Including Usage, Comprehension, Precis

and Letter-Writing
(An Indispensable Book for Undergraduate Students)

By
Dr. B.B. Jain
M.A., Ph.D.
(Retd.) Professor and Head
Department of English Studies and Research,
Agra College, Agra.

Revised & Enlarged Edition

UPKAR PRAKASHAN, AGRA–2

© Author

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 Preface

Adding a new book on English Grammar and Usage to the existing flood of books
on the subject sounds rather audacious. But strangely enough, it is this flood of books,
some of which are spurious and others too technical and abstruse to be followed by the
learner, that has prompted the present author to write a new book on Applied
Grammar, Usage and Comprehension which could well serve as a practical handbook
and guide to the learning of English Language both by the primary as well as
advanced learners.
English is indeed a difficult language to learn, and the rules of Formal and Applied
Grammar and Usage which govern it are equally difficult for the learner to understand
and apply correctly. This is more so because there are many exceptions to most of the
rules. The learner would therefore need not only an explication of the rules but also a
large number of illustrative examples and exercises for practice. This point has been
kept in mind all through the course of writing of this book. The book has, therefore,
turned out to be not only a complete Textbook of Grammar, but also a comprehensive
Desk-book for practice.
The book is designed to be all-comprehensive in its range and scope. It has 45
Chapters which, as the contents would show, cover practically all aspects of Applied
Grammar, Usage, Word-Formation, Comprehension, and Composition. It represents a
synthesis of the traditional and structural methods to teach the learner how to read,
write, and speak English correctly, idiomatically and fluently. While dealing with the
grammatical and structural problems under various chapters, special attention has been
paid to the intricate and ticklish problems which even the advanced students have to
face. These problems relate particularly to the correct use of Syntax, Articles,
Prepositions, Auxiliaries, Non-Finite Verbs, Position of Adverbs, Tense and Time
sense, and Phrasal expressions. Due attention has also been paid to the special
requirements of the candidates appearing at various competitive examinations at the
State and Central levels.
It is confidently hoped that the book would serve as a complete and practical
textbook and manual of English Grammar, Usage and Comprehension to the
candidates preparing for the various University and competitive examinations
throughout the country.

—B.B. Jain
 Contents
Chapters Pages
1. Some Basic Concepts 3–4
Letters, Syllables, Phrases and Sentences ……………………………………………… 3
Kinds of Sentences ……………………………………………………………………… 3
Parts of Speech ………………………………………………………..………………… 4
2. Syntax 5–19
Agreement of the Verb with the Subject ………………………………………………… 5
Some Exceptions ………………………………………………………………………… 7
Collective Noun and the Verb …………………………………………..……………… 10
Some Typical Nouns and the Verb ……………………………………………………… 10
Relative Pronoun and the Verb ………………………………………….……………… 11
Numeral Expressions and the Verb ……………………………………………………… 13
Quantitative Expressions and the Verb …………………………………..……………… 13
Verb 'to be' and the Complement………………………………………………………… 15
Nouns, Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives……………………………..……………… 17
3. Articles 20–30
Kinds of Articles ………………………………………………………………………… 20
Forms of Indefinite Article : 'a' or 'an'…………………………………………………… 20
Uses of Indefinite Article………………………………………………………………… 21
Uses of Definite Article …………………………………………………………………. 23
Omission of Articles……………………………………………………………………… 26
Position of Articles ……………………………………………………………………… 28
4. Nouns 31–41
Formation of Genders …………………………………………………………………… 31
Conversion of Numbers ………………………………………………………………… 32
Formation of Possessive Case …………………………………………………………… 33
Correct Use of Nouns : Rules …………………………………………………………… 35
5. Pronouns 42–54
Forms of Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 42
Correct Use of Pronouns : Personal Pronouns …………..……………………………… 42
Pronoun 'It'/'This'………………………………………………………………………… 46
Relative Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 47
Compound Relative Pronouns…………………………………………………………… 49
Omission of Relative Pronouns ………………………….……………………………… 50
Reflexive Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 51
Interrogative Pronouns …………………………………..……………………………… 52
6. Adjectives 55–72
Kinds of Adjectives ……………………………………………………………………… 55
Position of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 57
Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 58
Correct Use of Adjectives : Positive Degree Adjectives………………………………… 60
Comparative Degree Adjectives ………………………………………………………… 61
Superlative Degree Adjectives ………………………..………………………………… 65
Some Other Typical Adjectives ……………………….………………………………… 67
7. Adverbs 73–85
Kinds of Adverbs………………………………………………………………………… 73
Degrees of Adverbs ……………………………………………………………………… 73
 ( vi )

Position of Adverbs……………………………………………………………………… 74
Some Typical Adverbs…………………………………………...……………………… 77
Some Common Rules …………………………………………………………………… 83
8. Prepositions 86–112
Forms of Preposition …………………………………………….……………………… 86
Functional Types of Prepositions ………………………………..……………………… 86
Use of Prepositions : Their Place ………………………………..……………………… 87
Omission of Preposition ………………………………………………………………… 88
Wrong Use of Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89
Some Typical Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89
Preposition Gerund ……………………………………………………………………… 91
The Same Words followed by Different Prepositions…………………………………… 93
Different Forms of Words followed by Different Prepositions ….……………………… 94
List of Appropriate Prepositions
(a) Nouns followed by Prepositions ………………………….……………………… 96
(b) Adjectives and Participles followed by Prepositions ……..……………………… 101
(c) Verbs followed by Prepositions …………………………..……………………… 105
9. Conjunctions 113–122
Correlative Conjunctions ………………………………………...……………………… 113
Uses of Conjunctions …………………………………………….……………………… 114
Functional Conjunctions ………………………………………………………………… 119
10. Verbs 123–144
Kinds of Verbs…………………………………………………………………………… 123
Auxiliary/Modal Verbs : Their Functions ……………………….……………………… 125
Verbs 'To be' : Am, Is, Are, Was, Were ………………………………………………… 125
Have/Has/Had …………………………………………………………………………… 127
May/Might …………………………………………………………….………………… 132
Can/Could …………………………………………………………….………………… 133
Shall/Should, Will/Would ……………………………………………..………………… 135
Must/Ought…………………………………………………………….………………… 138
Need/Needn't ………………………………………………………….………………… 138
Dare/Daren't……………………………………………………………………………… 139
Used to…………………………………………………………………………………… 140
Two Auxiliaries and Principal Verb ………………………………….………………… 141
Position of Subject, Verb, Object and Complement …………………..………………… 141
Question–Tags/Tail Questions …………………………………….......………………… 143
11. Non-Finite Verbs 145–153
Kinds of Non-Finite Verbs…………………………………………….………………… 145
The Infinitive…………………………………………………………..………………… 145
(a) Infinitive with or without ‘to’ …………………………………………………… 145
(b) Noun—Infinitives …………………………………………….………………… 146
(c) Gerundial Infinitives ………………………………………….………………… 147
(d) Other Uses of Infinitives………………………………………………………… 147
The Gerund ……………………………………………………………………………… 148
(a) Functions of Gerund ………………………………………….………………… 149
(b) Uses of Gerund ……………………………………………….………………… 149
The Participle ………………………………………………………….………………… 150
(a) Kinds of Participles……………………………………………………………… 150
(b) Uses of Participles…………………………………………….………………… 150
(c) Rules of Use of Participles ……………………………………………………… 151
 ( vii )

12. Time and Tense 154–170

Distinction between Time and Tense …………………………………………………… 154
Three Forms of Verbs : A List ………………………………………..………………… 154
Structures of Sentences : ………………………………………………………………… 156
Structures in the Present Tense……………………………………………………… 156
Structures in the Past Tense ……………………………………...………………… 159
Structures in the Future Tense……………………………………………………… 162
Uses of Tenses ………………………………………………………..………………… 164
Tenses and Time ………………………………………………………………………… 169
Structures of ‘It is time’, ‘If were’ and ‘Wish’ Sentences ……………………………… 170
13. Active and Passive Voice 171–176
Interchange between Subject and Object ……………………………..………………… 171
Changes in the Verb …………………………………………………..………………… 172
Imperative Sentences…………………………………………………..………………… 174
Negative Sentences …………………………………………………...………………… 174
Interrogative Sentences ……………………………………………….………………… 174
Some Other Sentence Structures ………………………………………………………… 175
14. Direct and Indirect Narration 177–191
Some General Terms ………………………………………………….………………… 177
Rules for Connectives …………………………………………………………………… 177
Rules for Change in Tenses……………………………………………………………… 178
Rules for Change in Persons …………………………………………..………………… 181
Miscellaneous Changes ……………………………………………….………………… 182
Conversion of Interrogative Sentences ……………………………….………………… 183
Conversion of Imperative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 184
Conversion of Exclamatory Sentences ………………………………..………………… 186
Question-Tags …………………………………………………………………………… 186
Sentences Beginning with 'Let' ……………………………………….………………… 187
Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 187
15. Analysis 192–200
Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 192
Analysis of Complex Sentences ………………………………………………………… 193
Subordinate Noun Clause…………………………………………………………… 193
Subordinate Adjective Clause ……………………………………………………… 194
Subordinate Adverb Clause ………………………………………………………… 195
Analysis of Compound Sentences …………………………………….………………… 198
16. Synthesis 201–210
Combining into a Simple Sentence ……………………………………………………… 201
Combining into a Complex Sentence …………………………………………………… 205
Combining into a Compound Sentence ……………………………….………………… 207
17. Transformation 211–225
Interchange between 'too' and 'so' ……………………………………..………………… 211
Conditional Sentences …………………………………………………………………… 212
Concession or Contrast ………………………………………………………………… 212
Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 213
Active and Passive Voice………………………………………………………………… 213
Affirmative and Negative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 214
Exclamatory and Assertive Sentences…………………………………………………… 215
 ( viii )

Changes in Parts of Speech ……………………………………………………………… 215

Interchange between Simple and Compound Sentences………………………………… 217
Interchange between Simple and Complex Sentences ………………..………………… 218
Interchange between Compound and Complex Sentences ……………………………… 221
Interchange between Principal and Subordinate Clauses ……………..………………… 222
18. Formation of Words 226–230
Suffixes………………………………………………………………...………………… 226
Words Converted into Different Parts of Speech ……………………..………………… 227
Prefixes ………………………………………………………………..………………… 229
Antonyms Formed by Negative Prefixes………………………………………………… 229
19. Antonyms 231–235
20. Synonyms 236–241
21. Homonyms 242–249
22. Paronyms 250–255
23. Same Word Used as Different Parts of Speech 256–260
24. One-Word Substitution 261–266
25. Idioms 267–279
26. Idiomatic Phrases 280–285
Noun Phrases …………………………………………………………………………… 280
Adjective Phrases………………………………………………………………………… 280
Adverb Phrases ………………………………………………………..………………… 281
Prepositional Phrases ………………………………………………….………………… 282
Verbal Phrases…………………………………………………………………………… 283
Phrases in Pairs ………………………………………………………………………….. 285
27. Distinction between Similar Expressions 286–287
28. Proverbs 288–291
29. Expansion : Paragraph-Writing 292–297
30. Spellings 298–299
31. Punctuation and Capitals 300–305
32. Figures of Speech 306–309
33. Foreign Words and Phrases 310–312
34. The Courtesy Words ‘Please’ and ‘Thank You’ 313–314
35. Greetings and Salutations 315–316
36. Dates and Time 317–319
37. Comprehension 320–329
38. Precis-Writing 330–336
39. Paraphrasing 337–342
40. Report-Writing 343–344
41. Messages 345–349
42. Notices 350–354
43. Diary-Writing 355–356
44. Telegram 357–359
45. Letter-Writing 360–384
Format of Personal Letters…………………………………………………………...……… 360
Format of Official Letters …………………………………………………………………… 363
Format of Business Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 365
Models of Personal Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 367
Models of Matrimonial Letters ……………………………………………………………… 373
Models of Business Letters and Applications ……………………………………….……… 378
 1 Some Basic Concepts
Letters and Syllables “A group of words which makes sense but not
complete sense, is called a phrase.”
Letters—There are 26 Letters in English. —(Wren and Martin)
They can be classified into two groups :
As—of great courage, at the door, sands of
(i) Vowels time, etc.
(ii) Consonants Clause—“A group of words which forms part
Vowels—The Letters that can be pronounced of a sentence, and contains a subject and a
without the help of any other Letter are called predicate, is called a clause.” —(Nesfield)
Vowels. They are five—a, e, i, o, u. He said that he was not well.
Consonants—The remaining 21 Letters are Do you know the man who came here
called consonants. They cannot be pronounced yesterday ?
without the help of a Vowel.
Note—W and Y are the two Letters that can Kinds of Sentences
be used both as Vowels and Consonants. Sentences are of Four kinds :
Words—Any sound produced by the mouth, 1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence— A
which has a meaning, is called a word. A word is sentence that makes a statement or assertion is
formed by one or more Letters. called an Assertive or Declarative sentence.
Syllables—The part of a word pronounced in As—India is a great country.
one instance is called a syllable. A word can have He is a noble man..
one or more syllables. 2. Interrogative Sentence—A sentence that
As : asks a question is called an Interrogative sen-
tence.
(i) Words of one syllable : you, me, go, run,
sit, etc. As—What is your name ?
(ii) Words of two syllables : Fa-ther, Wa-ter, Is he a dependable man ?
mon-key, beau-ty, etc. 3. Imperative Sentence—A sentence that
(iii) Words of more than two syllables : expresses a command, a request or an entreaty
Beau-ti-ful, de-mo-cra-cy; po-ssi-bi-li-ty, is called an Imperative sentence.
etc. As—Be quiet.
Sentence—“A combination of words that Go away from here.
makes complete sense is called a sentence.” Forgive us.
—(J. C. Nesfield) 4. Exclamatory Sentence—A sentence that
“A group of words which makes complete expresses a sudden feeling of pleasure, sorrow,
sense is called a sentence.” anger or surprise is called an Exclamatory
sentence.
—(Wren and Martin)
As—Alas ! I am ruined.
Phrase—“A combination of words that
makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a What a terrible shock it was !
phrase”. —(Nesfield) How shameful !
4 | L.W.C.E.

5. Adverb—“An Adverb is a word used to

Parts of Speech add something to the meaning of a verb, an
Different words used in a sentence have adjective, or another adverb.”
different functions. According to these functions, —(Wren and Martin)
words can be classified into 8 categories. No word
has any fixed category. Its category depends upon As—
its function in a sentence. He worked hard.
These eight categories are called Parts of He came suddenly.
Speech—
She is very slow.
1. Noun—“A noun is a word used as the
name of a person, place, or thing.” She finished her work very quickly.
—(Wren and Martin) 6. Preposition—“A Preposition is a word
As—Ram, table, sweetness, iron, sheep, etc. used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the
person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun
2. Pronoun—“A pronoun is a word used
stands in relation to something else.”
instead of a noun.” —(Wren and Martin)
As—he, she, you, I, we, it, they, etc. —(Wren and Martin)
3. Adjective—“An Adjective is a word used As—on the road, in the house, by courtesy,
to add something to the meaning of a noun (or a with him, etc.
pronoun). —(Wren and Martin) 7. Conjunction—“A conjunction is a word
An adjective qualifies a noun or a pronoun. which is used to join words, phrases, clauses, and
As—a good boy, a fast train, much labour, sentences to one another. —(Wren and Martin)
five coins. As—Ram and Shyam, through thick and
4. Verb—“A verb is a word used to say thin, He ran fast but missed the train.
something about some person, place, or thing.” 8. Interjection—“An Interjection is a word
—(Wren and Martin) which expresses some sudden feeling.”
As—She went to school. —(Wren and Martin)
Kanpur is an industrial town. As—Alas ! Hurrah, Oh !
He is dumb. Bravo, etc.
 2 Syntax
Syntax means sentence–structure. There are Formula—
certain rules of sentence–structure, which we must Subject Verb
know and apply carefully. There are indeed some
exceptions to these rules, but these exceptions are Singular Singular
also governed by some rules. These rules must be Plural Plural
applied keeping in mind their external forms as Note—
well as their spirit. (i) It should be remembered that a verb has
a Singular or a Plural Number in the Present
Concord or Agreement Tense only. In the Past Tense the Singular and the
In the rules of syntax the most important ones Plural forms of the verb are the same. In the
are those of concord or Agreement. Every sen- original form a verb is supposed to be in the Plural
tence has a subject, a verb and a predicate. There Number and Present Tense. When ‘s’ or ‘es’ is
must be an agreement between these three parts of added to the verb, it becomes a verb in the Present
a sentence. There must be an agreement between Tense and Singular Number. As—
the Person, Number, Gender and Tense used in Plural Verb in the Singular Verb in the
the different parts of the sentence. Present Tense Present Tense
“By concord is meant formal agreement in Sit Sits
person, number, gender or tense between two or
Run Runs
more parts of a sentence.”
Eat Eats
Agreement of the Verb with the Subject Go Goes
Subject—Verb Agreement Fly Flies
Rule 1—The Verb must agree with its Sub- Play Plays
ject in Number and Person. The Number and Smile Smiles
Person of the verb must be in agreement with the
Number and Person of its Subject. A Singular It should be remembered here that when ‘s’ or
subject must have a Singular Verb, and a Plural ‘es’ is added to a verb, it becomes Singular, but
Subject must have a Plural Verb. when ‘s’ or ‘es’ is added to a Noun, it becomes
Plural.
Formula—
Subject Verb Singular Noun Plural Noun
I go Book Books
We go Dog Dogs
You go House Houses
He goes Bench Benches
They go Branch Branches
Ram goes Formula—
A bird flies Verb + s/es = Singular
Birds fly Noun + s/es = Plural
6 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) Special attention needs to be paid to verbs Note— It should be remembered that in English I
‘to be’. Am, is, are, was, were are called verbs ‘to and you are used as if they are in Plural
be’. Their forms change according to their Person Number. Therefore, with I and you the
in the Singular Number only, but in the Plural verb is always used in Plural Number.
Number they remain the same with all Persons. However, I takes am in the Present tense
As— and was in the Past tense.
(c) If the subject is in Third Person, Singular
Singular Plural
or Plural Number, the verb will be accordingly in
First Person I am/was We are/were Third Person, Singular or Plural Number. As—
Second Person You are/were You are/were
1. He is poor.
Third Person He is/was They are/were
It is/was 2. They are poor.
(iii) The following are the Singular and 3. He reads a book.
Plural forms of Verbs ‘to be’ and h a s and 4. They read books.
have— 5. He has a new house.
Singular Plural 6. They have a new house.
is are Exercise
am are
(A) Correct the following Sentences :
was were
1. Birds flies.
are are
has have 2. Dogs is barking.
have have 3. The child weep.
(iv) will, shall, would, should always take 4. Darkness prevail.
have after them; they never take has, whether the 5. Flowers is blooming.
subject is Singular or Plural. As—
6. The sun rise in the east.
1. I shall have a new ball.
2 We shall have new balls. 7. The father and son works in the field.
3. He will have a new ball. 8. All the students is present today.
4. They will have new balls. 9. He love his friend.
Thus, according to Rule 1 above— 10. You and I goes to school.
(a) If the subject is in First Person, Singular
11. I reads a novel.
Number or Plural Number, the verb will be
accordingly in the First Person, Singular Number 12. You has a new pen.
or Plural Number. As— Hints— 1. fly; 2. are; 3. weeps; 4. prevails;
1. I am late. 5. are; 6. rises; 7. work; 8. are; 9. loves;
2. We are late 10. go; 11. read; 12. have.
3. I love children (B) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
4. We love children. with the correct verb from those given in
brackets :
(b) If the subject is in Second Person, Singu-
lar Number or Plural Number, the verb will be 1. His teeth ............. dirty. (are, is)
accordingly in the Second Person, Singular Num- 2. Where .............. all these men going ?
ber or Plural Number. As— (are, is)
1. You are a scholar. 3. Whose books .......... these ? (is, are)
(‘you’ Singular Number) 4. All his sheep ........... grazing in the field.
2. You are all afraid. (‘you’ Plural Number) (are, is)
3. You go there. (Singular Number) 5. Do you know who this gentleman ......... ?
4. You go there. (Plural Number) (is, are)
 SYNTAX | 7

6.My parents .......... here yesterday. (3) Verbs of Wish/Blessing

(was, were) The third exception is that in sentences
7. My work .......... been finished. expressing deep and sharp wish, blessing or hope,
(has, have) Plural Verb is used with Singular Subjects. In
8. All my friends ........... gone. (has, have) these sentences the verb is used in the Subjunctive
Hints— 1. are; 2. are; 3. are; 4. are; 5. is; 6. were; Mood. This use is now confined to a few
7. has; 8. have. sentences only. As—
1. Long live the King.
Exceptions 2. God save the King.
To 3. Lord bless you.
Rule 1. Above 4. Long live our friendship.
It has been said in Rule 1. above that a
Singular Subject takes a Singular Verb and a Exercise
Plural Subject takes a Plural Verb. There are,
however, the following three exceptions to this Fill in the blanks with the correct verb
general rule : from those given in brackets :
1. She .......... not come before me. (dare,
(1) Dare not and Need not
dares)
These are the two typical Verbs which in
2. He ......... not to do it. (need, needs)
Negative Sentences (where dare and need are
followed by not) are used in the Plural form even 3. He ........... to challenge me. (dare, dares)
with Singular Subjects. 4. She ............. to go very early. (need,
“The third person singular is need,’ and not needs)
‘needs’ just as ‘dare’ is used for ‘dares’ provided 5. Ram ........ not tell a lie. (dare, dares)
it is followed by a negative.” —(Nesfield) 6. I wish my father ........... alive. (was,
As— were)
1. He dare not oppose me. 7. ........... he in England to see the coro-
nation ! (was, were)
2. They dare not oppose me.
8. If I ........ you, I would never accept it.
3. He need not go. (was, were)
4. They need not go. Hints— 1. dare; 2.need; 3. dares; 4. needs; 5.
Note—If dare and need are used in the affirma- dare; 6. were; 7. were; 8. were.
tive sense (i.e. without ‘not’) they take Rule 2—If two or more Singular Subjects are
Plural form with the Plural Subject and joined with and, they take verb in the
Singular form with the Singular Subject. Plural Number. As—
As— 1. Ram and Mohan come here every day.
1. He dares. 2. They dare.
2. The father and son work together.
3. He needs. 4. They need.
3. Lightning and thunder come together.
(2) Verbs of Supposition/ Subjunctive Mood 4. Shyam, Mohan and Ashok have come.
The second exception to Rule 1 above is that Rule 3— If two Singular Nouns point to only
Plural Verb is used with Singular Subjects in one person or thing, they take verb in
sentences expressing mere imagination or impos- the Singular Number. As—
sible hope, wish or condition. As— 1. The great poet and scholar is dead.
1. If I were a bird. 2. My friend and benefactor has come.
2. Were I a king. 3. The great warrior and patriot is being
3. How I wish she were here. honoured.
4. If I were you, I would do it. 4. The chief Engineer and Manager of the
5. He behaved as if he were our master. factory has agreed.
8 | L.W.C.E.

Note— It should be kept in mind that when two 1. Each boy and girl has to go.
Nouns point to only one person or thing, 2. Every man, woman and child was glad.
the article is used only once with the first 3. Each day and each hour is important.
noun. If the article is used before both the
4. Every boat and every sailor was lost in
Nouns separately, they would mean to
the storm.
point to two persons or things, and in that
case Plural Verb would be used. As— Rule 6—If two or more Singular Subjects are
joined by or, nor, either… or, or neither
The Chief Engineer and the Manager of the
… nor, they take a Singular Verb. As—
factory have agreed.
1. Either Ram or Shyam is coming today.
Exercise
2. Neither he nor I was there.
Correct the following sentences :
3. Neither food nor water was available
1. Hari and Ram is close friends. there.
2. A man and his wife is standing at the
door. 4. No boy or girl was present on the field.
3. Your house and mine has been damaged. Rule 7—If two or more Subjects are joined by or,
4. The father and son was here yesterday. nor, either … or, or neither … nor, and
5. Mohan and his friend was travelling if they are of different Numbers, the
together. Plural Subject is placed near the verb
6. A car and a scooter has collided. and the verb is used in the Plural Num-
7. I and my friend was injured. ber. As—
8. The great orator and scholar have been 1. Neither the teacher nor his students were
honoured. present there.
9. The noted actor and musician are giving a 2. Either Ram or his friends have broken
demonstration. the glass.
10. My guide and guardian are here today. 3. Ram or his brothers a r e expected to
11. The Chairman and Director are going to come.
preside over the meeting.
4. Mohan nor his friends were invited.
12. The Governor and Chancellor of the
University have passed this ordinance. Rule 8—If two or more Subjects are joined by or,
Hints—1. are; 2. are; 3. have; 4. were; 5. were; nor, either … or, or neither … nor, and
6. have; 7. were; 8. has; 9. is; 10. is; 11. is; if they are of different Persons, the verb
12 has. is used according to the subject nearest
to it. As—
Rule 4—If two Subjects taken together mean one 1. You or Ram is responsible for it.
thing only, they take the verb in the
Singular Number. As— 2. Either you or I am correct.
1. Bread and butter makes a good break- 3. Neither he nor you are to blame.
fast. 4. Either she or you have to do it.
(Taken together) Rule 9—If two or more Subjects are joined by
2. The horse and carriage stands at the and, and if they are of different Num-
door. bers and different Persons, the verb is
3. Slow and steady wins the race. always used in the Plural Number.
4. Early to bed and early to rise Also, if the subjects have any First
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Person, the verb will be in First Person
Rule 5—If two or more Subjects have each or Plural, but if there is no First Person,
every before them, they take the verb in but there is a Second Person, the verb is
the Singular Number. Remember that used in the Second Person Plural Num-
each and every are used before Singular ber. As—
Nouns only. As— 1. He and I are going.
 SYNTAX | 9

2. My father and I have known him for Exercise

many years.
3. You and he are well known here. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
4. You and I have done our best. with appropriate verbs from those given in
brackets against each sentence :
Exercise
1. Neither of these men ........... come here
Correct the following sentences : before. (has, have)
1. Pen and ink are my first requirement. 2. Either Ram or Mohan ....... a fool.
2. The crown and glory of life have depar- (is, are)
ted.
3. Neither tree nor bush ......... there.
3. Rice and fish make my favourite dish.
(was, were)
4. Milk and honey are a rich tonic.
4. No man or woman .......... found there.
5. Truth and honesty are the best policy for
success in business. (was, were)
6. The sum and substance of the matter are 5. Neither of these sisters ........ qualified for
that his policy is bad. the post. (is, are)
7. The joy and happiness of life come from 6. Neither the leader nor his followers
honest labour. ............ arrested. (was, were)
8. Bread and water are the basic need. 7. Either he or his friends .............. answer-
able for it. (is, are)
9. The long and short of the matter are this.
8. Neither the principal nor his teachers
10. Mercy and kindness are the teaching of .......... ever attended the meeting.
all religions.
(have, has)
Hints—1. is; 2. has; 3. makes; 4. is; 5. is; 6. is;
7. comes; 8. is; 9. is; 10. is. 9. Neither the commander nor his soldiers
............... hurt in the action. (was, were)
Exercise 10. Either she or her sisters ............ respon-
In each of the following sentences supply a sible for it. (are, is)
verb in agreement with its subject : 11. Either I or he ........... to blame. (is, are)
1. Each boy and girl ............. ready to go. 12. Neither he nor you ............ expected
there. (are, is)
2. Every table and chair .......... broken.
13. Either I or he ............... to bear the brunt.
3. Every man, woman and child......... to
work in the field. (has, have)
4. Each hour and each minute ......... impor- 14. Either he or you ............... spoilt the
tant in life. game. (has, have)
5. Every horse and camel ........... sold away 15. He or I .......... to suffer. (has, have)
in the fair. 16. Ram and I ............. class-mates.
6. Every cup and saucer ............ the name of (are, am)
the company printed on it. 17. I and you ............ participating in the
7. Each boy and girl ............ given a prize. debate. (are, am)
8. Each page and line ........ badly printed. 18. He and you ............. well known here.
9. Each man and woman .......... ashamed of (is, are)
the incident. 19. She and you ............ to be present there.
10. Each car and scooter ........ been removed. (has, have)
Hints—1. is; 2. is; 3. has; 4. is; 5. has been; 20. He and I .......... lived in the same house.
6. has; 7. was; 8. is; 9. was; 10. has. (has, have)
10 | L.W.C.E.

Hints—1. has; 2. is; 3. was; 4. was; 5. is; 6. were; Some Typical Nouns and the Verb
7. are; 8. have; 9. were; 10. are; 11. is; 12.
are; 13. has; 14. have; 15. have; 16. are; Rule 11—Some Nouns appear to be Plural in
17. are; 18. are; 19. have; 20. have. form, but actually singular in meaning .
These nouns take the verb in the singu-
Collective Noun and the Verb lar number.
Rule 10—With collective Nouns verbs can be The important Nouns of this type are
used either in the Singular or the Plural News, Wages, Physics, Politics, Mathematics,
Number according to sense. If a Economics, Innings (both Singular and Plural),
Collective Noun represents a whole Gallows.
group or a body (institution), it takes a
As—
Singular Verb. But if the Collective
Noun represents a part or parts or 1. Politics is not an easy game.
division of a body, it takes a Plural 2. Mathematics is a difficult subject.
Verb. 3. The wages of sin is death.
4. The news is correct.
The important Collective Nouns are these :
5. Their first innings was disappointing.
Government, Parliament, Assembly, Coun-
cil, committee, army, crew, staff, jury, fleet, Rule 12—Some Nouns appear to be Singular in
crowd, majority, mob. form, but they are actually Plural in
meaning and sense. These nouns take a
As— Plural Verb. The more important of
1. The committee has agreed on this issue. them are—Dozen, score, million,
hundred, thousand, people, cattle. As—
(The verb is Singular because there is no
division in the committee.) 1. A dozen were injured.
2. The committee are divided on this issue. 2. A million were affected by the drought.
(Here the verb is Plural because the 3. A score were saved.
committee is divided.) 4. The cattle are grazing.
5. The people are satisfied.
3. The crew is well trained.
(Here the verb is Singular because the Rule 13—If a Subject has such words or phrases
“crew” represents one undivided group.) as with, together with, along with, in
addition to, as well as connected with
4. The crew were taken prisoners. it, these connected words or phrases do
(Here the verb is Plural because the not affect the verb in any way (because
members of the crew have to be taken they are parenthetical words or phrases)
prisoners separately.) and the verb is used according to the
In the same way— real Subject. As—
5. The Parliament has elected its Speaker. 1. The commander, with all his soldiers,
6. The military were deployed over the was killed.
troubled area. 2. The chief cashier, together with all his
7. The fleet has touched the shore. men, has been dismissed.
8. The Government have decided to intro- 3. He, as well as his friends, has failed.
duce the Bill. 4. Ram, like Mohan and Sohan, is fond of
pictures.
9. The Assembly is in session
Note—
10. The mob has dispersed.
11. The mob have started throwing stones. Such other words and phrases are—like,
12. The jury has come to a unanimous ver- and not, in addition to, no less than, rather
dict. than, more than, unlike, besides, including,
excluding.
13. The jury are divided in opinion.
 SYNTAX | 11

Exercise Rule 15—If a Plural Noun denotes a definite

quantity or number, or amount, or
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences distance, or if it denotes the name of a
with appropriate verbs from those given in country or title of a book, it takes a
brackets against each sentence : Singular Verb with it. As—
1. The commission …… divided in their 1. The United States of America is the
opinion on this issue. (are, is) most powerful country.
2. The committee ……… arrived at a unani- 2. Gulliver’s Travels is a novel of adven-
mous decision. (has, have) ture.
3. The ship sank and the crew …… seen 3. Sixty miles is not a long distance for a
making efforts for life. (was, were) motorist.
4. Ten lakh rupees is a huge sum.
4. The Government ……… been
deliberating over this issue for the last 5. Four quintals is a heavy load for a camel.
two years. (have, has) Exercise
5. The public ……… cast its vote in favour
Correct the following sentences :
of those who are honest and dependable.
1. We, who is your loyal followers, should
(has, have)
be trusted.
6. The Staff Council ….. unanimously passed
2. I, who is your servant, must obey you.
this resolution. (has, have)
3. The books, which is sold here, are all old
7. The Governing Body ……… not yet
ones.
arrived at any agreeable decision.
4. This is one of the books which is most
(have, has)
popular.
8. The jury … awarded death punishment on
5. He is one of those servants who is
him in one voice. (has, have)
absolutely honest.
9. The mob ……… always fickle-minded.
6. The cars that runs fastest are low-roofed.
(is, are)
7. He is one of the greatest leaders that has
10. The Parliament …… elected its Speaker
ever lived.
without voting. (has, have)
8. The books that was found here were
Hints—1. are; 2. has; 3. were; 4. have; 5. has; 6.
mine.
has; 7. have; 8. has; 9. is; 10. has.
9. Where are your friends who comes here
Relative Pronoun and Verb every day ?
Rule 14—If the Subject of a verb is a Relative 10. I don’t remember the lesson that were
Pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, taught yesterday.
that), the verb is used according to the 11. Lamb’s Tales are a very interesting book.
Number and Person of the Antecedent 12. Even ten thousand rupees are a big sum
(i.e. Noun or Pronoun used before it). for me.
As—
13. The United States of America are the
1. I, who am your friend, should help you. most advanced country today.
2. You, who are my friend, should help me. 14. Twenty miles are a long distance for a
3. He, who is your friend, should help you. pedestrian.
4. The pen, which is in your hand, is mine. 15. Five hundred rupees are a big sum for a
5. The book, that is on the table, is very poor man.
interesting. Hints—1. are; 2. am; 3. are; 4. are; 5. are; 6. run;
6. He is one of those boys who work very 7. have; 8. were; 9. come; 10. was; 11. is;
hard. 12 is; 13. is; 14. is; 15. is.
12 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 16—There are certain things which are made 17. That he is your brother now stand confir-
of two major parts. Such things are med.
supposed to be in Plural Number and a
18. Late rising make him late every day.
Plural Verb is used with them. (Such
common things are—Trousers, Scis- Hints—1. are; 2. are; 3. do; 4. have; 5. is; 6. is; 7.
sors, spectacles, shears, tongs, etc.) have; 8. is; 9. is; 10. has; 11. is; 12.
As— shows; 13. is; 14. is; 15 is; 16. is; 17.
1. Your trousers are dirty. stands; 18. makes.
2. Your scissors are blunt. Rule 18—There are certain Adjectives which,
3. The tongs are missing. when joined with the Article the,
4. Where are your spectacles ? become Plural Nouns. They take the
Note—These things can also be referred to as A verb in the Plural Number. (The more
pair of ……. In that case only a Singular common of these adjectives are—Poor,
Verb will be used. As— rich, humble, blind, honest, dumb, etc.)
1. A pair of trousers is ready for you. As—
2. A pair of scissors is on the table. 1. The poor are honest.
Rule 17—If the Subject of a sentence is some (“The poor” means “poor men”
infinitive/ gerund / phrase / clause, only 2. The rich are not used to physical labour.
a Singular Verb will be used. As— (“The rich” means “rich men”.)
1. Walking is a good exercise. 3. The dumb do not speak.
2. To work hard is his lot. 4. The virtuous are respected.
3. How to reach there is the problem.
Rule 19—If in a certain sentence the Subject
4. That he is honest is known to all carries its Apposition with it, the verb
Exercise will be used according to the actual
Subject, not according to its Apposition.
Correct the following sentences :
As—
1. Your trousers is ready.
1. I , the Manager o f t h e M i l l, am not
2. Where is the scissors ?
happy with your work.
3. Your scissors does not cut well.
2. You, my servant, are not loyal to me.
4. My spectacles has been broken.
3. He, your teacher, was here yesterday.
5. Here are a pair of trousers for you.
4. We, your students, are playing a match
6. This pair of scissors are very sharp.
today.
7. His tongs has been lost.
Note—Apposition is the word or phrase used to
8. Telling lies are a bad habit.
explain or identify the Subject. In the
9. Sun-bathing are good in cold countries. above sentence ‘the Manager of the Mill’
10. Cheating your friends have become your is the Apposition of the subject I. Simi-
habit. larly, my servant, your teacher, your
11. To fish in deep waters are his hobby. students are Appositions.
12. To insult the poor show lack of culture. Rule 20—When Adjectives of Quantity (much,
13. What to do in this case are my problem. more, little, less) are used as subjects,
14. How to help this poor woman are our first they take a Singular Verb. As—
consideration. 1. Much has already been done.
15. That he will be suspended are the 2. Little has been done so far.
foregone conclusion. 3. Much more is still needed.
16. That he will win are certain. 4. Much less was expected.
 SYNTAX | 13

Exercise In the same way the following are some more

phrases showing Indefinite Number / Definite
Correct the following sentences : Number in which the same rule applies—
1. The meek is blessed.
(many of, a handful of, the rest of, half
2. The rich lacks in human sympathy.
of, a quarter of, some of, most of, majority
3. The noble is respected in society. of, minority of, part of, percent of, none of,
4. The poor deserves our sympathy. all of, a few of, etc.)
5. The blind needs to get social recognition.
6. We, your admirers, wants to hear you. Quantitative Expressions and the
Verbs
7. He, your employer, are highly pleased
with you. Rule 22—Indefinite Quantity/Definite Quan-
8. You, my cousin, is my only supporter. tity.
9. I, your guardian, is not pleased with your Some expressions suggest Indefinite / Defi-
behaviour. nite quantity. Quantity whether definite or inde-
finite is always taken to be in Singular Number. The
10. Mohan, your ward, have been absenting verb used with it is always in the Singular Num-
himself for the last four days. ber. As—
11. Much remain to be done. 1. Much of milk has turned sour.
12. Little progress have been made since July 2. Plenty of tea has gone waste.
this year. 3. A lot of butter has been purchased.
13. Less than this were not acceptable. 4. A good deal of food was found to be
14. More were expected from a friend like tasteless.
you.
In the same way some other expressions
15. More need to be done. showing Indefinite / Definite Quantity are—a
Hints— 1. are; 2. lack; 3. are; 4. deserve; 5. need; lot of, lots of, heap of, plenty of, half of, a
6. want; 7. is; 8. are; 9. am; 10. has; 11. quarter of, some of, much of, most of, part of,
remains; 12. has been; 13. was; 14. was; all of, rest of, a great deal of.
15. needs.
Note—Some expressions given above under
Numeral Expressions and the Verbs Rules 21 and 22 can express both Number
Rule 21—Indefinite Number/Definite Number and Quantity. If the noun used after of in
+ of A number of/The number of these expressions is countable, i t would
(a) A number of is Indefinite number. show Number; if it is uncountable, it
(b) The number of is Definite number. would show Quantity. A Plural Verb is
used with countable nouns, and a Singular
Therefore A number of + Noun always takes Verb with uncountable nouns.
the verb in the Plural Number because Indefinite Exercise
Number is believed to be Plural. The number of
Choose the correct alternative verb in the
+ Noun takes Singular Verb because Definite following sentences :
Number is believed to be in the Singular Number.
1. A number of agitators has / have been
As— arrested.
(a) 1. A number of boys have come. 2. Some of the books is/are useless.
2. A number of books have been purchased.
3. A handful of strikers was/were agitating.
3. A number of children are playing.
4. Many of them is/are known to me.
4. A number of students are absent.
5. Half of my old friends has/have retired.
(b) 1. The number of students is going down. 6. The number of seats is/are fixed.
2. The number of graduates is increasing. 7. The number of my followers is/are in-
3. The number of employees is fixed. creasing.
4. The number of guests varies. 8. The number of books is/are not known.
14 | L.W.C.E.

9. The number of visitors has/have consi- There are some expressions in which Plural
derably increased. Nouns are used after Singular Collective Nouns
10. The number of members in the Parlia- joined with of, as a group of boys, a team of
ment does/do not increase every time. players, a band of singers. In these expressions
11. Much of time has/have been wasted. the Subjects are group, team, band, and not boys,
players, singers (they being Objects of the
12. A lot of energy has/have gone waste. Preposition of.) Moreover, they are joined into
13. A great deal of patience was/were shown one unit by a Singular Collective Noun. All these
by him. will take Singular Verb. As—
14. A lot of labour is/are needed to complete 1. A team of players is staying here.
this task.
2. A garland of flowers is ready.
15. A great amount of suffering was/were
involved in it. 3. A batch of students is studying here.
16. Some of the milk has/have been set 4. A bunch of grapes has fallen from the
apart. creeper.
17. Some of the people has/have already Some other singular collective nouns are
gone back. these—
18. Plenty of time has/have been spent. a chain of, a garland of, a class of, a bunch
19. Plenty of men has/have already turned of, a series of, a herd of, a flock of, a band of,
up. a set of, a bouquet of, a galaxy of, a fleet of, a
20. None of my friends has/have arrived. pair of, a gang of, etc.

Hints—1. have; 2. are; 3. were; 4. are; 5. have; 6. Exercise

is; 7. is; 8. is; 9. has; 10. does; 11. has; 12.
has; 13. was; 14. is; 15. was; 16. has; 17. Correct the following sentences :
have; 18. has; 19. have; 20. both are 1. Many a chance were given to him.
correct—has in the singular sense and 2. Many a beggar sleep here.
have in the plural. 3. Many a player were injured.
Rule 23—Many a/an + Singular Noun, More 4. Many a game are lost for want of coordi-
than one nation.
Look at expressions like these—Many a boy, 5. Many a life are saved by timely help.
Many an opportunity, More than one chance. 6. More chances than one was given to him.
They are all correct expressions. They are Singu- 7. More beggars than one sleeps here.
lar in form, b u t Plural in meaning. Therefore 8. More games than one is lost for want of
according to their form, they take a Singular coordination.
Verbs. As—
9. A team of actors are going to give a
1. Many a boy is absent today. demonstration.
2. Many a ship is lost in the ocean. 10. A chain of pearls have been broken.
3. Many an opportunity is missed by 11. A flock of birds nest here every year.
negligence.
12. A band of robbers were detected by the
4. More than one chance was given to him. police.
Note—The above noted expressions can be chan- 13. A pair of shoes are urgently needed.
ged and formed thus also—More boys
than one, More opportunities than one, 14. A galaxy of stars are visible in the sky.
More chances than one. The Subject in 15. A series of questions were put to me.
all these expressions is Plural, therefore, Hints—1. was; 2. sleeps; 3. was; 4. is; 5. is; 6.
they require a Plural Verb. were; 7. sleep; 8. are; 9. is;
Rule 24—Singular Collective Noun + of + Plu- 10. has; 11. nests; 12. was; 13. is; 14. is;
ral Noun 15. was.
 SYNTAX | 15

Rule 25—Hyphenated Expressions/Singular Rule 27—As follows

Noun repeated after a Preposition As follows is always used in the Singular
There are some expressions in which the Number. Therefore we can never say ‘As follow’.
same Singular Noun is repeated after a certain As—
Preposition. As—wave after wave, ship after 1. The conditions are as follows.
ship, brick upon brick, row upon row. With all 2. The details of the case are as follows.
such expressions Singular Verb is used.
3. The account of expenditure is as follows.
1. Ship after ship arrives here. 4. The main points are as follows.
2. Wave after wave follows. Rule 28—Not only ......... but.
3. Brick upon brick is laid. If two subjects are connected by ‘Not only
4. Shot after shot was heard. …… but’, the verb should agree in Person and
Rule 26—Verb ‘to be’ + Complement Number with the second subject. As—
The verbs ‘to be’ are—am, is, are, was, were. 1. Not only the teacher but all his students
These verbs always take a complement after them. were injured.
This complement cannot be the subject of the verb 2. Not only I but all my brothers are
‘to be’. The subject comes before the verb ‘to be’ worried about him.
and the complement comes after it. In all such 3. Not only his sons but he himself is a
sentences the verb should be used according to the great artist.
subject, and not according to the complement of 4. Not only they but you are also to blame.
the verb ‘to be’. As— Rule 29—Nothing but + Noun Singular/Plural
1. It is I. (Not—It am I.) Some sentences begin with ‘Nothing but’,
2. It is they. (Not—It are they.) and after this phrase a Singular or a Plural noun
3. It i s my students who won the match. comes. In such sentences a Singular Verb is
(Not—It are my students) always used whether the noun following it is
singular or Plural. The reason is that its subject is
4. My great hope is my sons. Nothing which is always Singular. As—
5. Here the greatest danger is the snakes. 1. Nothing but blue waters was seen.
Exercise 2. Nothing but smoke was there.
3. Nothing but ceaseless toil was his lot.
Choose the correct alternative verb in the
following sentences : 4. Nothing but hills is seen there.
1. Question after question was/were asked Verb ‘to be’ and the Complement
to me. Rule 30—There is/There are
2. Problem after problem was/were brought In sentences beginning with There, the verb
before me. is or are is used according to the Number of the
Noun coming after the verb. As—
3. Box into box w a s / w e r e placed and
1. There is a book on the table.
locked.
2. There are some books on the table.
4. Attempt after attempt was/were made.
3. There are many chairs.
5. Storey upon storey is/are being built. 4. There is a chair in the room.
6. It is/are they who will help. In the sentences given above, in sentences at
7. My great disappointment is/are my No. 1 and 4 the Nouns book and chair are singu-
repeated failures. lar, therefore the verb is singular (is); in sentences
8. It is/are we who have to take the at No. 2 and 3 the Nouns books and chairs are
responsibility. Plural, therefore the verb is also Plural (are).
9. It is/are they who have deceived me. Exercise
10. It is/are I who shall have to go. Correct the following sentences :
Hints—1. was; 2. was; 3. was; 4. was; 5. is; 6. is; 1. My comments are as follow.
7. is; 8. is; 9. is; 10. is. 2. His observations were as follow.
16 | L.W.C.E.

3.My story is as follow. 12. Each of these brothers have started a

4.The details of the accident are as follow. good business.
5.His concluding remarks were as follow. 13. The cattle is theirs.
6.Not only I but all my sons am ready to go. 14. Not only silver but also gold are widely
7.Not only the strikers but also their leader popular in our country.
were arrested. 15. Every bush and tree were blossoming.
8. Not only my watch but all my belongings 16. This is one of the best novels that has
has been stolen. appeared this year.
9. Not only Mahatma Gandhi but all his 17. Every one of the boys were on the
followers in the march was arrested. playground.
10. Not only my sister but I also is innocent. 18. The number of men employed were very
11. Nothing but green fields were seen over small.
the whole area. 19. The sum and substance of the matter are
12. Nothing but darkness prevail there. that he is wrong.
13. Nothing but heads of men were seen over 20. Nothing but funny stories delight him.
the field. 21. Those who lives in glass houses should
14. Nothing but peak over peak appear over not throw stones.
there. 22. A variety of charming scenes appear
15. Nothing but memories of the past last in before the eye.
the end. 23. Good news have come today.
16. There are a lion in the cage. 24. Neither of the sisters were liked.
17. There is parrots of all colours in the cage. 25. Five thousand rupees a month are a good
18. There are no fact to hide. income.
19. There is no facts to hide. 26. Either of these books are worth reading.
20. There are my son with his friends. 27. Neither you nor Ram seem to be
Hints—1. follows; 2. follows; 3. follows; 4. interested in the matter.
follows; 5. follows; 6. are; 7. was; 8. 28. One of my cousins have settled in
have; 9. were; 10. am 11. was; 12. America.
prevails; 13. was; 14. appears, 15. lasts; 29. The quality of the mangoes were not
16. is; 17. are; 18. is; 19. are; 20. is. good.
Miscellaneous : Test Exercise I 30. Justice, as well as mercy, allow it.
Hints—1. was; 2. is; 3. is; 4. has; 5. has; 6. is; 7.
Correct the following sentences :
is; 8. are; 9. is; 10. are; 11. is; 12. has; 13.
1. Our only guide were the teachers. are; 14. is; 15. was; 16. have; 17. was; 18.
2. Fifty years are a long period. was; 19. is; 20. delights; 21. live; 22.
3. His friend and benefactor are dead. appears, 23. has; 24. was; 25. is; 26. is;
4. Many a man have read this book. 27. seems; 28. has; 29. was; 30. allows.
5. He, as well as his friends, have come. Test Exercise II
6. What is wanted are not buildings but
good students. Supply a verb in agreement with its
7. Arabian Nights are a book for children. subject :
8. Our followers is but a handful. 1. Two and two .......... four.
9. The great poet and dramatist are dead. 2. There ........... many proposals before us.
10. You, who is my friend, should support 3. There ........... no provision for it.
me. 4. Neither his father nor his mother .........
11. The father, with his two sons, are stand- any knowledge of it.
ing outside. 5. The Board ......... chosen its chairman.
 SYNTAX | 17

6. The public ......... requested not to cross Rule 1—First Person Pronoun
the Railway track. (a) First Person Pronoun Singular Number I
7. The popular leader with his followers takes me, my, mine, myself.
......... been arrested. (b) First Person Plural W e, takes our, us,
8. Not one of you ......... capable of doing ours, ourselves. As—
this. 1. I shall do it myself.
9. No news ........... good news. 2. I shall have my chance.
10. One or the other of those boys ......... 3. We shall do it ourselves.
stolen my watch. 4. We shall have our chance.
11. Neither of the guests ......... known to me. Rule 2—Second Person Pronoun
12. Two-thirds of the city ............. in ruins. Second Person Pronoun you remains the same
both in Singular and Plural Numbers. It takes
13. Neither pleasure nor profit ........... my
your, yours, yourself, yourselves. As—
weakness.
14. Milton was one of the greatest poets that 1. You can do it yourself.
......... ever lived. 2. You should do your work.
15. The cost of all these articles .......... risen. Rule 3—Third Person Pronoun : Masculine/
Feminine, Singular/ Plural Number.
Test Exercise III (i) Third Person, Singular Number, Masculine
Explain why the following sentences are Gender takes he, him, his, himself.
correct or incorrect : (ii) Third Person, Singular Number, Feminine
1. Much of time has been wasted. Gender takes she, her, hers, herself.
2. Every one of them were present. (iii) Nouns of Neuter Gender and most of the
3. Mohan, with all his friends, have missed animals in the Singular Number take It, Its,
the train. Itself.
4. Three parts of the work still remains to be (iv) Third Person Plural Number, both in Mas-
completed. culine and Feminine genders, all neuter
5. Three-fourths of the books has been eaten nouns and all animals in Plural Number take
by white-ants. They, them, their, theirs, themselves. As—
6. Either he or I has to go. 1. He will do his work himself.
2. She will do her work herself.
7. One of the most serious accidents has
occurred. 3. Those boys will do their work them-
selves.
8. Many a passenger have missed the train.
4. Those girls will do their work them-
9. The Parliament have been debating on the selves.
Bill since the morning.
5. This book is mine. I lent it to you some
10. She and I was playing in the garden. time back.
11. Mystery within mystery was revealed 6. Those books are mine. I lent them to you
before me. some time back.
12. A chain of accidents have occurred. 7. Every student has completed his work.
Rule 4—Common Gender
Concord of Nouns, Pronouns and Some Nouns are of Common Gender, i.e.,
Possessive Adjectives they can be used both in the Masculine and
We have explained above the rules of agree- Feminine Genders. With such nouns Masculine
ment of Subject and Verb. In addition to these, Pronoun is mostly used. These Nouns of Com-
there are also some rules of agreement between mon Gender are :
Noun, Pronoun and Possessive Adjectives. We Person, student, pupil, candidate, member,
give below these rules. scholar, reader, etc. As—
18 | L.W.C.E.

1. A candidate should know his strong and On the basis of the rules explained above the
weak points. following two Tables can be made for the correct
2. A student should do his home work use of Pronouns—
regularly. Table I : Third Person Pronoun
3. Readers are advised to keep their
belongings outside. Noun Corresponding
But if in a definite context the suggestion is Pronoun
clearly for a girl or a woman, Feminine Pronoun man, boy, everyone, he, him, his, himself
can be used. As— everybody, every
1. A student of the Women’s College person
should be regular in her work. woman, girl, every she, her, hers, herself
2. Every member of our club should pay woman, every girl
her fee in time. a thing, an animal it, its, itself
Rule 5—Baby, child, one one, one’s, oneself
The words Baby and child connote no sense men, women, people, they, them, their,
of Gender. Therefore, for them we generally use animals, things theirs,
It. As— themselves.
1. The small child was crying for its mother. Table II : All Forms of Personal Pronouns
2. The baby fell down from its cradle.
Rule 6—Animals Personal
Pronoun
Neuter Gender (It) is generally used for
animals. As— Nomi- Accus- Posses Posses- Reflexive
native ative -sive sive Pronoun
1. The cow is not in its shed.
Adjec- Pro-
2. The dog has hurt its leg. tive noun
Note—For pet domestic animals He / his or She / I me my mine myself
her are used.
you you your yours yourself
Rule 7—Possessives : His, Her, Its he him his his himself
The Gender of a Possessive Pronoun / Adjec- she her her hers herself'
tive is determined by the gender of the noun that
it it its its itself
comes before it, and not by the one that comes
after it. As— one one one’s one’s oneself
1. A son must obey his mother. (not her we us our ours ourselves
mother) you you your yours yourselves
2. A girl can learn many things from her they them their theirs themselves
father. (not his father)
3. The purse has been returned to its owner. Exercise
(not his owner) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Note—The difference between a Possessive with correct pronouns or possessive adjectives :
Pronoun and a Possessive Adjective is 1. You must write .......... essays more care-
that— fully.
(a) Possessive Adjective takes a Noun after 2. The dog is very faithful to .......... master.
it— 3. The children have gone on a picnic with
My book, your house, his pen, their ......... parents.
college. 4. Sheela has misplaced ........... books some-
(b) Possessive Pronoun has no Noun after it. where.
This book is mine. This house is yours. 5. Could you please lend.........your dictio-
This pen is his. This college is theirs. nary for a day ?
 SYNTAX | 19

6. She speaks so softly that we cannot hear 5. The pet dog is playing with.......... master.
............ . 6. The street dog has hidden ............. behind
7. We offered to help.........in their difficulty. the wall.
8. They will go there ............ .
7. She received a beautiful present from
9. My sister and ............. friends have come. .......... husband.
10. She cannot go against the wishes of .........
father. 8. One should honour .............. word.
11. The baby is in .......... mother’s arms. 9. Visitors are requested to put............
12. The train is running on .......... track. signatures in the register.
Hints— 1. your; 2. its; 3. their; 4. her; 5. me; 6. 10. This pen is ........... . Where is ......... ?
her; 7. them; 8. themselves. 9. her. 10. 11. They should not have spent that money,
her; 11. its; 12. its. as it was not ........ .
Test Exercise 12. We should be very careful in spending
Insert suitable pronouns or possessive ......... money.
adjectives in the blank spaces in the following 13. Do you remember........and.........address ?
sentences : 14. ........... house is bigger than .......... .
1. The baby was crying because .......... was
15. The principal asked the students to meet
hungry.
......... in ....... office.
2. Neeru is two years older than ........
brother. 16. A reader has left............book on the table.
3. These children are waiting for ......... Hints—1. it; 2. her; 3. their; 4. their; 5. his; 6.
father to return. itself; 7. her; 8. one’s; 9. their; 10. mine,
4. He and his two sons have gone to visit yours; 11. theirs; 12. our; 13. her, her; 14.
.......... grandfather. her, his; 15. him, his; 16. his.
 3 Articles
Kinds of Articles (i) Article A is used before Nouns of which
the spellings begin with a consonant. As—
There are two kinds of Articles—
(i) Indefinite Article—A or An A boy, a table, a house, a book.
(ii) Definite Article—The (ii) Article A is also used before words which
begin with a vowel but are pronounced as with a
Indefinite Article (A/An) shows indefinite- consonant. As—
ness and Definite Article (The) shows definite-
ness. A European, a unique chance, a one-rupee
note, a usual sight, a universal truth.
Articles (A, An, The) are used before Nouns
under some rules. When a Singular Countable Such other words are—University, utensil,
Noun is used for the first time, Article A or An is uniform, union, unity, unit, united, unitarian, use-
used before it. But when a Countable Noun, ful, one.
whether Singular or Plural, is used for a definite Note—You will see that all these words begin
thing, or refers to a thing or person that has with the sound of y or w (which are con-
already been referred to earlier, Article The is sonants) and not with the sound of any
used before it. Thus when a Singular Countable vowel.
Noun is used for the first time, Article a or an is
used before it, but when the same noun is repeated (iii) Article An is used before those words
in the same sentence or in the subsequent sen- which begin with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u). As—
tences, Article The is used before it because then An enemy, an ox, an inkpot, an ass.
it becomes a definite thing already referred to (iv) Article An is also used before those words
earlier. As— which begin with silent / mute h. As—
1. I have a book. The book is very informa- an hour, an honourable man, an honest per-
tive. son.
2. I have a book, though the book is not
very informative. Such other words are—heir, heiress, heir-
3. There was a house. The house was very loom, honest, honesty, honorarium, honorary,
large. honour, honourable, hour, hourly.
4. There was a house and the house was Note—Earlier humble, humility, hotel, hostel,
very large. hospital were also supposed to begin with
Singular Indefinite Noun A or An silent h, and article a n was used before
them. But now these words are pronounced
Singular/Plural Definite Noun The with the consonant sound of h , and
Forms of Indefinite Article therefore article a is used before them.
Indefinite Article has two forms—A and An. (v) Some Abbreviations are there which are
Which one of these two forms will be used before pronounced with a Vowel sound and therefore
a certain Noun depends upon the spellings, sound article an is used before them. As—
or pronunciation of the Noun under reference. The an M. A.; an M. P.; an M. L. A.; an F. I. R;
following are its rules— an S. D. O.; an H. M. T.; an R. T. O. etc.
 ARTICLES | 21

Note—If the above noted Abbreviations are used 1. A cow has horns. (i.e., All cows have
in their full form, they take article a. As— horns.)
A Member of Parliament (an M. P.) 2. An eagle flies very high. (i.e., All eagles
A Master of Arts (an M. A.) fly very high.)
Exercise 3. A dog is a faithful animal.
4. A rose smells very sweet.
Fill in the blanks with a/an in the following
sentences : Rule 3—Article A or An is used before a Noun
Complement. As—
1. He is .............. University Professor.
1. He is a lawyer.
2. The workers have formed .......... union.
2. He became a great sportsman.
3. Here is ............. egg.
3. She is an expert in this field.
4. He is ............. M. A. in English.
4. You are a good companion.
5. I want to purchase .......... H. M. T. watch.
Rule 4—a/an + Adjective/Adverb + Noun
6. He gave the beggar ............. one-rupee
If an Adjective /Adverb comes before a Noun,
note.
Article A or A n is used before the Adjective /
7. This is ................ usual sight. Adverb, and its form is determined by the nearest
8. This is ........... useful medicine. word. As—
9. We shall stay in .......... hotel. 1. She is a beautiful girl.
10. There is .......... hospital in our colony. 2. He is an honest man.
11. He reached there ......... hour late. 3. He is a very honest man.
12. I have to make .......... humble proposal. 4. This is an old rare book.
13. This is .......... honorary job. Rule 5—a/an + more than one Noun
14. My brother is ......... M. P. (a) When more than one Noun or Adjective
15. He is strong like .......... ox. points to one Person or Thing only,
Article A or An is used before the first
16. ......... boy is waiting for you. word only, and its form is also deter-
17. He wrote ......... article for the paper. mined by the same first word.
18. There is .......... inkpot on the table. (b) But if they point to different Persons or
Hints—(1) a; (2) a; (3) an; (4) an; (5) an; (6) a; (7) Things, Article A or A n is used before
a; (8) a; (9) a; (10) a; (11) an; (12) a; (13) each word, and its form is determined by
an; (14) an; (15) an; (16) A; (17) an; (18) each word separately. As—
an. 1. He gave me a red and blue pencil. (Only
(i) Use of Indefinite Article—‘A’/ ‘An’ one pencil)
The following are the rules of correct use of 2. He gave me a red and a blue pencil.
Indefinite Article A or An :— (Two pencils)
Rule 1—Singular Countable Noun 3. Here is an ugly and foolish man. (One
person)
When a Singular Countable Noun is used
for the first time, Article A or An is used before it. 4. Here is an ugly and a foolish man. (Two
As— persons)
1. I have a book. Exercise
2. He is a boy. Correct the following sentences :
3. There is an eagle. 1. She has beautiful toy.
4. Delhi is a city. 2. I take egg every morning with breakfast.
Rule 2—When a Singular Countable Noun re- 3. I saw large a lion in the zoo.
presents a whole class, Article A, or An 4. Elephant has a long trunk.
is used before it. As— 5. Hungry lion would attack.
22 | L.W.C.E.

6. Duck swims on water. Rule 9—Numerical expressions

7. Eagle is a bird of prey. Article A or An is used before some Nume-
8. My father is doctor. rical Expressions also. The more common of
9. His brother is a M. P. such expressions are—
10. He has become great a man. a couple, a dozen, a score, a hundred, a
thousand, a million, a lot of, a great many of, etc.
11. He is an very industrious student. As—
12. Shakespeare is renowned dramatist. 1. A couple of people were there.
13. This is a ancient monument. 2. He gave me a thousand rupees.
14. He lives in old ancestral a house. 3. A great many visitors had turned up.
15. My teacher is a poet and a novelist. 4. A score of houses had been damaged.
16. A poet and novelist write differently. Rule 10—Expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.
17. He is honest and a dependable man. Article A or An is also used with expressions
18. There can be no friendship between a of price, speed, ratio, etc. As—
clever and selfish man. 1. The train is running at ninety kilometers
Hints—(1) a beautiful; (2) an egg; (3) a large lion; an hour.
(4) An elephant; (5) A hungry lion; (6) A 2. Bananas are available at ten rupees a
duck; (7) An eagle; (8) a doctor; (9) an dozen.
M. P.; (10) a great man; (11) a very; (12) a
3. Sugar sells at ten rupees a kilogram.
renowned; (13) an ancient; (14) an old
ancestral house; (15) a poet and novelist; 4. Colour and water are mixed at a ratio of
(16) a novelist; (17) an honest and depen- one to five.
dable; (18) a selfish man. 5. Take this medicine three times a day.
Rule 6—Such + a/an Rule 11—a/an + Mr. /Mrs./Miss + Surname
When such is used with a Countable Noun, If we know only the surname of a person, and
Article A or An is used after such. As— know nothing more, we use Article A or An
1. I have never seen such a beautiful before the surname. As—
picture. (not a such beautiful) 1. A Mr. Sharma came in the morning.
2. Such a thing has never happened before. 2. I met a Mrs. Peters in the train.
3. It was such a fine show. 3. A Miss Renick is a regular visitor here.
4. He gave us such a pleasant surprise.
4. A Ms. Puri is waiting for you.
Rule 7—So + Adjective + a/an + Noun
Rule 12—A few/a little
When so comes before an Adjective, Article
A or An is used between the Noun and Adjective. We should use a few for a small number, and
As— a little for small quantity. As—
1. I have never seen so beautiful a picture. 1. Here is a little milk.
(not a so beautiful picture) 2. Here are a few pencils.
2. It was so fine a show. 3. He is a little tired.
3. He gave us so pleasant a surprise. 4. There is a little time left.
4. I have never read so interesting a novel. Rule 13—a/an with some phrases
Rule 8—Exclamations Article A or An is also used before some
Article A or A n is used before a Singular typical expressions. The more common of them
Countable Noun in Exclamatory sentences also. are—
As— to make a noise, to take a fancy to, to
1. What a hot day ! have a headache/a pain, to take a liking to, to
2. What a cruel act ! have a cold, to have a mind, to have an eye to,
3. What a pretty child ! to make a fire, to be in a hurry, to be in a
temper, to have a taste for.
4. What a good chance !
 ARTICLES | 23

Exercise Exercise : Revision

Correct the following sentences : Tell whether the use of article a/an in the
1. I have never gone to a such place. following sentences is right or wrong. If wrong,
correct it.
2. A such accident never occurred before.
1. He is a very honourable man.
3. It gave us such rude shock.
2. He is a N. C. C. officer.
4. I have never seen such attractive a
picture. 3. He is a extremely liberal man.
5. He has given me a so beautiful prize. 4. A cobra is poisonous.
6. We never believed he could do so a cruel 5. He is a blind and a lame man.
deed. 6. I saw a blind and a lame man.
7. It was so exciting match. 7. She is such a cultured girl.
8. What noble deed was done ! 8. She is a such cultured a girl.
9. A what shame was it ! 9. She is such cultured girl.
10. How a vast desert was there ! 10. It was so a wonderful sight.
11. He gave them lot of books. 11. It was a so wonderful sight.
12. We saw score of houses in the new 12. It was so wonderful a sight.
colony. 13. What a beautiful catch !
13. He earns an about thousand rupees per 14. What beautiful a catch !
month.
15. He will get a couple of chances more.
14. Rajdhani Express runs at a speed of 200
16. He will get a couples of chances more.
kilometers hour.
17. I can drive at an 80 kilometers hour.
15. I go on my tours twice week.
18. Few a men are still there.
16. Wheat sells at four rupees kilogram.
19. I have a liking for a old model.
17. There is a call from Miss Sharma.
20. Please make an fire.
18. Mr. Wahi is waiting for you.
21. I found him in bad a temper.
19. I saw him little while ago.
22. I am in no a hurry.
20. There are only few books left.
21. We found him little upset. (II) Article—‘The’
22. He has caught severe cold. Article The is used under the following Rules
and conditions—
23. He is rather in hurry.
Rule 1—Definite Person or Thing
24. Please don’t make noise.
As has been explained above at the beginning
25. I have mind to purchase this scooter.
of this Chapter, Article The is used before a
Hints—(1) such a place; (2) such an accident; (3) definitely specified person or thing. In other
such a; (4) such an attractive; (5) so words, the is used before a person or a thing
beautiful a; (6) so cruel a; (7) so exciting a; which has already been referred to earlier, or
(8) a noble deed; (9) What a; (10) How which has been specified in some other way. As—
vast a; (11) a lot of; (12) a score of; (13) 1. This is the house in which my friend
about a thousand; (14) an hour; (15) a lives.
week; (16) a kilogram; (17) a Miss (Here a house cannot be used because
Sharma; (18) A Mr. Wahi; (19) a little the house has been specified as the one
while; (20) a few books; (21) a little; (22) where my friend lives.)
a severe; (23) a hurry; (24) a noise; (25) a 2. The place where I was born is far away
mind. from here.
24 | L.W.C.E.

3. This is the book I purchased yesterday. Exercise

4. He is the gentleman whom I introduced Correct the following sentences :
to you last year. 1. An advice you gave me has brought me
Rule 2—Before all those Common Nouns which great success.
are only one or believed to be only one, 2. I have never seen a house where I spent
but which are not Proper Nouns. As— my childhood.
1. The earth is round. 3. Sun rises in the east.
2. The sky is blue. 4. There are dark clouds in sky.
3. The sun has risen. 5. The man cannot do without work.
6. The woman is confined to the kitchen.
4. The moon shines.
7. Himalayas are spread all along the north
Rule 3—Before all those Singular Nouns which of India.
represent their whole class. As—
8. Man has climbed to the top of the Mount
1. The cow is a gentle animal. Everest.
2. The rose is a sweet smelling flower. 9. I read Indian Express.
3. The apple is good for children. 10. Dickens’s the David Copperfield is a
great novel.
4. The horse lives on grass.
Hints—(1) The advice; (2) the house; (3) the sun;
Note—But Article the is not used before Man, (4) the sky; (5) ‘The’ not to be used; (6)
Woman, or Mankind even if they may ‘The’ not to be used; (7) The Himalayas;
represent the whole class. As— (8) no ‘the’ before Mount Everest; (9) the
Man is a social animal. (Not The man) Indian Express; (10) ‘the’ not to be used.
Woman is man’s partner. (Not The Rule 6—Before musical instruments. As—
woman) The flute, the guitar, the orchestra.
Rule 4—Before the names of mountains, rivers, Rule 7—Before Superlative Adjective/Adverb.
oceans, lakes, bays, islands article The is As—
used. As—
The highest mountain, the longest river,
1. The Ganges is a holy river. the best boy, the most important point,
2. The Himalayas are the highest moun- the most honourable man.
tains. Rule 8—Before that Proper Noun which carries
3. The Red Sea is a small sea. its qualifying adjective before it. As—
4. The British Isles are in Europe. The great Caesar, the immortal Shakes-
peare, the gentle-hearted Lamb, the brave
Note—But article The is not used before a single Rana Pratap, the late Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
specified Peak or Hill. As—
Rule 9—Before the Common Noun which ex-
Mount Everest (The will not be used.) presses the sense of Abstract Noun. As—
Mount Abu 1. The patriot in him did not let him yield.
Rule 5—Article The is used before the titles of 2. The warrior in him kept his morale
books, magazines or News-papers. As— high.
The Ramayan, The Iliad, The Vedas, 3. The father in him came to his support at
The Gulliver’s Travels. last.
Note—But if the author’s name is mentioned with Rule 10—Before the Adjective which is used as
the title of a book, article the is not used. Collective Noun. As—
As— 1. We should help the poor.
Homer’s Iliad, Tulsi’s Ramcharitmanas; 2. The meek are blessed.
Shakespeare’s Tempest. 3. The noble are always respected.
 ARTICLES | 25

Rule 11— With Double Comparative Adverb. Exercise

As— Correct the following sentences :
1. The more he gets, the more he desires. 1. She can very well play on guitar.
(Remember that the Article the is used 2. Now I come to most important point.
before each Adverb separately.)
3. He has scored highest marks.
2. The more, the merrier.
4. The last speaker was great Gandhi.
3. The harder he works, the better returns
he will get. 5. Late Mrs. Indira Gandhi lived here.
Rule 12—Article the is also used before those 6. He was last to come.
Proper Nouns which stand for some 7. Mother in her could not bear it.
Nation or People. As— 8. Warrior in him stood undaunted.
1. The English are very hard working. 9. This is the school for blind.
2. The French are very fashionable. 10. Blessed are poor.
3. The German are heroic people. 11. The faster you go, earlier you reach.
Note—If Article the is not used before such 12. Faster you go, the earlier you reach.
countries or nations, they would mean the
13. Faster you go, earlier you reach.
Language of those countries or nations.
Thus English means English Language, 14. He knows the French.
and The English means English People. 15. English are traditionalists.
Rule 13—Article the is also used before a noun to 16. He is scientist of the day.
give it the force of the Superlative. 17. The marriage takes place on 12th of
As— December.
1. He is the scholar of the day. 18. Richard Second was murdered in his own
2. He is the historian on this period. country.
Rule 14—Before Ordinal Number the. As— 19. You will find this topic in the V chapter.
The first, the Fifth, the fourth, the 4th, 20. You will find this topic in fifth chapter.
the 8th, the 3rd, the 2nd, the 15th of
April/the fifteenth of April, George the 21. He has joined Navy.
Fifth, Henry the 8th. 22. He has opted to join legal profession.
Note—But if these Ordinal Numbers are written 23. Akbar, great Moghul, was a liberal
in Roman figures Article the is not used. I, monarch.
II, III, IV, V, IX, etc. are in Roman figures. 24. Nehru, Prime Minister of India, was a
As— great man.
V Chapter, Canto XII, George V, Henry
25. Caesar, Roman hero, was killed by his
VIII.
own friends.
Rule 15—Before Professions. As—
Hints—(1) the guitar; (2) the most; (3) the
1. He has joined the Bar.
highest; (4) the great; (5) the late; (6) the
2. He has gone to the navy. last; (7) The mother; (8) The warrior; (9)
3. I am interested in the teaching profes- the blind; (10) the poor; (11) the earlier;
sion. (12) The faster; (13) The faster, the earlier;
4. He is a member of the Bench. (14) ‘the’ not to be used; (15) The English;
Rule 16—Before Common Nouns used as appo- (16) the scientist; (17) the 12th; (18) the
sitions to Proper Nouns. As— Second; (19) ‘the’ not to be used; (20) the
Delhi, the capital of India; Nehru, the fifth; (21) the Navy; (22) the legal; (23) the
great patriot; Rana Pratap, the great great; (24) the Prime Minister; (25) the
warrior. Roman hero.
26 | L.W.C.E.

(III) Omission of Articles Rule 5—No Article is used before Collective

No Articles are used in the following cases— Nouns. As—
1. Society will not permit it.
Rule 1—Before Plural Noun
2. Parliament is in session.
Normally no Articles are used before 3. Jury has given its verdict.
Plural Nouns. As—
4. Army is on the move.
1. Birds fly.
Rule 6—Normally no Article is used before the
2. Cows give milk. names of countries or States. But Article
3. I love books. The is used before the names of the
Note—But if the Plural Noun points to some following Countries / States—
specific or special thing, Article The is The U. S. A., The U. S. S. R., The Sudan,
used. As— The Netherlands, The Punjab, The Congo.
1. The birds of Africa are large in size. Rule 7—No Article is used before the names of
Languages. As—
2. The cows of Haryana give much milk.
1. I know English.
Rule 2—Before a Proper Noun, As—
2. He knows French.
1. Ram is coming.
Rule 8—No Article is used before the names of
2. Mohan loves his sister. Diseases, Festivals, and Seasons. As—
Rule 3—Before an Abstract Noun, As— 1. Cholera has broken out.
1. Love is blind. 2. He is coming on Christmas.
2. Wisdom comes with age. 3. These are winter sports.
4. Let us visit Shimla in spring.
3. This is real beauty.
5. I don’t travel in summer.
Rule 4—Before a Material Noun, As—
Rule 9—No Article is used before the names of
1. Gold is costly. Games, Sports and Meals/Breakfast. As—
2. Silver is white. 1. I am late for dinner.
3. Cotton grows in our country. 2. I take breakfast quite early.
4. Water is life. 3. I shall return for supper.
(Gold, silver, iron, glass, wood, stone, 4. He plays cricket.
paper, wine, coffee, tea, etc. are called 5. They are fond of football.
Material Noun) Rule 10—No Article is used before Relations
Note—All the Nouns mentioned under Rules No. such as father, mother, brother, sister,
2, 3 and 4 above are called Uncountable aunt, uncle, etc. cook and nurse are
Nouns. Normally, as has been explained also to be included in this list. As—
above, no Article is used before them. But 1. Father is coming today.
if these nouns are used as Countable
Nouns, Article the is used before them. If 2. Mother is not well today.
these nouns are followed by some 3. Cook is in the kitchen.
Prepositional Phrase (with in or of), they 4. Nurse is very kind.
become Countable Nouns. In such cases Rule 11—School, college, church, chapel, court,
Article The is used before them. As— work, hospital, market, bed, table, sea,
1. Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. prison also take no Article before them
2. The beauty of Kashmir is remarkable. when they are used for their specific
3. The gold of Kollar fields is not of high purpose or function. For example,
quality. schools / Colleges for education, church
4. The milk in the cup has turned sour. for prayer, and market for purchase or
5. The wisdom of Solomon was known far sale. When used in this sense, they take
and wide. no Article. As—
 ARTICLES | 27

1. I am going to college. (for study) 3. Horses of Kabul are very famous.

2. I am going to church. (for prayer or 4. The mercy is a Divine virtue.
worship) 5. He was afflicted with the blindness.
But when they mean only building or 6. Have the pity on him.
place for visit or sight–seeing or any 7. The beauty is a gift of God.
other purpose, they take appropriate 8. Beauty of the rising sun is so exciting.
Article. As— 9. The water is very scarce here.
1. The college is at the next crossing. 10.Tea of the Malabar Hills is of good
2. The church is magnificent. quality.
3. The market is closed. 11. The Parliament has passed this bill.
Rule 12—Distributive Adjective + Noun require 12. U. S. S. R. has been split up into several
no Article. As— countries.
1. Each boy got a prize. (not, a/the each 13. Punjab is a very fertile state.
boy) 14. He has been afflicted by the cholera.
2. I love every student. (not, a/the every 15. We go to some hill station in the summer.
student) 16. He takes the dinner after 10 p. m.
Rule 13—Possessive Adjective + Noun also re- 17. I have received a letter from the father.
quire no Article. As— 18. I have to go to the college today.
1. This is my house. (not, the/a my house) 19. College building is very impressive.
2. He is your friend. (not, a/the your friend.) 20. The each boy participated in the games.
3. These are our cows. (not, the our cows) 21. Each the boy participated in the games.
Rule 14—Proper Noun + Apostrophe’s + Noun 22. I know the every student by name.
take no Article. As— 23. We are all going to the church.
1. This is Ram’s house. (not, a Ram’s 24. We are all going to church to see the
house) carvings on its walls.
2. That was Mohan’s mistake. (not, a/the 25. That is a Nehru’s statue.
Mohan’s mistake) 26. This is lion’s cave.
Note—But if a Common Noun has Apostrophe s 27. This is farmer’s plough.
(’s), it takes an appropriate Article. As— 28. There is a no book on the table.
1. This is a n old man’s house. (not, old 29. He has a not any new suit.
man’s house) 30. I did not find a any friend there.
2. That is a beggar’s cottage. (not, beggar’s Hints—(1) ‘the’ not to be used; (2) The children
cottage) (3) The horses; (4) ‘the’ not to be used;
Rule 15—No/Not any + Noun need no Article. (5) ‘the’ not to be used; (6) No ‘the’; (7)
As— No ‘the‘; (8) the beauty; (9) No ‘the’; (10)
The tea; (11) No ‘the’; (12) the U. S. S.
1. There is no boy in the class. (not, a no R.; (13) the Punjab; (14) No ‘the’; (15)
boy) No ‘the’; (16) No ‘the’; (17) No ‘the’;
2. She has not any chance. (not, a not any (18) No ‘the’; (19) The college; (20) No
chance) ‘The’; (21) No ‘the’; (22) No ‘the’; (23)
3. There is not any egg. (not, not an any No ‘the’; (24) the church; (25) No ‘a’;
egg) (26) a lion’s; (27) a farmer’s; (28) No ‘a’;
(29) No ‘a’; (30) No ‘a’.
Exercise
Rule 16—The Noun (complement) used after
Correct the following sentences : Elect / appoint / make / crown requires
1. I love the children. no Article. Such nouns refer to men of
2. Children of this school are very smart. unique position. As—
28 | L.W.C.E.

1. He was appointed principal. Exercise

2. They made him chairman. Correct the following sentences :
3. They are going to crown him king.
1. He has been appointed the Vice-Chan-
4. He was elected Speaker of the Assembly. cellor.
Rule 17—The noun used after kind of / sort of 2. He has been elected the Speaker of the
also takes no Article. As— Parliament.
1. What kind of chair do you want to buy ? 3. They made him the Chief Guest.
2. I cannot deal with this sort of man. 4. What kind of a house do you want to
Note—But if kind of / sort of refers to some buy?
special quality or talent, it would take an 5. What sort of a man is he ?
appropriate Article. As— 6. They are the brother and sister.
1. What kind of a musician is he ? 7. They went round from the house to
2. What sort of a problem would you house.
discuss ?
8. They knocked from the door to door.
Rule 18— Nouns coming in pairs also take no
Article. As— 9. I travelled by the road.
They are wife and husband. 10. This house is for the sale.
Other such pairs are— 11. I have no work in the hand.
12. Your demand is under the consideration.
Father and mother; brother and sister; father
and son; from door to door; from house to 13. He is in the trouble.
house; face to face; hand to hand; from man to 14. He was at the fault.
man; from village to village, etc. 15. He is in America at the present.
Rule 19—Some popular Phrases, Idiomatic Hints—(1, 2, 3)—No ‘the’; (4, 5)—No ‘a’; (6 to
expressions, places and things also take 15)—No ‘the’.
no Article before the Noun in them. (IV) Position of Articles
They are—
It is equally necessary to know the place /
1. to go to school, college, court, church, position in a sentence where the Article (a, an or
market, bed, home, hospital, prison. the) should be used. The following are the Rules
2. by road, by train, by air, by sea, by for it—
ship/steamer, by train, by bus, by car. Rule 1—Before a Noun
3. at home, at church, at school, at college, Normally Article (a, an or the) is used
at office, at dawn, at night, at noon, all before a Noun. As—
day, all night, at fault, at present, at all, at A book, an enemy, the horse
will.
Rule 2—Adjective + Noun
4. for sale, for fear, for favour, for leave, for
mercy. If an Adjective comes before a noun, the
Article is used before the Adjective.
5. in bed, in debt, in fact, in trouble, in
As—
hand, at hand, in favour of, in front of, in
opposition to, in earnest. A good book, a beautiful girl, the black
6. under consideration, under trial, under horse.
ground, under pressure. Rule 3—Adverb + Adjective + Noun
7. on demand, on trial, on sale, on foot, on If there is Adjective before a Noun, and
earth, on behalf of. also an Adverb before the Adjective, the
8. to catch fire, to send word, to give ear, to Article is used before the Adverb. As—
set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to take A very good book, an extremely beau-
offence. tiful girl, the most intelligent boy.
 ARTICLES | 29

Rule 4—Many/such/what Hints—(1) a sharp; (2) a good example; (3) the

If there is use of many, such, what in a great; (4) a highly exciting; (5) a very
sentence, the Article is used after them. interesting; (6) Many a man; (7) such a
As— magnificent; (8) What a great; (9) as
cultured a man; (10) as successful a
Many a man, such a beautiful, such a debate; (11) so great a fair; (12) too clear
house, what a man, what a place. an evidence.
Rule 5—As/how
Exercise : Revision 1
If in a sentence as / how are used before
an Adjective, the Article is used after the Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Adjective. As— with appropriate articles :
As gentle a girl as she; as brave a man as 1. Iron is .............. useful metal.
he; how good a boy; how excellent an 2. He always speaks ............ truth.
opportunity. 3. ............. sky is overcast.
Rule 6—So/too 4. I first saw the Himalayas .......... year ago.
If in a sentence so / too are used before 5. ........... Ganga is .......... sacred river.
an Adjective, Article is used after the 6. She is ............ untidy girl.
Adjective. As—
7. I bought ......... pen, .......... inkpot and
So serious an attempt. ......... pencil.
So brave a man. 8. Let us discuss ............ problem seriously.
Too clear an answer. 9. What .......... piece of work is man !
Too far a place. 10. He scored ........... highest marks.
Note—Under this Rule, sometimes, Article is 11. John, .......... Manager of the factory, has
used before so/too, though this use is not gone on .......... tour.
popular.
12. He reads .......... Bible twice ............ day.
Exercise
13. He was driving the car at 80 Km. ..........
Correct the following sentences— hour.
1. This is sharp a pen. 14. March is ............ third month of the year.
2. He has placed good an example. 15. Which is ........... nearest station from
3. You have lost great the chance offered to here?
you last year. 16. It is ............ sheer delight to talk to him.
4. We saw highly an exciting sport at the Hints—(1) a; (2) the; (3) The; (4) a; (5) The; a;
stadium. (6) an; (7) a, an, a; (8) the; (9) a; (10) the;
5. The Mayor of Casterbridge is very (11) the; a; (12) the, a; (13) an; (14) the;
interesting a novel. (15) the; (16) a.
6. A many man was standing on the stage. Exercise : Revision 2
7. I had never seen a such magnificent
Correct the following sentences :
building.
1. This is an university college.
8. A what great chance was given to you.
2. He is ablest boy of the class.
9. We never saw an as cultured man as he.
3. The man is mortal.
10. There had never been as a successful
4. He lives in an hostel.
debate as that.
5. The water is not available here.
11. There had never been so a great fair ever
held here before. 6. Bible is the holy book of the Christians.
7. I am learning the English these days.
12. You cannot give a too clear evidence on
this issue. 8. He will always help poor.
30 | L.W.C.E.

9. Harder you work, better success you will 14. What is .......... best solution of the pro-
get. blem ?
10. I have lost a pen I purchased yesterday. 15. ......... sky is quite clear today.
11. Don’t make noise. 16. ......... Punjab is ........ prosperous state.
12. Here is the English and the Hindi version 17. Mahatma Gandhi was hailed as........
of the Gita. father of ......... country.
13. Sweet are the uses of the adversity. 18. Read ........ sixth chapter carefully.
14. He is the proprietor and the manager of 19. I have ......... liking for this kind of dress.
the firm. 20. He is in ......... hurry to go.
15. I am the father and the guardian of this
girl. Exercise : Revision 4
16. The audience attentively listened to the Insert appropriate articles where neces-
scholarly and the interesting speech of sary :
the president. 1. Set your watch again; it is hour late.
17. The honesty is the best policy. 2. Moon will shine all night today.
18. What cold day is this ! 3. He is honourable man.
19. I have never seen a so exciting game. 4. It is very old book.
20. It was a such shocking news. 5. He went to sea to collect pebbles from
shore.
Exercise : Revision 3
6. How beautiful scene is this !
Fill in the blanks with suitable articles ‘a’,
7. He started late in afternoon.
‘an’, or ‘the’ in the following sentences :
8. Buy for me best book on Grammar.
1. French is ............ difficult language.
9. Would you go for walk with me.
2. ............ Indian is ......... good host.
10. That was proudest moment of my life.
3. You are .......... honourable person.
11. Rose is my favourite flower.
4. .......... French are more fashionable than
........... Germans. 12. They never fail who fall in noble cause.
5. Bombay is .......... very expensive city. 13. I had pleasure of his company for last
four days.
6. I bought ........ pen, ......... inkpot, and
.......... penstand from this shop. 14. Time is best healer.
7. I first saw ......... Taj ........ year ago. 15. He has caught cold.
8. Your watch is ........... hour late. 16. He has headache since morning.
9. It is ............ honour to be his follower. 17. They made fire to keep off wild animals.
10. Draw ......... map of India. 18. I go for walk every morning.
11. The guide knows ......... way to the caves. 19. He spends ten rupees day.
12. Let us consider ........... whole matter 20. This is H. M. T. watch.
from .......... beginning. 21. He is M. P.
13. ......... Bible is .......... holy book. 22. Proud go down in end.
 4 Nouns
The correct use of Noun is not a difficult task. Hunter Huntress Tiger Tigress
We have already explained some of the rules of Instructor Instructress Traitor Traitress
Noun in the Second Chapter on Syntax. The main Negro Negress Waitor Waitress
difficulty in the use of Noun arises in the correct
Abbot Abbess Master Mistress
use of Gender, Number and Possessive case.
Therefore, before taking up the Rules of Noun, it Duke Duchess Murderer Murdress
is essential to understand the rules regarding the Emperor Empress Sorcerer Sorceress
formation of Gender, Number and Possessive Marquis Marchioness
case. The following are their Rules—
(c) By adding -ine, -trix, -a—
Formation of Gender Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
The following are the three Rules of forma- Hero Heroine Czar Czarina
tion of Feminine Gender from the Masculine Administra- Administra- Sultan Sultana
Gender— tor trix
1. By adding-ess,- ine,- trix, -a to the word in Executor Executrix Signor Signora
the Masculine Gender. The addition of-ess is most Testator Testatrix Fox Vixen
popular. As— 2. By adding an entirely new word before or
(a) after the Masculine word. As—
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Author Authoress Mayor Mayoress Bull-calf Cow-calf Grandfather Grandmo
Baron Baroness Patron Patroness -ther
Count Countess Peer Peeress Cock- Hen- Great-uncle Great-
sparrow sparrow aunt
Giant Giantess Poet Poetess
Heir Heiress Priest Priestess He-goat She-goat Landlord Landlady
Host Hostess Prophet Prophetess He-bear She-bear Milkman Milkmaid
Jew Jewess Shepherd Shepherdess Jack-ass Jenny-ass Peacock Peahen
Lion Lioness Steward Stewardess Man-servant Maid- Washerman Washer-
servant woman
Manager Manageress Viscount Viscountess
3. The Feminines of the following Masculines
(b) By removing the last Vowel in the Mas- are quite different from their originals. As—
culine word before adding–ess in the following
words— Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Bachelor Maid/spinster Hart Roe
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Boy Girl Horse Mare
Actor Actress Preceptor Preceptress Brother Sister Husband Wife
Benefactor Benefactress Prince Princess Buck Doe King Queen
Conductor Conductress Songster Songstress Bull/ox Cow Lord Lady
Enchanter Enchantress Temptor Temptress Bullock Heifer Man Woman
Founder Foundress Seamaster Seamistress Cock Hen Monk/Friar Nun
32 | L.W.C.E.

Colt Filly Nephew Niece 4. But in words ending in -oo, -io, -eo or -yo
Dog Bitch Papa Mamma only -s is added. As—
Drake Duck Sir Madam Singular Plural Singular Plural
Drone Bee Ram Ewe
Bamboo Bamboos Portfolio Portfolios
Earl Countess Stay Hind
Cuckoo Cuckoos Embryo Embryos
Father Mother Son Daughter
Curio Curios Ratio Ratios
Gander Goose Uncle Aunt
Gentleman Lady Wizard Witch Cameo Cameos Stereo Stereos

5. When a word ends in -y, and before -y

Conversion of Number there is a consonant, -y is replaced by -ies. As—
The following are the Rules of formation of
Plural Number— Singular Plural Singular Plural

(1) In most cases by adding -s to the Singular Baby Babies City Cities
Number. As— Army Armies Pony Ponies
Singular Plural Singular Plural Lady Ladies Duty Duties
Boy Boys Question Questions Story Stories Fly Flies
Girl Girls Problem Problems But if there is a Vowel before -y, (as -ay, -ey,
Pen Pens Book Books -oy) only -s is added. As—
Table Tables House Houses
Singular Plural Singular Plural
2. By adding -es to the Singular Number in
words ending in -s, -sh, -ch, or -x. As— Day Days Boy Boys
Play Plays Toy Toys
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Key Keys Monkey Monkeys
Class Classes Match Matches
Kiss Kisses Watch Watches 6. In words ending in -f or -fe in the Singular
Lass Lasses Branch Branches Number, -f or -fe are replaced by -ves. As—
Dish Dishes Tax Taxes
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Brush Brushes Box Boxes
Knife Knives Leaf Leaves
3. In words ending in -o generally -es is
added. As— Life Lives Myself Ourselves
Singular Plural Singular Plural Wife Wives Sheaf Sheaves
Buffalo Buffaloes Mango Mangoes Calf Calves Shelf Shelves
Potato Potatoes Cargo Cargoes Elf Elves Thief Thieves
Negro Negroes Volcano Volcanoes Half Halves Wolf Wolves
Hero Heroes Motto Mottoes Loaf Loaves
Echo Echoes Mosquito Mosquitoes
Zero Zeroes Exceptions—
Exceptions : Singular Plural Singular Plural
Singular Plural Belief Beliefs Proof Proofs
Canto Cantos Chief Chiefs Roof Roofs
Piano Pianos Cliff Cliffs Safe Safes
Dynamo Dynamos
Dwarf Dwarfs Scarf Scarfs
Solo Solos
Grief Griefs Strife Strifes
Memento Mementos
Photo Photos Gulf Gulfs Turf Turfs
Ratio Ratios Hoof Hoofs Wharf Wharfs
Quarto Quartos Brief Briefs Serf Serfs
 NOUNS | 33

7. In the following eight Nouns changes are 12. Sometimes Surnames can be used in the
made in the Vowels used withen them. They are— Plural Number, as—
Singular Plural Singular Plural Miss Smith—the Miss Smiths or the Misses
Man Men Mouse Mice Smith.
Woman Women Louse Lice Mr. Ray—the Rays.
Foot Feet Goose Geese 13. We give below the Plurals of some popular
Tooth Teeth Dormouse Dormices foreign words (Greek, Latin, etc.)

8. In the following four Nouns -en or -ne are Singular Plural Singular Plural
added. They are— Agendum Agenda Medium Media
Alumnus Alumni Memorandum Memoranda
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Appendix Appendices Radius Radii
Child Children Cow Kine Axis Axes Analysis Analyses
(but also cows) Datum Data Basis Bases
Ox Oxen Brother Brethren Dictum Dicta Crisis Crises
(but also brothers) Erratum Errata Criterion Criteria
Formula Formulae Oasis Oases
9. Some Nouns remain the same both in the
(also Phenomenon Phenomena
Singular and Plural forms. As— formulas)
Public, police, innings, gross, yoke, brace, Fungus Fungi Thesis Theses
sheep, deer, fish, swine, hair, dozen, score, hun- Genius Genii Cherub Cherubim
dred, thousand, pound, kilogram, series, species, Index Indices Seraph Seraphim
means.
10. The Plurals of Compound Nouns are Note—In English Agenda is used as a Singular
formed by adding -s to the Principal word in the Number only.
compound form. As—
Formation of Possessive
Singular Plural Singular Plural (or Genitive) Case
Commander- Commanders- Maid- Maid-
servant servants
Rules of Formation of Possessive (or Geni-
-in-chief -in-chief tive) Case—
Son-in-law Sons-in-law Passer- Passers- (1) By adding Apostrophe ’s
by by
(a) By adding ’s to the Singular Nouns stand-
Daughter-in- Daughters-in- Looker- Lookers-
law law on on ing for Persons. As—
Brother-in- Brothers-in- Man-of- Men-of- Ram’s book, the teacher’s desk, the doctor’s
law law war war clinic, the lawyer’s office.
Father-in- Fathers-in- Step-son Step- (b) Apostrophe ’s is also used with bigger ani-
law law sons mals and those very familiar. As—
Elephant’s trunk, horse’s colour, lion’s share,
11. For forming the Plurals of Letters /
tiger’s den, bull’s horns, dog’s tail.
Alphabet, Figures, Abbreviations and Symbols,
Apostrophe -’ s is added. As— Note—Apostrophe ’s is not used with small ani-
mals and insects.
a’s, b’s, r’s, 5’s, 3’s,
(c) Apostrophe ’s is also used with personi-
5 M. A.’s, 3 M. L.A.’s, 2 B. A.’s; Dot your i’s fied objects. As—
and cut your t’s.
Nature’s laws, Fortune’s favour, Death’s
Your b’s are not clear. His R’s are peculiar. sting.
Your 5’s look like 3’s (d) Apostrophe ’s is also used with Neuter
Note—The Plural of p (page) is pp and of l (line) Gender Nouns showing time, place, distance,
is ll. weight or value.
34 | L.W.C.E.

One day’s leave, at week’s end, at a stone’s 4. If the Noun is in Plural Number but
throw, by month’s end, at a pound’s cost, a without s at its end, full Apostrophe (’s) is used.
minute’s rest, at a yard’s distance. As—
(e) With some special phrases. As— Men’s club; Children’s books.
at arm’s length, at fingers’tips, for heaven’s 5. If a Noun or a title is made of several
sake, for goodness’ sake words, Apostrophe ’s is used only with the last
(f) Double Apostrophe ’s should not be used. word. As—
As— The Rana of Mewar’s palace,
This is Ram’s father’s house. The Government of India’s orders.
The above sentence has double Apostrophe 6. If two or more Nouns are inseparably
–’s which is wrong. It should be written thus— joined together, Apostrophe ’s is used only with
the last word. As—
This is the house of Ram’s father.
Here one Possessive has been formed by Legouis and Cazamian’s History of English
using -’s and the other by the use of connective of. Literature.
This is the correct way. Rowe and Webb’s Book of Grammar.
7. If two or more Nouns have their own
The father of Ram’s friend has come. (Not
separate possessives, Apostrophe ’s is used each
Ram’s friend’s father...)
time. As—
(g) Some words are there which are left out Marlowe’s and Shakespeare’s Plays,
after Apostrophe ’s, because their sense is implied
Ram’s and Mohan’s houses.
in the sentence itself. As—church, cathedral,
school, shop, house, etc. 8. Possessive case by ‘of’
1. I bought this book from Mac Millan’s. (a) Possessives of inanimate things are made
(shop is understood) by using of, not by Apostrophe ’s. As—
2. I am a student of St. John’s. (School or Leg of the table (not, table’s leg)
College is understood) Lock of the door (not, door’s lock)
3. I have my dinner today at my friend’s. Pages of the book (not, book’s pages)
(house is understood) Nib of the pen (not, pen’s nib)
Exercise (b) For small animals and insects also of is
1. Correct the Possessive Case in the used (not ’s) for their possessives. As—
following sentences : wings of a butterfly, sting of a scorpion,
1. Ram’s friend’s father is a Professor. legs of a stag, etc.
2. Mohan’s father’s contacts are very wide. (c) If a Possessive Noun is qualified by a
3. He got share of lion in the distribution of phrase or a clause, Possessive is made by the use
the property. of of. As—
4. I am on a day leave. These are the toys of the children who are
5. Let us have a few minutes rest. sleeping.
6. I have the points at the tips of my fingers. The milk of the cow which is black.
2. If there are several hissing sounds (sound 9. Double Genitives—Sometimes Double
of s or sh) at the end of a word, only the mark of Genitives are also used. In such cases Apostrophe
Apostrophe (’) is used without s after it. As— ’s is used with the noun coming after o f, or
For conscience’ sake; for justice’ sake; Moses’ Possessive Pronoun (mine, yours, theirs, hers) is
laws. used without any further possessive mark or word.
Note— Keats’s poetry or Keats’ poetry, or As—
Collins’s poetry or Collins’ poetry are 1. This is a book of mine.
both correct. 2. Ram is a friend of Mohan’s.
3. If a Plural Noun has s at the end, only the
3. Tempest is a play of Shakespeare’s.
mark of Apostrophe’ is used without s after it.
As— Note—With such structures it is important to note
Girls’ hostel; boys’ school, horses’tails. that they give the suggestion of one of the
 NOUNS | 35

many. Thus, the sentence : This is a book postage, knowledge, breakage, jewellery,
of mine means this is one of my many information, furniture, money, wastage. As—
books. Therefore, this structure should not 1. Kashmir is famous for its colourful
be used where the reference is to one scenery. (not sceneries)
thing or one person only. As such, the 2. It is an anthology of poetry. (not poet-
following sentence is wrong— ries)
He is a father of mine. 3. He has imported all his machinery from
She is a mother of mine. Germany. (not machineries)
These sentences would mean that ‘he is one 4. I have no information from him. (not
of my many fathers’ or ‘she is one of my many informations)
mothers.’ This would be just absurd. These Note—If it is necessary to indicate the Singular
sentences should be written thus— or the Plural number of these nouns, the
He is my father. method is this : (a) for Singular Number,
we say a piece of, an item of, an article
She is my mother.
of, and (b) for Plural Number we use
Rules of Nouns pieces of, items of, articles of, kinds of,
The following are the Rules of Nouns— etc. These phrases are placed before these
Rule 1—Nouns always Plural Nouns, but the Noun is retained in the
Singular number. As—
The under noted Nouns are always used in the
(a) (i) I have a piece of information for
Plural Number. They always take Plural
you.
verbs. They cannot be used as Singular Nouns
by removing s. They are— (ii) This item of your furniture is really
beautiful.
Alms, thanks, riches, caves, species, scis- (iii) I don’t like this article of jewellery.
sors, trousers, pants, clippers, tongs, bellows, (b) (i) All kinds of furniture are available
gallows, fangs, measels, eyeglasses, goggles, here.
amends, annals, archives, ashes, arrears, (ii) I want only a few articles of statio-
athletics, auspices, belongings, breeches, nery.
bowels, braces, binoculars, billiards, customs, (iii) All pieces of information given by
congratulations, dregs, earnings, entrails, him are wrong.
embers, fetters, fireworks, lodgings, lees,
mumps, odds, outskirts, particulars, proceeds, Rule 3—Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in
proceedings, regards, remains, savings, sham- Use
bles, shears, spectacles, surroundings, tidings, There are some Nouns which are Plural in
troops, tactics, vegetables, valuables, wages, form but Singular in usage. They always take
works, innings. a Singular verb. They are—News, Innings,
Physics, Politics, Mathematics, Mechanics,
These Nouns are always used as Plural Nouns Ethics, Economics, etc. As—
with Plural verbs. As— 1. Mathematics is a difficult subject.
1. He gave him alms. 2. Ethics makes the basis of good life.
(‘He gave him an alm’ is wrong) 3. Politics has lost its moral character.
2. His trousers are dirty. 4. Economics is an optional subject.
(‘His trouser is dirty’ is wrong) 5. The news is good.
3. He lives on the outskirts of the town. Exercise
4. What are your monthly earnings ? Correct the following sentences :
Rule 2—Nouns always Singular 1. We should not be miserly in giving alm
Some Nouns are always used in the Singular to the beggars.
Number. They are—Poetry, scenery, machi- 2. I send herewith my hearty thank for your
nery, stationery, crockery, luggage, baggage, timely help.
36 | L.W.C.E.

3. I have sent my trouser to the laundry. 1. The cattle are grazing in the field.
4. He has built a house on the outskirt of the 2. The peasantry are very happy.
city. 3. Our cavalry are very strong.
5. The cottage was thrown into shamble by Note—(1) Since these Nouns are used only in
the earthquake. Plural Number (though singular in form),
6. He immersed the remain of his father into they should not be made Plural by adding
the Ganges. -s or -es. For example, the following sen-
7. He has lost all his valuable. tences are wrong—
8. Please accept my congratulation for your The gentries have come.
success. Our poultries are healthy.
9. He sucked the liquor to the last dreg. (2) The following Nouns remain the same in
10. The prisoner was kept in fetter. both Singular and Plural numbers and they can be
11. I have no liking for pastoral poetries. used both as Singular and Plural in the same form.
12. I have to purchase all kinds of statione- They should not be made Plural by adding -s or
ries for the school. -es. They are—Swine, vermin, mankind, police,
13. She is very fond of sparkling jewelleries. public, etc. As—
14. I don’t travel with heavy luggages. 1. The police has been informed.
15. I receive all necessary informations from or
him. The police have taken action.
16. Please show me all items of crockeries. 2. The swine are dirty animals.
17. The letter is short of postages. or
18. Can you not reduce your wastages ? You are a dirty swine.
19. No news are good news. (3) ‘People’ in the sense of group of persons
20. The mechanics of this instrument are is always used in the Plural number. But when the
very complicated. word ‘People’ is used in the sense of a Nation, it
can be used both as Singular (a people) and Plural
21. Their performance in the first inning was
as—‘The Peoples of India and China are on
very poor.
friendly terms.’
22. He is very weak in Physic. Rule 5—Noun with Numeral Adjective
23. Politics are the game of fortune hunters. Some Nouns coming after Definite Numeral
24. What are the latest newses ? Adjectives are always used in the Singular
25. He is a man of low ethic. Number. They are—Pair, dozen, score, gross,
Hints—(1) alms; (2) thanks; (3) trousers; (4) stone, hundred, thousand, million, billion, etc.
outskirts; (5) shambles; (6) remains; (7) As—
valuables; (8) congratulations; (9) dregs; Two pair of shoes (not two pairs of shoes);
(10) fetters; (11) poetry; (12) stationery; four dozen pencils; three score and ten; five
(13) jewellery; (14) luggage; (15) infor- thousand rupees, ten million people, etc.
mation; (16) crockery; (17) postage; (18) But if the Numeral Adjective is Indefinite, all
wastage; (19) is; (20) is; (21) innings; (22) the Nouns given above will be used in the
Physics; (23) is; (24) is, news; (25) ethics. Plural Number. As—
Rule 4—Nouns Singular in Form but Plural in Dozens of people; thousands of workers;
Use millions of pounds; scores of houses; many
pairs of shoes; in millions, etc.
There are some Nouns which are Singular in
form but Plural in meaning. They always take Rule 6—Numeral Adjective + Hyphen + Noun
a Plural verb. They are—Cattle, gentry, If a compound word is formed by joining a
clergy, cavalry, infantry, nobility, poultry, Definite Numeral Adjective and a Noun (by a
peasantry, children, admiralty, yeomantry, etc. hyphen), the Noun so used will always be in
Family is used both in the Singular and Plural the Singular Number. As—
numbers according to sense. As— 1. Here is a five-rupee note.
 NOUNS | 37

Here you will see that a Definite Numeral Rule 7—Noun + Preposition + the same Noun
Adjective (five) is joined with a Noun (rupee) repeated
by a hyphen, and the Noun (rupee) is in If the same Noun is repeated before and after
Singular Number. It will be wrong to say a Preposition, the Noun is used in the Singular
five-rupees note. Number each time. In such cases the verb is
Similarly the following sentences are cor- also used in the Singular Number. As—
rect—
Ship after ship arrived at the port. Here
1. Please lend me a ten-rupee note. ships after ships will be wrong. Similarly the
2. He gave me a hundred-rupee note. following sentences are correct—
3. This is included in our five-year plan.
1. Mistake after mistake was committed.
4. He fell down from a ten-foot high wall.
2. Chance after chance was lost.
5. A three-man enquiry committee has
been set up. 3. He begged from door to door.
6. There was a twenty-foot deep ditch. 4. Wave upon wave rose in the sea.
7. A five-judge bench will hear this case. 5. We can read meaning within meaning
in this poem.
Exercise
Rule 8—Article + several Adjectives + Noun
Choose the correct alternative from those
given within the brackets in the following If two or more than two Adjectives are
sentences : connected with and and the Article has been
used only before the first Adjective, the Noun
1. The Indian (peasantry/peasantries) are used after them will be in the Plural Number.
still backward. But if the Article is used before each
2. Our cavalry (is/are) highly trained. Adjective, the Noun will be in the Singular
3. The (gentry / gentries) have already Number. As—
arrived. 1. Shakespeare was very popular in the six-
4. There is a large herd of (swine/swines). teenth and seventeenth centuries.
5. All the (people/peoples) were happy. 2. Shakespeare was very popular in the six-
6. I have several (pair/pairs) of shoes. teenth and the seventeenth century.
7. There are three (thousand / thousands) 3. Very heavy wigs were worn in the Eliza-
workers in this factory. bethan and Jacobean Ages.
8. (Thousand / thousands) of workers are 4. Very heavy wigs were worn in the Eliza-
working in this factory. bethan and the Jacobean Age.
9. I have four (pair/pairs) of shoes.
10. He is now three (scores/score) and ten. Exercise
11. (Scores / score) of houses have been Correct the following sentences :
gutted in fire. 1. He made attempt after attempts but
12. He is rolling in (million/millions). failed.
13. A (five-man/five-men) commission has 2. There is no difference from men to men.
been set up.
3. He knocked from doors to doors for help.
14. He jumped into a (forty-foot/forty-feet )
deep well. 4. There are circles within circles in this
painting.
15. This is our eighth (five-year/five-years)
plan. 5. I can read meanings within meaning in
Hints—(1) peasantry; (2) are; (3) gentry; (4) what you say.
swine; (5) people. (6) pairs; (7) thousand; 6. There is no absentee in the Fifth and the
(8) thousands; (9) pair; (10) score; (11) Sixth classes.
scores; (12) millions; (13) five-man; (14) 7. There is no post-office in the first and
forty-foot; (15) five-year. second lane.
38 | L.W.C.E.

8. Many great scientists were born in the 2. The amount will grow two and a half
eighteenth and nineteenth century. times.
9. There is no mistake in the fourth and the In such cases One time and a half or two
fifth pages. times and a half are wrong.
10. No berth is available in the first and last Rule 10—Adjectives used as Plural Nouns
coach. Some Adjectives preceded by the are used as
Hints—(1) attempt after attempt; (2) man to man; Plural Nouns. As—The poor; the rich; the
(3) door to door; (4) circle within circle; sick; the down-trodden; the meak, etc.
(5) meaning within meaning; (6) class; (7) As—
lanes; (8) centuries; (9) page; (10) coaches. 1. We should help the poor.
Rule 9—Numeral Adjective + Noun + Fraction 2. The rich should not be proud.
If a Numeral Adjective and a fraction (a half, 3. The meak are blessed.
a quarter, three quarters, etc.) are to be 4. The sick should be carefully looked
used with a Noun, the structure of the sen- after.
tence will be as follows—
It is wrong to try to make these Adjectives
1. The train is late by one hour and a half. Plural by adding -s or -es to them. They are
2. The train is late by two hours and a half. already Plural in their sense. As—the poors,
The following structure will be wrong— the riches, the meaks, or the sicks. All these
1. The train is late by one and a half hour. are wrong expressions.
2. The train is late by two and a half Rule 11—Nouns/Pronouns of Common Gender
hours. (Dual Gender)
Under this Rule the correct structure is this— (a) The following Nouns are of Common
Noun is used after the Numeral Adjective, and Gender, i.e., they can be used both as Mas-
the Number of the Noun is Singular or Plural culine or Feminine Genders. Thus, they are of
according to the Numeral Adjective (i. e. the Dual Gender. They are—
Noun is Singular with a / an / one, and Plural
Child, baby, friend, student, teacher,
with two, three, etc.) And after the Noun the
lecturer, professor, pupil, artist, author, reader,
Fractions (and a half, and a quarter, and
servant, worker, poet, speaker, writer, typist,
three quarters, etc.) should be used. The
engineer, lawyer, advocate, client, clerk,
following are some more examples—
conductor, musician, politician, minister,
1. I have one rupee and a half. leader, dealer, secretary, enemy, parent,
2. I have read five chapters and a half. relation, cousin, orphan, neighbour, person,
3. I have been waiting for five hours and a president, monarch, statesman, publicman,
quarter. chairman, sportsman, spokesman, spokes-
4. The distance is four kilometres and person, chairperson.
three quarters. As—
5. Its weight is a kilo and a half. 1. She is my friend.
Expressions such as One and a half rupee; 2. He is my friend.
five and a half chapters; five and a quarter
3. My teacher is Miss Bose.
hours; four and three quarters kilometres;
one and a half kilo are wrong. 4. My teacher is Mr. Bose.
Note—If a Numeral Adjective and a fraction are 5. He is our Finance Minister.
joined by and and they are used in the 6. She is our Finance Minister.
sense of multiplication, the Noun is placed Note—(1) Some Grammarians hold that Nouns of
after them, and the Noun is always used in Common Gender which have–man joined
the Plural Number. As— with them should not be used with Femi-
1. The amount will grow one and a half nine Gender Nouns. Such a use would
times. appear odd. As—
 NOUNS | 39

She is a sportsman / chairman / spokesman/ 13. He is my man-servant.

publicman/statesman. 14. She is a lady doctor.
In such cases –person has come to be used in 15. She is a renowned poetess.
place of –man. As—
16. Go to the Ladies common-room.
chairperson, spokesperson, sportsperson, 17. This is Ladies Training College.
publicperson, statesperson, mediaperson, etc.
18. No one should neglect its duty.
(2) Sometimes Poetess and Authoress are
also used for Feminine Gender. 19. Neither of them has done her work.
20. She is a fearless spokeswoman.
(3) A typical difficulty arises when a Pronoun
is to be used with a Common Gender Noun in 21. Mrs. Gandhi was the chairwoman.
the Singular Number. For example, which of 22. Elizabeth was a great monarchess.
the following pronouns (his or her) is correct. 23. She is my cousin sister.
1. Every teacher should do his duty. 24. My mother is my guardianess.
or Hints—(1) ten rupees and a half; (2) one hour and
Every teacher should do her duty. a quarter; (3) two hours and a quarter; (4)
In all such cases Third Person, Masculine twenty kilometres and a half... one hour
Gender (his) should be used. and a half; (5) two and a half times; (6)
one and a half times; (7) one and a half
1. Every teacher should do his duty.
times; (8) the poor; (9) were; (10) the
2. No student should waste his time. rich; (11) his; (12) teacher, not lady
Some scholars hold that both genders con- teacher; (13) servant; (14) doctor, not
nected with or (his or her) should be used. lady doctor; (15) poet; (16) Women’s;
Every teacher should do his or her duty. (17) Women’s Training College; (18) his;
(19) his; (20) spokesman or spokes-
But this can be desirable in legal language person; (21) chairman or chairperson;
only. In the normal routine case only Third (22) monarch; (23) cousin, not cousin
Person Masculine (He, His, Him) should be sister, (24) guardian.
used.
Rule 12—Nouns with one meaning in Singular
Exercise and another in Plural.
Correct the following sentences : Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singu-
1. Apples sell at ten and a half rupees a kilo. lar Number and another and quite different
2. He reached late by one and a quarter meaning in the Plural Number. They are—
hours. Singular Plural
3. I have two and a quarter hours at my (Normal Meaning) (Typical Meaning)
disposal. Abuse (misuse) Abuses (Bad habits and
4. He covered twenty and a half kilometers customs)
in one and a half hours. Advice (counsel, Advices (items of
5. At this rate of interest your money will opinion) information)
grow two times and a half. Air Airs (arrogant show)
6. My income has risen one and a half time. Alphabet Alphabets (languages)
7. My income has risen one time and a half. Compass (limit) Compasses (a geometrical
instrument)
8. The poors deserve all our sympathy. Colour Colours (flag)
9. The wounded was admitted in hospital. Custom Customs (levies on goods
10. The riches are not always merciless. imported)
11. Every teacher should know her students. Effect (as noun) Effects (household luggage)
12. She is a good lady teacher. Force Forces (armies)
40 | L.W.C.E.

Good Goods (luggage) Miscellaneous Revision Exercises

Iron Irons (chains, fetters) Revision Exercise 1
Manner Manners (behaviour) Choose the correct forms of the nouns
Number Numbers (feet or rhythm in from those given in brackets in the following
poetry) sentences :
Pain Pains (efforts) 1. He gave me two ten (-rupee/-rupees)
Premise (supposition, Premises (site, situation) notes.
2. Most men live to the age of three (score/
Introduction)
scores) and ten.
Physic (medicine) Physics (a branch of 3. I like the (scenery/sceneries) of this
science) place.
Quarter (fourth part) Quarters (small houses) 4. My car costs me fifty (thousand/ thou-
Return Returns (accounting) sands) rupees.
Sand Sands (desert) 5. Our score in the first (inning/innings)
was very encouraging.
Water Waters (oceans)
6. Pray and give (thank/thanks) to God that
Wood Woods (jungle) you have been saved.
Letter Letters (Literature, 7. There was a herd of (deer/deers) in the
scholarship) wood.
Ground Grounds (reasons) 8. Their (offspring/offsprings) are all sickly.
9. Whose (cattle/cattles) are these ?
Exercise 10. The child is suffering from (measel/
Choose the correct alternative from those measels).
given within brackets in each sentence : 11. Five (hundred/hundreds) years have
passed since then.
1. I love to walk in the fresh morning (air/
airs). 12. (Tiding/Tidings) came very late.
13. The (Jury/Juries) found him guilty.
2. I shall spare no (pain/pains) to give entire
satisfaction to you. 14. (Dozen/Dozens) of men were injured.
15. I bought two (dozen/dozens) pencils.
3. Please submit your income-tax (return/
returns) immediately. 16. He gave (alm/alms) to every beggar.
Hints—(1) rupee; (2) score; (3) scenery; (4)
4. This stool is made of (iron/irons). thousand; (5) innings; (6) thanks; (7) deer;
5. I shall shift all my household (effect/ (8) offspring; (9) cattle; (10) measels; (11)
effects) from here. hundred; (12) tidings; (13) Jury; (14)
6. I have booked my (good/goods) by dozens; (15) dozen; (16) alms.
passenger train. Revision Exercise 2
7. He struck the ball with great (force / Choose the correct forms of the verbs from
forces). those given within brackets, keeping in view the
8. You have to pay your (custom/customs) sense of the nouns which should be in agree-
duty. ment with the verbs :
1. Where (is/are) the scissors ?
9. He has gone to the (wood/woods) in
search of his lost cattle. 2. The police (has/have) made no arrests.
3. Economics (is/are) taught by Dr. Jain.
10. He has built a small temple in the (pre- 4. The clergy (is/are) opposed to closing the
mises/premise) of his new house. church today.
Hints—(1) air; (2) pains; (3) returns; (4) iron; (5) 5. A huge crowd (has/have) assembled.
effects; (6) goods; (7) force; (8) customs; 6. No news (has/have) come from my bro-
(9) woods; (10) premises. ther.
 NOUNS | 41

7. Sheep blindly (follow/follows) the leader. 22. My father’s friend’s son is coming today.
8. The jury (has/have) not come to a unani- 23. He is a father of mine.
mous verdict. 24. A kite’s wings are large.
9. Measels (is/are) a bad disease. 25. I have sent him my congratulation for his
10. No cattle (is/are) allowed to graze here. success.
11. My family (is/are) early risers. 26. The mechanics of this instrument are not
12. Three dozen pencils (has/have) been difficult to understand.
distributed. 27. There was a fifty-feet deep valley.
13. The government (is/are) determined to 28. Trucks after trucks crossed the prohibited
implement the plan. line.
14. The majority of workers (has/have) come 29. There is no light in the fifth and sixth
on duty. house.
15. The rich (is/are) not always happy. 30. The police has already taken search of
the fourth and the fifth rooms.
Hints—(1) are; (2) have; (3) is; (4) are; (5) has;
(6) has; (7) follow; (8) have; (9) are; (10) 31. His score was one and a half centuries.
are; (11) are; (12) have; (13) are; (14) 32. Houses after houses were looted by the
have; (15) are. dacoits.
33. I can run for two mile and a half.
Revision Exercise 3 34. His profits have grown one and a half
Correct the following sentences : time.
1. I have bought a new spectacle. 35. Mrs. Jacob is my lady-teacher.
2. Have you installed new machineries ? 36. This student has spoilt her paper.
3. Please pay my regard to your father. 37. Indian force is strong enough to face the
4. These paultry is mine. challenge.
5. You can select from these three pairs of 38. Gandhi has left his foot-marks on the
shoes. sand of time.
6. So many pair of shoes are here before 39. Both his daughter-in-laws are beautiful.
you. 40. There are 5 M. A. among the applicants.
7. I have all these points at the ends of my Hints—(1) pair of spectacles; (2) machinery; (3)
fingers. regards; (4) are; (5) pair; (6) pairs; (7) at
8. He gets a monthly allowance of two my finger-ends; (8) thousand; (9) hair has
thousands rupees. turned; (10) advice; (11) furniture; (12) is;
9. His hairs have turned grey. (13) King George the Fifth’s; (14) is;
10. You must follow my advices. (15) earnings are; (16) my uncle, the
11. I have not yet brought my furnitures. engineer’s, (17) the colour of my pen; (18)
12. The news are not authentic. Women’s College; (19) Women’s Hostel;
13. He attended King George’s the Fifth (20) three-man; (21) information is; (22)
coronation ceremony.
the son of my father’s friend; (23) my
14. The wages of sin are death.
father; (24) the wings of a kite; (25) con-
15. His weekly earning is very poor.
gratulations; (26) is; (27) fifty-foot deep;
16. This is my uncle’s, the engineer, office.
17. My pen’s colour is black. (28) truck after truck; (29) houses; (30)
18. This is a Ladies’College. room; (31) one century and a half; (32)
19. No man can enter the Women’s Hostel. house after house; (33) two miles and a
20. A three-men enquiry committee will look half; (34) one and a half times; (35) tea-
into the matter. cher; (36) his; (37) forces are; (38) sands;
21. No more informations are available. (39) daughters-in-law; (40) 5 M. A.’s.
 5 Pronouns
Forms of Pronouns (iv) Forms of Relative and Interrogative Pro-
nouns
Personal Pronouns Relative Pronouns and Interrogative Pronouns
There are three Persons of Personal Pro- have the same forms—
nouns—
Singular and Singular and
(i) First Person Plural Plural
(ii) Second Person Case
Masculine and
(iii) Third Person Feminine Neuter
All these three Persons have different forms Nominative Who Which
in different cases (Nominative, Objective and Objective Whom Which
Possessive). Every student must know these diffe- (Accusative)
rent forms very clearly, because without this
Genitive Whose Whose, of which
knowledge they cannot be used correctly. The
different forms are these— (Possessive)
(i) Forms of First Person (Both Masculine and Note—Relative Pronoun ‘That’ has the same form
Feminine) in Singular and Plural Numbers and also
Case Singular Plural in the Nominative and Accusative cases. It
has no Genitive case.
Nominative I We
Objective (Accusative) Me Us (v) Forms of Reflexive and Emphatic Pro-
Possessive (Genitive) My, Mine Our, Ours nouns
(ii) Forms of Second Person (Both Masculine Pronoun Reflexive and Emphatic Form
and Feminine) I Myself
Case Singular Plural
Nominative You, thou You, ye
You
}
Yourself (in Singular)
Yourselves (in Plural)
Objective (Accusative) You, thee You
He Himself
Possessive (Genitive) Your, yours Your, yours
She Herself
Thy, thine
It Itself
Note—Thou, thee, thy, thine and ye are no longer
in popular use. We Ourselves
(iii) Forms of Third Person (in different Gen- They Themselves
ders) Rules of Pronoun
Singular Plural
Case The following are the Rules of correct use of
Mas- Femi- Neuter All Pronouns—
culine nine genders
Nominative He She It They Personal Pronoun
Objective Him He r It Them Rule 1—Number, Person and Gender
(Accusative) The first and basic rule of the use of Pronoun
Possessive His Her, Its Their, is that it must have the same Number, Per-
(Genitive) Hers Theirs son, and Gender as the Number, Person and
 PRONOUNS | 43

Gender of the Noun for which it has been Rule 5—Pronouns of Different Persons
used. As— If Pronouns of different Persons are to be
1. He has done his work. used with the same Verb, they must be used
2. She has done her work. in the following order—
3. You have done your work. A. In Singular Number, Y ou (Second
Person) should come first, H e (Third
4. I have done my work. Person) should come next, and I (First
5. We have done our work. Person) should come last. This order is
6. They have done their work. indicative of refined culture and good
behaviour. In brief—
Rule 2—Nominative Pronoun
You + He + I, i.e., 2 + 3 + 1
Nominative Pronouns are used as the Subject
of a Verb. B. In Plural Number—
We + You + They, i.e., 1 + 2 + 3
(He, She, I, You, We, They are in the Nomi-
native Form). As— C. But if the sentence has a bad sense, or is
expressive of some error or fault, the
1. He is a good boy. order should be thus—
2. She is going there. I/We + You + He/They, i.e., 1 + 2 + 3
3. They are coming. As—
4. You can go. (A) You and he and I are good friends.
Rule 3—Complement of the Verb ‘to be’ We and you and they can live together.
If a Verb ‘to be’ has a Pronoun for its com- You and he were class-mates.
plement, the Pronoun must be used in the Ram and I lived in the same house.
Nominative form. As— You and I can travel together.
1. It is I (not me) who came yesterday. (B) We and you and they can work together.
2. It is he (not him) who will help you. We and they were in the same class.
3. If I were she (not her), I wouldn’t do it. (C) I and you and he have to accept our
fault.
4. It is they (not them) who saved us. You and he will be punished.
Note—It should be remembered that in Excla-
matory and Predicative use, Personal Exercise
Pronoun can be used in the Objective (A) Correct the following sentences :
form. As— 1. Ram has lost their books.
It is me ! It wasn’t him ! 2. She loves his husband.
Rule 4—Objective Form 3. He has sent her sister to school.
If a Personal Pronoun is the Object of a Verb 4. They have passed his examination.
or a Preposition, it must be used in the 5. Us are students of this school.
Objective form. (Me, Us, Him, Them, Her, 6. Your can do your work.
You are in the Objective Form). As—
7. It is me who have to go.
1. I know him (not he) well. 8. It is him who is to blame.
2. She comes to me (not I) for help. 9. Please ask he to bring his book.
3. Our teacher has asked us (not we) to 10. It is for he to take the responsibility.
remain in the class. 11. I have told they to reach in time.
4. I have told them (not they) to go away 12. He depends upon they to help him.
from here. 13. If I were him, I wouldn’t accept the terms.
5. He depends upon me (not I) 14. He did not accept she proposals.
6. I go to them (not they) for guidance. 15. Them are dependable people.
44 | L.W.C.E.

Hints—(1) his; (2) her; (3) his; (4) their; (5) We; Exercise
(6) You; (7) I; (8) he; (9) him; (10) him; Correct the following sentences—
(11) them; (12) them; (13) he; (14) her;
(15) they. 1. The jury delivered their verdict unani-
(B) Arrange the personal pronouns in the mously.
following sentences in their proper order : 2. The committee is one in their opinion in
1. I, you and he have been selected for this matter.
scholarship. 3. The Government is not divided in their
2. You, I and he will go together to the fair. view in this matter.
3. You, they and we should remain united. 4. The jury gave a majority decision after its
4. All those boys, all of you and all of us last meeting.
can make a good team. 5. The crew tried to save itself by their life-
5. He, you and I have been found guilty. boats.
6. I, he and you must tender an apology for 6. Ram and Shyam lost his way in the
the mistake. wood.
Hints—(1) You, he and I; (2) You, he and I; (3)
7. All the students and their teacher neglec-
We, you and they; (4) All of us, all of you
ted his work.
and all those boys; (5) I, you and he; (6) I,
you and he. 8. Each boy and each man received their
Rule 6—Pronoun for a Collective Noun share in time.
With a Collective Noun the Pronoun used is 9. Each of Ram, Mohan and Shyam has
Singular or Plural according to the sense. In done their duty.
the Singular Number we use It/Its and in Plural 10. Each of the girls will sing a song of their
They /Them. As— choice.
 1. The fleet has sailed away on
its voyage.
11. Mohan and Sohan has each decided to go
to their village.
Singular  2. The jury has given its verdict. 12. Every one of them has to sit in their own
 3. The crew is ready. It is board- seat.
 ing the ship within minutes. Hints—(1) its; (2) its; (3) its; (4) their; (5) them-
 4. The jury are divided in their selves; (6) their; (7) their; (8) his; (9) his;
 opinion. (10) her; (11) his; (12) his.
Plural 
5. The Government are ready to Rule 9—Each, Either, Neither
 revise their proposals. They always take Singular Verb and Singu-
Rule 7—Pronoun for more than two Nouns lar Possessive. As—
When two or more Nouns are joined by and, 1. Each of them is sure to get his chance.
the Pronoun used for them is always Plural. 2. Either of them is free to bring his book.
As— 3. Neither of the workers has brought his
1. Ram and Mohan are friends. They go to tools.
their school together.
2. Hari and his friends have completed Rule 10—Either and Neither
their work. Either and Neither are used for Two things
Rule 8—Pronoun for Each or Every + Noun only, not for more than two. As—
When two or more Nouns are joined by and, 1. You can choose either of these two (not
and before each Noun there comes each or more than two) pens.
every, the Pronoun used is always Singular. 2. Neither of the two brothers was selected.
As—
1. Each worker and each mason has come Rule 11—Anyone and None
on his work. When more than two things are referred to,
2. Each clerk and each typist has left his we use anyone in place of either and none in
seat. place of neither. As—
 PRONOUNS | 45

1. Anyone of these four boys can go with 9. These two friends will surely help one
me. another.
2. None of these ten applicants is quali- 10. All these ten workers can consult each
fied. other.
Rule 12—Each other/One another 11. Both of the three brothers has taken his
They are called Reciprocal Pronouns. Each share.
other is used for two things or persons, and 12. All of the two cows are black.
one another for more than two. As— Hints—(1) has, his; (2) was, his; (3) has, his; (4)
1. The two brothers help each other. is, her; (5) two, is; (6) two; (7) either; (8)
Neither, his; (9) each other; (10) one
2. All the five brothers help one another. another; (11) two, have, their; (12) four or
3. The two wheels rub against each other. All of the cows.
Note—In the modern usage there is believed to be Rule 14—Pronoun for ‘or’, ‘either ...... or’ /
little difference between Each other and ‘neither ...... nor’ + Noun
One another. Now, sometimes, Each When two or more than two Nouns are joined
other is used for more than two, and One with or, either … or, neither … nor, the
another for only two. As— Pronoun used for them is always Singular.
1. These three sisters really love each 1. Ram or Hari has lost his book.
other. 2. Either the lawyer or his clerk will be in
2. Let us all help each other. his office.
Rule 13—Both and All 3. Neither Mohan nor Sohan has done his
Both is used for two, and All for more than work.
two. As— Rule 15—Pronoun for or/nor + Singular and
1. Both the pens are good. (i.e., only two Plural Nouns
pens) When a Singular Noun and a Plural Noun are
2. Both the men (i.e., two men) are idle. joined by or / nor, the Pronoun used for them
is always Plural. As—
3. All the pens (i.e., more than two) are
1. Either the Principal or the teachers had
good.
neglected their duty.
4. All the men (more than two) are idle. 2. Neither the father nor his sons had kept
Exercise their promise.
Correct the following sentences : Rule 16—Pronouns for different Persons
1. Each of the workers have to bring their When more than one Pronoun are of different
own tools. Persons, and only one Pronoun is later to be
2. Every one of them were given their uni- used for them, there should be First Plural
form. for First + Third, again First Plural for First
+ Second, and Second Person for Second +
3. Either of the brothers have a right to Third. As—
check their father’s account.
1. You and I have done our duty.
4. Neither of the sisters are like their mother.
2. You and Hari have done your duty.
5. Either of these five books are good
enough to serve your purpose. Exercise
6. Neither of these four horses can win the Correct the following sentences :
prize. 1. Either Ram or Mohan has left their bag.
7. Anyone of these two applicants can be 2. Neither Sita nor Geeta has attended their
appointed. class.
8. None of these two students can pass their 3. Either the supervisor or his workers have
qualifying test. left his store-room unlocked.
46 | L.W.C.E.

4. Neither the soldiers nor their captain Exercise

have left his post. Correct the following sentences :
5. You and I have done my best. 1. He is as willing to go as me.
6. You and he have tried his utmost. 2. You are more intelligent than him.
7. We and you can play your role so well. 3. They love their country more than him.
8. You and Rakesh can take his chance once 4. I can serve you better than him.
again.
5. He gave you larger share than I.
9. Hari and I have done whatever I could.
6. I shall get as many chances as her.
10. I and my friend have spared no efforts on 7. They have as many cows as us.
his part.
8. I have as good a house as their.
Hints—(1) his; (2) her; (3) their; (4) their; (5) our;
(6) your; (7) our; (8) your; (9) we; (10) 9. Our chances are as bright as you.
our. 10. We hope to be more successful than
them.
Rule 17—Pronoun after than/as
Hints—(1) I; (2) he; (3) he; (4) he; (5) me; (6)
A peculiar difficulty arises in the correct use she; (7) we; (8) they; (9) yours; (10) they.
of Pronoun after than or as. The problem is
to decide whether the Pronoun to be used Pronoun ‘It’/‘This’
after than or as should be in the Nominative Rule 18—Pronoun ‘It’
Pronoun It is used in the following
form or Objective/Accusative form. In this
cases—
connection it should be remembered that the
(a) For Inanimate things. As—
Pronoun used after than or as is the short
This is your house. It is a big house.
form of a whole clause. Thus, the full form of
(b) For small animals, birds and insects.
‘I am taller than he’ will be ‘I am taller
As—
than he is’. Therefore, in order to decide 1. There is a parrot. It is green.
whether the Nominative or the Objective form
2. I have a dog. It is very active.
of the Pronoun should come after than or as,
(c) For very little children—
we should mentally speak the whole clause
beginning with than or as, and as soon as we The child has wetted its napkin.
do so, the correct form of the Pronoun will (d) For such statements as have already been
come in our mind. As— referred to earlier—
1. I am stronger than he (is) 1. He is giving a false statement; as he
knows it.
2. I am as strong as he (is).
2. He deserved his demotion; as he knew
3. He loves you more than I (love you). it.
4. I love you more than he (loves you). (e) For the imaginary subject of the verb
5. He gave you more marks than (he gave) ‘to be’, while its real subject comes later.
me. As—
6. I shall give you as many books as (I shall 1. It is certain that he will come.
give) him. 2. It is easy to find its solution.
Note—In sentences containing the Verbs of 3. It is doubtful whether he will succeed.
Incomplete Predication (suggesting the
idea of being, becoming or seeming), (f) For laying emphasis on some Noun or
Pronouns of Objective form can also be Pronoun which comes after it. As—
used in place of Nominative form after 1. It was you who first made the offer.
than or as. As— 2. It was I who first pointed out the
He is taller than me. mistake.
This form is also acceptable as correct. 3. It was this place where we met first.
 PRONOUNS | 47

4. It must be a foolish man who has 10. There is this college where I studied.
been cheated twice by the same man. 11. That is only a wise man who can give
5. It is this kind of behaviour that you such an advice.
annoys everybody. 12. This rains and thunders every evening.
(g) For an imaginary o r uncertain Nomi- 13. This is a very hot day.
native of an impersonal verb. As—
14. This is 7 O’clock.
It rains. It thunders.
15. It is All India Radio giving you the news.
It snows. It blows.
16. It is my house.
(h) For referring to weather or time. As—
17. It is my offer to you.
1. It is a fine weather.
18. It is to certify that he is in my class.
2. It is 9 O’Clock.
Hints—(1) its; (2) it; (3) its; (4) its; (5) it; (6) It;
3. It is winter. (7) It; (8) It; (9) It; (10) It; (11) It; (12) It;
4. It is half past two. (13) It; (14) It; (15) This; (16) This; (17)
Rule 19—Pronoun ‘This’ or ‘It’ This; (18) This.
A difficulty often arises with regard to the use Relative Pronouns
of This or It in a sentence. It has been made The more popular Relative Pronouns are—
amply clear above that I t is only an Who, Whom, Whose, Which, That, What.
imaginary Nominative, while This is a real
Nominative, or gives some definite reference The following are the Rules of their correct
or information about the real Nominative. use—
This is used to give the name, introduction Rule 20—Who
or any other information about some one. It Who is used in the Nominative case only for
is used only for weather, season, time or Persons, both in the Singular and Plural
some impersonal subject. This refers to a Numbers. Who is not used for inanimate
person, thing, any specific information or things. For animals also who is not generally
quality, or nearness / closeness. As— used. Who is also used for People and Those.
1. This is my brother. As—
2. This is a cow. 1. I know the man who came here yesterday.
3. This is All India Radio. 2. He is the thief who was caught red-
4. This is my point of view. handed.
5. This is 351557. (Telephone Number) 3. All the people who came here were
happy.
Exercise 4. I know all those who were invited.
Correct the following sentences : Rule 21—Whom
1. Take the cow to her shed. Whom is used only for Persons in the
2. My pen is a new one, yet this is not Objective / Accusative case both in Singular
smooth. and Plural Numbers. As—
3. The dog has hurt his leg. 1. The man w h o m I met yesterday has
4. The child is crying in his cradle. come.
5. He has broken his promise, as he knows 2. The boy w h o m I gave the books has
this. secured first division.
6. This is not difficult to know the real facts. Rule 22—Which
7. This is improbable that he should tell a Which is used for animals and inanimate
lie. things. As—
8. This is easy to win him over. 1. The pen which I purchased yesterday has
9. This was he who first broke the news. been lost.
48 | L.W.C.E.

2. The cow which stands there is very (B) In the following cases the use of that is
gentle. preferred to that of who or which. As—
3. The house which has a high gate is mine. (i) After the Superlative Degree—
Note—In Prepositional Cases the Preposition is 1. Gandhi was the greatest man that
always used before which. As— modern India produced.
1. The post for which I applied is tempo- 2. He is the best speaker that I have ever
rary. heard.
2. I don’t remember the date on which he
(ii) After these words—all, same, any, none,
was born.
nothing, only, anything, anybody, no-
3. This is the book about which I told you. body, little, somebody, no one—
4. This is the last chance o n which I
1. This is all the statement that he gave.
depend.
5. The book of which the cover is torn is 2. He is the same boy that came yesterday.
not mine. 3. It is only the fools that talk that way.
Rule 23—Whose 4. It is not for nothing that I have been
Whose is used in Possessive Case both for labouring so hard.
Persons and Animals. As— 5. There was not any that could be heard.
1. The boy whose father is the Principal is 6. There was none that was not moved to
my friend. tears.
2. The girl whose eyes are blue is very
sweet. (iii) After Interrogative Pronoun who/what—
3. Mohan whose brother came yesterday 1. What is it that troubles you so much ?
has gone home. 2. What is there that I cannot do ?
Note—Sometimes whose is used for inanimate 3. Who am I that you should care for ?
things also. As—
(iv) After two Antecedents, one of which
The sun whose rays give us light also give
stands for a Person and the other for an
us life.
animal or a thing. As—
Rule 24—That
1. The rider and his horse that tried to
(A) That is used both for animate and inani- cross the river were drowned.
mate things both in Singular and Plural
Numbers. 2. The driver and his bus that crossed the
lane struck against a tree.
That has no Possessive / Genitive Case
and therefore no Preposition can be used Rule 25—What
before it. If it is very necessary to use a Relative Pronoun What is used for things
Preposition, it can be placed at the end of only. It is used without an Antecedent, and it
the sentence. In such a case the sentence means that which. As—
can be completed without ‘That’ also.
1. What cannot be cured must be endured.
As—
1. I know the house that he lives in. 2. What I told you is correct.
or 3. I know what you want to say.
I know the house λ he lives in. It would be wrong to use an Antecedent
2. I catch the point that you are hinting at. before what. As—
or The story what I read was good.
I catch the point λ you are hinting at. This sentence is wrong because Antece-
3. I have not yet read the book that you dent ‘story’ has been used before ‘what’.
suggested to me. Its correct form would be—
4. I have lost the pen that you gave me. The story that I read was good.
 PRONOUNS | 49

Rule 26—‘But’ as a Relative Pronoun 20. What is your opinion about the work
Sometimes But is used as a Relative Pro- which I am doing ?
noun, in which case it means who not/which 21. That is the house which in I live.
not. As— 22. You are my only friend I can depend.
1. There is none but admires you. 23. I know the book you are looking.
(but admires = who does not admire) 24. This is the only attempt in that I have
2. There is no problem but can be solved. failed.
(but can be solved = which cannot be 25. This is the same question which was
solved) asked last year.
3. There is none but loves his country. 26. There was not any who could be trusted.
(but loves = who does not love) 27. Who are you who can scold me like this ?
28. I know which you want from me.
Exercise
29. That what is true is always true.
Correct the following sentences :
30. There is none but who trusts me.
1. The boy whom was lazy has failed.
Hints—(1) who; (2) which; (3) who; (4) who; (5)
2. The flowers who grow in our garden are
your in place of my; (6) who; (7) which;
very beautiful.
(8) who; (9) who; (10) which in place of
3. Those whose live in glass houses should of which; (11) that; (12) that; (13) that;
not throw stones.
(14) that; (15) that; (16) that; (17) that;
4. The men which have assembled in the (18) that came; (19) that; (20) that; (21) in
lawn are our partymen. which in place of which in; (22) depend
5. I who am my benefactor must help you in upon; (23) looking for; (24) that I have
time. failed in in place of in that I have failed;
6. You are the person which are responsible (25) that; (26) that; (27) that can scold ....;
for this deed. (28) what; (29) what in place of that
7. The hen who laid a golden egg was killed what; (30) but in place of but who.
by the greedy man.
Compound Relative Pronouns
8. The people which do not love their coun-
try are not respected. Rule 27—Compound Relative Pronouns are—
9. Only those boys should be promoted Whoever, whoso, whosoever, whom-
whom are intelligent. soever, whichever, whatever, what-
10. The cycle of which I purchased is very soever.
heavy. All these Compound Pronouns are used with-
11. I always buy the book which is the best in out Antecedents, because the Antecedents are
the market. contained within them. They are supposed to
12. Our sweetest songs are those which tell of be complete in themselves. As—
saddest thought. 1. You can do whatever (i.e., anything
13. All which he said was correct. which) you like.
14. Nothing which is not true can impress me. 2. You can take whichever (i.e., anything
15. Only the ink which is blue is allowed. which) you like.
16. None who are poor can afford it. 3. Whoever/whosoever/whoso ( i . e., any
17. What was the answer which he gave ? person w h o) comes here is most wel-
18. Who was the man who came to see me ? come.
19. What is the utility of the book which has 4. I shall employ whomsoever (i.e., any
been damaged by white-ants ? person whom) you recommend.
50 | L.W.C.E.

Agreement of the Relative Pronoun (i) The Relative Pronoun ‘that’ can be
with its Antecedent omitted in the Objective Case. The
sentence is correct in both cases, with or
Rule 28—As we know, a Relative Pronoun agrees
without ‘that’. As—
with its Antecedent in Number a n d
Person. Therefore, it is supposed to 1. The picture that I saw yesterday was
have the same Number and Person as good.
its Antecedent. The verb is also used or
according to the same Number and The picture λ I saw yesterday was good.
Person. As— 2. The man that you interviewed yesterday
1. A boy who is good is loved by all. has come again.
2. Boys who are good are loved by all. or
3. You who are my friend must help me. The man λ you interviewed yesterday has
come again.
4. Those who are loyal are also honest.
(ii) The Relative Pronoun can be omitted in
5. We who are colleagues must help each Prepositional Cases also. The sentence
other. is correct in both forms. As—
6. Those who act like this can never be 1. That is the house that I lived in.
successful.
or
7. The flowers which grow in spring are That is the house λ I lived in.
very beautiful.
2. That is the man that I talked to.
8. I who am your brother must warn you.
or
Exercise That is the man λ I talked to.
Correct the following sentences : Note—In the above sentences λ shows the place
1. You can go wherever place you like. from where a Relative Pronoun has been
omitted.
2. Whosoever man wishes to come can
come. Some other Pronouns and their uses
3. You can choose whichever thing you Rule 30—Such/As
prefer. As is always used after such, the same or as.
4. I shall go with whomsoever person you As—
suggest. 1. His behaviour was such as was well
5. I who is your pupil must obey you. expected.
6. You who is my pupil must obey me. 2. His problem was such as could not be
7. He who are your pupil must obey you. easily solved.
8. The books which is old are useless. 3. My difficulty is the same as yours.
9. Those who believes in God are trust- 4. This is as good as that.
worthy. Rule 31—Who and Which as connectives
10. We who has lost our chance have to Sometimes who and which can be used as
suffer. connectives only. As—
Hints—(1) place not required; (2) man not 1. I met my friend, w h o gave me this
required; (3) thing not required; (4) advice.
person not required; (5) who am; (6) who (i.e., I met my friend and he gave me this
are; (7) who is; (8) which are; (9) who advice.)
believe; (10) who have. 2. I have bought a dictionary, which helps
Omission of Relative Pronoun me a lot.
Rule 29—The Relative Pronoun is omitted in the (i.e., I have bought a dictionary and it
following cases— helps me a lot).
 PRONOUNS | 51

Rule 32—Which in restricted sense Rule 34—Who in the Objective Form

In the Restricted sense / choice which can be Strictly from grammatical point of view who
used both for Persons and Things. is used in the Nominative form, and whom in
1. Which of them is your father. the objective form. But nowadays, specially
in conversational language, who is being used
(Here choice is limited within ‘them’) in the objective form in place of whom. Or,
2. Which between these books is better, otherwise, who or whom are both omitted
this one or that. from their objective place. As—
(Here again choice is limited within ‘this 1. Who did you talk to ?
one or that.’) 2. Who did you help ?
Rule 33—The same ........ that/as 3. My brother, who you wanted to talk to, is
If in a certain sentence the same comes here.
before a Noun, the same Noun is suggested by or
as or that in the following clause. But if in the
following clause, the verb is understood (i.e. My brother λ you wanted to talk to is
not expressed), only as will be used, not that. here.
As— 4. Here is my friend who you wanted to
1. This is the same book as/that I bought meet.
last year. or
2. He is the same man a s/that came this Here is my friend λ you wanted to meet.
morning. Note —In all these sentences who has been used in
3. This is the same watch as yours. place of whom. In such sentences who or
whom are both correct.
Exercise Rule 35—Independent Possessives
Correct the following sentences : Mine, ours, yours, theirs, his are called
1. The treatment given to me was such Independent Possessives.
which could not be expected. No Noun is used after them. The sense of
2. This is as easy a problem which there Noun comes from the context.
could be. 1. This book is mine/yours.
3. He is passing through the same situation 2. These cows are ours/theirs.
which I am passing through. 3. This house is his.
4. His expectation is the same which is Rule 36—One, One’s, Oneself
mine.
One is an Indefinite Pronoun. It is used in its
5. I met my teacher, and who directed me to own form in all the three cases. In Nominative
meet the principal. and Objective cases it is used as o n e, in
6. Who of them is your elder brother? Possessive case it is one’s, and in Reflexive
7. Who is your father, this gentleman or that form it is oneself. It is wrong to use Personal
? Pronoun with it. As—
8. What book do you want, the old one or 1. One should mind one’s (not his) own
the new ? business.
9. Is it not the same car what we saw 2. One should avail oneself (not himself) of
yesterday ? every opportunity.
10. The same problem which we faced last 3. One cannot succeed unless one (not he)
time has come up again. works hard.
Hints—(1) as; (2) as; (3) as/that; (4) as in place of Rule 37—Reflexive Pronoun
which is; (5) drop and; (6) which; (7) Reflexive Pronouns are formed by the
which; (8) which; (9) as/that; (10) that /as. addition of –self or –selves. They are—
52 | L.W.C.E.

Himself, herself, yourself, yourselves, Hints—(1) drop house; (2) drop book; (3) My;
themselves, myself, ourselves, itself. (4) Your; (5) their; (6) one’s; (7) one’s; (8)
(i) They cannot be used independently. The One in place of he; (9) myself; (10) I
related Noun or Pronoun must be used myself; (11) He himself is ....; (12) They
with them. As— themselves; (13) avail himself; (14)
revenge myself; (15) absented himself.
1. I can do it myself.
or Interrogative Pronoun
I myself can do it. Rule 38—Interrogative Pronouns are these—Who,
It is wrong to use it thus—Myself can do it. w h o m , whose, which, w h a t . The
2. He himself came to the office following are the Rules of their use—
3. You can see it yourself. (i) What is used for inanimate things. As—
4. We discovered the facts ourselves. What is that ? What was there ?
5. They themselves were there on the What happened ? What had appeared
scene. there ?
6. No machine can move by itself. (ii) What is used for Persons also when the
(ii) There are some Transitive verbs which question is about their Position or
take some Reflexive Pronoun for their Profession. As—
object if there is no other object to 1. What is your father ?
complete them. These verbs are—avail,
i.e., What is the post or profession of
absent, revenge, enjoy. As—
your father ?
1. I availed myself of this opportunity.
2. What is he ?
2. I revenged myself upon him.
3. What are you ?
3. He absented himself from the class.
(iii) Who, whose, whom are used for Per-
4. You must have enjoyed yourself during sons. Who is used in the Nominative
the vacation. case, whom in the Objective case, and
Exercise whose in Possessive case. As—
Correct the following sentences : 1. Who are you ?
1. This house is mine house. 2. Who comes there ?
2. That book is yours book. 3. Whose book is this ?
3. Mine office is there. 4. Whom do you want to meet ?
4. Yours father came yesterday. Since whom is a little inconvenient to
5. All theirs cows have returned from the use, who has come to be used in place of
wood. whom in the objective case. As—
6. One cannot bear his insult like this. 1. Who have you invited ?
7. One should take care of his own interests. 2. Who do you want to meet ?
8. One will never repent if he is honest. 3. Who are you speaking to ?
9. I meself can do it. 4. Who did you find there ?
10. Myself never knew the facts. (iv) Which is used for Persons and things in
11. Himself is strong enough to defend him- restricted choice. As—
self. 1. Which is your father ?
12. Themselves were absent. 2. Which pen is yours ?
13. He could not avail of the great opportu- 3. Which book do you like most ?
nity. (v) Sometimes it becomes essential to use
14. I must revenge upon my opponent. some Preposition with which or what. In
15. He has again absented from duty. such a situation the Preposition is placed
 PRONOUNS | 53

at the end of the sentence, not at the 10. It is not (we/us) who are to blame.
beginning. As— 11. He is older than (me/I).
1. What is this table made of ? 12. Let you and (she/her) be friends again.
2. Which house do you live in ? 13. You are as good as (him/he).
3. What place are you going to ? 14. There is enough room for you and (me/I).
4. Which book are you looking for ? 15. Nobody but (he/him) was present.
Exercise 16. I know that it was (she/her).
Correct the following sentences : 17. You and (me/I) can do this work together.
1. Whom is your father ? 18. Each of the students gave (his/their) own
2. Whose are you ? version of the incident.
3. Whom comes there ? 19. I am not one of those who cannot keep
4. Whom house is that ? (my/their) word.
5. Whose have you invited to tea ? 20. Every day and every night has (its/their)
6. Of what is this toy made ? own importance.
7. For whom are you waiting ? Hints—(1) I, him; (2) ours; (3) theirs; (4) his; (5)
they; (6) me; (7) him; (8) yours; (9) your;
8. In which street do you have your house ?
hers; (10) we; (11) I; (12) she; (13) he;
9. What car is yours ? (14) me; (15) he; (16) she; (17) I; (18) his;
10. At what are you aiming ? (19) their; (20) its.
Hints—(1) What; Revision Exercise : 2
(2) Who;
Fill in the blanks with appropriate interro-
(3) Who; gative pronoun :
(4) Whose; 1. ........... are you doing ?
(5) Who, Whom; 2. ........... is yours, the pen or pencil ?
(6) Preposition of to be placed at the end 3. ........... of them is your sister ?
.... made of;
4. This is my book; .......... is that ?
(7) Who/Whom ...... waiting for ?
5. ......... did you send to hospital ?
(8) Which street ........ your house in ? 6. .......... is the chain made of ?
(9) Which; (10) What are ...... aiming at ? 7. ........... is this letter from ?
Revision Exercise : 1 8. .............. is she writing to ?
Choose the appropriate form of the Pro- 9. ........... is he talking about ?
noun from those given in brackets : 10. ........... do you prefer, milk or tea ?
1. (I/me) shall go with (himself/him). 11. ........... is this coat, mine or yours ?
2. (Our/ours) is a long and sad tale. 12. .......... is better, this one or that ?
3. My house is larger than (their/theirs). Hints—(1) What; (2) What; (3) Which; (4)
4. I met a brother of (him/his) in the market. whose; (5) Who/Whom; (6) What; (7)
Where; (8) Who; (9) What; (10) What;
5. It is (they/them) who have done it. (11) Whose; (12) Which.
6. This is a secret between you and (I/me).
7. They praised his brother and (he/him). Revision Exercise : 3
8. He has no pencil; can you lend him Correct the following sentences :
(your/yours) ? 1. Man is the only animal who can talk.
9. Are these (your/you) books ? No, they are 2. Neither of the three brothers have done
(her/hers). their work.
54 | L.W.C.E.

3. They that are healthy have no need of a 16. They enjoyed during the holidays.
doctor. 17. Myself saw the robber.
4. Let you and I do this work. 18. There are my books. I am giving the same
5. One should always remain loyal to his to you.
country. 19. You are stronger than him.
6. The candidate, who is a graduate, he is 20. He and myself are great friends.
eligible for the post. 21. This is the best which we can do.
7. He is one of those people who can sacri- 22. It was me that gave you the information.
fice his all for the nation. 23. The boy whom you spoke to in the market
8. My sister and myself are happy to accept is my cousin.
your invitation. 24. They can do it themself.
9. He is as clever as her. 25. These pencils are for you and I.
10. He is a friend of our. Hints—(1) that; (2) None; (3) Those who; (4) me;
11. I have nothing which would suit you. (5) one’s; (6) drop he; (7) their; (8) I; (9)
she; (10) ours; (11) that; (12) My friend
12. I and my friend will go together.
and I; (13) who; (14) Which; (15) each
13. Show me the man whom did it. other; (16) themselves; (17) I myself; (18)
them in place of the same; (19) he; (20) I;
14. Who is your father, this gentleman or that ? (21) that; (22) I; (23) who; (24) them-
15. The two friends like one another. selves; (25) me.
 6 Adjectives
Kinds of Adjectives definite Numbers (as one / two / three. etc. or I,
II, III etc.) are called Definite Numeral Adjec-
There are Ten kinds of Adjectives— tives, and those which refer to Indefinite Number
1. Proper Adjectives—The Adjectives for- (as many, several, few, etc.) are called Indefinite
med from Proper Nouns are called Proper Adjec- Numeral Adjectives. As—
tives. As— 1. He has four books.
Indian coast, French wine, American cul- 2. He has one house.
ture, English language, Shakespearean plays. 3. He has many books.
2. Descriptive or Qualitative Adjectives— 4. He has several houses.
The Adjectives which describe the merits or
demerits, shape and size, colour and form, good 5. Five workers are there.
qualities or bad ones, of a person or a thing are 6. There are no workers.
called Qualitative Adjectives. As— 7. All workers have gone.
A great man, a beautiful girl, a brave boy, a Note—The examples given above under
small toy, a white cow, cold water. Rules No. 3 and 4 above will show that some
3. Quantitative Adjectives—The Adjectives Adjectives are both Adjective of Quantity and
which express the quantity (not number) of a Adjective of Number. They are—all, some,
thing are called Quantitative Adjectives. enough, no, none, more, any, plenty of, etc.
They are common to both. They become
These Adjectives are always applied to un- Adjective of Quantity or Adjective of Number
countable Nouns in the Singular Number. The (Numeral Adjective) according to their use. If
Nouns which they qualify can never be in the they show quantity, they become Quantitative,
Plural Number. and if they show Number, they become Numeral
These Adjectives are—Much, little, n o , Adjectives. As—
none, some, any, enough, sufficient, all, whole, Quantitative Numeral
half, less, a good deal of, a lot of, plenty of, a
kilo/pound/ton/quintal, a litre/metre. As— 1. He has drunk all 1. He has read all the
the milk books.
1. This is all the milk in the cup.
2. He has drunk some 2. He has read some
2. There is enough sugar for the evening tea. milk. books.
3. There is no bread in the cupboard. 3. He has no milk. 3. He has no books.
4. There is one litre milk in the jug. 4. He hasn’t drunk 4. He hasn’t read any
4. Numeral or Numerical Adjectives— any milk. book.
These Adjectives show Number. They are— 5. He has a lot/plenty 5. He has a lot/plenty
One/two/three, etc.; first/second/third, etc.; a, of milk. of books.
an, many, few, some, several, a few, all, any, a
number of, a lot of, a heap of, plenty of. 6. He has enough 6. He has enough
milk. books.
These Adjectives are always applied to
Countable things in both Singular and Plural 7. He has spoilt most 7. He has read most of
Numbers. Amongst these, those which refer to of the milk. the books.
56 | L.W.C.E.

5. Demonstrative Adjectives—The Adjec- Your, thy, his, her, its, their. In Attributive
tives which point to some Person or thing are form they are used before the Nouns they qualify.
called Demonstrative Adjectives. They are of As—My book/ books, Your book/ books, Our
two types—Definite Demonstratives and Inde- house/ houses, its wings.
finite Demonstratives. The more common Defi- But the Possessive Adjectives can be
nite Demonstratives are these— Possessive Pronouns also. In that case they are
This, that (with Singular Noun) used Predicatively, i.e. after the Nouns they
These, those (with Plural Noun) qualify. As—
Any, Such, Some (with both Numbers This is my book. (Possessive Adjective)
according to sense) This book is mine (Possessive Pronoun)
Indefinite Demonstratives are these—Any, In the same way mine, ours, yours, theirs,
some, such, other, any other, a certain, etc. hers are also Possessive Pronouns (not Posses-
Here it should be remembered that a Singular sive Adjectives).
Demonstrative should go with a Singular Noun, 9. Emphasizing Adjectives—These Adjec-
and a Plural Demonstrative with a Plural Noun. tives are used to lay emphasis on the Noun. They
Therefore, we cannot write this boys or these are—own, very. As—
boy. 1. I saw it with my own eyes.
The Demonstratives which are common in 2. This happened before my very eyes.
both Singular and Plural Numbers are these— 3. His own book was lost.
a certain book, certain books 4. He came this very day.
the other book, the other books 10. Exclamatory Adjectives—What can be
such a boy, such boys used as Exclamatory Adjective also. As—
any man, any men What joke that was !
the same boy, the same boys What nonsense this is !
6. Distributive Adjectives—Distributive What a beautiful house you have !
Adjectives are those that point to Persons or
Things Singly or Collectively. They are—each,
Exercise
every, either, neither. As— Correct the following sentences :
1. Each boy will show his work. 1. There is none bread on the counter.
2. Every man had gone in time. 2. We shall need 5 litres milk for the party.
3. You can take either road, this or that. 3. Whole students are present on the field.
4. A good deal of passengers are waiting for
4. Neither road is safe at this hour.
the train.
5. You have to take this medicine every 5. All the fourth books are in our course.
four hours (i.e., every period of four
hours). 6. All fourth student will come forward.
7. I have no liking for this kinds of games.
6. Every four teams will give a demons-
tration turn by turn (i.e., in groups of four 8. None of these two alternatives is accept-
teams). able to me.
7. Interrogative Adjectives—Interrogative 9. All the sides of the coin are rusty.
Adjectives are those that ask Questions. As— 10. He can read with none of his eyes.
What, which, whose, etc. As— 11. He has injured all his hands.
1. Which book do you want ? 12. Each and every books has been damaged.
2. What book was that ? 13. Each of this book is difficult for me.
3. Whose book was that ? 14. We are all yours students.
8. Possessive Adjectives—Possessive Adjec- 15. This is mine house. Which is your ?
tives show relationships. They are—My, Our, 16. He likes very this type of pen.
 ADJECTIVES | 57

17. He fought in very my presence. 2. Tell me something interesting.

18. My son own can do it easily. 3. I have nothing new to say.
19. Which a beautiful girl this is ! 4. Is there anything new ?
20. Which a fun was that ! (c) If several Adjectives qualify the same
Hints—(1) no; (2) 5 litre; (3) All; (4) ‘number of’ Noun, it is better to use them after the
in place of ‘good deal of’; (5) four; (6) Noun, though their use before the Noun is
Every; (7) this kind or these kinds; (8) also not wrong. As—
Neither; (9) Both; (10) neither; (11) both; A man, strong, young and brave.
(12) book; (13) these books; (14) your; I love all things—good and useful,
(15) my; yours; (16) this very type; (17) colourful and beautiful.
my very presence; (18) own son; (19)
(d) When an Adjective is used for a title, it is
What; (20) What.
used after the Noun. As—Akbar the
Position of Adjectives Great; Alexander the Great, Louis the
Pious.
(a) There are two ways of using Adjectives—
(e) In some phrases the Adjective is used
(1) Attributive use
after the Noun. As—
(2) Predicative use
the body politic, heir apparent, the sum
In Attributive use Adjectives are placed total, chairman elect, a God incarnate,
before the Nouns they qualify. As— He is a good Governor-General, from time immemo-
boy. In Predicative use Adjectives are placed rial.
after the Nouns they qualify. As—The boy is
(f) Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers—If
good.
Numerical Adjectives of both kinds
The following are the Rules of Attributive (Cardinal —one / two / three, etc. and
and Predicative use of Adjectives— Ordinal —I / II / II, etc.) are to be used
1. Proper and Qualitative Adjectives— before a Noun, the Ordinal numbers
These Adjectives can be used in both Attributive should be used first and Cardinal numbers
and Predicative ways. As— later. I, II, III are read is First, Second,
1. This is an Indian dish. (Attributive) Third, etc. As—
2. This dish is Indian. (Predicative) 1. I have read the first two chapters (not
3. This is a good book (Attributive) two first chapters) of this book.
4. This book is good. (Predicative) 2. The first five poems of this book are in
our course. (Not five first)
2. But the following Adjectives are used only
(g) If both Numeral and Possessive Adjec-
Predicatively (not attributively)—
tives are to be applied to a Noun, the
asleep, alive, ill, awake, afraid, ashamed, Numeral Adjective should be used before
alike, alone. As— the Possessive Adjective. As—
1. The baby is asleep. 1. All my brothers are well settled.
(cannot say—He is an asleep baby) (Not My all brothers)
2. The child is awake. 2. Half my friends have already gone.
(Not awake child) (Not My half friends)
3. He is afraid of you. (h) The, this, that are used after the Numeral
4. I am alone. Adjective. As—
5. Their appearances are alike. 1. All the books (Not the all books)
(b) Adjective is used after Indefinite Pronoun 2. Both the books, (Not the both books)
(something, nothing, anything, some- 3. All this is wrong. (Not this all)
body, anybody, nobody, no one). As— (i) For emphasis the Adjective is used after
1. He is somebody important. the Noun. As—
58 | L.W.C.E.

Things eternal are more precious than 10. This custom has been coming down from
things temporal. immemorial time.
(j) If several Adjectives qualify the same 11. The eldest prince is the apparent heir to
Noun, they should be arranged in such a the throne.
way that the Adjectives suggesting the 12. He is among the three first position
basic qualities of the Noun concerned holders.
should come nearest to it serially. As— 13. The five last candidates could not be
1. A dirty, ugly old man. (Not old, dirty interviewed today.
ugly man) 14. Our all friends are very sincere.
2. A weak, hungry, green parrot. 15. His all books have been stolen.
(k) Determiners/Determinatives—They are 16. The both friends have come.
the Adjectives that point to the Number 17. The all books are equally good.
or Quantity of a Noun, or limit the 18. A young, well-dressed and smart man is
range of a thing by making a definite waiting for you.
suggestion towards it (as—this, that, 19. I bought tickets five for Bombay.
these, those, my, your, etc.) These deter-
20. I always choose best the everything.
miners are always placed before the
Noun. As— Hints—(1) a very beautiful; (2) two sets of
colourful; (3) felt ashamed; (4) live alone;
1. There are five horses (Not horses five)
(5) family awake; (6) nothing interesting;
2. Here is a cup. (7) anything new; (8) Akbar the Great; (9)
3. This is my cup. God incarnate (drop ‘an’); (10) time
4. I like this/that cup. immemorial; (11) heir apparent; (12) first
three; (13) last five; (14) All our; (15) All
5. I don’t like these/those boys. his; (16) Both the; (17) All the; (18) well-
(l) If an Article (a, an, or the) and an dressed and smart young man; (19) five
Adjective are both to be used for a Noun, tickets; (20) everything the best.
the Adjective is placed after the Article.
As— Degrees of Adjectives
1. He is a good boy. (Not good a boy) There are three Degrees of Adjectives—
1. Positive Degree
2. This is the best book. (Not best the
book) 2. Comparative Degree
3. Superlative Degree
Exercise In the Positive Degree some special quality of
Correct the following sentences : a thing is pointed out, not the Degree of the
1. This is very beautiful a scene. special quality. As—
2. I bought colourful two sets of curtains. Ram is a brave boy.
3. He ashamed felt at his discourteous In the Comparative Degree the second lower
behaviour. or higher degree of the quality is suggested, and
in it there is a sense of comparison of the same
4. I alone live in such a big house.
quality in two things. As—
5. I found the whole awake family at mid- Ram is braver than Shyam.
night.
In the Superlative Degree the third and
6. We found interesting nothing there. highest Degree of the quality is suggested, and in
7. Have you new anything to tell me about it there is the sense of the highest Degree of the
this case ? same quality amongst at least three or more
8. The Great Akbar was the Emperor of things. As—
India. 1. Ram is the bravest of these five boys.
9. Lord Krishna was an incarnate God. 2. Ram is the bravest of all.
 ADJECTIVES | 59

Note—(1) Absolute Superlative—Sometimes Pure Purer Purest

Superlatives formed by most are used in White Whiter Whitest
such a way that they do not carry the sense Sane Saner Sanest
of the highest Degree of comparison; they
only lay emphasis on the quality con- 3. In Adjectives ending with y in the Positive
cerned. They are called Absolute Superla- Degree and also having a Consonant before y, the
tives. As— Comparative and Superlative Degrees are for-
med by first converting y into i, and then adding
1. That was a most unfortunate event. -er for the Comparative and -est for the Super-
2. It was a most moving speech. lative Degree. As—
Formation of Comparative and Positive Comparative Superlative
Superlative Degree Adjectives Easy Easier Easiest
Signs of Recognition Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Happy Happier Happiest
There are some signs of recognition of Com- Merry Merrier Merriest
parative or Superlative Degrees. They are— Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
1. Comparative Degree— Healthy Healthier Healthiest
(a) Comparative Degree Adjectives have Pretty Prettier Prettiest
generally - r, - er, - or at the end.
4. If an Adjective ends with y in the Positive
(b) Superlative Degree—
Degree, but has a Vowel (not a consonant) before
Superlative Degree Adjectives have gen- y , the y is not converted into i, and the
erally - st or - est at the end. comparative and Superlative Degrees are formed
(c) More is the sign of Comparative Degree by adding - er and - est respectively. As—
and Most of the Superlative Degree.
Positive Comparative Superlative
The following are the ways of making Com-
parative or Superlative Degrees from the Posi- Gay Gayer Gayest
tive Degree— Grey Greyer Greyest
1. Comparative Degree is formed by adding - 5. In Adjectives ending with double conso-
er and Superlative by adding -est to the Positive nants, or with one consonant preceded by two
Degree of Adjectives of one syllable and some of Vowels, the Comparative and Superlative Degrees
more than one syllable also. As— are formed by adding - er or - est respectively
Positive Comparative Superlative without doubling the last consonant. As—
Tall Taller Tallest Positive Comparative Superlative
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest Deep Deeper Deepest
Young Younger Youngest Great Greater Greatest
Smart Smarter Smartest Thick Thicker Thickest
Small Smaller Smallest
Great Greater Greatest
Dull Duller Dullest
Small Smaller Smallest
6. When an Adjective of one syllable has one
2. In Adjectives ending with e in the Positive consonant at the end, and this last consonant is
Degree, Comparative Degree is formed by adding preceded by one short vowel, the last consonant
-r and Superlative by adding -st to the Positive is doubled before adding - er or - est for making
Degree. As— Comparative or Superlative Degrees. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative
Positive Comparative Superlative
Brave Braver Bravest Hot Hotter Hottest
Fine Finer Finest Big Bigger Biggest
Large Larger Largest Thin Thinner Thinnest
Able Abler Ablest Sad Sadder Saddest
Noble Nobler Noblest Fat Fatter Fattest
Wise Wiser Wisest Red Redder Reddest
60 | L.W.C.E.

7. Some Adjectives have more than two Correct Use of Adjectives

syllables in their Positive Degree (including a few
of only two syllables also). The Comparative or (A) Positive Degree
Superlative Degrees of such Adjectives are made Rule 1—Comparison of Equality
by using more or most before them. As— When e q u a l i t y or similarity is shown
Positive Comparative Superlative through comparison between two Persons,
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful Things or Qualities, we use the pattern—
Courageous More Most courageous as + Adjective + as
courageous As—
Learned More learned Most learned
1. She is as beautiful as her sister.
Splendid More splendid Most splendid
Difficult More difficult Most difficult 2. Ram is as tall as Shyam.
Industrious More Most industrious Rule 2—Comparison of Inequality
industrious When inequality or dissimilarity through
Proper More proper Most proper comparison is shown between two Persons,
Honourable More Most honourable Things or Qualities, we follow the following
honourable two patterns—
Honest More honest Most honest not as + Adjective + as
8. Irregular Formation—The Comparative or
or Superlative Degrees of some Adjectives are not so + Adjective + as
irregular. They are not governed by any rules, and These comparisons are called Negative com-
their Comparative or Superlative Degrees are not parisons. As—
formed from their Positive Degrees. As— 1. She is not as beautiful as her sister.
Positive Comparative Superlative or
Good Better Best She is not so beautiful as her sister.
Bad Worse Worst 2. Ram is not as tall as Shyam.
Little Less/Lesser Least or
Much More Most
Ram is not so tall as Shyam.
Many More Most
Note—If we wish to lay more emphasis on inequ-
Late Later/Latter Latest/last
ality, we can use quite before so. As—
Old Older/Elder Oldest/eldest
Far Farther Farthest (for distance) 1. She is not quite so beautiful as her
sister.
Fore Former Foremost
In Inner Inmost/innermost 2. Ram is not quite so tall as Shyam.
Up Upper Uppermost/upmost Rule 3—Concealed Comparison
Out Outer Outermost In some sentences comparison is not explicit
but concealed in its sense. In such sentences
Exercise we use—
Give the Comparative a n d Superlative not all that + Adjectives. As—
Degrees of the following Adjectives :
1. He is not all that intelligent.
(a) Easy, merry, healthy, wealthy, pretty.
(i.e. He is not as intelligent as he was
(b) Small, great, high, low, gay, fine, grey, slow, believed to be.)
fast, lazy, bright.
2. Its price is not all that high.
(c) Sad, thin, red, fat, big.
3. The swimming pool is not all that deep.
(d) Gracious, wonderful, respectable, remark-
able, intelligent, loyal, prudent, impressive, Rule 4—Comparison of Actions (Verbs)
industrious, sorry. In Positive Degree two actions can be com-
(e) Good, bad, little, much, many. pared in the following ways—
 ADJECTIVES | 61

(i) By using Gerund. as— Hints—(1) as tall as; (2) as useful as; (3) so
1. Writing is as easy as reading. merciful; or as merciful; (4) as my
brother; (5) quite so; (6) quite so tall; (7)
2. Walking is as difficult as running.
not all that; (8) not all that; (9) driving;
(ii) By using Infinitive. as— (10) as dancing; (11) to drive; (12) pay;
1. It is not as easy to write as read. (13) sooner; (14) as soon die; (15) vacate,
2. It is as difficult to walk as run. go.
In this construction it should be remembered (B) Comparative Degree
that the first Infinitive is used with to, and the
second without to. Rule 5—Comparison between two
(iii) By using had better/had rather/had Comparative Degree Adjective is used for
sooner, as comparison between two Persons, Things or
Qualities, not for more than two. As—
1. I had rather go than wait.
2. You had rather read than write. 1. Ram is nobler than Mohan.
3. You had better work than sit idle. 2. Which is the better between these two
pens ? (not better among these five
4. We had better sit there than stand
pens.)
here.
5. They had sooner die than surren- Rule 6—Use of than
der. The connective ‘than’ is used to show com-
6. They would sooner die than surren- parison for all Adjectives except those
der. Adjectives shown below under Rule 7. As—
7. They would as soon die as surren- 1. Ram is taller than Shyam.
der. 2. This house is better than that.
In this construction Infinitive is used twice, 3. Sita is more beautiful than Geeta.
and each time without to. This is the correct Rule 7—Use of to—
pattern.
For all Adjectives of Latin origin, comparison
Exercise is shown by ‘to’ (not by ‘than’). T h e more
Correct the following sentences : common Adjectives o f L a t i n origin are—
1. Sita is as taller as her sister. Superior, inferior, junior, senior, prior,
2. This book is useful as the other one. anterior, posterior. It may be remembered
that generally these Adjectives end with - or.
3. Ram is not more merciful as Shyam. By this sign they can be recognised. It may be
4. I was not so tired than my brother. remembered that ‘to’ is used after Prefer /
5. He is not very so industrious as your Preferable also, though they are not of Latin
servant. origin. As—
6. You are not highly so tall as your friend. 1. He is junior/senior to me. (not than me)
7. He is not that all trustworthy. 2. This is superior/inferior to that. (not
8. His achievement was not all so great. than that)
9. To drive is as difficult as swimming. 3. His turn comes prior to mine. (not than
10. Public speaking requires as much cour- mine)
age as to dance. 4. Milk is preferable to tea. (not than)
11. It is as difficult to ride as driving.
Rule 8—Originally Comparative Degree
12. They had better paid the penalty.
The above noted Adjectives of Latin origin
13. We would soon pay the money than (Superior, inferior, junior, senior, prior,
suffer this insult. anterior, posterior) are already of Compara-
14. I would as soon as die as beg like you. tive Degree. Therefore no attempt should be
15. You had better vacated the house than made to make their comparative degree by
gone for litigation. adding more / less or any other comparative
62 | L.W.C.E.

word. Therefore, it is wrong to use such My horse is better than Ram’s. (i.e., Ram’s
expressions as ‘more superior’ or ‘less supe- horse)
rior’, ‘more preferable’ or ‘less preferable’ Similarly—
and so on. Also, as has been explained above,
‘to’ is used with them, not ‘than’. As— 1. The climate of Punjab is better than that
of Bihar. (Not than Bihar)
1. He is junior to me. (Not more junior
than) 2. The markets of Delhi are larger than
those of (or than the markets of) Agra.
2. She is senior to her. (Not more senior (Not than Agra)
than)
3. Milk is preferable to tea. (Not better Exercise
preferable) Correct the following sentences :
Rule 9—Double Comparatives 1. This T.V. set is less inferior to your set.
Double comparatives should not be used. 2. His performance was superior than mine.
Therefore, the following expressions are 3. This cloth is much more superior to the
wrong—more cleverer; more better; more other one.
stronger; less braver; greater higher, etc. 4. His turn comes priorer to yours.
The correct expressions would be—
5. Ram is more cleverer than Mohan.
1. He is cleverer (not more cleverer) than
you. 6. You can do still more better work.
2. An elephant is stronger (not more 7. No man could have done it in less shorter
stronger) than a horse. time.
8. Ram is more industrious than more
Rule 10—When two qualities
intelligent.
of the same person or thing are to be com-
9. He is stronger than cleverer.
pared, the Comparative Degree formed by -
er should not be used. In their place compara- 10. His writing is better than you.
tive degree should be made by adding more 11. The scenery of Kashmir is more beautiful
or less to the Adjective concerned. As— than Bihar.
1. He is more brave than strong. (Not 12. The cows of Haryana are better than
braver than stronger) Panjab.
2. Mohan is more good than wise (Not 13. Calcutta is larger than that of Bombay.
better than wise) 14. His house is bigger than her.
3. He is more industrious than intelligent. 15. My school is nearer than their.
(Not more industrious than more inte- Hints—(1) drop ‘less’; (2) t o mine; (3) drop
lligent) ‘more’; ( 4 ) prior; (5) drop‘more’; (6)
Rule 11—Correct Comparisons drop ‘more’; (7) drop ‘less’; (8) drop
When two persons, things or qualities are to ‘more’ before ‘intelligent’; (9) ‘ m o r e
be compared, care should be taken to see that strong than clever’; (10) yours; (11) that
comparison is made between correct persons of Bihar; (12) those of Panjab; (13) drop
or things. No wrong comparison should be ‘that of’; (14) hers; (15) theirs.
made. As— Rule 12—Proper Comparisons
My horse is better than Ram. There may be another error in correct com-
This sentence is wrong because in this parison which should be avoided. When a
sentence the comparison is wrong. The person or thing is to be compared with
sentence as it is would mean as if comparison another person or thing of the same class or
is made between ‘my horse’ and ‘Ram’. The category, and if the comparison is to be
correct comparison would be between ‘my shown by a comparative Adjective followed
horse’ and ‘Rams’s horse’ (not Ram by ‘than’, the person or thing coming after
himself). Therefore, the correct form of the ‘than’ should have ‘any other’ / ‘all others’
above sentence would be— or ‘else’ before it, otherwise the comparison
 ADJECTIVES | 63

would be wrong and the sentence will have no 4. I love you more than any boy in the class.
meaning. For example, look at the following 5. He is dearer to me than anyone in the
sentence— family.
Ram is more intelligent than any other 6. He was in time while everyone was late.
student in the class. 7. I cannot accept you, though I can accept
This sentence is correct. But if we delete the anybody.
word other from the sentence and write it as 8. I cannot believe in your promises, though
follows— I can believe in anybody else.
Ram is more intelligent than any student in Hints—(1) any other; (2) any other; (3) any other;
the class. (4) any other; (5) anyone else; (6) ever-
The sentence becomes wrong on account of yone else; (7) anybody else; (8) else’s.
wrong comparison. This sentence would mean Rule 13—Comparison of Number/Quantity
as if Ram is not a student (may be a peon) and Another error is often committed in the com-
he is being compared with the students of the parisons of Number and Quantity. It should
class. But when we say any other student, the be remembered that fewer is used for Num-
meaning becomes clear that Ram is himself a ber, and less for Quantity. Fewer is always
student and he is being compared with other followed by Countable Plural Noun and less
students of the class. by uncountable Singular Noun. But more
Similarly the following sentences are correct— can be used both for Number and Quantity.
1. This book is better than any other book As—
in the stock. 1. I have fewer pens than pencils.
2. An elephant is stronger than all other 2. She gave me fewer books than maga-
animals in the wood. zines.
3. I respect you more than any one else in 3. He eats less butter than sugar.
the college. 4. She bought less gold than silver.
If we write these sentences as follows 5. There are more cows than goats.
(after removing any other/all other/anyone
6. There is more sugar than salt.
else), they will all be wrong.
Never use fewer in place of less, or less
1. This book is better than any book in the
in place of fewer. For example, the following
stock.
sentences are wrong—
2. An elephant is stronger than all animals
1. She bought fewer gold than silver.
in the wood.
2. I have less pens than pencils.
3. I respect you more than anyone in the
college. Rule 14—Comparatively + Positive Degree
Note—It may further be remembered in this If an Adjective (or an Adverb) has Compa-
context that other is used with a Noun and ratively before it, the Adjective (or Adverb)
else with a Pronoun. As—any other tea- should be used in the Positive Degree, not in
cher, any other pen, any other doctor; the Comparative Degree. As—
anyother else, anyone else, everybody 1. This is comparatively easy (not easier).
else, etc. 2. He is now comparatively well (not
Exercise better).
Correct the following sentences : 3. This is comparatively difficult (not
more difficult).
1. Dara Singh was stronger than any man in
his youth. Exercise
2. He works harder than any student in his Correct the following sentences :
class. 1. There are less rooms in his house than in
3. He is more learned than any teacher in the mine.
college. 2. He has read less books than I .
64 | L.W.C.E.

3. Only a few milk would be sufficient. In the above noted sentences if as is used
4. Take this medicine with a few tea. only once with the Positive Degree
Adjective, they would be wrong. For
5. Very less guests have come yet. example, the following sentences are
6. I will have a little fewer sugar in my tea. wrong—
7. He is now comparatively better off. 1. He runs as fast, if not faster than you.
8. Today he came comparatively earlier. 2. She is as good, if not better than her
9. Your problem is comparatively easier. mother.
10. He is comparatively a better man. 3. This hall is as large, if not larger than
Hints—(1) fewer; (2) fewer; (3) little; (4) little; that.
(5) few; (6) less; (7) well off; (8) early; (9) Rule 17—Emphatic Comparatives
easy; (10) good. Emphatic Comparatives can be used in the
Rule 15—Parallel/ Gradual Increase or Decr- following three ways—
ease (a) By using much / far / by far / still before
(a) Some sentences are so constructed that its the Comparative Degree (but not by using
Comparative Degree Adjective is split up very). As—
and used in the two Parts of the sentence as a 1. This house is much larger than that.
balance. In such sentences, Comparative
Degree should be used in both the parts, not 2. This is far better than that.
comparative in one part and Positive or 3. This is by far more important than the
Superlative in the other. As— other.
1. The higher a man rises, the humbler he 4. This book is still better.
grows. or,
We should not say— This book is better still.
The higher a man rises, the humble or (b) By using rather.
humblest he grows.) As—
2. The nobler a man is, the more respect 1. This book is rather cheaper.
he gets.
2. This hall is rather better.
(b) In some sentences the same Comparative
Adjective is repeated one after the other. (c) By using all the.
The form of such sentences is as follows— As—
1. He is getting weaker and weaker. 1. This is all the better.
2. He is working harder and harder. 2. That was all the worse.
3. The price-index is rising higher and 3. That was all the more disappointing.
higher.
Exercise
Rule 16—Positive Degree+Comparative Degree
Correct the following sentences :
There are also some sentences in which both
the Comparative and Positive Degree Adjec- 1. The harder a man labours, the best returns
tives are used. In such sentences, the Positive he gets.
Degree Adjective should be used with as 2. The more contented a man is, the happy
……as (not with one as only) and Com- he feels.
parative Degree Adjective with than. As— 3. The more you amass, the greediest you
1. He runs as fast as, if not faster than you. grow.
2. She is as good as, if not better than her 4. The most you conceal, the more you
mother. expose yourself.
3. This hall is as large as, if not larger 5. The valley goes deep and deeper from
than that. here.
 ADJECTIVES | 65

6. The mountain peaks rise high and high Rule 20—Superlative + of/ in
from this terrain. Preposition of or in is used to show compari-
7. He is sinking deeper and deepest into son amongst three or more persons or
debts. things. As—
8. He is as intelligent, if not more intelligent 1. He is the richest of all men here.
than his father.
2. This is the cheapest of all books.
9. His position is as bad as, if not worst than
3. This is the best building in the town.
yours.
10. He is very better now. 4. He is the most intelligent boy in the
class.
11. This is all the good for me.
Remember that of is used with most of
12. This cloth is very inferior. the Superlative Adjectives, but with the
Hints—(1) better; (2) happier; (3) greedier; (4) Superlatives showing place we use i n
more you conceal; (5) deeper and deeper; instead of of. As—in the town or in the
(6) higher and higher; (7) deeper and class in the above noted sentences.
deeper; (8) as intelligent as; (9) worse; Rule 21—Superlative + one of/among
(10) much better; (11) better; (12) much
inferior. When one of or a m o n g is used with a
Superlative, the noun coming after it must be
(C) Superlative Degree of Plural Number. As—
Rule 18—The + Superlative 1. Ram is one of the best boys in the class.
Article The must be used before a Superlative 2. This is one of the cheapest books
Degree Adjective. As— available in the market.
1. He is the best student of the class. 3. He is the best among these boys.
2. This is the highest peak. 4. This is the cheapest among these books.
3. He is the most powerful man. Rule 22—Superlative and other
The following sentences are wrong because We don’t use other with a Superlative Degree
Article a (not the) or no article has been used
Adjective. (It may be remembered that with a
before the Superlative Adjective. As—
Comparative Degree Adjective other is used
He is a best student.
when the comparison is within the same class
or or category, but it is not so with a Superlative
He is best student. Adjective.) As—
Note—But if some Possessive Adjective (my, 1. He is the strongest of all boys. (Not of all
our, your, his, her, their) or Possessive other boys)
Case (Noun + ’ s) has come before the
Superlative, we don’t use the Article the. 2. This is the best of all buildings. (Not of
As— all other buildings)
1. He is my best friend. Rule 23—One of………if not/Superlative
2. He is our dearest child. In some sentences Superlative is used twice
3. He is Ram’s best friend. once with one of the and again with if not
Rule 19—Three or more Nouns the. In such sentences Plural Noun comes
Superlative Adjective is used for comparison after one of the + Superlative, and Singular
amongst at least three or more things or Noun after if not the + Superlative. As—
persons. As— This is one of the best books, if not the best
1. She i s the best of the three sisters. (Not book on Indian philosophy.
best of the two sisters) The following are some more sentences—
2. This is the cheapest of all . 1. He is one of the greatest historians, if not
(Not cheapest of both) the greatest (historian) alive today.
66 | L.W.C.E.

2. This is one of the highest peaks, if not 1. He is the most brightest student.
the highest (peak) of these mountains. (Only brightest student should be
3. This is one of the largest halls, if not the there.)
largest (hall) in the town. 2. He is the most richest man.
Note—In such sentences the Singular Noun 3. This is the most worst job.
coming after if not the + Superlative is
Rule 25—Emphatic Superlative
often concealed.
In order to give additional emphasis to a
Exercise Superlative Adjective, we can use by far the /
Correct the following sentences : much the / the very / out and out the. As—
1. He is noblest man I have ever met. 1. Bangalore is by far the most beautiful
2. This is longest chapter in my book. city.
3. This is my the most favourite dish. 2. This is much the best school.
4. This is Mohan’s the highest ambition. 3. This is the very best school.
5. She is the tallest of the two sisters. 4. This is out and out the best school.
6. The best of the two will be given the Rule 26—Adjectives of the same degree
prize. If the same Noun is qualified by two or more
7. The best of both will be given a chance. than two Adjectives , all these Adjectives
must be of the same Degree. As—
8. This is the most fashionable market of
the town. 1. She is the best and most talented girl.
(We can’t say best and talented or good
9. He is the most scholarly of all other and most talented)
teachers.
2. This is the deepest and longest valley.
10. He is the ablest of any other candidates.
3. I have the best and cheapest book.
11. He is one of the greatest scientists if not
the great of this century. Rule 27—Non-gradable Adjectives
12. Ram is one of the most mischievous The undernoted Adjectives are already of the
boys, if not the more mischievous in the Superlative Degree. They cannot be used as
class. Comparative Degree Adjectives, nor can the
emphasising expressions such as very /
13. You can choose the best of either of these extremely / highly / much can be used with
pens. them. These Adjectives are—
14. I will live in the bigger of all these Unique, perfect, matchless, excellent, ideal,
houses. absolute, universal, impossible, entire,
15. He reached the earliest of both. whole, full, complete, round, extreme,
Hints—(1) the noblest; (2) the longest; (3) drop eternal, chief. Now see their use—
‘the’; (4) drop ‘the’; (5) of the three (or 1. He is an ideal leader.
more); (6) Three or more/all; (7) of all; (8) (We can’t say more ideal or most ideal)
in the town; (9) drop ‘other’; (10) ‘all’ in 2. This is a unique chance. (not, more uni-
place of ‘any other’ (11) the greatest; (12) que or most unique)
‘most mischievous’ in place of ‘m o r e 3. This plan is perfect.
mischievous. (13) ‘all’ in place of ‘eit-
4. I have full sympathy with him.
her’; (14) the biggest; (15) ‘all’ in place of
‘both’. Note—However, these days full and perfect are
being used in Comparative and Super-
Rule 24—Double Superlative lative Degrees also. Now we can use full,
Double Superlatives should not be used. The fuller, and fullest, or perfect, more per-
following sentences are w r o n g because fect or most perfect. This use is coming
double superlatives have been used in them. into vogue. As—
 ADJECTIVES | 67

1. I have the fullest sympathy with you. 3. The humble are blessed.
2. This is the more perfect/ most perfect 4. The wicked always come to grief.
plan. (b) As a Singular Noun representing some
3. Please give me a fuller account of the abstract quality.
incident. As—
Rule 28—Like best/like most 1. Keats was a poet of the beautiful.
Both these uses are correct. 2. The future is bright.
1. Which of these books do you like most ? (c) Adjectives actually becoming Nouns.
2. Which of these books do you like best ? (i) Proper Nouns—Canadians, Africans,
Some Other Typical Adjectives Asians, Italians.
(ii) Denoting Persons—Juniors, seniors,
Rule 29—Kind and sort
elders, nobles, inferiors, superiors,
Kind and sort are of Singular Number. There- criminals, savages, betters.
fore, this or that should be used with them,
(iii) In Plural Number only—sweets,
not these or those.
valuables, eatables.
1. I don’t like this/that kind of men.
(d) In some phrases
or
for good, at best, black and white,
I don’t like men of this/that kind. through thick and thin, for better/for
2. I don’t like this/that sort of men. worse/worst, before long, in short,
or from bad to worse, the long and short.
I don’t like men of this/that sort. 1. He has left India for good.
Note—These / those sort or these / those kind 2. At best, we shall get marginal profit.
are wrong expressions, though some 3. The agreement was made in black
authors have started using them. and white.
Rule 30—Adjective/Adverb 4. We shall remain friends through
Sometimes Adjectives are used with verbs thick and thin.
also, but in that case the Adjectives qualify 5. We shall not part company for better
the subject of the verb. If, however, they or for worse.
qualify the action (verb), they should be used
Adverbially. As— 6. Nothing better can come.
1. The flowers smell sweet (not sweetly) 7. Nothing worse can happen.
2. He looked angry (not angrily) 8. I am prepared for the worst.
3. The ship appeared suddenly (not sudden) 9. I shall start a new business before
4. He looked coldly at us. (not cold) long.
Rule 31—Adjective used as Nouns 10. In short, I have lost the chance.
Sometimes Adjectives are used as Nouns in 11. His condition is getting from bad to
the following cases— worse.
(a) Represent a class of people 12. The long and short of the whole
matter is that the match had to be
Sometimes a particular class of people in
cancelled.
the Plural Number can be represented by
an Adjective preceded by the definite Exercise
Article The. As—
(a) Correct the following sentences :
1. The rich should not be proud. (i.e.
rich people) 1. He is the most richest man in the town.
2. The poor should not be derided. (i.e. 2. He is the least slowest worker.
poor people) 3. He has committed the most worst crime.
68 | L.W.C.E.

4. He is the noblest man by far in our 1. Ram came later than Hari.
family. 2. This event is of a later date.
5. This is the much best book on the subject. 3. Ram and Shyam are brothers but the
6. She is the out and out most fashionable latter is more cultured than the former.
lady. Former and Latter
7. This is the best and easy of all exercises.
When there is reference to only two persons
8. She is the sweetest and noble girl. or things, we use former for the first and latter
9. We live in the richest and fertile valley. for the second. But when the reference is for three
10. He is the most ideal teacher. or more persons or things, we use first for the
11. You will never get a very unique chance first and last for the last. As—
like this. 1. Ram and Shyam are brothers but the
12. That was a most excellent opportunity. former is very rich and the latter very
13. He found it most impossible to swim poor.
across the flooded river.
2. In a list of fifty candidates Ram’s name is
14. He has left the work more incomplete. at the first place and Mohan’s at the last.
15. It is difficult to deal with this kinds of
First and Foremost
customers.
16. These kind of books are not available First is first merely in serial order without
here. any suggestion of more or less in importance,
17. These sort of men are dangerous. while foremost means most important without
any reference to serial order. As—
18. She appears very sweetly in her red frock.
19. I found her smilingly at the door. 1. He was the first man to reach here.
20. She looked coldly and indifferently. 2. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was the foremost
statesman of his time.
Hints—(1) drop ‘most’; (2) drop ‘least’; (3) drop Last and Latest
‘most’; (4) by far the noblest man; (5) Last is the antonym of first, while latest is
much the best book; (6) out and out the the antonym of earliest. Therefore, last has the
most fashionable; (7) easiest; (8) noblest; sense of place in serial order, while latest has the
(9) most fertile; (10) drop ‘most’; (11) sense of Time. As—
drop ‘very’; (12) ‘an’ in place of ‘a most’;
(13) drop ‘most’; (14) drop ‘more’; (15) 1. The last person in the queue is my friend.
these; (16) kinds; (17) sorts; (18) sweet; 2. What is the latest news about his condi-
(19) smiling; (20) cold and indifferent. tion ?
(b) Use the following Adjectives or Adjectival Nearest and Next
phrases as Nouns— Nearest means nearest in distance, while next
Rich, poor, beautiful, junior, senior, elder, means after this / that in serial order. As—
sweet, valuable, good, better, best, long and short, 1. Which is the nearest railway station
bad, worse, worst, black and white, thick and thin, from here ?
short, from bad to worse.
2. My seat was next from the door.
We give below some typical Adjectives in the Farther and Further
use of which there is always some doubt and a
Farther means away in distance, while
mistake is often committed. See their correct use
further means ‘in addition to’. But further is
carefully—
also used sometimes for distance. As—
Later and Latter
1. Lucknow is farther from Agra than
Later is the Comparative Degree of late, Kanpur.
while latter is antonym of former. Later gives
the sense of time, while latter expresses place or 2. There is nothing further to say.
position. As— 3. Further he said that he was ill.
 ADJECTIVES | 69

Fewer, Less and Lesser (b) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Fewer is used for number, less for quantity, with ‘former’ or ‘latter’ or ‘first’, or ‘fore-
and lesser for less in importance. As— most’, or ‘last’ :
1. Fewer visitors came to see the Taj this 1. Ram and Shyam are both good students
year. but the………is more cultured than the….
2. Fewer candidates have applied for the 2. Johnson is our ………manager.
post this time. 3. Ramu is so weak that he stands………in
3. There is less milk in the jar. the list.
4. He has now less time. 4. Homer was the……great Greek poet..
5. Many lesser speakers also spoke from the 5. Wordsworth was the……romantic poet.
platform. Hints—(1) former, latter; (2) former; (3) last;
6. I have not read the lesser poets of the (4) first; (5) foremost.
Elizabethan Age. (c) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Note—If in a certain sentence there is a Definite with ‘last’ or ‘latest’, ‘next’ or ‘nearest’,
Numeral Adjective, followed by a Plural ‘farther’ or ‘further’, ‘fewer’ or ‘less’ :
Noun, we use less in place of fewer. As— 1. The man who came ……could not get a
1. I have ten rupees less at the moment. seat.
2. There are two members less in the team. 2. The……and concluding chapter is the
most important one.
Elder and Eldest : Older and Oldest
3. The……news from the war front is very
Elder and Eldest are used for members of the disappointing.
same family. Elder means senior in age and
4. This is the……issue of the magazine.
eldest means senior-most in age. Older and oldest
are used for other people or things, in the same 5. Bahadur Shah was the……King of the
sense of age. As— Mugal dynasty.
1. He is my elder brother. 6. Bombay Central is the……station from
our locality.
2. My eldest brother is like my father.
7. Roorki is ……from here than Delhi.
3. I am older than my friend. 8. The……hospital from here is five kilo-
4. He is the oldest man in the village. metres away.
5. This is the oldest Church. 9. Turn to the left from the……crossing.
Note— It may be remembered that older is 10. I shall give you a good book……time.
followed by than, while elder is followed 11. He could not speak any…….
by to. As— 12. He could not go any …….
I am elder to my sister, while she is older 13. Ram’s house is……to mine.
than her friend. 14. No……argument is needed.
Exercise 15. Please come without any …… delay.
(a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 16. Don’t go any……into the wood.
with ‘later’ or ‘latter’ : 17. He has……friends than you.
1. ……on he said that he could not help me. 18. This market is ……crowded.
2. The majority accepted the ……proposal. 19. His chances are……than mine.
3. The ………half of the century produced 20. There is……risk in this business.
no great poet.
Hints—(1) last; (2) last; (3) latest; (4) latest; (5)
4. I can come at some ……date. last; (6) nearest; (7) farther; (8) nearest;
5. At a ……date, he was also promoted as (9) next; (10) next; (11) further; (12)
the chief engineer. farther; (13) next; (14) further; (15) fur-
Hints—(1) Later; (2) latter; (3) latter; (4) later; ther; (16) farther; (17) fewer; (18) less;
(5) later. (19) fewer; (20) less.
70 | L.W.C.E.

(d) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences (c) The little means not much but all that is
with ‘elder’ or ‘eldest’, ‘older’ or ‘oldest’ : there.
1. My friend is …………than me. 1. He has wasted the little money he had.
2. My ………… brother is coming today. (i.e. not much, but all that he had.)
3. Our ………… were highly respectable. 2. Make the best use of the little time you
4. I have no ………… sister. have.
5. This is the ………… edition of this book. Few, a few, the few
6. This is our ……… house. (a) ‘Few’ means ‘almost nil’. It has a negative
7. My ……… sister has two sons. sense.
8. This is the ………… temple in the town. 1. He has few chances of success.
Hints—(1) older; (2) elder or eldest; (3) elders; (i.e. almost no chances of success.)
(4) elder; (5) oldest; (6) oldest; (7) elder 2. He has few enemies.
or eldest; (8) oldest. (b) A few means ‘small in number’.
Some and Any 1. I can give you a few books.
Some is used in Affirmative and Interro- 2. I have only a few friends.
gative sentences for request or invitation. (c) ‘The few’ means ‘small in number’, but all
Any is used in Negative and Interrogative that are there.
sentences. As— 1. I have lost the few books I had.
1. I have some letters for you. (i.e. very few in number, but all those
(Since it is an affirmative sentence, we that I had.)
cannot say ‘any letters for you’) 2. Carefully read the few books you have.
2. I do not have any letters for you.
(Since it is a negative sentence, we Exercise
cannot say ‘some letters for you’.) (a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
3. I want to read some more books. with some or any; little, a little, or the little :
4. I don’t want to read any more books. 1. I don’t have ……… money in my pocket.
5. Do you have some friends with you ? 2. Can you lend me ……… money ?
6. Do you not have any friend with you ? 3. He could not lend me …… money.
7. Will you please have some tea ? 4. I have not invited ……… of my friends.
8. No, I will not have any. 5. Do you want to invite ……… of your
or friends ?
Yes, I will have some. 6. Do you have ……… time to help me ?
Little, a little, the little 7. No, I don’t have ……… time.
(a) Little means almost nil / nothing. It has a 8. There is ……… hope of his recovery.
negative sense. As— 9. There is ……… milk left in the pot.
1. There is little hope of his success. 10. ……… milk he had has turned sour.
(i.e. There is almost no hope of his 11. A poor man has ……… money to waste.
success.)
12. There is ……… work left to complete.
2. I have little time to waste.
13. ……… work left yesterday has been
(b) A little means small in quantity. completed.
1. There is a little money left. 14. There is ……… time now left.
(i.e. small amount) Hints—(1) any; (2) some; (3) any; (4) any; (5)
2. I have only a little sugar left. some; (6) some; (7) any; (8) little; (9) a
3. We had only a little time to complete the little; (10) The little; (11) little; (12) a
work. little; (13) The little; (14) little.
 ADJECTIVES | 71

(b) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 1. Owing to his illness, he could not appear
with few, a few, or the few : at the examination.
1. There are ………… friends who remain 2. Owing to heavy rain, the programme
faithful in hard times. was badly disturbed.
2. He has only …… …… friends. Many a
3. ……… friends he has are really faithful It is used like a Singular Numeral Adjective,
to him. though it is Plural in sense. It takes a Singular
4. A good man has …… …… enemies. N o u n and a Singular Verb after it. It means
5. ………… passengers were injured in the many (one by one). As—
accident. 1. Many a young man has laid down his
6. …… …… passengers injured in the life for the country.
accident have been given first-aid. 2. Many a great occasion has come in my
7. ……… books would serve my purpose. life.
8. …… …… books I had have all gone out Verbal and Oral
of course. Verbal means of or in words. It is opposite
Hints—(1) few; (2) a few; (3) The few; (4) few; of ‘written’. As—
(5) A few; (6) The few; (7) A few; (8) The
1. There is no verbal difference between the
few.
two documents.
Each and Every
2. There is a striking verbal similarity
Each is used for two or more than two. between the two poems.
Every is used for at least three or more. ‘Oral’ means by ‘mouth’, not in writing.
Every should not be used for two. As—
1. There will be an oral test.
1. Each of you must reach in time.
2. He has failed in the oral examination.
2. Each of the two brothers is highly
cultured. (not ‘every one of the two’) Note—Nowadays ‘Verbal’ is also used in the
3. Every one of them was ready to go. sense of ‘Oral’ (by mouth).
4. I know every street of Calcutta. 1. We have received a verbal message.
Either and Neither ‘Common’ and ‘Mutual’
Either means ‘one of the two’; Neither ‘Common’ means belonging to two or more
means ‘neither this nor that of the two.’ Neither persons or things.
is antonym of either. Neither / Either are not 1. There is nothing common between them.
used for more than two. As— 2. This is our common property.
1. You can take either side. ‘Mutual’ means ‘between two’, ‘for each
2. Either of the two brothers can come. other’.
1. There was mutual exchange of views
3. You should take neither side.
between them.
4. Neither of the two brothers is likely to
2. There was little mutual understanding
come.
between them.
‘Due to’ and ‘owing to’
‘Due to’ means ‘caused by’. It is related with
Exercise
the action of a verb. As— (a) Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
1. His demotion was due to his negligence with appropriate adjectives :
of duty. 1. ……… one of the villagers had to vacate
2. He has risen so high due to his hard his house.
labour. 2. ……… of Ram, Shyam and Mohan was
‘Owing to’ is only a Prepositional phrase. It fined for coming late.
only governs a Noun or a Nominal. It is generally 3. …… of the two friends is answerable for
placed at the beginning of the sentence. it.
72 | L.W.C.E.

4. ………… of them is a hard worker. 10. He rose very high in his latter days.
5. ………… of the two candidates can be 11. The later half of this book is better.
selected. 12. This is the best and late discovery.
6. ………… of the two candidates is fit for 13. My friend is elder to me.
appointment.
14. He is the most ideal student.
7. You may join ………… party.
15. My watch is more costly than you.
8. He found ………… party acceptable.
16. The population of Kanpur is more than
9. The roof collapsed ………… heavy load. Agra.
10. ………… heavy load the roof collapsed. 17. She is the gentlest and beautiful girl.
11. ………… patriot has laid down his life. 18. He has wasted the few money he had.
12. ………… good student has failed this 19. The flowers smell so sweetly.
year.
20. These kind of persons should be avoided.
13. He did not come for his ………… test.
21. Is he wiser than any man ?
14. I cannot accept your ………… assurance.
22. He is the wisest of all other men present
15. We live in a ………… house. here.
16. This is a ………… Community Hall. 23. He made the most unkindest remark.
17. This will serve our ………… interests. 24. He has done a most unique work.
18. Let there be ………… give and take bet- 25. I have no farther demand.
ween friends.
26. The three first chapters of this book are in
19. We can share a ………… room. our course.
20. We have no ………… friend. 27. Ram is our mutual friend.
Hints—(1) Every; (2) Each; (3) Each; (4) Every 28. He has the little hope of recovering his
one; (5) Either; (6) Neither; (7) either; (8) money.
neither; (9) due to; (10) Owing to; (11)
29. He hasn’t done nothing.
Many a; (12) Many a; (13) oral; (14)
verbal; (15) common; (16) common; (17) 30. This sorts of houses do not meet our
mutual; (18) mutual; (19) common; (20) requirements.
common. 31. A dog is more faithful than any animal.
Revision Exercise 32. She is as beautiful if not more than her
sister.
Correct the following sentences :
33. This is one of the good, if not the best
1. Very little students are present in the class house available on rent here.
today.
34. Who is the richest between the two
2. There is few milk in the pot. brothers ?
3. He is junior than I. 35. He hasn’t some room to spare for my
4. This scheme is more preferable than the studies.
old one. 36. I have any books you need for your
5. This is the most saddest news. studies.
6. Of these four persons he is more 37. He has brought some sweet from the
intelligent. market.
7. Between these two books this is the best. 38. We must all respect our elder.
8. Read the chapter farther. 39. Tell the whole story in briefly.
9. Do you have any farther scheme ? 40. I have lost all money I had.
 7 Adverbs
Kinds of Adverbs 6. Adverb of Reason or Cause (showing
‘reason’/‘cause’)—The following are the more
There are 9 kinds of Adverbs— common Adverbs of Reason or cause—
1. Adverb of Time (showing ‘time’)—The
following are the more common Adverbs of Owing to, due to, consequently, hence,
Time— therefore.
Now, then, before, after, since, ago, soon, 7. Adverb of Affirmation or Negation
late, early, presently, instantly, immediately, (showing ‘yes’ or ‘no’)—The following are the
already, afterwards, never, when, whenever, more common Adverbs of Affirmation or Nega-
today, tomorrow, yesterday, ever. tion—
2. Adverb of Place (showing ‘place’/ yes, no, not, certainly, certainly not, yea,
‘Where’)—The following are the more common may, by all means.
Adverbs of Place—
8. Interrogative Adverb (for asking ques-
Here, there, where, hence, thence, hither, tions)—The following are the more common
thither, in, out, within, without, above, Interrogative Adverbs—
below, inside, outside, far, near, everywhere,
away, forward, backward. Why, when, what, where, how, how many,
how long, how far, whence, whither, what,
3. Adverb of Number (showing ‘how often’/ wherefore.
‘frequency’)—The following are the more
common Adverbs of Number— 9. Relative Adverb (showing ‘relationship’)
—These Adverbs show ‘relationship’. In form
How often, once, twice, thrice, often, they are like Interrogative Adverbs. Like Relative
seldom, frequently, rarely, again, always, Adjcetives, they must have an Antecedent, and
firstly, secondly, thirdly, sometimes. the Adverb must refer to this Antecedent. If there
4. Adverb of Quantity/Degree (showing is no Antecedent before it, it would become
‘how much’) — The following are the more Interrogative Adverb, and not Relative Adverb.
The more common Relative Adverbs are these—
common Adverbs of Quantity or Degree—
What, when, where, why, how,whence,
Too, almost, fully, very, enough, so,
whither, whatever, wherever.
altogether, no better, pretty well, any, quite,
rather, partly, wholly, as..as.
Degrees of Comparison in
5. Adverb of Manner (showing ‘how’ or ‘in Adverbs
what manner’)—The following are the more
common Adverbs of Manner— Some Adverbs, specially Adverbs of Man-
ner, Degree and Time have three Degrees of
Cheerfully, unwillingly, clearly, soundly, comparison like Adjectives. The three Degrees
strongly, bravely, hard, thus, so, cowardly, are—
slowly, quickly, actively, fast, nobly, Positive Degree, Comparative Degree and
proudly, lovingly. Superlative Degree.
74 | L.W.C.E.

Their Degrees are formed in the following Position of Adverbs

three ways. Rule 1—Position of Adverbs—
1. The Adverbs of one syllable in their Positive It is very important to know the correct place
Degree become Comparative or Super- or position at which an Adverb should be
lative by adding -er or -est respectively. As— used in a Sentence. If the Adverb is not
Positive Comparative Superlative placed at the correct position in a sentence,
the meaning of the sentence would change, or
Late Later Latest it may even become absurd or meaningless.
Long Longer Longest For example, see the position of only in the
Short Shorter Shortest following sentence. You will see that the
meaning of the sentence changes with the
Loud Louder Loudest
change of position of the Adverb only in it.
Near Nearer Nearest
(i) Only he can read.
Soon Sooner Soonest
(i.e. no other person except he)
Hard Harder Hardest
(ii) He can only read.
2. The Adverbs which end with ly, become (i.e. he can only read, but can neither
Comparative or Superlative by using more write nor speak.)
or most before them. As—
(iii) He can read only.
Positive Comparative Superlative (i.e. He can do nothing except reading)
Swiftly more swiftly most swiftly The following are the Rules of correct
Skilfully more skilfully most skilfully position of an Adverb in a Sentence—
Wisely more wisely most wisely (a) Adverb of Manner—It is generally used
Intelligently more most after the Verb, but if the verb has its object also,
intelligently intelligently the Adverb is used after the Object. As—
Regularly more most regularly 1. He speaks softly.
regularly (Not, He softly speaks)
Diligently more most diligently 2. He drives cautiously.
diligently (Not, He cautiously drives)
Slowly more slowly most slowly 3. He reads his book carefully.
Powerfully more most (Not, He reads carefully his book)
powerfully powerfully 4. I visit him regularly.
Note—But with early we use earlier or earliest. (Not, I regularly visit him)
3. But some Adverbs are there the Compara- 5. She loves him heartily.
tive or Superlative Degrees of which are (Not, She heartily loves him)
formed under no rules. They are called irre-
gular Adverbs. As— (b) Adverbs or Adverb phrases of Time and
Place. They are also used after the Verb. As—
Positive Comparative Superlative 1. He will return soon.
Much more most (Not, He soon will return)
Little less least 2. He goes there.
Bad worse worst (Not, He there goes)
Well better best 3. I go home next week.
Far farther farthest (Not, I next week go home)
Forth further furthest 4. There were flowers everywhere.
Late later last (Not, There were everywhere flowers)
 ADVERBS | 75

(c) If after the verb or its object two or more 4. “Do you travel by plane ?”
than two Adverbs are to be used, they should be “Yes, I sometimes do.” (short form
placed in this order—adverb of manner, adverb answer)
of place, adverb of time. As—
(g) The Adverb is placed before the Auxi-
1. He spoke impressively at the function liaries have to / used to. As—
yesterday.
1. I often have to go by bus.
2. She wept bitterly at the playground last
evening. 2. He always used to be kind to me.
3. He comes regularly at the stadium 3. He never has to go alone.
every morning. (h) The Adverb is placed before the Adjec-
4. You should reach home by this evening. tive or another adverb which it modifies. As—
(d) Adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, 1. His lecture was very interesting.
never, often, rarely, usually, generally, almost, 2. He is very highly qualified.
already, hardly, nearly, just, quite) They are 3. Do you drive so fast ?
used between the Subject and Verb if the verb is
of one word only (as, goes, runs, play, etc.), but 4. He is wonderfully intelligent.
if the verb has more than one word (as, is going, (i) Adverb enough is always placed after the
has been working), the Adverb is placed after word it modifies. As—
the first word of the verb. As— 1. He was good enough to help me.
1. I just saw him at the gate. 2. This house is large enough for our
2. He has already finished his work. purpose.
3. He has rarely been coming to me. 3. He is brave enough to face the situation.
4. He has frequently been absenting himself (j) Adverb only is placed just before the word
from the class. it modifies. As—
5. We usually go there. 1. He worked only for two hours yesterday.
(e) All the Adverbs listed above (under d) are 2. I attempted only twice to climb to the
placed after the Auxiliary Verbs (i.e. is, are, am, top.
was, were), but before other verbs. As—
1. I am always ready. Note—But in spoken English only can be used
before the Verb. As—
2. He is often late.
1. He only worked for two hours yesterday.
3. We were never happy there.
4. He seldom comes here. 2. I only attempted twice to climb to the
top.
5. He generally travels by bus.
(k) Negative Adverb ‘not’ is always placed
6. I frequently meet him in the market.
between the Auxiliary Verb and the Principal
(f) If some stress is to be laid on a verb, or if Verb. As—
a reply is to be given in a short form, all the
1. He did not reach in time.
Adverbs (listed above under d) should be placed
before the Auxiliary Verbs or single verb be. 2. I shall not meet him.
As— 3. He has not spoken a word.
1. “He has again forgotten to bring his
books.” Exercise I
“Yes, he always does forget to bring his Correct the position o f the Adverb i n the
books.” following sentences :
2. “Are you free this evening ?” 1. He only died a month ago.
“Yes, I usually am free in the evenings.” 2. He soon will finish his work.
3. “When does he go to Bombay ?” 3. He is enough rich to set up a new factory.
“He already has gone to Bombay.” 4. I almost have finished my course.
76 | L.W.C.E.

5. The rain began to fall suddenly. the auditorium tomorrow morning; (7)
6. I have met often that man. just saw; (8) standing at the gate a little
while ago; (9) usually go; (10) rarely
7. He explained clearly his point of view. angry; (11) me in the park this evening;
8. I go seldom after sunset. (12) often invites me; (13) has just
9. He merely came to return my book. landed; (14) regularly go; (15) shall
frequently be meeting.
10. He bore his losses patiently.
Rule 2— If an Adverb modifies (a) the whole
11. Ram is a lazy boy rather.
sentence or (b) if it is meant to give very
12. I never am late for school. great stress, it is placed at the very
13. He does carefully all his work. beginning of the sentence. As—
14. The mother heartily loves her daughter. 1. Unfortunately a very serious accident
15. He has spoken not a word. occurred.
2. Luckily no one was killed.
Hints—(1) only a month; (2) will soon; (3) rich
enough; (4) have almost finished; (5) 3. Out came the lion from the den and
suddenly began to fall; (6) have often stood before us.
met; (7) clearly explained; (8) seldom go; Rule 3—Double Negative
(9) came merely to return; (10) patiently Double Negatives should not be used in a
bore; (11) rather a lazy; (12) never late; sentence. Double Negatives give either Affir-
(13) all his work carefully; (14) daughter mative meaning or no meaning at all. Their
heartily; (15) has not spoken. use is, therefore, wrong.
Exercise II 1. I cannot walk no further now.
Insert the given Adverbs (or Adverb (There should be ‘any further’ is place
Phrases) in their right position in the following of ‘no further’.)
sentences : 2. Nothing never happened.
1. This is not bright (enough). (There should be ‘ever’ in place of
2. You should behave like this (never). ‘never’.)
3. Will he be found (there, still) ? 3. I don’t want nothing.
4. He goes to the market (seldom). (There should be ‘anything’ in place of
‘nothing’.)
5. I am late for the office (never).
4. He was not honest neither.
6. He is lecturing (tomorrow morning, at the
(There should be ‘either’ in place of
auditorium).
‘neither’)
7. I saw him going out (just). 5. I forbid you not to go there.
8. He was standing (at the gate, a little (‘not’ should be removed from here
while ago). because ‘forbid’ is already negative.)
9. I go to school on foot (usually).
10. He is angry with me (rarely). Exercise III
11. Please meet me (this evening, in the Correct the following sentences :
park). 1. A great tragedy luckily has been averted.
12. He invites me to tea (often). 2. All the passengers were unfortunately
13. The plane has landed (just). killed.
14. We go to Church (regularly). 3. We cannot bear it no longer.
15. I shall be meeting you (frequently). 4. We could not find him nowhere.
Hints—(1) bright enough; (2) should never 5. I don’t see no sense in it.
behave; (3) found still there; (4) seldom 6. Scarcely no one would believe in your
goes; (5) am never late; (6) lecturing at story.
 ADVERBS | 77

7. I don’t have no one to go with me. 1. He is too poor to buy a car.

8. You are forbidden not to touch my books. 2. He is too rich to buy a car.
9. He cannot neither deny or accept it. The first of these sentences is correct because
10. He is no longer in no need of it. it means that—
Hints—(1) Luckily to come at the beginning of “He is so poor that he cannot buy a car.” But
the sentence; (2) Unfortu-nately to come the second sentence is wrong because it would
at the beginning; (3) any longer in place mean “He is so rich that he cannot buy a car.” The
of no longer; (4) anywhere in place of correct form of the second sentence would be, “He
nowhere; (5) any in place of no; (6) is rich enough to buy a car.” The following
anyone in place of no one; (7) anyone in sentences are correct—
place of no one; (8) drop not; (9) either 1. He is too weak to run.
in place of neither; (10) any need in
2. The river is too deep for me to cross.
place of no need.
3. The enemy is too strong to be overcome
Use of Some Typical Adverbs easily.
1. Too 4. The problem is too difficult for me to
solve.
‘Too’ means more than enough. Therefore
too should not be used in place of very or much, 3. Very and Much
otherwise it would give absurd meaning. For ‘Very’ is used with Present Participle, and
example, if we say. “I am too happy to hear of ‘much’ with Past Parti-ciple or Verb. As—
your success”, it would mean that “I am happy to
the extent I should not have been.” Certainly this 1. It was very surprising.
cannot be the intention of the speaker. The correct 2. The game was very exciting.
form of this sentence would be, “I am very happy 3. He was much surprised.
to hear of your success.” It should be remembered
4. I was much shocked to hear the news.
that ‘too’ has a negative sense or the sense of
undesirability. Too should be used keeping in 5. He was much confused.
mind this sense of its meaning and implication. 6. He talks much.
For example, the following sentences are wrong— 7. He drinks much.
1. You are too kind to me. Note—But with some Past Participles the use of
2. She is too beautiful. very is correct. As—
3. He is too intelligent. 1. I was very pleased to hear the news.
4. You are too faithful to me. 2. He was very tired at the end of the
Against these the following sentences are journey.
correct—
4. Very and Much
1. The day is too hot.
2. The price is too high for me. There is one more difference in the use of
very and much. Very is used before the Positive
3. The house is too small for my family.
Degree of an Adjective or an Adverb, and much
4. You are still too weak. before the Comparative Degree of an Adjective
5. The weather is too cold. or an Adverb. As—
6. It is too much for me to bear. 1. Ram’s house is much bigger than
2. Too + Infinitive Mohan’s.
In some sentences an Infinitive is used after 2. Mohan is much more trustworthy than
too. In such sentences also the sense of too is Sohan.
negative. In these sentences the use of too would 3. Hari is much better placed than Rajesh.
be correct if it is meant to be negative, but its use
would be wrong if it is meant to be affirmative. 4. Ram is very intelligent.
For example, see the following sentences— 5. Mahesh is very poor.
78 | L.W.C.E.

