by the person in respect of the acquisition of the asset except where the said
amount received is chargeable to tax [S.76 (10)]. Further the amount of Rs. 10
million is not income for tax purpose but is a capital receipt on the grounds that
(a) The amount was voluntarily paid by GOP without any consideration
(a) The company did not ask for the subsidy
(b) Amount received did not arise out of any legal or contractual obligation
(c) The amount is not traceable nor even remotely connected to any source of
income
N-2:
where a person has acquired an asset with a foreign currency loan (repayable in
foreign currency) and before the loan is fully repaid, there is an increase or
decrease in the loan liability of the person in terms of Pakistan rupees, due to a
change in the rate of exchange of the foreign currency, the amount by which the
liability has increased or decreased is to be added to or reduced from the cost of
the asset. In other words, the cost of the asset acquired with the foreign currency
loan is recomputed for tax purposes [S.76(5)].
4.4 Consideration received (Sec-77)

Section 77 contains provisions relating to ‘consideration received’ in connection
with disposal of assets. These are described below:
 The consideration received by a person on disposal of an asset shall be the
aggregate of:
(i) amount received by the person for asset or the fair market value thereof,
whichever is higher; plus
(ii) the fair market value of any consideration received in kind determined at
the time of disposal.
 If an asset has been lost or destroyed by a person, the consideration received
for the asset shall include any compensation, indemnity or damages received
by the person under:
(i) an insurance policy, indemnity or other agreement;
(ii) a settlement; or
(iii) a judicial decision.
 The consideration received for an asset treated as disposed of when applied
to personal use or is discarded or ceased to be used shall be the fair market
value of the asset determined at the time it is applied to personal use or
discarded or ceased to be used in business, as the case may be.

Example: Consideration
Example – Personal computer applied to business use Amount

(Rupees)
Purchase price paid – At the time it was acquired in June 200X 50,000
Fair market value today when applied to business use 35,000
Cost of computer for the purposes of depreciation deduction 35,000
Example – Structural improvement to immovable property Amount
(building) applied to business use (Rupees)
Purchase price paid – At the time it was acquired in June 2005 500,000
Fair market value today when applied to business use 700,000
Cost of Structural improvement to immovable property
(building) for the purposes of depreciation deduction 700,000
 The consideration received by a scheduled bank, financial institution,

modaraba, or leasing company approved by the Commissioner in respect
of an asset leased by the company to another person shall be the residual
value received by the leasing company on maturity of the lease agreement
subject to the condition that the residual value plus the amount realized
during the term of the lease towards the cost of the asset is not less than
the original cost of the asset.
 Where two or more assets are disposed of by a person in a single
transaction and the consideration received for each asset is not specified,
the total consideration received by the person shall be apportioned among
the assets disposed of in proportion to their respective fair market values
determined at the time of the transaction.
 The Board may prescribe rules for determination of consideration received
for any asset.

5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review

Before moving on to the next chapter check that you now know answers to the
following:
 What is depreciable asset, how the depreciation on a depreciable asset can be
worked out?
 How the gain or loss on disposal of depreciable can be computed and what is
the treatment of said gains or losses for the purposes of tax law?
 What is eligible depreciable asset and how the initial allowance can be
computed?
 What are intangibles and what is the method of computing amortisation
deduction on intangibles?
 What are pre-commencement expenditures and what are the provisions for
admissibility of amortisation deduction on such expenditures?
 What do ‘cost’ and ‘consideration received’ mean in relation to assets? And
how are they determined?
 When is a person treated to have acquired / disposed of an asset?

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Certificate in Accounting and Finance

Income from business – part one

© Emile Woolf International 119 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

© Emile Woolf International 120 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

1 INCOME FROM BUSINESS

 Income from business

1.1 Income from business

Definitions “Business” [Sec 2(9)]

1.2 Important aspects of income from business

© Emile Woolf International 121 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

 Income may be recorded using the cash or accrual basis of accounting.

1.3 Speculation business

© Emile Woolf International 122 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Tax implications for speculation business

 section 67- Apportionment of deductions shall apply as if the profits and

Exercise: Speculation Business

© Emile Woolf International 123 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Particulars Speculation Trading Total

Gross Revenue 2,400,000 10,000,000 12,400,000

Gross Profit 400,000 2,000,000 2,400,000

Net income 206,452 1,193,548 1,400,000

Carry forward loss 250,000 1,000,000 1,250,000

Taxable Income / (loss) for the

*Speculation loss carried forward

© Emile Woolf International 124 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

2 DEDUCTIONS AGAINST BUSINESS INCOME

 Deductions admissible – general provisions

2.1 Deductions admissible

2.2 Inadmissible Deductions

 Any sum paid on account of salary, rent, brokerage or commission, profit

 any entertainment expenditure in excess of such limits or in violation of

© Emile Woolf International 125 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Limits prescribed for allowing any expenditure on entertainment are as

 Any contribution made by the person to a fund that is not a recognized

© Emile Woolf International 126 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

2.3 Deductions - Special provisions

© Emile Woolf International 127 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

 Expenditure incurred by an amalgamated company on legal and financial

Scientific research expenditure (Sec-26)

Employee training and facilities (Sec-27).

© Emile Woolf International 128 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Profit on debt, financial costs and lease payments (Sec-28)

© Emile Woolf International 129 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

© Emile Woolf International 130 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

( ix ) A donation in kind to a relief fund run by the Government of Sindh is not

 previously included in the person’s income from business

 in respect of money lent by a financial institution in deriving

© Emile Woolf International 131 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

© Emile Woolf International 132 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

3.1 General accounting

3.2 Method of accounting

3.3 Cash Basis Accounting (Sec-33)

3.4 Accrual Basis Accounting (Sec-34)

© Emile Woolf International 133 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

3.5 Valuation of stock in trade (Sec 35)

© Emile Woolf International 134 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

3.6 Long Term Contracts (Sec. 36)

© Emile Woolf International 135 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Key points for solving construction contract numerical

© Emile Woolf International 136 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan