2019 - Refining Process For Production of Refined Palm-Pressed Fibre Oil
2019 - Refining Process For Production of Refined Palm-Pressed Fibre Oil
2019 - Refining Process For Production of Refined Palm-Pressed Fibre Oil
Energy and Environment Unit, Engineering and Processing Research Division, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, 43000, Kajang,
Selangor, Malaysia
Keywords: Palm-pressed fibre oil (PPFO) is rich in natural phytonutrients such as carotenes and tocotrienols (vitamin E),
Red fibre oil which makes it worth further development to enhance its quality. Crude PPFO is currently extracted using
Degumming solvents without further refining. This study aimed to refine crude PPFO using a combination of processes
Bleaching including degumming, bleaching, and deacidification. Various doses of hot distilled water at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0,
Phytonutrient
4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 v/v% were applied during water degumming to remove soluble and hydratable gummy ma-
Phosphorus content
terials in crude PPFO. Degumming with acids at doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were tested to obtain oil with
low phosphorus content. Bleaching earth doses ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt% were used to absorb trace metals
and other impurities. The bleached PPFO was subjected to deacidification to remove free fatty acid (FFA). The
optimum refining conditions were using 5.0 v/v% of hot distilled water at 90 °C for 20 min for water degum-
ming, 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid at 90 °C for 10 min for acid degumming, 0.1 wt% of natural bleaching earth at
105 °C for 15 min during bleaching, and deacidification at 110 °C at 0.1 mtorr. The refined PPFO (RPPFO)
showed a 98% reduction of phosphorus content (from 565 ppm to 13 ± 2 ppm) and FFA removal of 97% (from
5.94% to 0.15%), while deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) increased by 44% (from 1.99 to
2.87 ± 0.17). In addition, RPPFO was rich in carotenoids (1208 ± 23 ppm) and vitamin E (904 ± 8 ppm) that
can be developed into high value products. The RPPFO meets the quality specifications of refined, bleached, and
deodorised palm oil (RBDPO) while maintaining the heat-sensitive phytonutrients.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nursulihati@mpob.gov.my (A.W. Nur Sulihatimarsyila).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.034
Received 27 July 2018; Received in revised form 14 November 2018; Accepted 10 December 2018
Available online 15 December 2018
0926-6690/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.W. Nur Sulihatimarsyila et al. Industrial Crops & Products 129 (2019) 488–494
reported. Traditionally, CPO is refined into refined, bleached, and with desired nutritional content will be discussed in this paper.
deodorised palm oil (RBDPO) for downstream applications.
Conventional refining destroys the natural carotenoids in CPO due to 2. Materials and methods
the high processing temperature of 260 °C during the deacidification
and deodorisation steps (Bonnie and Choo, 1999). The process is car- 2.1. Materials
ried out at high temperature ranging from 150 °C to 260 °C and under
high pressure. This tends to degrade the natural carotenoids by thermal Solvent-extracted crude PPFO samples were collected from two
oxidation during the deodorisation step. In order to preserve the car- palm oil mills located in Perak and Johor, Malaysia. The crude PPFO
otenoids (≈ 70%) in palm oil, the FFA and volatile oxidation products was freshly collected from solvent extraction plants before being
such as peroxides can be removed through short path distillation which transferred to storage tanks. The crude PPFO samples were collected in
uses high vacuum and low temperature in the refining process. January during the dry season to avoid high FFA in the oil. During the
Goncalves et al. (2016) reported on the deacidification process of palm rainy season, the crude PPFO quality deterioration results from wet
oil through solvent extraction which could produce refined palm oil conditions which cause hydrolysis and oxidation that could be asso-
with high carotenoid content. However, chemical deacidification using ciated to higher FFA value. The oil was kept in a chiller at 6 °C prior to
a polar solvent is not preferable for use in food industries due to safety the refining process. The crude PPFO sample collected from Perak was
issues. Lau et al. (2006) studied simultaneous extraction, degumming, used to investigate the effect of water dosage on phosphorus content in
and deacidification of PPFO using supercritical carbon dioxide. The water degumming, effect of acid dosage on phosphorus content in acid
degummed and deacidified PPFO fulfilled the specifications of the degumming, and effect of bleaching earth dosage on phytonutrient
RBDPO with preserved and value-added phytonutrients in the refined content in bleaching. Meanwhile, the crude PPFO sample from Johor
PPFO (RPPFO). was used to study the properties of RPPFO under optimum conditions
In the conventional CPO refining process, phospholipids are re- for the refining process.
moved through degumming and bleaching steps. Phospholipids or gums Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), phosphoric acid, and citric acid (ana-
are considered as undesirable substances because they could cause pi- lytical grade) were purchased from Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany.
peline and equipment fouling at high temperature processing. Natural bleaching earth (NBE) and activated bleaching earth (ABE)
Therefore, an additional pre-treatment process for the removal of were purchased from Taiko Bleaching Earth Sdn. Bhd., Parit Buntar,
phospholipids in crude PPFO is required due to the high phosphorus Perak, Malaysia.
content (> 500 ppm) in the oil. There are two types of phospholipids,
namely hydratable and non-hydratable phospholipids in palm oil. The 2.2. Refining process
hydratable phospholipids can cause formation of gum deposits during
oil storage. In order to overcome the circumstances, water degumming Crude PPFO was refined using a combination of processes including
has been adopted to remove the hydratable phospholipids through two-step water degumming, acid degumming, bleaching, and deacidi-
precipitation by water hydration. Whereas for non-hydratable phos- fication. One litre of crude PPFO was heated to 90 °C in a three-neck
pholipids, a normal acid degumming step is introduced in the process round bottom flask while agitated using a magnetic stirrer (2.5 in.
(Kanamoto et al., 1981). Lamas et al. (2016) studied water degumming length) under a nitrogen blanket. A two-step water degumming process
that obtained drastic reduction of high phosphorus content in de- was applied to remove any soluble and hydratable gum in the crude
gummed sunflower oil. The phosphorus content achieved was lower PPFO by adding 5 ml of hot distilled water at 90 °C for 20 min (coded as
than 10 ppm and improves physicochemical parameters of the de- WD1). The water layer was then separated from the oil phase by cen-
gummed oil. Zufarov et al. (2008) studied a maximum phospholipid trifugation at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The second step of water degum-
retention reduction to 10 ppm in pressed rapeseed and sunflower oils by ming was conducted by adding 5 ml of hot distilled water into WD1 at
combining water and acid-based approaches which indicate better de- 90 °C for 20 min (coded as WD2) followed by separation by cen-
gumming efficiency. Hydratable phospholipids can be removed from trifugation. Varying amounts of hot distilled water that ranged from 0.5
crude algal oil by water degumming which reported only a 19.4% re- to 6.0 v/v% was used to investigate the effect of water degumming on
duction of the phospholipids. Therefore, acid-degumming was required phosphorus removal in crude PPFO. For acid degumming, 1 ml of acid
for non-hydratable phospholipids in algae that led to an 83% reduction was added into the water-degummed PPFO at 90 °C for 10 min. The
(Paisan et al., 2017). More and Gogate (2018a,b,More and Gogate, acids used were citric and phosphorus acid at a concentration of 20%
2018c studied intensification of degumming of vegetable oil using ul- with doses that ranged from 0.1 to 1.0 wt%. The acid-degummed PPFO
trasound in combination with sulphate based oxidising agent which was then neutralised by a NaOH solution followed by washing with
resulted in a 94% phospholipid reduction. More and Gogate warm water prior to drying. In bleaching, 10 g each of NBE and ABE
(2018a,b,More and Gogate, 2018c also studied the removal of the total was added separately into the acid-degummed PPFO at 105 °C and
phospholipid content of crude soybean oil using hydrodynamic cavi- maintained for 15 min under a nitrogen blanket. The NBE and ABE that
tation reactor in intensified degumming. The results showed that ca- were added ranged from 0.1 to 1.0 wt%. The oil and bleaching earth
vitation-based degumming in intensified soybean oil presented sig- mixture was then filtered under a vacuum in a Buchner funnel with
nificant reduction in phospholipids in less processing time. As an Whatman filter paper no.1. The bleached PPFO was subjected to dea-
alternative to conventional degumming approaches, enzymatic de- cidification to remove FFA and residual oxidation products at 110 °C
gumming processes have also been reported (Lamas et al., 2016; Qu and 0.1 mtorr via a short path distillation system. The resulting water-
et al., 2016; Lamas et al., 2014). More and Gogate (2018a,b; More and and acid-degummed PPFO, bleached PPFO, and RPPFO were char-
Gogate, 2018c investigated enzymatic degumming of crude soybean oil acterised for their phosphorus content, DOBI, FFA, carotene and vi-
by ultrasound and reported that 93% phospholipid separation was tamin E content, and metal content. All the experiments were carried
achieved. Elina et al. (2017) investigated phospholipid removal by out in 5 replicates. Use of hot distilled water and bleaching earth do-
enzymatic treatment and reported a decreased amount of phospholipids sages will depend on the properties of crude PPFO collected from palm
in addition to less oil retention which improved oil yield. oil mills. This study can be applied as a guideline to refine oil with high
The new refining method of treating crude PPFO will then make it phosphorus content.
easier to overcome the limitation in handling oil with high amounts of
phospholipids. In addition, to preserve the nutrient content in crude 2.3. Analysis of oil
PPFO such as carotenes and vitamin E during the process, low tem-
perature deacidification was used in the study. The high quality RPPFO The water- and acid-degummed PPFO, bleached PPFO, and RPPFO
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Fig. 1. Effect of water dosage on phosphorus reduction during two-step water degumming (WD1, WD2).