Note—Under the above rule very much can also 7. I was very surprised to see him in this
be used (in place of much) in the Com- condition.
parative Degree, but not in the Positive 8. The scene of accident was much
Degree. shocking.
5. Very and Much 9. She was much pleased to see her son’s
Very and Much can both be used in the result card.
Superlative Degree also but the rule is that Very 10. He felt much tired after the day’s hard
is used after the Article the, and much before the. labour.
As— 11. This book is very better than the other
1. He is much the best boy of the class. one.
2. Rakesh is much the richest man of the 12. He appears to be much ambitious.
town. 13. His achievement is really much credit-
3. Cow is the very gentlest animal. able.
4. This is the very best book available here. 14. This is the much biggest house available
6. Much and Very Much here.
Very much can be used with the Verb in 15. This is very the best I could do for you.
Affirmative sentences only, but in the Negative 16. We have given you the much largest
sentences only much can be used. As— share of the profit.
1. I love him very much. 17. You have now very the first chance of
2. I don’t love him much. purchasing this house.
(Wrong to say—“I don’t love him very 18. I could not appreciate his efforts very
much”) much.
7. Very much, Too much, Much too 19. This could not give me very much satis-
and only too faction.
All these four phrases have different mean- 20. This medicine has given me too much
ings. ‘Very much’ means ‘completely’, ‘too relief.
much’ and ‘much too’ mean ‘more than neces- Hints—(1) ‘much’ in place of ‘too much’; (2)
sary or desirable’, only too means ‘much’. As— very faithful; (3) ‘gracious enough’ in
1. I am very much obliged to you. place of ‘too gracious’; (4) ‘kind enough’
in place of ‘too kind’; (5) ‘very gene-
2. His performance is very much disap-
rous’; (6) ‘much shocked’; (7) ‘much
pointing.
surprised’; (8) ‘very shocking’; (9) ‘very
3. It gives me too much pain. pleased’; (10) ‘very tired’; (11) ‘much
4. It is much too painful. better’; (12) ‘very ambitious’; (13) ‘very
5. I am only too glad to be here. creditable’; (14) ‘much the biggest’; (15)
‘the very best’; (16) ‘much the largest’;
Exercise IV (17) ‘the very first’; (18) ‘much’ in place
of ‘very much’; (19) ‘much’ in place of
Correct the use of Adverbs in the follow-
‘very much’; (20) ‘much’ in place of ‘too
ing sentences :
much.’
1. She loves her only son too much.
2. My old servant is too faithful to me. 8. Too and Even
3. He is too gracious to help me. The difference between too and even is that
too is used only for empha-sis, while even is used
4. He is too kind to forgive me. in the sense of ‘against or contrary to hope or
5. My father is too generous to his servants. expectation.’ For example, a brother is normally
6. She was very shocked to see the scene of expected to help a brother, but if a brother does
accident. not help, we shall say—
 ADVERBS | 79

‘Even my brother did not help me.’ 7. There is still …… hope of his survival.
Similarly— (little, a little)
1. He helped me and my friend too. 8. There is …… hope of his survival. (little,
a little)
2. He is intelligent and industrious too.
9. There is …… I can do to help you. (little,
3. Even my father did not support me. a little)
4. I could not even recognize him. 10. I came to Kanpur five years ago but I
9. Little and A Little have not been to my home-town …… .
(since, ever since)
Little and a little as Adverbs have the same 11. I came to Kanpur five years ago but I
meaning as Adjectives. Little is negative in sense have been to my home-town only once
meaning ‘almost nothing’ while a little means …… . (since, ever since)
‘not much’. As—
12. I had injured my knee four years ago but
1. I little expected that he would pass. I have been feeling pain in it …… (since,
(i.e. There was almost no hope.) ever since)
2. I was a little disappointed. Hints—(1) too; (2) even; (3) too; (4) Even; (5) a
(i.e. The disappointment was not much.) little; (6) little; (7) a little; (8) little; (9)
little; (10) ever since; (11) since; (12) ever
10. Since and Ever Since since.
They are both Abverbs of time. Since means 11. Else …… but
from a certain point of time in the Past, while
Else is followed by but, not than.
ever since means from a certain point of time to
the Present. They are used with the Present 1. None else but the Prime Minister will
Perfect Tense, but in the Indirect Narration they inaugurate the Seminar.
are used with Past Perfect Tense. As— 2. I met none else but your father.
1. I met him five years ago and have 3. It is nothing else but arrogance.
remembered him ever since. 12. Seldom or never/Seldom if ever
2. We were together in school days but we The correct expressions are seldom or never
have met only twice since. (not ever) and seldom if ever (not never).
3. He assured me that he had never done so 1. He seldom or never misbehaves with
since. anybody.
4. We lived in Kashmir several years ago 2. He seldom if ever drinks.
but we have remembered those happy
days ever since. 13. Before and Ago
Exercise Both these are Adverbs of Time. Before is
used with Simple Past Tense or Present Perfect
Fill in the blanks with correct alternatives Tense, while Ago is used with Simple Past Tense
from those given in the brackets: only (not with Present Perfect Tense). As—
1. I bought a pen and an inkpot …… (too, 1. I never before met such a rude man.
even)
2. I have seen Jaipur before also.
2. He lost …… his security. (too, even)
3. I met him a month ago.
3. My brother came and with him his friend
…… . (too, even) 4. His father died a month ago.
4. …… the best doctors failed to diagnose Note—Ago suggests Past Tense, therefore it
his disease. (Too, Even) should not be used with any form of the
Present Tense. Therefore the following
5. He is …… displeased with me. (little, a
sentences are wrong—
little)
6. I …… doubted his sincerity. (little, a 1. I have arrived here only a little ago.
little) 2. I have completed my work an hour ago.
80 | L.W.C.E.

14. Yet and Still 9. He has started a new business some time
Yet means ‘till now’ and still means ‘even ago.
now’. Generally yet is used at the e n d of a 10. He has left office only a minute ago.
sentence, and still after an auxiliary or before 11. I have not seen him for a long time but he
single verbs. is yet my friend.
1. He is still in service. 12. He has not still gone on duty.
2. You are still a student. 13. I have yet given your share to you.
3. I still love you. 14. The child has yet gone to sleep.
4. He still needs my help. 15. He has not already reserved his berth.
5. He has not come yet. 16. She has not already shifted to her new
6. He is sleeping yet. house.
15. Yet and Already Hints—(1) ‘but’ in place of ‘except’; (2) ‘but’ in
place of ‘than’; (3) ‘but’ in place of
Already is used in Affirmative sentences ‘except’; (4) seldom or never; (5) if ever;
and it means before this point of time. Yet is (6) ‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (7) ‘before’
used in Negative or Interrogative sentences, and in place of ‘ago’; (8) ‘before’ in place of
it means even now or not till now. As— ‘ago’. (9) ‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (10)
1. I have already finished my work. ‘before’ in place of ‘ago’; (11) ‘still’ in
2. He has left for office already. place of ‘yet’; (12) ‘yet’ in place of ‘still’;
3. I have not yet finished my work. (13) ‘already’ in place of ‘ y e t ’; (14)
‘already’ in place of ‘yet’; (15) ‘yet’ in
4. He has not yet left for office. place of ‘already’; (16) ‘yet’ in place of
5. Are you not yet ready ? ‘already’.
16. Yet/Already/So far/uptil now 17. Just
All these are generally used with Present (a) Just means right now / not long before.
Perfect Tense. As— Normally it is used with Present Perfect Tense.
1. He has not yet come. As—
2. I have already met him. 1. He has just arrived.
3. He has not met me so far. 2. I have just finished my story.
4. He has not met me uptil now. (b) Just can be used with simple past tense
also, and there it means only / barely. As—
Exercise 1. He just caught the train.
Correct the use of adverbs in the following 2. He just managed to escape.
sentences :
(c) Just has one more meaning suggesting
1. None else except I will come to your help
in the end. the sense of at this very moment / exactly. As—
2. None else than my father appeared at the 1. The clock has just struck two.
scene. 2. He has just gone out.
3. It is nothing else except your pride that 3. This is just what I wanted.
spoilt the game. 18. Fairly/Rather
4. He seldom or ever is true to his word.
Both these are Adverbs of Quantity. The
5. He seldom if never comes to the alehouse. difference between them is that fairly has the
6. I have met him two years ago. sense of liking / appreciation, while rather has
7. I have been to Bombay several times ago the sense of disliking / disapproval. Therefore,
also. care should be taken not to use expressions in
8. I played tennis ago. which there may be mingling of liking and
 ADVERBS | 81

disliking. For example, the following expressions 1. Not a tree or bush was there.
are wrong— 2. There was not a man in the hall.
(a) Fairly dull, fairly ugly, fairly bad, fairly (c) We should use no (not not) before good
slow, fairly cunning or different. As—
(b) rather intelligent, rather beautiful, rather 1. This is no good abusing him.
good, rather quick, rather honest, rather 2. This is no different from that.
gentle
In the expressions given above fairly should (d) We should use none before too + Adjec-
be used in place of rather, and rather in place of tive / Adverb or the + Comparative Adjective/
fairly. Adverb used in a sentence. As—
1. The weather is fairly pleasant. (Not 1. His behaviour towards us was none too
rather pleasant) good.
2. The day is rather hot. (Not fairly hot) 2. He is none the better in spite of my help.
3. The house is fairly comfortable. Exercise
4. The house is rather uncomfortable.
Insert correct alternatives from those given
19. No/Not in the brackets :
(a) ‘No’ is used like an Adjective before a 1. The train has ……started. (just, lately)
Noun— 2. The bell has……been rung.
1. I have no pen. (immediately, just)
2. There is no boy in the class. 3. It is …… a good day. (fairly, rather)
(b) Not is used after an auxiliary— 4. His condition is …… worse today.
1. He does not read. (fairly, rather)
2. He is not there. 5. She can speak English …… well.
(c) After the under-noted verbs Not is used in (fairly, rather)
place of a Noun Clause. By this use the sentence 6. He is a …… intelligent boy.
becomes short also. (fairly, rather)
Hope, believe, think, expect, suppose, be 7. It was …… foolish on his part to say so.
afraid (fairly, rather)
1. Can you go there ? I am afraid not. 8. She is …… a silly kind of girl.
2. Will he pass ? I expect not. (fairly, rather)
3. Is he fair ? I suppose not. 9. This bread is …… dry. (fairly, rather)
(d) Not is also used before an Infinitive or a 10. There is …… sound coming from the
gerund. room. (no, not)
1. I request you not to disturb me. 11. This book is …… better than the other
2. You are wrong in not inviting him. one. (no, not)
20. No/Not/None 12. Can you think of……better plan ?
(no, not)
(a) N o is also used before a Positive or
Comparative Degree Adjective or a Compara- 13. …… a star was to be seen in the sky.
tive Degree Adverb. (no, not)
1. This is no good pen. 14. The show was …… very impressive.
2. There is no better pen. (no, not)
3. You can travel no faster by any means. 15. …… a word was spoken by anybody.
(no, not)
(b) We should use not in place of no if the
Article a or an has been used before the Noun or 16. This is …… too good for you.
Adjective. As— (no, none, nothing)
82 | L.W.C.E.

17. His health is …… too good for his age. 23. Most/Mostly
(no, none, nothing) Most as Adverb means ‘maximum’/ ‘grea-
18. There is …… a cleverer girl than Rita. test’. As—
(not, none, nothing) 1. The man whom I like most is John.
19. There is …… the slightest truth in this 2. The man who talks most is often hollow.
story. (no, none, not) Mostly means ‘largely’. As—
20. There is …… like that in this shop.
1. The audience consisted mostly of
(no, none, nothing) students.
Hints—(1) just; (2) just; (3) fairly; (4) rather; (5) 2. The students were mostly inattentive.
fairly; (6) fairly; (7) rather; (8) rather; (9)
rather; (10) no; (11) no; (12) no; (13) Not; 3. His stock consists mostly of outdated
(14) not; (15) Not; (16) none; (17) none; things.
(18) not; (19) not; (20) nothing. Exercise
21. Hard/Hardly Fill in the blanks with the correct alter-
natives given in the brackets—
Normally Hard is an Adjective, but it can
also be used as an Adverb. As an Adverb it 1. She has eaten …… anything today.
means hard labour. It is used after the Verb. (hard, hardly)
As— 2. He tried very …… but did not succeed.
1. He worked hard (not hardly) for the (hard, hardly)
examination.
3. They have been working …… all day.
2. He tried hard (not hardly) to win the
(hard, hardly)
prize.
4. He had …… alighted from the bus when
Hardly is an Adverb of Degree. It means he was caught by the police.
‘very little’ / scarcely. It is used before a Single
(hard, hardly)
verb or after the First auxiliary in a Compound
Verb. As— 5. We …… ever meet now. (hard, hardly)
1. I have seen him only once and therefore I 6. His marriage takes place…… in October.
hardly know what type of man he is. (late, lately)
2. He was so changed that I could hardly 7. Have you received any letter from your
recognize him. son …… ? (late, lately)
3. It is a new medicine; it has hardly been 8. I have not been to my village …… .
tried yet. (late, lately)
Note—For emphasis ‘Hardly’ can be used at the 9. I study till …… in the night. (late, lately)
beginning of a sentence also. As— 10. The train is running an hour …… .
Hardly had the train stopped when he (late, lately)
jumped out. 11. The books in his library are …… novels.
22. Late/Lately (most, mostly)
Late as Adverb means late in time. As— 12. He helped me …… to get over my diffi-
1. He comes late every day. culties. (most, mostly)
2. The theft was committed late at night. 13. The greatest scholars have been ……
3. He married late in life. men. (most, mostly)
Lately means ‘recently’. As— 14. The candidates are …… inexperienced.
1. He has lately started a new business. (most, mostly)
2. He has lately shifted to a new house. 15. She loves her …… . (most, mostly)
 ADVERBS | 83

Hints—(1) hardly; (2) hard; (3) hard; (4) hardly. 2. There is a man in the room.
(5) hardly; (6) late; (7) lately; (8) lately; 3. There came a tiger from the wood.
(9) late; (10) late; (11) mostly; (12) most;
4. There is a function tomorrow.
(13) mostly; (14) mostly; (15) most.
Some Common Rules 27. Adverb and Preposition
(a) Normally no Preposition is used before
24. The Split Infinitive an Adverb. Therefore no Preposition should be
An Infinitive, as we know, consists of to + used before such Adverbs as—Respectfully,
verb. Therefore no adverb should be placed humbly, politely, kindly, slowly, etc. Therefore
between to and the Verb. If we do so, we shall be the following sentences are wrong.
splitting the Infinitive. In Grammar it is called
split infinitive fault. For example, look at this 1. With respectfully I beg to submit.
sentence— 2. With humbly I state.
“I request you to kindly grant me leave.” In 3. With politely I reply as under.
this sentence kindly has been placed between to With should be removed from all these
and grant. This is a grammatical fault. The correct sentences.
form of this sentence would be—‘I request you
kindly to grant me leave.’ (b) Sometimes some time-showing words,
such as morning, evening, day, night, month,
Accordingly, the following sentences are year, etc. have such qualifying words before them
correct— as this, that, next, last, all, etc. In that case no
1. I advise you to read the book carefully. Preposition is used before them. As—
2. I instruct you to call the doctor imme-
diately. 1. He came last evening.
3. I direct you to reach the office punc- 2. He left the next morning.
tually every day. 3. He worked all day.
25. Present Perfect and Adverb 4. He is coming this evening.
In a sentence in the Present Tense, no 5. He did not go that day.
Adverb or Adverbial phrase suggestive of Past
Tense should be used. As such the following (c) But if the time - showing words are used
sentences are wrong— without the qualifying words (this, that, next,
last, etc.), proper Preposition should be used
1. I have arrived here yesterday. before them. As—
2. I have joined my duties last month.
1. I shall meet you in the evening.
3. I have passed M. A. last year.
2. I don’t sleep in the day.
The above noted sentences are in the Present
Perfect Tense, while the adverbs connected with 3. I shall come on sunday.
them are suggestive of Past Tense. Therefore, they 4. Don’t come in the night.
are all wrong. The correct form of these sente-
nces would be as follows— (d) Home is normally a Noun. But it is also
used as an Adverb of Place. In that case, neither a
1. I arrived here yesterday.
Preposition nor a relative Adjective should be
2. I joined my duties last month. used before it. As—
3. I passed M. A. last year. “I am going home.”
26. Introductory ‘There’ This sentence is correct. But we cannot say—
Some sentences begin with There. In these I am going to home. or I am going my home.
sentences There, has no significance, nor is it an The following sentences are correct—
Adverb of Place. In these sentences after There
comes an Intransitive verb or verb to be, and 1. Now we should return home.
after that comes the Subject. As— 2. When do you go home ?
1. There is a book on the table. 3. I go home by bus.
84 | L.W.C.E.

Exercise 12.The police officer looked hardly at me.

Correct the following sentences : 13.There was hard light when we set out.
1. You are instructed to not make a noise. 14.We hard ever go together.
2. I warn you to regularly do your work. 15.He only retired last month.
3. I request you to kindly recommend my 16.Please watch carefully his actions.
application. 17.I go at 10 O’clock to my office.
4. I have applied for this post last year. 18.I see him rarely these days.
5. You have come to the office only 19.He rarely is seen these days.
yesterday. 20.You have always been enough kind to
6. He has received his Degree at the last me.
convocation. Hints—(1) very ill; (2) very often; (3) very
7. With most respectfully I offer my urgent; (4) no greater; (5) not the slightest;
services to you. (6) none too soon; (7) rather unkind; (8)
8. On most humbly I bow to your grace. rather unsatisfactory; (9) fairly satisfac-
9. There is a meeting in this evening. tory; (10) late in November; (11) mostly
10. He is returning in tomorrow night. unripe; (12) looked hard; (13) hardly light;
11. I have to go to home before sunset. (14) hardly ever; (15) only last month;
(16) his actions carefully; (17) to my
12. He did not return on that day.
office at 10 O’clock; (18) rarely see him;
Hints—(1) not to make; (2) regularly to do; (3) (19) is rarely seen; (20) kind enough.
kindly to recommend; (4) ‘applied’ in
place of ‘have applied’; (5) ‘came’ in Revision Exercise II
place of ‘have come’; (6) ‘received’ in Fill in the blanks with suitable adverbs
place of ‘has received’; (7) Most from those given in the brackets—
respectfully; (8) Most humbly; (9) ‘this 1. This drink tastes …… . (bitter, bitterly)
evening’ without ‘in’; (10) ‘tomorrow
2. They received us very …… at the airport.
night’ without ‘ i n ’; (11) ‘go home’
without ‘to’; (12) ‘that day’ without ‘on’. (warm, warmly)
3. His story does not sound …… .
Revision Exercise I
(true, truly)
Correct the following sentences :
4. He has …… recovered from his illness.
1. I hear that your mother has been much ill.
(hard, hardly)
2. I have many often wished I could visit
America. 5. …… he has started a new business.
3. Is the message much urgent ? (late, lately)
4. He could make not greater mistake than 6. Young men are …… careless.
that. (most, mostly)
5. There is no the slightest sense in what he 7. He is …… serious about his health.
says. (most, mostly)
6. They arrived not too soon. 8. I find this exercise …… difficult.
7. He is fairly unkind to his subordinates. (fairly, rather)
8. His performance is fairly unsatisfactory. 9. His behaviour is …… too good.
9. His performance is rather satisfactory. (no, none)
10. Her birthday falls lately in November. 10. This medicine does me …… good.
11. The mangoes are most unripe. (no, not)
 ADVERBS | 85

11. The examination paper is …… too easy. Revision Exercise III

(not, none) (a) Write sentences of your own using the
12. She is not feeling …… today. following words or expressions preceded by
‘rather’ or ‘fairly’—
(very well, much well)
Lazy, intelligent, too expensive, sooner, gene-
13. She is feeling …… today. rous person, thoughtless person, beautiful, ugly, a
(very better, much better) clever girl, a sensible girl.
14. I …… feared this would happen. (b) Write sentences of your own using the
following words with ‘hard’ or ‘hardly’, ‘late’
(rather, never) or ‘lately’, ‘most’ or ‘mostly’—
15. A horse is …… like an elephant. Study, work, drink, believe, arrive, marriage,
(none, nothing) new adventure, peasants, labour, indecent.
Hints—(1) bitter; (2) warmly; (3) true; (4) hardly; (c) Use the following adverbs in sentences
(5) lately; (6) mostly; (7) most; (8) rather; of your own—
(9) none; (10) no; (11) none; (12) very Sooner, none, often, enough, too, even, very
well; (13) much better; (14) rather; (15) much, too much, much too, only too, since, ever
nothing. since, little, seldom, so far, uptil now, just.
 8 Prepositions
Preposition—This is made of two words— in accordance with on account of
Pre + position. Here Pre means before and posi- in addition to owing to
tion means placed. Hence Preposition is that
in (on) behalf of with a view to
word or phrase which is placed before a Noun or
a Pronoun. A Preposition or a Prepositional in case of with an eye to
Phrase shows the relationship of that Noun or in comparison to with reference to
Pronoun with some other word in the sentence. in compliance with with regard to
Forms of Preposition 4. Participle Prepositions—Some Present
A Preposition has the following forms— Participles are also used as Prepositions. As—
1. Simple Prepositions—Prepositions of Concerning, considering, barring, during,
one word are called Simple Prepositions. As— notwithstanding, pending, regarding, respecting,
In, of, to, at, by, for, from, off, on, out, touching.
through, till, up, with, down.
Functional Types of Prepositions
2. Compound Prepositions—Prepositions As we have said above, Prepositions show
formed by adding a Prefix to a Noun, Adjective relationships. In different forms they show rela-
or Adverb are called Compound Prepositions. tionship of Place, Time, Cause, Result, Purpose,
Outwardly they look like one-word Prepositions,
Meeting or Parting. On this basis Prepositions
but in fact they are compound words. As—
can be classified under the following groups—
About, above, across, along, amidst, among,
(1) Prepositions of Place
amongst, around, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, out- On, at, in, against, above, across, before,
side, underneath, within, without. behind, over, under, among, below, bet-
ween, upon, etc.
3. Phrase Prepositions—Some Phrases also
(2) Prepositions of Time
serve as Single Prepositions. As—
After, before, at, on, by, behind, during, in,
According to in consequence of for, since, through, till, until, with, within,
agreeably to in course of from, etc.
along with in favour of
(3) Prepositions of Cause / Purpose
away from in front of
For, of, from, through, with, etc.
because of in lieu of
(4) Prepositions of Agency
by dint of in order to By, in, with, without, at, through, with, etc.
by means of in place of (5) Prepositions of Manner
by reason of in reference to Like, with, by
by virtue of in regard to (6) Prepositions of Possession
by way of in spite of Of, by, with
conformably to instead of (7) Prepositions of Measure / Rate / Value
for the sake of in the event of At, by, for, to
 PREPOSITIONS | 87

(8) Prepositions of contrast / Concession (2) Also when the object is some under-
In spite of, notwithstanding, nevertheless stood (hidden) Relative Pronoun, the Preposition
(9) Prepositions of Separation is placed at the end of the sentence. As—
From, of, off 1. That is the house λ I lived in.
(10) Prepositions of Relationship (In this sentence Relative Pronoun ‘that’
With, together with, in company with, along or ‘which’ is understood at the point
with marked λ)
(11) Prepositions of support / Opposition 2. That is the man (whom) I was speaking
of.
For, against
(12) Prepositions of Exception 3. There is the book (that) you were
looking for.
But, except, barring
(3) When the object is an Interrogative Pro-
(13) Prepositions of Motive/ Inference/ Source/
noun (who/whom/what/which), the Preposition
Origin
is placed at the end of the sentence. As—
From, of
1. What are you looking at ?
(14) Prepositions of Direction
2. What are you thinking of ?
To, towards, into, up, down, above, on
3. Which of these houses do you live in ?
Note—From the above classification it would
appear that no Preposition has a definite or 4. Whom are you going with ?
fixed sense of relationship. The same Pre- (4) Sometimes for the sake of emphasis the
position may express different ideas or object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
relationships. This depends upon their use In that case also the Preposition is placed at the
in different situations. end of the sentence. As—
Use of Preposition 1. Him I depend on.
Generally Prepositions are used before their 2. This I insist on.
objects. 3. That you must speak out.
1. The book is on the table. (5) In the Passive Voice also the Preposition
2. He is in his office. is placed at the end of the sentence.
3. He is fond of tea. 1. He can be relied upon.
4. She comes from Delhi. 2. Was the proposal agreed to ?
In the above sentences on, in, of, from are
Prepositions and they have all been used before Exercise
their objects (table, office, tea, Delhi). A Pre- Correct the following sentences :
position may have two or more than two objects. 1. This is the point on that I insist.
The Preposition will be used before the first of all 2. This is the post that for I have applied.
these objects. As—
3. That is the goal after that he is running.
1. The cattle graze in valleys and pastures.
4. Of who are you thinking ?
2. She is very fond of grapes, apples and
oranges. 5. On which chair did you sit ?
But in the following conditions Preposition is 6. That is the thief after the police was
used after the Object— running.
(1) When the object is Relative Pronoun 7. In which house do you live ?
‘that’, the Preposition is placed at the end of the 8. Against whom are you complaining ?
sentence. As— 9. Of that I am really proud.
1. This is the book that you asked for. 10. Of what do you accuse him ?
2. That is the car that you travelled by. Hints—(1) that I insist on; (2) that I have applied
3. I know the man that you were talking to. for; (3) that he is running after; (4) Who
88 | L.W.C.E.

are you thinking of ? (5) did you sit on ? 1. Please come tomorrow. (not ‘on tomor-
(6) the police was running after; (7) do row’)
you live in; (8) Whom are you complain- 2. He is returning today. (not ‘on today’)
ing against? (9) that I am really proud of;
(10) do you accuse him of. 3. He came yesterday also. (not ‘on yester-
day’)
Omission of Preposition (5) No Preposition is used before H o m e.
In some situations the Preposition is not As—
used. There either it is not required, or it is omit- 1. I am going home. (not ‘to home’)
ted.
2. I go home every Sunday. (not ‘to home’)
(1) No Preposition is required before the
object of a Transitive verb. As— Note—But if there is a Possessive Adjective
before Home, or if Home is used in the
1. I shall meet you again. sense of House, we use appropriate Pre-
(‘meet with you’ is wrong.) position before it.
2. They caught the thief. (6) If two Verbs are to be used in a sentence,
(‘caught to the thief’ is wrong.) and both the verbs have to take different Pre-
3. I read a book. positions, we must use appropriate Preposition
(‘read of a book’ is wrong.) for each verb separately. As—
4. We have done our work. 1. I have been thinking about and waiting
(‘have done of our work’ is wrong.) for you since the morning.
(2) Before expressions of Place and Time no 2. He has been looking for and enquiring
Preposition (for, from, in, on) is used. As— after you for a long time.
1. I came here last week. Exercise
(Not, ‘in last week’) Correct the following sentences—
2. I am going abroad.
1. I met to him yesterday.
(Not, ‘for abroad’)
2. I reached at the station a little late.
3. Please wait a minute.
3. I can never forget to you.
(Not, ‘wait for a minute’)
4. He ran me.
4. She is waiting outside.
5. Now I shall never speak him.
(Not, ‘waiting on outside’)
6. I met him in last month.
(3) When some expressions of Time (as
morning, evening, day, night, month, year, etc.) 7. It was very cold in this morning.
have some qualifying words as this, that, next, 8. I cannot wait for any longer.
every, last, all used before them, no Preposition 9. He cannot go for a step further.
is needed before them. As—
10. Please return my book on tomorrow.
1. He went this morning. 11. He was absent on yesterday.
2. He met me last evening. 12. I go on a walk the morning.
3. He is coming again next Sunday. 13. I don’t read the night.
Note—But if these expressions of Time have no 14. Now I must go back to home.
qualifying words before them, they take
necessary Prepositions before them. As— 15. He is not home.
1. He went in the morning. Hints—(1) no ‘to’; (2) no ‘at’. (3) no ‘to’; (4) ‘to
me’ / ‘after me’; (5) ‘speak to him’; (6)
2. He met me in the evening.
no ‘in’; (7) no ‘in’; (8) no ‘for’; (9) no
3. He is coming again on Sunday. ‘for’; (10) no ‘on’; (11) no ‘on’; (12) in
(4) No Preposition is required before yester- the morning; (13) in the night; (14) no
day, today, tomorrow. As— ‘to’; (15) not at home.
 PREPOSITIONS | 89

Wrong Use of Prepositions 1. He will return in (at the close of) a

There are some Verbs which take n o Pre- week’s time.
position after them. They are— 2. He will return within (in less than /
before the close of) a week’s time.
attack, await, accompany, assist, request,
investigate, inform, obey, comprise, order, 3. You must finish the work in a month. (by
reach, resemble, resist, violate. the close of a month)
4. You must finish the work within a month.
It is wrong to use any Preposition after the (before the month closes)
above noted verbs, but this error is often com-
mitted. In / At
1. America attacked on Iraq. (no ‘on’) ‘In’ points to a large area of Time or Place,
2. I await for your instructions. (no ‘for’) while ‘at’ refers to a small area or fixed point of
T i m e and Place. Therefore, we use ‘in’ for
3. I shall accompany with you. (no ‘with’)
countries, states and bigger cities, and ‘at’ for
4. I shall assist to you. (no ‘to’) villages and towns. Similarly, we use ‘in’ for
5. I request to you. (no ‘to’) larger range of time, and at for a fixed point of
6. We shall investigate into the case. time. As—
(no ‘into’) 1. He lives at Agra.
7. I shall inform to you. (no ‘to’) 2. He lives in Uttar Pradesh.
8. I shall obey to you. (no ‘to’)
3. He will come at six O’clock.
9. The group comprises of ten boys.
4. He will come in the morning.
(no ‘of’)
10. I order to you. (no ‘to’) 5. He lives in Bombay.
11. I reached at the station. (no ‘at’) 6. He lives at Hathras.
12. He resembles to you. (no ‘to’) In / At
13. He will resist to you. (no ‘to’) There is one more difference between ‘at’
14. He violated to the rule. (no ‘to’) and ‘in’. At refers to a stationary position, while
Some Typical Prepositions in refers to a state of motion. As—
In / Into 1. The train is in motion.
2. He stands at the top of the hill.
In is used to show the position of rest of a
thing within another thing, while into shows a 3. The work is in progress.
thing in motion, something moving inside some- 4. He is at home.
thing else. On / upon
In = Position of rest ‘On’ refers to a state of rest or stationary
Into = Position of motion position, while ‘upon’ refers to a state of motion.
As— As—
(a) 1. The table is in the room. 1. The book is on the table.
2. We shall sit in the hall. 2. He jumped upon the table.
3. There is a tiger in the cage.
(b) 1. The ball fell into the well. Exercise
2. The thief broke into my room. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
3. The tiger moves into the cave. with the correct preposition from those given in
brackets :
In / Within
1. The frog jumped……the well. (in / into)
‘In’ expresses the time-range up to the last
point / moment of the given period, while within 2. There is no boy …… the class. (in / into)
expresses the limit before the last moment of the 3. There is no ink …… my pen. (in / into)
given period. As— 4. He rode straight……the arena. (in / into)
90 | L.W.C.E.

5. He is sitting……the drawing room. 1. Divide this property between the two

(in / into) brothers.
6. He lives …… London. (in / at) 2. Divide this property among the three
brothers.
7. He lives …… Hathras …… Aligarh
District. (in / at) 3. There is a passage between the two
lanes.
8. You have a big house …… Bombay.
4. He passed the night among the aliens.
(in / at)
Till / To
9. You have a big house …… Salempur.
Till is used for time, and to for place. As—
(in / at)
1. He worked till 8 O’clock.
10. He comes …… 4 O’clock. (in / at)
2. He came to the outer gate.
11. He comes …… the evening. (in / at)
Since / From
12. Please close the office carefully ……
8.30. (at / in) ‘Since’ is used before a Noun or a phrase to
show a certain point of time. It is used in Perfect
13. Please close the office carefully …… the
tense only. From is also used to show a point of
afternoon. (in / at)
time but it is used in non-perfect tense.
14. The work is well …… progress. (in / at) Remember that both since and from show only a
15. The plane is already …… the air. (in / at) point of time, not a period of time. We can say
16. He is already …… the top. (in / at) since Friday, or since 1995, or since today, but
we cannot say since four days or from a week.
17. Please sit …… the next chair. As—
(on / upon) 1. I have been living in Canada since 1990.
18. The tiger jumped……the stag. 2. I studied English from the age of six.
(on / upon) 3. I shall start working from Friday.
19. He is sitting …… the roof. (on / upon) 4. He has been working very hard since
20. Please put the photo …… the stand. July.
(on / upon) Note—For Period of time we use for. As—
Hints—(1) into; (2) in; (3) in; (4) into; (5) in; (6) 1. I have been living in Canada for five
in; (7) at Hathras in Aligarh; (8) in; (9) at; years.
(10) at; (11) in; (12) at; (13) in; (14) in; 2. I worked in this office for six months.
(15) in; (16) at; (17) on; (18) upon; (19)
on; (20) on. Beside / Besides
With / By ‘Beside’means by the side of, while ‘besides’
means in addition to. As—
‘With’ is used for Instrument (lifeless),
while by is used for living Person or Agent. 1. The Fort stands beside the river
As— Yamuna.
1. The letter was written with a ball-pen. 2. He came and stood beside me.
2. The letter was written by Ram. 3. He has a scooter besides a car.
3. The branch of the tree was cut with an 4. He has written two short stories besides a
axe. novel.
4. The branch of the tree was cut by the Exercise
servant. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
Between / Among with the correct preposition from those given in
brackets :
‘Between’ is used for two persons, things or
ideas, while ‘among’ is used for more than two. 1. The letter was carelessly typed …… my
As— secretary. (with / by)
 PREPOSITIONS | 91

2. The pit was dug …… spades …… two Among / Amongst

labourers. (with / by) Both these words have almost the same
3. He sharpened the pencil …… a blade. meaning and usage, but among is more popularly
(with / by) used. But there is one difference in their usage.
4. He turned pale …… fear. (with / by) Amongst must be used in those sentences in
which the word coming after it begins with a
5. He faced the danger …… courage.
Vowel. As—
(with / by)
He is very popular amongst us.
6. The profits will be equally divided ……
He is very popular among the students.
the two partners. (between / among)
7. The profits will be equally divided ….. On / At
all the share holders. (between / among) Both these can show time. But on is used for
8. He had to work …… twelve and two in a fixed day or date, while at is used for hour.
the night. (between / among) As—
9. He found himself helpless …… the 1. I shall come on Sunday.
strangers. (between / among) 2. I shall come on July 15.
10. You have to choose …… these two 3. I shall come at 5 p.m.
courses only. (between / among) For / During
11. Please wait for me …… 10 O’clock.
Both these show period of time, but the
(till / to) difference between them is that for is used for an
12. He accompanied me……the station. indefinite period, while during is used for a
(till / to) definite period. As—
13. He will remain at home …… you reach 1. He has gone for a long time.
there. (till / to)
2. He is on leave for a month.
14. He came with me …… the main road.
(There is no reference to a definite
(till / to) month)
15. He has been living in this house …… 3. He will be here during Christmas holi-
1990. (since / from) days.
16. I shall start attending the office …… 4. He will stay with me during June.
Monday. (since / from)
Of / Off
17. He has not seen me …… July.
‘Of’ is a Preposition of joining, while off is a
(since / from)
Preposition of separation . As—
18. I started painting …… my childhood.
1. A member of the family, page of a book,
(since / from) student of a college, one of many, etc.
19. There is a small cottage …… my farm. 2. He is off duty today. (Not on duty)
(beside / besides) 3. He jumped off the roof.
20. I know German …… English. Preposition + Gerund
(beside / besides)
There are certain Verbs and Adjectives after
Hints—(1) by; (2) with spades by two labourers.
which Infinitives are never used. In place of
(3) with; (4) with; (5) with; (6) between;
(7) among; (8) between; (9) among; (10) Infinitives we use Preposition + Gerund (verb +
between; (11) till; (12) to; (13) till; (14) ing) after these words. We give below a list of
to; (15) since; (16) from; (17) since; (18) such Verbs and Adjectives along with the Pre-
from; (19) beside; (20) besides. positions which are used with them—
92 | L.W.C.E.

9. I will come again …… Diwali holidays.

Abstain from, aim at, assist in, based on,
confident of, debar from, desirous of, desist (for / during)
from, despair of, disqualified from, dissuade 10. He fell ill …… examination days.
from, excel in, excuse for, fortunate in, hinder (for / during)
from, hopeful of, insist on, intend on, meditate 11. He has left India …… ever.
on, negligent in, passion for, perceive in, (for / during)
persist in, prevent from, (to take) pride in,
prohibit from, proud of, refrain from, repent 12. I shall not leave you alone …… your
of, succeed in, successful in, think of. illness. (for / during)
13. He is a teacher …… our school. (of / off)
See these sentences. They are all correct— 14. He comes …… a good family. (of / off)
1. He is confident of winning the prize. 15. Your arguments are …… the point.
(‘confident to win the prize’ would be (of / off)
wrong.) 16. He jumped …… the running train.
2. He insists on going there. (of / off)
(‘ insists to go’ is wrong.) Hints—(1) amongst; (2) amongst; (3) among; (4)
3. I cannot think of displeasing him. at; (5) on; (6) on sunday morning at 8.30;
(‘think to displease’ is wrong.) (7) at; (8) for; (9) during; (10) during;
(11) for; (12) during; (13) of; (14) of; (15)
4. He is fortunate in having a friend like off; (16) off.
you.
(b) Correct the following sentences :
(‘fortunate to have’ is wrong.)
1. Can you assist me with completing my
Note—Nowadays Infinitives have also come to home work ?
be used after aim. 2. He is hopeful to win the prize.
1. I aim to win the first prize. 3. He succeeded to reach to the top position.
2. He aims to rise to the top. 4. He persists to say so.
Exercise 5. I cannot prevent you to go there.
(a) Fill in the blanks in the following sen- 6. He excels to paint.
tences with the correct preposition from those 7. You have no excuse to stay at home.
given in the brackets : 8. I did my best to dissuade him to drink.
1. He has the widest knowledge …… us all. 9. He is disqualified to appear at the exami-
(among / amongst) nation.
2. He comes from …… us. 10. He is debarred to apply for the post.
(among / amongst) 11. You probibited him to enter here.
3. He is the most brilliant boy …… them. 12. He is fortunate to get out unhurt.
13. You must refrain to drink so much.
(among / amongst)
14. I cannot think to live in these dirty
4. The college opens …… 10 O’clock. surroundings.
(at / on) 15. He is confident to pass in the first
5. He will not be here …… Sunday. attempt.
(at / on) Hints—(1) in completing; (2) of winning; (3) in
6. Can you come……Sunday morning …… reaching; (4) in saying; (5) from going; (6)
8.30 ? (on / at) in painting; (7) for staying; (8) from
drinking; (9) from appearing; (10) from
7. He offers prayers …… dawn. (at / on)
applying; (11) from entering; (12) in
8. He will be away …… about a month. getting out; (13) from drinking; (14) of
(for / during) living; (15) of passing.
 PREPOSITIONS | 93

The Same Words With Different We are responsible to God.

Prepositions We are responsible for our actions.
There are certain words with which different I charge my failure to / upon you.
Prepositions can be used, but their meaning I charge you with my failure.
changes with the change of Prepositions. Different His face is familiar to me.
Prepositions have come into usage with them. I am familiar with his face.
As—
Let us now proceed to business.
I had the advantage of you.
Let us now proceed with the business.
You gained an advantage over me.
He is the slave / victim of his passions.
I waited upon him at his office.
He is a slave / victim to his passions.
I waited for him yesterday.
He is possessed of property.
He prevailed upon me to agree.
He is possessed with an idea.
He prevailed over me in the dispute.
I differ with you on this issue.
No argument prevailed with him.
I differ from you in temperament.
You agree with me.
Compare a town with a city. (similar things)
You agree to my proposal.
Compare anger to madness. (dissimilar
I commence by observing. things)
I commence with the observation. Many Hindus were converted to Buddhism.
You attended upon his leisure. His sorrow was converted into joy.
You attended to his command. I am tired of sitting idle.
He was invested with the crown. I am tired with double duty.
All his money was invested in business. What is the use of discussing ?
He is afflicted with fever. There is no use in discussing.
He was afflicted at your failure. I have no use for this.
I blush for her. He made war upon luxury.
I blush at her misconduct. He made war with superstitions.
What is the cause / reason / occasion / This behaviour was not expected from you.
ground of this delay ? It is not expected of us to solve this problem.
Is there any cause / reason / occasion / He has done his duty by his parents.
ground for this delay ?
He has done his duty in this matter.
This is the subject of inquiry. You will think of me when I am not here.
This is a subject for inquiry. Think over / on my proposal carefully.
He is disqualified from competing. He is destined for business.
He is disqualified for the post. He is destined to misery.
He is liable for damages. I am disappointed in you.
He is liable to a fine. He was disappointed of success.
I concur with you. He demanded vengeance upon you.
I concur in your decision. He demanded vengeance for your deed.
The statesman deals with politics. God will provide for our needs.
The shopkeeper deals in stationery. We must provide against the rainy day.
He lent money at high interest. Communicate with him on this issue.
He lent money on safe security. Communicate this to him.
94 | L.W.C.E.

I am not concerned in the business. I have a liking for him.

I am much concerned at your losses. I am sensible of pain.
I except you from this responsibility. I am insensible to pain.
I take exception to your language. He is equal to me.
He parted from his family. He is co-equal with me.
He parted with his property. He is qualified to compete.
I am reconciled with my brother. He is disqualified from competing.
I am reconciled to my fate. He encouraged me to go forward.
This discovery was credited to Newton. He discouraged me from going forward.
Newton was credited with this discovery. I have trust in you.
Different Forms of Words followed I have distrust of you.
by Different Prepositions This is contrary to that.
I sympathise with you. This is contrasted with that.
I feel much sympathy for you. This is subsequent to his application.
I solicited him for his help. This is consequent upon his application.
I am solicitous of his help. She is different from you.
He is descended from King Arthur. She is indifferent to you.
He is a descendant of King Arthur. He is neglectful of his studies.
I am regardful of his interests. He is negligent in his studies.
I have regard for his interest.
Revision Exercise I
He is fond of colourful dresses.
Fill in the blanks with appropriate pre-
He has fondness for colourful dresses. positions :
Pursuant to my wishes. 1. The river flows …… the bridge.
In pursuance of my wishes. 2. The work was done …… haste.
According to your directions. 3. I am fond …… reading novels.
In accordance with your directions. 4. He died …… his country.
I am satisfied with your progress. 5. The house was destroyed …… fire.
I feel great satisfaction in / at your success. 6. What is that …… me ?
He is on leave preparatory to retirement. 7. He has not met me …… Sunday last.
He has made all preparations for retirement. 8. I have known him …… a long time.
He is proud of his position. 9. This is a matter …… little interest to me.
He takes pride in his position. 10. I am tired …… sitting idle.
I am hopeful of success. 11. I shall do it …… pleasure.
I hope for success. 12. I sold it …… ten rupees.
I am delighted with him. 13. It is five O’clock …… my watch.
I take delight in him. 14. Do not cry …… spilt milk.
I am ashamed of him. 15. The public are cautioned …… pick-
I feel shame at his conduct. pockets.
I am going in search of him. 16. The tiger was killed …… the hunter ……
I am going to search for him. the sword.
I have a dislike to him. 17. He does not go to office……10 O’clock.
 PREPOSITIONS | 95

18. He travelled ten miles …… two hours. Hints—(1) with me for nothing; (2) with; (3)
19. He started …… seven …… the morning. with; (4) to; (5) in; (6) to; (7) to; (8) on;
(9) of; (10) on; (11) to ; (12) to; (13) of;
20. He was born …… a small village …… (14) in; (15) to; (16) on; (17) in; (18) to;
Rajasthan. (19) in; (20) of; (21) of; (22) for; (23) to;
Hints—(1) under; (2) in; (3) of; (4) for; (5) by; (6) (24) of; (25) with.
to; (7) since; (8) for; (9) of; (10) of; (11)
with; (12) for; (13) by; (14) over; (15) Revision Exercise III
against; (16) by the hunter with the sword; Fill in the blanks in the following sentences
(17) before; (18) in; (19) at seven in the with appropriate prepositions :
morning; (20) at a small village in Rajas- 1. Our path is beset …… difficulties.
than. 2. Morning walk is beneficial …… health.
3. He is not eligible …… the post.
Revision Exercise II
4. Foreigners are debarred …… appearing
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences at this test.
with appropriate prepositions : 5. This rule is not applicable …… the pre-
1. He quarrelled …… me …… nothing. sent case.
2. He readily complied …… my request. 6. Parents should not connive …… their
3. He supplies the poor …… food. children’s follies.
7. Public men should not be sensitive ……
4. He is always true …… me. criticism.
5. He is involved …… many difficulties. 8. He is addicted …… drinking.
6. I prefer milk …… tea. 9. Why are you so angry …… me ?
7. I find no exception …… this rule. 10. His plans are adverse …… my career.
8. One has to rely …… one’s own efforts. 11. They scoffed …… my suggestion.
9. I inquired …… the servant whether the 12. He has been reverted …… his former
office was closed. post.
13. I shall restore the property …… its right-
10. He insisted …… complaining against
ful owner.
you.
14. He will impart the secret of his trade only
11. You have to conform …… the rules of …… his son.
the hostel.
15. He could not prevail …… me to revise
12. Smoking is injurious …… health. my plans.
13. He is innocent …… of the crime. 16. Do not confide your secrets …… anyone.
14. Do not indulge …… strong drinks. 17. He is absolutely ignorant …… the whole
15. I am very grateful …… you. affair.
16. He is dependent …… his uncle. 18. He is weak …… Chemistry.
17. He is deficient …… calculations. 19. He was rewarded for rescuing a child
…… danger.
18. He is indifferent even …… his children. 20. Reward is the most important incentive
19. He is very proficient …… grammar. …… hard labour.
20. Are you not ashamed …… your conduct? 21. Industry and sincerity are indispensable
21. He is completely devoid …… the sense …… success.
of mercy. 22. He is too miserly to part …… his money.
22. He has a passion …… natural beauty. 23. I am sick …… the whole development.
24. The battle resulted …… the victory for
23. I can never prove false …… you. India.
24. He comes …… a rich family. 25. One should be sure …… what one plans
25. Your views don’t accord …… mine. to do.
96 | L.W.C.E.

Hints—(1) with; (2) to; (3) for; (4) from; (5) to; Words Followed By Appropriate
(6) at; (7) to; (8) to; (9) with; (10) to; (11) Prepositions
at; (12) to; (13) to; (14) to; (15) upon; (16) We give below a list of some Nouns, Adjec-
to; (17) of; (18) in; (19) from; (20) to; (21) tives, Participles and Verbs which are followed
to; (22) with; (23) of; (24) in; (25) of. by some appropriate Prepositions. The use of
Revision Exercise IV wrong prepositions after certain words is a very
common error with English writers and speakers.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences The student is advised to commit the given list to
with appropriate prepositions :
memory and to consult it in case of any doubt or
1. I shall act …… your advice. difficulty. The list is adapted from J.C. Nesfield’s
2. My grandmother is equally affectionate “English Grammar” (Macmillan).
…… all.
(a) Nouns Followed By Prepositions
3. He has great ambition …… fame.
Abhorrence of ingratitude.
4. He is highly ambitious …… fame.
Ability for or in some work.
5. He is not capable …… doing this work. Abstinence from wine.
6. I have no confidence …… you. Abundance of food.
7. He is fully confident …… his success. Access to a person or place.
8. He rose equal …… the occasion. Accession to the throne.
9. I take exception …… your language. (In) accordance with rule.
Accusation of theft.
10. Every child is fond …… sweets.
Acquaintance with a person or a thing. But make
11. He has no liking …… any sport. the acquaintance of a person.
12. Don’t be neglectful …… your dress. Adherence to a plan or cause.
13. I always find him negligent …… his Admission to a society of persons or class or
studies. things.
14. I am prepared …… the worst. Admission into or to a place.
15. Have trust …… God and do your best. Advance (progress) of learning.
16. He is wanting …… common sense Advance (of a person) in knowledge.
(To take) advantage of some one’s mistake.
17. I shall call …… you tomorrow.
(To gain) an advantage over someone.
18. I called …… your office yesterday. (To have) the advantage of anyone.
19. I always count …… your advice. Affection for a person.
20. He deals …… stationery. Allegiance to a person.
21. His appeal for help met …… little Alliance with a person or state.
success. Allusion to something.
22. He is averse …… my advice. Ambition for distinction.
23. He has a knack …… good painting. Amends for some fault.
24. I refrained him …… acting in haste. Antidote to some poison.
25. He is intent …… going to hill station. Antidote against infection.
Anxiety for anyone’s safety.
Hints—(1) according to; (2) to; (3) for; (4) of;
(5) of; (6) in; (7) of; (8) to; (9) to; (10) Apology for some fault.
of; (11) for; (12) of; (13) in; (14) for; Appetite for food.
(15) in; (16) in; (17) on; (18) at; (19) Application to books.
upon; (20) in; (21) with; (22) to; (23) of; Application for employment.
(24) from; (25) on. Apprehension of danger.
 PREPOSITIONS | 97

Approach to (step towards) anything. Comparison to or with a person or thing.

Aptitude for mathematics. Compassion for a person.
Arrival at a place. Compensation for a loss.
Arrival in a country or large town. Competition with a person.
Arrival in London, Paris, etc. Competition for a thing.
Aspiration after or for fame. Complaint against a person.
Assent to an opinion. Complaint about a thing.
Assurance of help. Compliance with a request.
Atonement for sin. Complicity in a crime.
Attachment to a person or thing. Concession to a demand.
Attack on a person or place. Concurrence with a person.
Attendance on a person. Concurrence in a proposal.
Attendance at a place. Condemnation to death.
Attention to study. Condolence with a person.
Attraction to or towards a thing. Confidence in a person.
Authority over a person. Conformity with anyone's views.
Authority on a subject. Conformity to rule.
Authority for saying or doing. Connection with a person or thing.
Aversion to or from a person or thing. Consciousness of guilt.
Bar to success. Consideration for a person.
Bargain with a person. Consideration of a thing.
Bargain for a thing. Contact with something.
Battle with anyone. (A) contemporary of some person.
Beneficence to the poor. Contempt for a person or thing.
Benevolence towards the poor. (A) contrast to a person or thing.
Bias towards a thing. (In) contrast with a person or thing.
Blindness to one's own faults. Contribution to a fund.
Candidate for election. Contribution towards some project.
Capacity for mathematics. Control over a person or thing.
Care for his safety. Controversy with a person.
Care of his books. Controversy on or about something.
Cause for anxiety. Conversation with a person.
Cause of trouble. Conviction of guilt.
Caution against error. Co-partner with a person.
Certainty about a matter. Co-partner in something.
Certificate of good conduct. Copy from nature.
Cessation from work. Correspondence with a person.
Charge of murder (Noun) Correspondence to a thing.
Charge with murder. (Verb) Craving for anything.
Claim on or against someone. Decision on some case.
Cloak for vice. Delight in a person or thing.
Comment on something said. Deliverance from a danger.
Commerce with a country. Dependence on a person or thing.
Compact with a person. Descent from ancestors.
98 | L.W.C.E.

Desire for wealth. Fine for an offence.

Deviation from rule. Fitness for some position.
Digression from a subject. Fondness for anything.
Disagreement with a person. Freedom from care.
Discouragement of a person. Freedom of action.
(A) discouragement to a person. (Has) a genius for mathematics.
Disgrace to a person. (Is) a genius in mathematics.
Disgust at meanness. Glance at a person or thing.
Dislike of or for a person or thing. Glance over a wide surface.
Dissent from a proposal. Gratitude for a thing.
Distaste for mathematics. Gratitude to a person.
Distrust of a person or thing. Greediness for a thing.
Dominion over sea and land. Grief at an event.
Doubt of or about a thing. Grief for a person.
Drawback to success. Guarantee for or of a man's honesty.
Duty to a person. Guess at the truth.
Eagerness for distinction. Harmony with anything.
Economy of time. Hatred of or for a person.
Eminence in painting. Hatred of a thing.
Encroachment on one's rights. Heir to some property.
Endeavour after happiness. Heir of some person.
Endurance of pain. Hindrance to anything.
Engagement in a business. Hint at some reward.
Engagement with a person. Hope of better luck. (Noun)
Engagement (to marry) to. Hope for better luck. (Verb)
Enmity for or with a person. Hostility to a person or cause.
Entrance into a place. Identity with a person or thing.
Envy at (or of) another's success. Immersion in water.
Equality with a person. Impediment to progress.
Escape from punishment. Imputation of guilt.
Esteem for a person. Imputation against someone.
Estrangement from a person. Incentive to industry.
Evasion of a rule. Inclination for or to study
Exception to a rule. Independence of help.
(Make) an exception of some person or thing. Indifference to heat or cold.
Excuse for a fault. Indulgence in wine.
Exemption from a penalty. Indulgence to a person.
Experience of a thing. Inference from facts.
Experience in doing something. Infliction of punishment.
Exposure to danger. Influence over or with a person.
Failure of a plan. Influence on anyone's actions.
Failure of a person in something. Inkling of a secret.
Faith in a person or thing. Inquiry into circumstances.
Familiarity with a person or thing. Insight into a man's character.
 PREPOSITIONS | 99

Instruction in music. Nomination of a person.

Intercourse with a person. Nomination to a post.
Interest in a subject. Obedience to orders, parents, etc.
Interest (influence) with a person. Objection to a proposal.
Interference in or with a man's affairs. Obligation to a person.
Interview with a person. Obstruction to traffic.
Intimacy with a person. Offence against morality.
Intrusion into a man's house. (Take) offence at something done.
Invitation to a dinner. Operation on a person or thing.
Irruption into a country. Opportunity for action.
Irruption by invaders. Opposition to a person.
Jest at a man's bad luck. Order for or against doing a thing.
Joy in his good luck. Outlook from a window.
Judge of a matter. Outlook on the sea.
Jurisdiction over a province. Partiality for flatterers.
Jurisdiction in a lawsuit. Partnership in a thing.
Justification of or for crime. Partnership with a person.
Key to a mystery. Passion for gambling.
Laxity in morals. (At) peace with all men.
Lecture on a subject. Penance for some fault.
Leisure for amusement. Penetration into motives.
Leniency to prisoners. Penitence for some fault.
Liability to an illness. Perseverance in well-doing.
Libel on a person. Persistence in an attempt.
Libel against his character. Piety towards God.
Likeness to a person or thing. Pity for sufferers.
Liking for a person or thing. Popularity with neighbours.
Limit to a man's zeal. Postscript to a letter.
Longing for or after a thing. Power over a person.
Look at a thing. Precaution against infection.
Lust for money. Preface to a book.
Malice against a person. Preference for one thing.
Margin for losses. Preference to or over another thing.
Martyr for a certain cause. Prejudice against a person.
Match for a person. Preparation for action.
Menace to public health. Pretension to learning.
Motive for action. Pretext for interference.
Necessity for anything. Pride in his wealth. (Noun)
Necessity of the case. Prides himself on his wealth. (Verb)
Need for assistance. Proficiency in mathematics.
(In) need of assistance. Profit to the seller.
Neglect of duty. Progress in study.
Neglect in doing a thing. Proof of guilt. (Noun)
Nerve for riding. Proof against temptation. (Adj.)
100 | L.W.C.E.

Proportion of three to one. Reverence for age.

Protest against proceedings, decision, etc. Revolt against authority.
(In) Pursuance of an object. Rival in anything.
Qualification for office. Rival for a position.
Quarrel with another person. Rivalry with a person.
Quarrel between two persons. Satire on or upon a person, book, etc.
Question on a point. Satisfaction for some fault.
Ratio of one to five. Search for or after wealth.
Readiness at figures. (In) search of wealth.
Readiness in answering. Shame at or for his fault.
Readiness for a journey. Share of a thing.
Reason for a thing. Share with a person.
Reason against a thing. Sin against God.
Recompense for labour. (A) slave to avarice.
Reference to a person or thing. (The) slave of avarice.
Reflections on a man's honesty. Slur on his character.
Regard for a man's feelings. Sneer at good men.
(In or With) regard to that matter. Sorrow for his misfortunes.
Regret for something done. Specific for or against fever.
Relapse into idleness. Speculation in bank shares.
Relation of one thing to another. Stain on one's character.
Relation between two things. Subjection to the laws.
Relations with a person. Submission to authority.
Reliance on a man's word. Subscription to a fund.
Relish for food. Subsistence on rice.
Remedy for or against snakebite. Succession to an estate.
Remonstrance with a person. Supplement to a book.
Remonstrance against his conduct. Surety for a person.
Remorse for a crime. Suspicion of his intentions.
Repentance for sin. Sympathy with or for the poor.
Reply to a letter. Sympathy with a cause or with a person's views.
Reputation for honesty. Taste (experience) of hard work.
Request for a thing. Taste (liking) for hard work.
Resemblance to a person or thing. Temperance in diet.
Resignation to fate. Temptation to evil.
Resistance to injustice. Testimony to his character.
Resolution into elements. Testimony against his character.
Resolution on a matter. Traitor to his country.
Respect for a man or his office. Trespass against the law.
(In) respect of some quality. Trust in his honesty.
(With) respect (to) a matter. (In) unison with his character.
Responsibility to the law. (We have no) use for that.
Responsibility for action. (What is the) use of that ?
Result of a proceeding. (There is no) use in that.
 PREPOSITIONS | 101

(At) variance with a person. Annoyed with a person for saying or doing some-
(A) victim to oppression. thing.
(The) victim of oppression. Answerable to a person.
Victory over his passions. Answerable for his conduct.
Want of money. Anxious for his safety.
Warrant for his arrest. Anxious about the result.
Witness of or to an event. Applicable to a case.
Wonder at his rudeness. Appropriate to an occasion.
yearning for his home. Ashamed of his dullness.
Zeal for a cause. Associated with a person.
Zest for enjoyment. Associated in some business
Assured of the truth.
(b) Adjectives and Participles followed
Astonished at his rudeness.
by Prepositions
Averse to hard work.
Abandoned to his fate. Aware of his intentions.
Abounding in or with fish. Backward in mathematics.
Absorbed in study. Based on sound principles.
Acceptable to a person. Bent on doing something.
Accomplished in an art. Beset with difficulties.
Accountable to a person. Betrayed to the enemy.
Accountable for a thing. Betrayed into the enemy's hands.
Accurate in his statistics. Blessed with good health.
Accused of a crime. Blessed in his children.
Accustomed to riding. Blind to his own faults.
Acquainted with a person or thing. Blind in one eye.
Acquitted of a charge. Boastful of his wealth.
Adapted to his tastes. Born of rich parents.
Adapted for an occupation. Born in England.
Addicted to bad habits. Bought of a person.
Adequate to his wants. Bound in honour.
Affectionate to a person. Bound by a contract.
Afflicted with rheumatism. (Ship) bound for England.
Afraid of death. Busy with or at his lessons.
Agreeable to his wishes. Capable of improvement.
Alarmed at a rumour. Careful of his money.
Alien to his character. Careful about his dress.
Alienated from a friend. Cautious of giving advice.
Alive to the consequences. Certain of success.
Allied to a thing. Characterised by a thing.
Allied with a person or country. Characteristic of a person.
Amazed at anything. Charged to his account.
Ambitious of distinction. Charged (loaded) with a bullet.
Angry at a thing. Charged with (accused of) a crime.
Angry with a person. Clear of blame.
Annoyed at a thing. Close to a person or thing.
102 | L.W.C.E.

Clothed in purple. Detrimental to health.

Committed to a course of action. Devoid of foundation.
Common to several persons or things. Different from something else.
Comparable to something else. Diffident of success.
Competent for certain work. Diligent in business.
Composed of a material. Disappointed of a thing not obtained.
Concerned at or about some mishap. Disappointed in a thing obtained.
Concerned for a person's welfare. Disappointed with a person or thing.
Concerned in some business. Disgusted with a thing.
Condemned to death. Disgusted at or with a person.
Conducive to success. Dismayed at a result.
Confident of success. Displeased with a person.
Congenial to one's tastes. Disqualified for a post.
Congratulated on his success. Disqualified from competing.
Conscious of a fault. Distinct from something else.
Consistent with the facts. Distracted with pain.
Conspicuous for honesty. Distrustful of a man's motives.
Contemporary with a person or event. Divested of office.
Contented with a little. Doubtful or dubious of success.
Contrary to rule. Due to some cause.
Contrasted with something else. Dull of understanding.
Conversant with persons or things. Eager for distinction.
Convicted of a crime. Eager in the pursuit of knowledge.
Convinced of a fact. Earnest in his endeavours.
Correct in a statement. Easy of access.
Coupled with something else. Educated in the law.
Covetous of other men's goods. Educated for the bar.
Creditable to his judgment. Effective for a purpose.
Cured of a disease. Eligible for employment.
Customary for a person. Eminent for his learning.
Deaf to entreaties. Employed in gardening.
Defeated in battle. Empty of its contents.
Defective in point of style. Endeared to all men.
Deficient in energy. Endowed with natural ability.
Delighted with success. Engaged to some person.
Dependent on a person or thing. Engaged in some business.
Deprived of some good thing. Engraved on the memory.
Deserving of praise. Enraged at something done.
Designed for a purpose. Entangled in a plot.
Desirous of success. Entitled to a hearing.
Despairing of success. Enveloped in mist.
Destined for the bad. Envious of another's success.
Destitute of money. Equal to the occasion.
Determined on doing a thing. Essential to happiness.
 PREPOSITIONS | 103

Exclusive of certain items. Hostile to my endeavours.

Exempted or exempt from a fine. Hungry after or for wealth.
Exhausted with labour. Hurtful to health.
Exonerated from blame. Identical with anything.
Exposed to danger. Ignorant of English.
Expressive of his feelings. Ill with fever.
Faithful to a master. Imbued with confidence.
False of heart. Immaterial to the point.
False to his friends. Immersed in water.
Familiar with a language. Impatient of reproof.
Familiar (well known) to a person. Impatient at an event.
Famous for his learning. Impatient for results.
Fascinated with or by a person or thing. Imperative on a person.
Fatal to his prospects. Impertinent to his master.
Fatigued with travelling. Implicated in a crime.
Favourable to his prospects. Inclined to laziness.
Favourable for action. Inclusive of extras.
Fearful of consequences. Incumbent on a person.
Fertile in resources. Indebted to a person.
Fit for a position. Indebted for some kindness.
Flushed with victory. Indebted in a large sum.
Foiled in an attempt. Independent of his parents.
Fond of music. Indifferent to heat or cold.
Foreign to the purpose. Indignant at something done.
Founded on fact. Indignant with a person.
Fraught with danger. Indispensable to success.
Free from blame. Indulgent to his children.
Fruitless of results. Infatuated with a person.
Full of persons or things. Infected with smallpox.
Gifted with abilities. Infested with rats.
Glad of his assistance. Inflicted on a person.
Glad at a result. Informed of a fact.
Good for nothing. Inherent in his disposition.
Good at cricket. Inimical to a person.
Grateful for past kindness. Innocent of a charge.
Greedy of or after or for riches. Insensible to shame.
Guilty of theft. Inspired with hope.
Healed of a disease. Intent on his studies.
Heedless of consequences. Interested in a person or thing.
Held in high esteem. Intimate with a person.
Honest in his dealings. Introduced to a person.
Honoured with your friendship. Introduced into a place.
Hopeful of success. Invested with full powers.
Horrified at the sight. Invested in stocks and shares.
104 | L.W.C.E.

Involved in difficulties. Overcome with sorrow.

Irrelevant to the question. Overwhelmed with grief.
Irrespective of consequences. Painful to one's feelings.
Jealous of his reputation. Parallel to or with anything.
Lame in one leg. Partial to the youngest son.
Lavish of money. Patient to suffering.
Lavish in his expenditure. Peculiar to a person or thing.
Lax in his morals. Polite in manners.
Level with the ground. Polite to strangers.
Liable to error. Poor in spirit.
Liable for payment. Popular with schoolfellows.
Liberal of his advice. Popular for his pluck.
Limited to a certain area. Possessed of wealth.
Lost to all sense of shame. Possessed with a notion.
Loyal to the government. Precious to a person.
Mad with disappointment. Pre-eminent above the rest.
Made for a teacher. Pre-eminent in cleverness.
Made of iron. Preferable to something else.
Meet for a rich man. Prejudicial to his interests.
Mindful of his promise. Preliminary to an inquiry.
Mistaken for a traveller. Prepared for the worst.
Mistaken in a belief. (A) preventive of fever (noun)
Moved to tears. Previous to some event.
Moved with pity. Productive of wealth.
Moved at the sight. Proficient in mathematics.
Moved by entreaties. Profitable to an investor.
Natural to a person. Profuse with his money.
Necessary to happiness. Profuse in his offers.
Neglectful of his interests. Prone to idleness.
Negligent of duty. Proper for or to the occasion.
Negligent in his work. Proud of his position.
Notorious for his misdeeds. Pursuant to an inquiry.
Obedient to parents. Qualified for teaching music.
Obligatory on a person. Quick of understanding.
Obliged to a person. Quick at mathematics.
Obliged for some kindness. Radiant with smiles.
Obstinate in his resistance. Ready for action.
Occupied with some work. Ready in his answers.
Occupied in reading a book. Reconciled to a position.
Offended with a person. Reconciled with an opponent.
Offended at something done. Reduced to poverty.
Offensive to a person. Regardless of conseqences.
Open to flattery. Related to a person.
Opposed to facts. Relative to a question.
 PREPOSITIONS | 105

Relevant to the point. Strange in appearance.

Remiss in his duties. Subject to authority.
Remote from one's intentions. Subordinate to a person.
Repentant of his sin. Subsequent to another event.
Repugnant to his wishes. Sufficient for a purpose.
Repulsive to his feelings. Suitable to or for the occasion.
Requisite to happiness. Suited to the occasion.
Requisite for a purpose. Suited for a post.
Resolved into its elements. Sure of success.
Resolved on doing a thing. Suspicious of his intentions.
Respectful to or towards one's superiors. Sympathetic with sufferers.
Responsible to a person. Tantamount to a falsehood.
Responsible for his actions. Temperate in his habits.
Restricted in means, ability, etc. Thankful for past favours.
Restricted to certain persons. Tired of doing nothing.
Revenged on a person for doing something. Tired with his exertions.
Rich in house property. Transported with joy.
Rid of trouble. True to his convictions.
Sacred to a man's memory. Uneasy about consequences.
Sanguine of success. Useful for a certain purpose.
Satisfactory to a person. Vain of his appearance.
Satisfied with his income. Veiled in mystery.
Secure from harm. Versed in a subject.
Secure against an attack. Vested in a person.
Sensible of kindness. Vexed with a person for doing something.
Sensitive to blame. Vexed at or about a thing.
Serviceable to a person. Victorious over difficulties.
Shocked at your behaviour. Void of meaning.
Shocking to everyone. Wanting in common sense.
Short of money. Wary of telling secrets.
Silent about or on a subject. Weak of understanding.
Similar to a person or thing. Weak in his head.
Skilful in doing a thing. Weary of doing nothing.
Slow of speech. Welcome to my house.
Slow in making up his mind. Worthy of praise.
Slow at accounts. Zealous for improvement.
Solicitous for your safety. Zealous in a cause.
Sorry for someone. (c) Verbs Followed By Prepositions
Sorry about an occurrence. Abide by a promise.
Sparing of praise. Abound in or with fish.
Stained with crimes. Absolve of or from a charge.
Startled at a sight. Abstain from wine.
Steeped in vice. Accede to a request.
Strange to a person. Accord with a thing.
106 | L.W.C.E.

Account for a fact. Attain to a high place.

Accrue to a person. Attend to a speaker.
Accuse of some misdeed. Attend on a person.
Acquiesce in a decision. Attribute to a cause.
Acquit of blame. Avail oneself of an offer.
Adapt to circumstances. Avenge oneself on a person.
Adhere to a plan. Bark at a person or thing.
Admit of an excuse. Bask in sunshine.
Admit to or into secret. Bear with someone's faults.
Admonish of or for a fault. Beat against the rocks (the waves).
Agree to a proposal. Beat on one's head.
Agree with a person. Become of you (what will) ?
Aim at a mark. Beg pardon of a person.
Alight from a carriage. Beg a person to do a thing.
Alight on the ground. Beg for something from someone.
Allot to a person. Begin with the first.
Allow of delay. Believe in one's honesty.
Allude to a fact. Belong to a person.
Alternate with something else. Bequeath a thing to a person.
Anchor off the shore. Bestow a thing on a person.
Answer to a person. Bethink oneself of something.
Answer for conduct. Beware of the dog.
Apologise to a person. Blame a person for something.
Apologise for rudeness. Blush at an embarrassing remark.
Appeal to a person. Blush for anyone who is at fault.
Appeal for redress or help. Boast or brag of one's cleverness.
Appeal against a sentence. Border on a place.
Apply to a person for a thing. Borrow of or from a person.
Appoint to a situation. Break into a house (thieves).
Apprise of a fact. Break oneself of a habit.
Approve of an action. Break through restraint.
Arbitrate between two persons. Break bad news to a person.
Argue with a person for or against a point. Break (sever relations) with a person.
Arrive at a small place. Bring a thing to light.
Arrive in a country or a large city, e.g., Arrive in Bring to one's notice.
London. Brood over past grievances.
Ascribe to a cause. Burst into tears.
Ask for a thing. Buy a thing from person or shop.
Ask of or from a person. Calculate on success.
Aspire after or to worldly greatness. Call on a person (visit him at his house or sum-
Assent to your terms. mon to do something).
Associate with a person or thing. Call to (shout to) a person.
Assure a person of a fact. Call for (require) punishment.
Atone for a fault. Canvass for votes.
 PREPOSITIONS | 107

Care for (value, love, or attend upon) a person or Conform with one's views.
thing. Confront a person with his accusers.
Caution a person against danger. Congratulate a person on his success.
Cease from quarrelling. Connive at other men's misdeeds.
Challenge a person to combat. Consent to some proposal.
Charge a person with a crime. Consign to destruction.
Charge payment to a person. Consist of materials.
Charge a person for goods supplied. Consist in (be comprising in), e.g., ‘Virtue con-
Charge goods to a person's account. sists in being uncomfortable.’
Cheat a person of his due. Consult with a person on or about some matter.
Clamour for higher wages. Contend with or against a person.
Clash with another (of colours). Contend for or about a thing.
Clear a person of blame. Contribute to a fund.
Cling to a person or thing. Converge to a point.
Close with (accept) an offer. Converse with a person about a thing.
Combat with difficulties. Convict a person of a crime.
Come across (accidentally meet) anyone. Convince a person of a fact.
Come into fashion. Cope with a person or task.
Come by (obtain) a thing. Correspond with a person (write).
Come of (result from) something. Correspond to something (agree).
Come to (amount to) forty. Count on a person or thing (rely on) e.g., I count
Commence with a thing. on you to see this done.
Comment on a matter. Crave for or after happiness.
Communicate something to a person. Crow over a defeated rival.
Communicate with a person on a subject. Cure a man of a disease.
Compare similars with similars—as one fruit with Cut a thing in or into pieces
another. Cut a thing in half.
Compare things dissimilar, by way of illustration Dabble in politics.
— as genius to a lightning flash. Dash against anything.
Compensate a person for his loss. Dash over anything.
Compete with a person for a prize. Dawn on a person.
Complain of some annoyance to a person. Deal well or ill by a person
Complain against a person. Deal in (trade in) cloth, tea, spices, etc.
Comply with one's wishes. Deal with a person (have dealings in trade etc.).
Conceal facts from anyone. Deal with a subject (write or speak about it).
Concur with a person. Debar from doing anything.
Concur in an opinion. Debit with a sum of money.
Condemn a person to death for murder. Decide on something.
Condole with a person. Decide against something.
Conduce to happiness. Declare for something.
Confer (Trans.) a thing on anyone. Declare against something.
Confer (Intrans.) with a person about something. Defend a person from harm.
Confide (Trans.) a secret to anyone. Defraud a person of his due.
Confide (Intrans.) in a person. Deliberate on a matter.
Conform to (follow) a rule. Delight in music.
108 | L.W.C.E.

Deliver from some evil. Enjoin on a person.

Demand a thing of a person. Enlarge on a subject.
Depend on a person or thing. Enlist in the army.
Deprive a person of a thing. Enlist a person in some project.
Desist from an attempt. Enter upon a career.
Despair of success. Enter into one’s plans.
Deter a person from an action. Entitle anyone to an estate.
Determine on doing something. Entrust anyone with a thing.
Detract from one's reputation. Entrust a thing to anyone.
Deviate from a certain course. Err on the side of leniency.
Die of a disease. Escape from jail.
Die from some cause, as overwork. Exact payment from a person.
Die by violence. Excel in languages.
Differ with a porson on a subject. Exchange one thing for another.
Differ from anything (to be unlike). Exchange with a person.
Digress from the point. Excuse (pardon) for something.
Dip into a book. Exempt a person from a rule.
Disable one from doing something. Exonerate a person from blame.
Disagree with a person. Explain to a person.
Disapprove of anything. Exult in a victory over a rival.
Dispense with a man's services. Fail in an attempt.
Dispose of (sell) property. Fail of a purpose.
Dispute with a person about anything. Fall among thieves.
Dissent from an opinion. Fall in love with a person.
Dissuade from an action. Fall in with one's views.
Distinguish one thing from another. Fall into error.
Distinguish between two things. Fall on the enemy (attack).
Divert a person from a purpose. Fall under someone's pleasure.
Divest one's mind of fear. Fall upon evil days.
Divide in half, into four parts. Fawn on a person.
Dote upon a person or thing. Feed (Intrans.) on grass.
Draw for money on a bank. Feed (Trans) a cow with grass, or grass to a cow.
Draw money from a bank. Feel for a person in his trouble.
Dream of strange things. Fight for the weak against the strong.
Drive at some point. Fight with or against a person.
Drop off a tree. Fill with anything.
Drop out of the ranks. Fire on or at the enemy.
Dwell on a subject. Fish for compliments.
Eat into iron. Flirt with a person.
Elicit from a person. Fly at (attack) anyone.
Emerge from the forest. Fly into a rage.
Encroach on one's authority. Free of or from anything.
Endorse with a signature. Furnish a person with a thing.
Endow a hospital money. Furnish a thing to a person.
 PREPOSITIONS | 109

Gain on someone in a race. Initiate a man into an office or society.

Get at (find out) the facts. Inquire into a matter.
Get away from (escape). Inquire of a person about or concerning some
Get on with a person (live or work smoothly matter.
with him). Insist on a point.
Get out of debt. Inspire a man with courage.
Get over (recover from) an illness. Instil a thing into the mind.
Get to a journey's end. Intercede with a superior for someone else.
Glance at an object. Interfere with a person in some matter.
Glance over a letter. Intermingle one thing with another.
Glory in success. Intersect with each other.
Grapple with difficulties. Introduce a person to someone.
Grasp at (try to seize) something. Introduce into a place or society.
Grieve at or for or about an event. Intrude on one's leisure.
Grieve for a person. Intrude into one's house.
Grow upon habit grows upon one). Invest money in some project.
Grumble at one's lot. Invest a person with authority.
Guard against a bad habit. Invite a person to dinner.
Guess at something. Involve a person in debt.
Hanker after riches. Issue from some source.
Happen to a person. Issue in a result.
Heal of a disease. Jar against an object.
Hear of an event. Jar on one's nerves.
Hesitate at nothing. Jeer at a person.
Hide a thing from a person. Jest at (make fun of) a person.
Hinder one from doing something. Join in a game.
Hinge on (depend on) some event. Join one thing to another.
Hint at an intention. Judge of something by something.
Hope for something. Jump at (eagerly accept) an offer.
Hover over a nest. Jump to a conclusion.
Hunt after or for anything. Keep back (hold back) a secret.
Identify one person or thing with another.
Keep (abstain) from wine.
Impart a thing to a person.
Import goods into a country. Keep off the grass.
Import things from a country. Keep to (adhere to) a point.
Impose on (deceive) a person. Keep under (hold in subjection).
Impress an idea on a person. Keep up (prevent from sinking) prices.
Impress a person with an idea. Knock one's head against a wall.
Impute blame to a person. Knock at a door.
Incite a person to some action. Know of (be aware of) a person.
Infer one fact from another. Labour under a misapprehension.
Inflict punishment on a person. Labour for the public good.
Inform a person of a thing. Labour in a good cause.
Inform against a person. Labour at some task.
Infuse an ingredient into some mixture. Lament for the dead.
110 | L.W.C.E.

Languish for home. Merge into or with anything.

Lapse into disuse. Mourn for the dead.
Laugh at a person or thing. Murmur at or against anything.
Laugh to scorn. Muse upon the beauties of nature.
Lay by (save money, etc.) for future needs. Object to some proposal.
Lay down one's arms (surrender). Occur to one's mind.
Lay facts before a person. Offend against good taste.
Lead to Calcutta (a road). Officiate for someone in a post.
Lean against a wall. Operate on a patient.
Lean on a staff. Originate in a thing or place.
Lean to a certain opinion. Originate with a person.
Level a city with the ground. Overwhelm with kindness.
Lie in one's power. Part with a person or thing.
Light on a person or object. Partake of some food.
Listen to complaints. Participate with a person in his gains.
Live for riches or fame. Pass away (die, come to an end).
Live by honest labour. Pass by someone's house.
Live on a small income. Pass from one thing into another.
Live within one's means. Pass for a clever man.
Long for anything. Pass on (hand round, transfer), as ‘Read this and
Look after (take care of) a person or business. pass it on.’
Look at a person or thing. Pass over (make no remark upon) his subsequent
Look into (closely examine) a matter. conduct.
Look for (search for) something lost. Pay (suffer) for one's folly.
Look over (inspect one by one) an account. Perish by the sword.
Look through (glance through) a book. Perish with cold.
Look to (be careful about) your movement. Persevere in an effort.
Look up a reference. Persist in doing something.
Make away with (kill) a person. Pine for something lost.
Make for (conduce to) happiness. Play on or upon the guitar.
Play (trick, joke, prank) on a person.
Make for (proceed in the direction of) home, the
shore. etc. Play (trifle with, treat lightly) with one's health.
Plot against a man.
Make off (run away) with stolen goods.
Plunge into a river, work, etc.
Make up (supply) deficiency.
Point at a person.
Make up (compensate), as ‘make up for lost time’;
‘We must make it up to (compensate) him some- Point to some result.
how.’ Ponder on or over a subject.
Make up (invent) a story. Possess oneself of an estate.
Make some meaning of a thing. Pounce on or upon a person or thing.
Marry one person to another. Pray to God for guidance.
Marvel at some sight or report. Prefer one thing to another.
Match one thing with another. Prejudice anyone against some person or thing.
Meddle with other people's business. Prepare for the worst.
Meditate on some subject. Prepare against disaster.
Meet with a rebuff. Present anyone with a book.
 PREPOSITIONS | 111

Preserve from harm. Remonstrate with a person against some proceed-

Preside at a meeting. ing.
Preside over a meeting. Render (translate) into English.
Prevail on (persuade) a person to do something. Repent of imprudence.
Prevail against or over an adversary. Repose (Intrans.) on a bed.
Prevail with a person (have more influence than Repose confidence in a person.
anything else). Reprimand a person for a fault.
Prevent from going. Require something of someone.
Prey upon one's health (or mind). Resolve on a course of action.
Pride oneself on a thing. Rest on a couch.
Proceed with a business already begun. (It) rests with a person to do, etc.
Proceed to a business not yet begun. Result from a cause.
Proceed from one point to another. Result in a consequence.
Proceed against (prosecute) a person. Retaliate on an enemy.
Prohibit from doing something. Revenge myself of someone for some injury.
Protect from harm. Revolt against government.
Protest against injustice. Reward a man with something for some services
Provide for one's children. done.
Provide against a rainy day. Ride at anchor.
Provide oneself with something. Rob a person of something.
Provoke one to anger. Rule over a country.
Pry into a secret. Run after (eagerly follow) new fashions.
Punish anyone for a fault. Run into debt.
Purge the mind of false notions. Run over (read rapidly) an account.
Quake with fear. Run through one's money.
Qualify oneself for a post. Save a person or thing from harm.
Quarrel with someone over or about something. Scoff at religion.
Quote something from an author. Search for something lost.
Reason with a person about something. Search into (carefully examine) a matter.
Rebel against authority. See about (consider) a matter.
Reckon on (confidently expect) something. See into (investigate) a matter.
Reckon with (settle accounts with) a person. See through (understand) his meaning.
Recompense one for some service. See to (attend to) a matter.
Reconcile to a loss. Seek after or for happiness.
Reconciled with an enemy. Send for a doctor.
Recover from an illness. Sentence a man to imprisonment (or death).
Refer to a subject. Set about (begin working at) a task.
Reflect credit on a person. Set down (put in writting) your terms.
Reflect (Intrans.) on a man's conduct. Set forth (begin journey or expedition).
Refrain from tears. Set in, as ‘A reaction set in’
Rejoice at the success of another. Set out (begin journey).
Rejoice in one's own success. Set a person over (in charge of) a business.
Relieve one of a task. Set upon (attack) a traveller.
Rely on a person or thing. Show a person over a house into a room.
Remind a person of a thing. Shudder at cruelty.
112 | L.W.C.E.

Side with a person in a dispute. Tamper with statistics.

Smile at (deride) a person's threats. Taste of salt.
Smile on (favour) a person. Tell of or about an event.
Snatch at (try to seize) a thing. Testify to a fact.
Speak of a subject (briefly). Think of or about anything.
Speak on a subject (at great length). Think over (consider) a matter.
Speculate in shares. Threaten anyone with a lawsuit.
Speculate on a possible future. Throw a stone at anyone.
Stand against (resist) an enemy. Tide over losses.
Stand by (support) a friend. Touch at Gibraltar (ships).
Stand on one's dignity. Touch upon (briefly allude to) a subject.
Stand up for (defend) something or someone. Tower over everyone else.
Stare at a person. Trade with a country in oranges.
Stare a person in the face. Tremble with fear at a lion.
Start for Calcutta. Trespass against rules.
Stick at nothing. Trespass on a person's time or land.
Stick to his point. Trifle with anyone's feelings.
Stoop to meanness. Triumph over obstacles.
Strike at (aim a blow at) someone. Trust in a person.
Strike for higher pay. Trust to someone's honesty.
Strike on a rock (of a ship). Trust someone with money. (Trans.)
Strike up (begin playing). Turn verse into prose.
Struggle against difficulties. Turn to a friend for help.
Subject a person to censure. Turn upon (hinge on) evidence.
Submit to authority. Upbraid a person with ingratitude.
Subscribe to a fund or a doctrine. Urge a fact on one's attention.
Subsist on scanty food. Venture upon an undertaking.
Succeed to a property. Vie with another (person).
Succeed in an undertaking. Vote for (in favour of) anything.
Succumb to difficulties. Vote against a thing.
Sue for peace. Wait at table.
Supply a thing to a person. Wait for a person or thing.
Supply a person with a thing. Wait on (attend) a person.
Surrender to the enemy. Warn a person of danger or consequences.
Sympathise with a person in his troubles. Warn a person against a person or thing or doing.
Take after (resemble) his father. Wink at one's faults.
Take a person for a spy. Wish for anything.
Take off (of an aeroplane leaving the ground). Work at mathematics.
Take to (acquire the habit of) gambling. Work for small pay.
Take upon oneself to do a thing. Worm oneself into another man's confidence.
Talk of or about an event. Wrestle with an adversary.
Talk over (discuss) a matter Yearn for affection.
Talk to or with a person. Yield to persuasion.
 9 Conjunctions
Conjunctions join two words or sentences. 8. No sooner had he reached the station
They have no other function except joining. than the train started.
Some Relative Adjectives, Relative Adverbs and 9. It was hardly / scarcely ten O’clock
Prepositions also do the function of joining, but when I called on him.
they are not called conjunctions because besides 10. He is as much greedy as miserable.
joining they perform the functions of Adjectives,
Adverbs and Prepositions also. Conjunctions only Rule 2—Position of Correlative Conjunctions
join and perform no other function. The above noted Correlative Conjunctions
are not only used in pairs but the position of
The following are the Rules of their correct their use in a sentence is also governed by
use— some rules. The basic rule of their use is that
Correlative Conjunctions one part of the Pair is used in one part of the
Rule 1— Correlative Conjunctions sentence and the other part of the pair in the
other part of the sentence. Further, if the first
Some conjunctions, called Correlative Con- part of the pair is used before a Noun, the
junctions, are used in pairs only. Their use is second part should also be used before a
correct only in pairs, not otherwise. The more N o u n , not before a Verb, Adjective or
popular pairs are these— Adverb. Likewise, if the first part is used
before a Verb, Adjective or Adverb, the
Either or second part should also be used accordingly.
Neither nor It is a very important rule. Errors are often
Both and committed in their correct application.
Though / Although yet Sometimes even great authors commit errors
in their application. For example, see this
Whether or sentence—
Not only but also “He gave me not only food but also
Lest should shelter.” In this sentence the use of not only
No sooner than and but also is correct because in the first part
of the sentence not only is used before the
Scarcely / hardly when Noun food, and but also is used in the second
As much as part of the sentence before the Noun shelter.
The above sentence would be wrong if we
As— write it as follows—
1. I shall either read or write a story. “He not only gave me food but also
2. He is neither strong nor courageous. shelter.” The error in this sentence is that not
3. Both Mohan and Ram have passed. only is used before a V e r b and but also
4. Though he is poor yet he is honest. before a Noun.
5. I will go whether he comes or not. Exercise
6. He will not only encourage you but also Correct the use of connectives in the follo-
help you. wing sentences :
7. Work hard lest you should fail. 1. He either is a fool or a knave.
114 | L.W.C.E.