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Table 2
Characteristics of water-degummed PPFO in first step of water degumming (WD1).
Sample Water dosage DOBI FFA Carotene content Vitamin E
(v/v, %) (%) (ppm) (ppm)
Note: Crude palm-pressed fibre oil (PPFO) : Deterioration of bleachability index (DOBI) = 1.38; free fatty acid (FFA) = 6.07%; Carotene content = 1249 ppm;
Vitamin E = 1205 ppm.
The crude PPFO was collected from a solvent extraction plant in Perak, northern region of Peninsular, Malaysia.
Results are mean values ± standard deviation (n = 5) of duplicate degumming step.
Fig. 2. Effect of different acid dosage on phosphorus content reduction during acid degumming.
2016). The phosphorus content was reduced to 60 ppm in degummed 3.2. Effect of acid dosage on phosphorus content and other oil properties
sunflower oil (Lamas et al., 2016). Table 2 shows the characteristics of
water-degummed PPFO (WD1) using various doses of hot distilled Acid degumming is expected to further decrease the phosphorus
water, which were 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 v/v%. The crude content in water-degummed PPFO. Fig. 2 shows a further reduction of
PPFO with a DOBI value of 1.38 (Table 1) is difficult to be bleached. phosphorus content using 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid and citric acid,
After the first water degumming step, the DOBI value of the PPFO had from 95 ppm after the first step of PPFO water-degumming to 24 ppm
increased to 1.94 ± 0.8 using 6.0 v/v% of hot distilled water. The and 49 ppm, respectively. Phosphoric acid was found to be more ef-
proportion of FFA in the water-degummed PPFO increased as gums fective in reducing the phosphorus content of the water-degummed
were removed gradually. This is in accordance with the results reported PPFO compared to citric acid under same dosage. After water degum-
by Lamas et al. (2016) for sunflower oil. Removal of phospholipids in ming, the remaining non-hydratable phospholipids were mainly phos-
crude PPFO by water degumming caused an increase of FFA in the oil. phatidic acid bound to Mg2+ or Ca2+. The hydroxyl group in phos-
The increase of FFA detected was a consequence of the hydrolysis of phoric acid dislodged the Ca2+ bound to phosphatidic acid and
phospholipids. The moisture content of the water-degummed PPFO was precipitated. As a result, the non-hydratable phospholipids were de-
greater than crude PPFO due to the addition of the hot distilled water composed and transformed into insoluble lipid, which could be filtered
during the process, indicating heat sensitivity to hydrolytic damage during the bleaching step. Acid degumming was required in this study
(Vidrih et al., 2010). The water-degummed PPFO showed a decline in in order to completely remove phosphorus from PPFO. This is con-
carotene and vitamin E content, dropping from 1249 ppm to sistent with the results obtained in a previous study that used water-
1189 ± 25 ppm and 1205 ppm to 885 ± 23 ppm respectively, at 6.0 acid degumming (Chew et al., 2017). Zufarov et al., (2008) reported
v/v% water dosage. It’s possible that the hot water and high tempera- that combination of water degumming and acid degumming removed
ture (90 °C) employed had destroyed some of the carotenes and vitamin 93% of phosphorus content from rapeseed oil. Table 3 shows the
E present in PPFO. characteristics of the acid-degummed PPFO. The DOBI of the acid-
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Fig. 3. Carotene content of the bleached palm pressed fibre oil (PPFO).
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Fig. 4. Vitamin E content of the bleached palm pressed fibre oil (PPFO).
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Table 6
Properties of crude palm-pressed fibre oil and refined palm-pressed fibre oil (RPPFO).
Sample Phosphorus DOBI FFA (%) Carotene content Vitamin E
content (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Note: The crude PPFO was collected from a solvent extraction plant in Johor, southern region of Peninsular, Malaysia.
Results are mean values ± standard deviation (n = 5) of duplicate refining process.
Acknowledgement Lau, H.L.N., Choo, Y.M., Ma, A.N., Chuah, C.H., 2007a. Production of refined carotene-
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Lau, H.L.N., Choo, Y.M., Ma, A.N., Chuah, C.H., 2008. Selective extraction of palm car-
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