2. He neither knows English nor French. 15. Although he labours very hard but he fails
3. He can write both in Hindi and English. every time.
4. He is though old yet he is very active. 16. Though he is not my friend but even then
5. I do not know he will whether help or I can trust him.
harm you. Hints—(1) or I shall fail; (2) when he was called
6. He is my friend not only but also my away; (3) than I set out; (4) you should
benefactor. miss the train; (5) but also a fool; (6) nor
return my goods; (7) or not; (8) when I
7. He drove very fast lest should miss the saw him …… ; (9) when he wept aloud;
train. (10) than the train started; (11) but also
8. No sooner did I enter the room than saw I deceived; (12) nor industrious; (13) or
a thief jumping out. pay their cost; (14) and a scoundrel; (15)
9. I had hardly opened my eyes when did he yet he fails …… ; (16) yet I can trust
break the news to me. him.
10. He is as much honest as is he industrious. Uses of Conjunctions
Hints—(1) is either a fool or …… ; (2) neither Rule 3—Either…… or / Neither …… nor
English nor French: (3) write in both
Hindi and English; (4) though old yet Either …… or and neither …… nor can be
very active; (5) whether he will help or used as Conjunctions and also as Pronouns
harm you; (6) not only my friend but also and Adjectives. As Pronouns and Adjectives
…… ; (7) lest he should miss …… ; (8) they are used only for two persons or things,
than I saw a thief …… ; (9) when he but as Conjunctions they can be used for two
broke the news …… ; (10) as much or more than two. In other words, as Corre-
honest as industrious. lative Conjunctions they can be used for
two or more than two persons or things.As—
Exercise 1. Neither Ram nor his father, nor even his
Correct the following sentences : friend could be of any help to me.
1. Either you help me otherwise I shall fail. 2. Neither power nor wealth, nor position
2. He had scarcely finished his work then he can hold back the march of law.
was called away. 3. Either my father or my brother or my
3. No sooner did I hear the bell when I set uncle will help me in my hour of need.
out. 4. Either Kanpur or Lucknow or Agra will
be good enough to settle down after
4. Start at once lest you may miss the train.
retirement.
5. He is not only a coward but even a fool. Rule 4—Not either …… or
6. Neither you pay or return my goods. After Not either we should use ‘or’ (not
7. You must come whether I write to you but ‘nor’).
not. 1. Your friend is not either reasonable or
8. I had hardly opened my eyes then I saw fair. (‘nor fair’ is wrong.)
him standing before me. 2. This book is not either exhaustive or
9. He had hardly heard the news then he up-to-date. (‘nor up-to-date’ is wrong.)
wept aloud. Rule 5—No / Not / Never …… or
10. No sooner had he reached the station
when the train started. If in a sentence there comes no / not / never,
and after them a full clause, the clause would
11. He was not only insulted and also decei- be connected by the conjunction or, not nor.
ved. As—
12. He is neither honest or industrious. 1. He has no relation or friend who can
13. Either you return my books neither pay support him. (not ‘nor’)
their cost. 2. He has not a relation or a friend who can
14. He is both a knave but a scoundrel. support him. (not ‘nor’)
 CONJUNCTIONS | 115

or 13. I shall not go unless I have finished my

He does not have a relation or a friend work.
who can support him. (not ‘nor’) 14. He did not reach the station unless the
3. I never lived there or even went there train had left.
before. (not ‘nor’) 15. I cannot solve this problem until you help
Rule 6—Until / Unless me.
Both these are negative conjunctions, there- 16. Unless you are not very careful you will
fore no negative expression (as not, never, get into difficulties.
etc.) should be used with them, otherwise 17. You will not succeed unless you are not
there would be the fault of double negatives. regular in your work.
Therefore, such expressions as ‘unless he
does not help’ or ‘until he does not come’ 18. He did not reach there unless I did not
are wrong. Their correct forms would be show him the way.
‘unless he helps’ or ‘until he comes.’ Hints—(1) is either right or wrong; (2) either a
Note—Here it should also be remembered that fool or a very cunning person; (3) or your
until is a Conjunction of time , while brother; (4) nor your influence; (5)
unless is a Conjunction of condition. They neither worked nor slept; (6) nor his team;
should not be used in each other’s place. (7) is neither logical nor acceptable; (8) or
As— faithful; (9) or fluent; (10) or bush; (11) or
a woman; (12) or even heard of him; (13)
1. I shall wait until you come. (Showing until; (14) until; (15) unless; (16) Unless
time) you are very careful; (17) unless you are
2. I shall fail unless you help me. (Show- regular; (18) until I showed him.
ing condition) Rule 7—Other / Rather …… than
Exercise After Other/rather and most of Compara-
Correct the following sentences : tive Degree Adjectives the conjunction
‘than’ is used. As—
1. Either the answer given by you is right or
wrong. 1. I would rather go than stay at home.
2. Either he is a fool or a very cunning 2. I would rather have a car than a scooter.
person. 3. I was helped by no other than the Prin-
3. Either you nor your brother will have to cipal himself.
do it. 4. He is stronger than you.
4. Neither your wealth or your influence
5. She is more beautiful than your sister.
can save him now.
Rule 8—Whether / If
5. Neither he has worked nor slept since the
morning. After whether/if we use the Conjunctions
‘or not’ or ‘or no’. As—
6. Neither the captain or his team turned up
in time. 1. I do not know whether (or if) he has
gone or not.
7. Your argument neither is logical nor
acceptabe. 2. I doubt whether he will help me or not.
8. He is not either loyal nor faithful to me. 3. Whether he will help me or not is doubt-
ful.
9. Your language is not either correct nor
fluent. Note—
10. There was no tree nor bush that could (i) If a Negative or an Interrogative sen-
give him some shade. tence has to be made with doubt or
11. There was not a man nor a woman that doubtful, we should use the conjunction
survived the flood. ‘that’ in place of whether / or. As—
12. I never met him nor even heard of him 1. I do not doubt that he will help me.
before. 2. Is it not doubtful that he will help you ?
116 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) Sometimes by mistake some people use 10. He would not accept any amount less to
as to before whether. This is a mistake. this.
For example, the use of as to in the 11. He lives in a house much bigger to yours.
following sentences is wrong—
12. He is more careful above you in all his
1. I doubt as to whether he will help me or actions.
not.
13. I am not sure whether he will come but
2. I do not know as to whether he is honest not.
or not.
14. You decide finally whether you accept
Rule 9—The reason is / the reason why my offer nor not.
Some sentences begin with ‘The reason is’ or 15. I am still undecided if I should accept
‘The reason why’. In such sentences the this offer whether not.
clause coming after them should be connected
with the conjunction ‘that’, not with because, 16. You should not doubt whether I am your
due to or owing to. As— well-wisher.
1. The reason why he failed is that he 17. Do you doubt whether I am your well-
did not study seriously. wisher ?
(Not ‘because he did not study’ or 18. I have no idea as to whether he is coming
due to / owing to he did not study’) or not.
2. The reason is that he did not study 19. The reason why he often comes late is
seriously. (Not, because, due to / because there is no regular bus service
owing to’) from his colony.
Rule 10—Before 20. The reason of his failure is since he was
When ‘Before’ is used as a Conjunction, it not serious about his studies.
points to some future event or statement, but 21. The train cannot arrive before we will
future tense is not used with it, even if its reach.
Principal clause is in the future tense. As— 22. He will not vacate the house before a
1. The sun will set before you reach. (Not month will have passed.
‘before you will reach’) Hints—(1) than beg; (2) than surrender; (3) than
2. He will retire before a month has passed. endure; (4) than the Chairman himself; (5)
(Not, ‘will pass’ or ‘will have passed’) than your father; (6) none other than the
Exercise Prime Minister; (7) no other than the
Commandant; (8) much faster than
Correct the following sentences : Mohan; (9) other than this; (10) less than
1. He would rather starve to beg. this; (11) much bigger than yours; (12)
2. I would rather die then surrender before more careful than; (13) come or not; (14)
you. or not; (15) accept this offer or not; (16)
3. He should rather resign to enduring such that I am your well-wisher; (17) that I
humiliation. am your well-wisher; (18) whether he is
coming or not; no ‘as to’ ; (19) that there
4. The seminar is going to be inaugurated is no regular bus service ; (20) that he
by no other to the Chairman himself. was not serious ; (21) before we reach ;
5. There I saw no other except your father. (22) before a month has passed.
6. The agitators met none other to the Prime Rule 11—As if / As though
Minister himself. Both these are imaginary or conditional ex-
7. He was rescued by no other over the pressions.We should, therefore, use Past
Commandant himself. Conditional Tense after them, not Present or
8. He runs much faster to Mohan. Future Tense. As—
9. He would not accept anything other to 1. He behaved as if (or as though) he were
this. the king.
 CONJUNCTIONS | 117

2. He danced with joy as if (or as though) he As—

had won the first prize. 1. While I was in service, I never saw him.
3. He helped me as though (or as if) he 2. While he lived with me, he laboured very
were my son. hard.
Rule 12—Because / in order that 3. While there is life there is hope.
We use ‘because’ to show reason and ‘in 4. While the students slept, the maid
order that’ to show purpose. As— cooked the food.
1. He failed because he did not work hard. 5. While the boys sang, the girls danced.
2. He worked hard in order that he may
secure first division.
Exercise
Correct the following sentences—
Exercise
1. Two years have passed since he has left
Correct the following sentences : Kanpur.
1. He behaved with me as if he was my 2. Two hours have elapsed since he had
boss. fallen asleep.
2. I served him with all sincerity as if I am 3. Three months have been over since the
his son. result has been declared.
3. He jumped into the well as though he is a 4. I have never visited Hyderabad since I
frog. have closed my business there.
4. He was punished in order that he was 5. You can book a room and a suite in this
dishonest. hotel.
5. He served me because I should help him. 6. You can go by train and bus from here.
6. I came so early because I may meet you. 7. Work hard and don’t join this course.
Hints—(1) he were my boss; (2) I were his son; 8. Are you his boss but his subordinate ?
(3) he were a frog; (4) punished because 9. I never drank when I studied in England.
he was dishonest; (5) in order that I should
10. I had to keep awake when she slept.
help him; (6) so early in order that I may
meet you. 11. I kept busy with my studies when they
played.
Rule 13—Since (showing time)
12. We stayed at home when it rained.
When ‘Since’ is used as a conjunction, we
should use the verb in the Present Perfect Hints—(1) since he left Kanpur; (2) since he fell
Tense before it and in Past Indefinite Tense asleep; (3) since the result was declared;
after it. As— (4) since I closed my business there; (5) a
1. Many new developments have taken room or a suite; (6) by train or bus; (7) or
place since I left home. don’t join; (8) boss or his subordinate; (9)
2. I have never seen him since his father while I studied; (10) while she slept; (11)
died. while they played; (12) while it rained.
Rule 14—Or (showing alternative or choice) Rule 16—Because / For / Since
Conjunction ‘or’ is used to choose one of two All these three words show cause or reason.
or more than two things. As— The difference in their use is that because has
1. You can have apples or grapes. very great force in it, for has the least force,
2. You can go to Kanpur or Lucknow. and since comes between the two. As—
3. Go at once or you will be late. 1. I must go because my mother is ill.
Rule 15—While 2. He failed because he did not work hard.
While is used in two senses— 3. He could not catch me up since he was
(i) To show time or period of time. lazy.
(ii) To suggest at the same time or along 4. He cannot be trusted for he takes every-
with. thing casually.
118 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 17—That In this sentence also the use of that before

Conjunction that is used in the following what is correct because after that comes the
forms— Principal clause “…… is not true.”
(a) In Indirect Narration (d) There are some Verbs (as, believe, think,
hope, presume, suppose, be afraid) the
As Conjunction ‘that’ is used only in
that-clause coming after which has the
Indirect Narration, not in Direct Narra-
Conjunction that concealed or under-
tion. As—
stood. As—
He said that he was ill.
1. I believe λ he is right. (That is under-
(Indirect Narration)
stood at the mark λ)
It is wrong to write—
2. I hope λ he is now well.
He said that “ I am ill.”
(Direct Narration) 3. I am afraid λ he is wrong.
(b) ‘That’ as Conjunction is not used is Exercise
Interrogative, Imperative, Optative or Correct the following sentences :
Exclamatory clauses, whether the whole
1. The train was derailed for the track had
sentence is in the Direct or Indirect
been damaged.
Narration. The use of ‘that’ is wrong in
all the following sentences— 2. The child could not sleep because it was
very hot.
1. He asked me that why I was late.
3. We did not go out for it was raining.
2. He asked me that “Why are you late?”
4. He was sad since he had suffered a great
3. He said to the servant that “Bring me loss.
a glass of water.”
5. He asked that why he was going there.
4. He said that how beautiful was the
6. He asked me that whether I had seen the
scene !
thief running out.
5. He said that may God bless you !
7. I requested my friend that to lend me his
(c) ‘That’ as Conjunction is not used in book for a day.
clauses beginning with Interrogative 8. He said that, “I shall not go to office
Pronouns (which, who, what, etc.) or today.”
Interrogative Adverbs (where, why,
9. I hope that you are well and happy.
when, how, etc.). The use of ‘that’ in
all the following sentences is wrong— 10. I believe that he will come.
11. I don’t think that he will return your book
1. He asked that what the time was ?
now.
2. He asked that who he was ? 12. I am afraid that he is a cheat.
3. I do not know that when he will 13. My idea is where he has hidden the
come? treasure is known to you.
4. He does not know that where he is ? 14. I know what you have you will never
Note—But if after the clauses beginning with give to anyone.
Interrogative Pronouns or Interrogative 15. He promises when he comes next he will
Adverbs, there comes the Principal
return your money.
clause , the Conjunction ‘that’ will be
used. As— Hints—(1) because the track had been damaged;
(2) for it was very hot; (3) since it was
1. I promise that when I come next I will
rainning; (4) because he had suffered; (5)
bring your book.
Drop ‘that’; (6) Drop ‘that’; (7) Drop
In this sentence the use of that before when ‘that’; (8) Drop ‘that’; (9) Drop ‘that’;
is correct because after the clause beginning with (10) Drop ‘that’; (11) Drop ‘that’; (12)
when, there comes the Principal clause “I will Drop ‘that’; (13) that where he has hidden
bring your book.” ……; (14) that what you have ……; (15)
2. I know that what he says is not true. that when he comes…….
 CONJUNCTIONS | 119

Functional Conjunctions Rule 20—Conjunctions of Condition

Rule 18—Conjunctions of Comparison The following are Conjunctions of condi-
tion—
The following Conjunctions show Compari-
son— If, unless, provided, provided that, in case,
as …… as; not so/as ……as; than (with supposing that.
Comparative Degree Adjective) As— As—
1. This book is as good as that. 1. If you are honest, you will succeed.
2. This book is not so (as) good as that. 2. Unless you are honest, you will not
succeed.
3. This book is better than that. 3. You will succeed provided you are
Rule 19—Conjunctions of Concession honest.
They are— 4. He will succeed provided that he deals
Though, although, even i f , for a l l, no honestly.
matter, however, whatever, adjective / 5. I will go alone in case he doesn’t come.
adverb + as. As— 6. Supposing that he is honest, he will
1. Though he is poor, he is honest. succeed.
2. Even if he is selfish, I will help him. Rule 21—Conjunctions of Cause
3. For all they say about him, he is a good The following Conjunctions show cause—
man. Because, since, as, f o r, that, considering
4. No matter what you say, I will go ahead. that, seeing that, now that, in that, in as
much as, noun + that, adjective + that.
5. However fast he may drive, he cannot
As—
reach in time.
1. He failed because he did not study regu-
6. Whatever be the case, he will remain my
larly.
friend.
2. Since it is raining, I cannot go.
7. Simple as he is, he is not a fool.
8. Roughly as he behaves, he is not a cruel 3. As it is raining, I cannot go.
man. 4. Considering that it was very cold, he
did not go for swimming.
Exercise
5. We started late for the morning was very
Correct the following sentences :
cold.
1. He can speak so fluently as she. 6. I am glad that he has passed.
2. He is not so rich so your father. 7. Seeing that the morning was very foggy,
3. She cannot walk as fast so you. we started late.
4. This house is certainly bigger as that. 8. Now that you have come, I can take a
5. Gentle so he is, he is not credulous. little rest.
6. Rich though he is, so he is not proud. 9. He deserves praise in that he has secured
7. Fast so he drives, he is not careless. first position.
10. He must suffer in as much as he is so
8. Even if he is so powerful, as he will not
lazy.
harm you.
11. A fool that he is, he must suffer.
9. Whatever be the matter, that we shall
12. Foolish that his actions are, he must
settle it amicably.
suffer.
10. For all they say about him, yet he is a
thorough gentleman. Exercise
Hints—(1) as fluently as she; (2) so rich as your Fill in the blanks in the following sentences:
father; (3) as fast as you; (4) bigger than 1. ……you are efficient, you will be promo-
that; (5) gentle as he is; (6) drop ‘so’; (7) ted.
Fast as he drives; (8) drop ‘as’; (9) drop 2. ……you are efficient, you will not be
‘that’; (10) drop ‘yet’. promoted.
120 | L.W.C.E.

3. You will be promoted …… that you are Exercise

efficient. Correct the following sentences :
4. …… that he is honest, he will be promo-
1. We shall shift to our new house before
ted.
the rains will begin.
5. I will do it alone …… he does not come
for my help. 2. He will not board the train until you will
reach there.
6. …… that it was very dark, we did not
move out. 3. I shall get ready before the bell rang.
7. I was surprised……he behaved so rudely. 4. We shall go together when your summer
vacation began.
8. An honest man …… he is, he must be
respected. 5. He closed the door as soon as his son
arrives.
9. Now …… your examination is over, you
must return home without any delay. 6. I shall come to you after the office had
been closed.
10. He was fined …… he had misbehaved
with his boss. 7. He stopped writing as soon as the bell
rings.
Hints—(1) If; (2) Unless; (3) provided; (4)
Provided / Supposing; (5) in case; (6) 8. We shall try again when the college will
Considering; (7) that; (8) that; (9) that; open.
(10) because. 9. The train will start after it gives three
Rule 22—Conjunctions of Time whistles.
The following are conjunctions of Time— 10. He has been in contact with me since he
has been a college student.
When, while, before, after, till, until, since,
as, as soon as. Hints—(1) before the rains begin; (2) until you
As— reach there; (3) before the bell rings; (4)
when your summer vacation begins; (5) as
1. I will go when you come.
soon as his son arrived; (6) after the office
2. She cooks her food while the child sleeps.
has been closed; (7) as soon as the bell
3. I shall get up before the sun rises. rang; (8) when the college opens; (9) after
4. He retired to bed after the show was it has given three whistles; (10) since he
over. was a college student.
5. Wait for me till I return.
Rule 23—Use of Tense in Conditional Sent-
6. Don’t go home until I come. ences
7. I have known him since he was a child. Conditional or Supposition sentences can be
8. He woke up as the clock struck six. written in three tenses—
9. He got up as soon as he saw me.
(a) Simple Future Tense
10. I shall meet you when you come next.
1. If you start early, you will reach in
Note—(1) If the Principal Clause is in the time.
Future Tense, the sub-ordinate clauses
2. If you are honest, you will be res-
beginning with Conjunctions of Time pected.
should be used in the Simple Present or
In these sentences the Principal Clause is in
Present Perfect Tense (not in Future
Simple Future Tense, while the Subordinate
Tense). For example, see sentences No. 1, Conditional Clause is in Present Tense (not
3, 10 above. in Future Tense). As—
(2) The clause following after is usually in If you will start early, you will reach in time.
the Present Perfect Tense (not in Simple This sentence is wrong because the condi-
Present). As— tional clause beginning with If is in Future
He will return after the train has left. Tense.
 CONJUNCTIONS | 121

(b) Simple Past Tense collected; (7) I would have flown; (8) I
1. If he built two houses, he would give would have been a hero; (9) I would have
you one. got; (10) I would have learnt.
2. If I secured first position, he would Revision Exercise I
give me a golden watch. Correct the following sentences :
3. If you discovered the treasure, you 1. Though he was angry but he listened to
would get your share. me patiently.
Note— 2. He stole for he badly needed money.
(i) In these sentences Past Tense shows 3. I did it since I was angry.
Present or Future Tense.
4. He both has time and money to spare.
(c) Past Perfect Tense
5. Both it was cold and wet.
1. If I had built two houses, I would
have given you one. 6. We either can have milk or tea.
2. If I had secured first position, he 7. He didn’t go and she didn’t go neither.
would have given me a golden watch. 8. I didn’t go and either did she.
3. If you had discovered the treasure, 9. While I left the house I locked it care-
you would have got your share. fully.
Note—These sentences can also begin with ‘Had’ 10. When the sun rose the fog dispersed.
in place of ‘If’. As— 11. Since it grew darker it became colder.
Had I discovered the treasure, I would have 12. Tired he was he carried my luggage on
got my share. his head.
Exercise 13. Some people waste food when others
Correct the following sentences : haven’t enough to eat.
1. If your conduct will be good, you will be 14. Either you help me otherwise I shall fail.
forgiven. 15. Work very hard lest you may fail.
2. If you will be careless about your duties, 16. You must come whether I write to you
you will come to grief. but not.
3. If you will be loyal to me, I shall stand 17. When he came then I was in the bath-
by you. room.
4. If I won a lottery, I will give half the 18. Don’t come until you don’t hear from
money to you. me.
5. If I built a market-complex, I will give 19. If you do your work honestly then
you a shop free of cost. everyone will trust you.
6. If you had dived to the bottom of the 20. Don’t count your chickens until they are
ocean, you had collected many pearls. not hatched.
7. Had I the wings of a dove, I will fly to Hints—(1) yet he listened ……; (2) because he
you. badly needed ……; (3) because I was
8. Had I crossed the British Channel, I had angry; (4) both time and money; (5) both
been a hero. cold and wet; (6) either milk or tea; (7)
9. Had I been a graduate, I had got a good didn’t go either; (8) neither did she; (9)
job. when I left ……; (10) As the sun rose ;
(11) As it grew darker; (12) Tired as he
10. If I had known him before, I could have was / Tired though he was; (13) while
learnt much from him. others haven’t; (14) drop ‘either’; (15) lest
Hints—(1) If your conduct is good; (2) If you are you should fail; (16) or not; (17) drop
careless; (3) If you are loyal; (4) I would ‘then’; (18) until you hear from me; (19)
give; (5) I would give; (6) you would have drop ‘then’; (20) until they are hatched.
122 | L.W.C.E.

Revision Exercise II 2. Tell me …… you have read.

3. She writes slowly …… neatly.
Correct the following sentences :
1. Give every man thy ear, and few thy 4. The jug will break …… you drop it.
tongue. 5. ……I were your friend, I would help
2. Many things have happened since I have you.
left school. 6. …… the child was sleeping, she was
3. You may either take this book or that. knitting.
4. I would rather suffer to yield before you. 7. I am …… tired that I cannot go.
5. When there is life there is hope. 8. Do you doubt …… she is a good lady ?
6. When it is true of some, it is not true of 9. I would rather resign …… bear this kind
all. of misconduct.
7. Let me know that whether you will do it
10. …… I only knew.
or not.
8. Tell me that where he lives. 11. …… respected, he is not loved and liked.
9. Do like he does. 12. He went away …… I came.
10. It is a week since the examinations begin. 13. Take a lamp, …… the night is dark.
11. I will go after he will come. 14. I shall do it …… you like it or not.
12. Not only she lost her purse but also her 15. Be just …… fear not.
ticket.
13. Neither his action was just nor unjust. Hints—(1) if/when; (2) what; (3) but; (4) if; (5)
If; (6) While; (7) so; (8) that; (9) than; (10)
14. He is no other but my brother.
If; (11) Though; (12) when/before; (13)
15. No other but your father can help you. for; (14) whether; (15) and.
16. Until you are in the workshop, you can-
not smoke. Revision Exercise IV
17. Take care that you should fall. Explain whether the following sentences
18. He is rich and discontented. are correct or incorrect :
19. Men must work because they may earn a 1. He is as brave like you.
living. 2. No sooner did I see the Principal when I
20. Until you work hard, you will get no greeted him.
success. 3. He explained that why he could not reply
Hints—(1) but few thy tongue; (2) since I left in time.
school; (3) either this book or that; (4) 4. Until you did not come, I had to wait.
than yield; (5) While there is life; (6) 5. I shall drown until you help me.
While it is true of some; (7) drop ‘that’; 6. He got up early lest he should be late.
(8) drop ‘that’; (9) as he does; (10) the
examinations began; (11) after he comes; 7. He had scarcely opened the eye when he
(12) not only her purse but also her ticket; saw a stranger standing before him.
(13) neither just nor unjust; (14) no other 8. Explain to me that how you lost the book.
than; (15) No other than your father; (16) 9. I am glad why he has passed.
So long as you are; (17) lest you should 10. He cannot read nor write.
fall; (18) but discontented; (19) in order 11. You can sleep when I work.
that they may earn; (20) unless you work
12. Ram is honest but Mohan is dishonest.
hard.
13. I will go when the rain will stop.
Revision Exercise III 14. He is so tired as he cannot go any farther.
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences : 15. You can stay with me as long you work
1. Come …… you please. in Delhi.
 10 Verbs
Kinds of Verbs As—
Verbs can be divided into the following three He has gone.
categories— In this sentence has is auxiliary verb and
(1) Transitive Verbs gone Principal Verb. Here has has helped the
(2) Intransitive Verbs Principal Verb in making its Present Perfect
(3) Auxiliary Verbs / Modal Verbs Tense, and in so doing it has lost its own identity
as a Principal verb.
Transitive Verbs :
“A Verb is Transitive if the action does not Number of Auxiliary / Modal Verbs
stop with the agent, but passes from the agent to Auxiliary or Modal Verbs are 27 in number.
something else.” (J. C. Nesfield) They are :
I read a book. Is, was, were, am, are, will, would, shall,
In this sentence the sense is not complete with should, do, does, did, can, could, may, might,
‘I read’ only, until it is known what I read. The must, ought, has, have, had, need, dare, used, be,
sense is complete only when we say “I read a been, being.
book”. The action, thus, passes on to the book. In These verbs (excluding be, been, being) are
this way the Person or Thing with which the also called Anomalous Verbs.
action of the verb ends is called its Object. A
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive Verb must have its Object.
Intransitive Verbs : Regarding Transitive and Intransitive verbs
it is necessary to remember that most verbs are
“A Verb is Intransitive when the action stops
neither Transitive nor Intransitive in thems-
with the agent, and does not pass from the agent to
elves. This distinction depends upon their use. A
anything else.” (Nesfield)
Transitive verb can be used as an Intransitive
I sleep. verb, and an Intransitive verb can be used as a
The sense of this sentence is complete. Its Transitive verb. Therefore Wren and Martin
action does not pass on to any other thing. There- observe :
fore it needs no object. An Intransitive Verb has
“Most Verbs can be used both as Transitive
no object.
and as Intransitive Verbs. It is, therefore, better to
Auxiliary / Modal Verbs :
say that a Verb is used Transitively or
Auxiliary or Modal Verbs are also called Intransitively rather than that it is Transitive or
Helping Verbs because they help the Principal Intransitive.”
verb.
“An Auxiliary Verb is one which (a) helps Rule 1. Transitive and Intransitive Use
to form a tense or mood of some Principal Verb, As we have said above, most verbs can be
and (b) forgoes its own significance as a Principal used both as Transitive and Intransitive
Verb for that purpose.” (Nesfield) verbs. As—
124 | L.W.C.E.

Transitive Use Intransitive Use 4. All his friends laughed at (i.e derided)
1. He speaks the truth. 1. He speaks softly. him.
2. I feel a severe pain in 2. How does he feel 5. I ask for (i.e. request) your kind favour.
my backbone. now ? 6. There is none to look after (i.e. take
3. He can drive any car. 3. He drives very cauti- care of) him.
ously.
Note—Somethimes an Intransitive verb becomes
4. Please ring the bell. 4. The bell rings. Transitive with the addition of a Preposi-
5. He stopped the bus. 5. The bus stopped. tion before it. As :
6. They fought the 6. They fought bravely.
enemy back.
1. He will overcome all his difficulties.
7. I read a book. 7. I read slowly. 2. The river is overflowing its banks.
8. They drink country 8. They never drink. 3. He is bold enough to withstand the attack.
liquor.
9. Change your clothes. 9. They will never Exercise
change. Use the following Intransitive Verbs as
10. He invited you. 10. I was not invited. Transitive Verbs :
Exercise (i) Drown, sank, fell, dry, grow, burn, return,
shout.
Use the following Verbs both Transitively
Use the following Intransitive Verbs as
and Intransitively :
Transitive Verbs by adding prepositions before
Eat, drink, read, write, play, drop, hear, start, or after them—
break, drive, stop, love, hate, fight, smell, taste.
(ii) come, cry, go, turn, run, look, stand,
Rule 2. Intransitive Verbs used as Transitive draw, flow, laugh.
Verbs
Rule 3. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively
(i) When an Intransitive Verb is used in the
Some Transitive Verbs can be used as
Causal / Causative sense ( i.e. in getting
Intransitive verbs under the following condi-
or causing an action done), it becomes a
tions :
Transitive verb. As :
(i) When a verb is used in such a wide sense
Transitive Intransitive
that the need of using its object is not
1. A bird flies. 1. He flies a kite. (i.e. causes felt. As—
a kite to fly.)
1. Men eat to keep alive.
2. He drives very 2. He drives the cattle away
cautiously. from the field. (i.e. causes 2. On the battlefield soldiers have to kill.
the cattle to run away.) (ii) When the Reflexive Pronoun of the verb
3. The sportsmen 3. The captain marched the is kept concealed. As—
marched in a line. sportsmen in a line. (i.e. 1. He turned (himself) to the door and
caused them to march in a bolted it.
line.)
2. Please keep (yourself) quiet.
4. The boat floated. 4. I floated the boat. (i.e.
caused the boat to float.) 3. He drew (himself) near her.
4. The bubble burst (itself).
(ii) Some Intransitive Verbs become Trans-
itive with the addition of a Preposition (iii) Some Transitive Verbs can be used as
with them. In that case the Preposition Intransitive verbs also. As—
becomes a part of the verb and cannot be Transitive Intransitive
separated from it. As : 1. He broke the glass. 1. The glass broke.
1. I have carefully gone through (i.e. read) 2. He closes the shop at 2. The market closes at
your representation. 8 p.m. 8 p.m.
2. Please look into (i.e. investigate) the 3. He burns the dry 3. Dry leaves burn.
matter carefully. leaves.
3. He runs after (i.e. pursues) money at all 4. He opens the office 4. The office opens at
costs. at 10 a.m. 10 a.m.
 VERBS | 125

Exercise 5. Certain ideas are also expressed by using

them. As—
Use the following Transitive Verbs as
Intransitive Verbs : 1. He may come. (Possibility)
Drink, learn, punish, sing, speak, reply, argue, 2. He can help you. (Ability)
stop, turn, start, open, grow, strike, melt, freeze. 3. He must come in time. (Obligatory)
Auxiliary / Modal Verbs : Their Functions 4. He has to remain at home. (Obligatory)
As we have said above, there are in all 2 7 5. I have got a good house. (Possession)
Auxiliary / Modal verbs. They have the following 6. He does not know. (Negative)
6 functions : 6. Negative Verbs are also formed with their
1. To form different Tense Forms help. As—
Different Tenses are formed with the help of 1. He does not go. (‘He goes not’ is wrong.)
Auxiliary verbs. As— 2. He did not laugh. (‘He laughed not’ is
1. He is going. wrong.)
2. He will go. Uses of Auxiliary Verbs
3. He has gone. Verbs “to be” : am, is, are, was, were
4. He must go. Rule 1. Is and am
5. He had already gone. Both these are Singular Verbs of the Present
6. He does not go. Tense, but ‘is’ is used with the Third Person
2. To make Interrogative sentences and ‘am’ with the First Person. Therefore we
cannot use am with He or is with I. As—
Some Interrogative sentences are formed
with the help of Auxiliary Verbs. As— 1. He / she is a student.
1. Is he going ? 2. Ram is a lawyer.
2. Has he gone ? 3. I am a student.
3. Will he go ? 4. I am a lawyer.
4. Can he go ? Rule 2. As Intransitive Verbs without Predi-
cate/ Complement
5. Does he go ?
Structure—Subject + Verb ‘to be’
6. Did he go ?
Such sentences show the existence of a per-
7. Do you go ? son or thing. As—
3. To form Question-tags and Short Answers 1. God is. = God exists.
Question–tags and short answers are also 2. Stars are. = Stars exist.
formed with the help of Auxiliary verbs. As— Rule 3. As Intransitive Verbs with Predicate /
1. He plays football, doesn’the ? Complement
2. He is a good man, isn’t he ? Structure—Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + Comp-
3. Are you going home ? Yes, I am / No, I lement
am not. In these sentences verb ‘to be’ (is, am, are,
4. Do you like this book ? Yes, I do / No, I was, were) must be followed by a Comple-
don’t. ment (Noun/Pronoun/Adjective/Adverb).
4. They are also used to show agreement or The sentence would be incomplete without
disagreement with a certain statement. As— the complement. As—
1. The weather is very fine. Yes, it is. 1. He is a gentleman. (Complement ‘Noun’)
2. The day is very hot. Yes, it is. 2. You are a sportsman. (Complement
3. He is a rich man. No, he isn’t. ‘Noun’)
4. He likes to read novels. Yes, he does / 3. This book is mine. (Complement ‘Pro-
No, he doesn’t. noun’)
126 | L.W.C.E.

4. The weather is fine. (Complement ‘Adjec- certain work was to have been completed in
tive’) the past, but this could not be done.
5. He was there. (Complement ‘Adverb’) 1. They were to have left yesterday but had
6. He is inside. (Complement ‘Adverb’) to postpone their departure for a week.
7. They were happy. (Complement ‘Adjec- 2. He was to have been promoted only last
tive’) year but that could not be done.
Rule 4. Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + Infinitive Rule 9. Making of Interrogative sentences
The structure of some sentences is as Some Interrogative sentences are also made
follows— with the help of Verbs to be. An Interrogative
sentence begins with a Verb to be and then
Subject + is / am / was / were / are + Infi- comes its Subject. As—
nitive (Present or Perfect) As :
1. Is he a good man ?
1. He is to come tomorrow.
2. I am to leave tomorrow. 2. Are you going ?
3. They are to assemble here. 3. Was he absent ?
4. They were to play a match here. 4. Am I a fool ?
5. You are to see me tomorrow. 5. Were they invited ?
6. He was to have come only yesterday. Rule 10. Were for supposition or impossible
Rule 5. It + is / was + adjective / infinitive / desire
gerund / clause Some sentences begin with “were”. These
Some sentences have the structure as noted sentences express just imaginary or impossi-
above. As— ble wishes. These sentences have the follow-
ing structure.
1. It is easy to reach there.
2. It was to happen. Were + Subject + Complement / Predicate
3. It is foolish talking like this. As :
4. It is good that he reached in time. 1. Were I a king !
Rule 6. Subject + Verb to be + Principal Verb + 2. Were I a bird !
‘ing’ 3. Were she young !
The continuous form of every tense is made 4. Were I there !
with the help of verb to be. As— Note— Such sentences are also correct in the
1. He is reading. following structure :
2. He was reading. If + Subject + Were + Complement /
3. He will be reading. Predicate
4. They are going. As :
5. They were going. 1. If I were a king !
6. I am going. 2. If I were a bird !
Rule 7. Passive Voice is also made with the help 3. If she were young !
of Verb to be. As—
4. If I were there !
1. The servant was called.
2. The servant is being called. Exercise
3. He was invited. Make ten sentences on the pattern of each
of the following sentences :
4. They were invited.
5. I am invited. 1. He is a teacher.
Rule 8. Subject + was / were + Perfect infinitive 2. This house is mine.
Some sentences have the above structure. 3. He is to attend the meeting.
These sentences express the sense that a 4. It is foolish waiting for him.
 VERBS | 127

5. He was required to explain the case. Note—It should be remembered in this connection
6. He was to have attended the meeting that ‘have’ is used with I, you, We and
yesterday. Third Person Plural in the Present
Tense, ‘has’ with Third Person Singular
7. He was to have been nominated a member in the Present Tense, and ‘had’ with all
of the Commission last year. Persons (First, Second, and Third) in the
8. Were I the President of India ! Past Tense in both Singular and Plural
9. If I were on the moon ! Numbers.
10. Is he well attended ? Rule 2. Present Perfect + Expressions of Time
Exercise Care should be taken not to use any phrase or
expression suggestive of Past Tense while
Choose the correct alternative : writing a sentence in the Present Perfect
1. Has / have he already gone ? Tense.
2. Are / am we fools ? Some popular phrases expressive of Past
3. The day was / were extremely hot. Tense are these :
4. They are / were to attend the meeting in Yesterday, last evening, / night / week /
the afternoon. month / year / summer / winter, the other
5. He was / were to have met me here. day, a little while ago, a moment / minute
6. It is / were good that he called on you. ago, a few moments / minutes / days /
7. He be / was turned back. months / years / ago, etc.
8. He is / was to have left India only last The use of such phrases / expressions with the
month. Present Perfect Tense would make a funny
mingling of the Present and Past Tenses,
9. I am / was to leave for home just now.
which must be avoided. The only expression
10. If I was / were a great scientist ! that can be used with the Present Perfect
11. Was / were she an Indian citizen ! Tense is ‘just now.’
12. Ram or Shyam was / were expected to Therefore never make sentences such as
help you. these :
13. Let him be /is permitted to bring his goods. 1. I have come yesterday.
14. That were / was to be ! 2. I have passed M.A. last year.
Hints—(1) Has; (2) Are; (3) was; (4) are; (5) 3. He has left a few minutes ago.
was; (6) is; (7) was; (8) was; (9) am; 4. He has met me last winter.
(10) were; (11) were; (12) was; (13) be;
(14) was. The use of ‘expressions of time’ in all these
sentences is wrong. If these expressions have
Have = have / has / had to be used, the verb should be used in the
Rule 1. Formation of Perfect Tenses Simple Past Tense. As :
The Perfect forms of all the Tenses (Present, 1. I came yesterday.
Past and Future) are made with the help of 2. I passed M.A. last year.
has / have / had. These sentences have the 3. He left a few minutes ago.
following structure :
4. He met me last winter.
Subject + have / has / had + Past Participle
The use of ‘just now’ is correct. As :
As :
1. I have come just now.
1. I have finished my work.
2. He has left just now.
2. He has gone.
Rule 3. Present Perfect + Adverbial/ Prepositio-
3. They have finished their work. nal phrase
4. He had gone to Kanpur by that time. Some sentences of the Present Perfect Tense
5. You had already taken your book. are so constructed that with the help of an
128 | L.W.C.E.

Adverbial or a Prepositional phrase the Past Tense, and the other part in the Past of the
is connected with the Present. In other words, Past Tense. That is, these sentences indicate
they show an action that started in the Past the occurrence of two actions at two points
and continues to the Present moment. Some of time in the Past. In these sentences one
popular Adverbial or Prepositional phrases action takes place in the near Past and the
that show this continuity are these : other in the distant Past. The action that
Since, for, yet, just, already, ever, never, occurs in the near Past is written in Simple
often, several times, today, lately, recently, so Past Tense and that occurring in distant past
far, until now, upto the present, this day / is written in Past Perfect Tense. These two
week / month, etc. parts of the sentence are joined with one of
the following Conjunctions—When, before,
Their structure is like this : after.
Subject + have / has + Past Participle + As :
Adverbial / Prepositional phrase
The train had left before I reached the
As : station.
1. I have not seen him since July. In this sentence the action of the ‘train leaving
2. I have lived in Canada for many years. the station’ is earlier in point of time and
3. He has not yet come. therefore written in the Past Perfect Tense,
4. He has recently built a new house. and the action of ‘my reaching the station’ is
Note—The following Adverbs of Time are always later in point of time and therefore written in
used with the Present Perfect Tense, not Simple Past Tense.
with the Simple Past Tense : Similarly :
Already, yet, since, uptil now, so far 1. The patient had died before the doctor
As : reached.
1. He has already gone home. 2. He had left Kanpur before I reached
there.
( Not, ‘already went home’)
2. You have not done any work so far. 3. The fire had engulfed the house before
the fire-brigade arrived there.
(Not, ‘did not do any work so far’)
Note— Some sentences in the Past Perfect Tense
Rule 4. Perfect continuous Tense
can also be constructed thus :
The Perfect continuous form of every Tense
1. He had already spent the whole money.
is also formed with the help of have / has /
had. Their structure is as follows : 2. He had given the message much earlier.
Subject + have / has / had / will have / shall Exercise
have + been + Present Participle + Time Correct the following sentences :
Phrase
1. I already finished my work.
As :
2. He gone to Kanpur.
1. I have been living in this house since
1990. 3. I have met my friend yesterday.
2. He has been living in this house for many 4. I have resigned from my post about a
years. month ago.
3. He had been living in this house for many 5. He not written to me for several months.
years before he built his own house. 6. I served as a teacher for many years.
4. He will have been living in this house for 7. Ram already completed his work.
five years by now. 8. He has been working in this factory from
Rule 5. Past Perfect Tense 1990.
The sentences written in Past Perfect Tense 9. He has been writing a novel since many
have two parts—one part written in the Past months.
 VERBS | 129

10. They have not been living together from Rule 7. Causative use of ‘Have’ : Subject +
July last. have + Object + Past Participle
11. The police has arrested the militant before In some sentences the subject does not act
the crowd gathered there. himself : he gets the work done by others.
12. The crowd dispersed before the police had Such sentences are constructed as below with
reached there. the help of have / has / had used causatively :
13. I had reached the station after the train left. Subject + have / has / had + Object + Past
Participle
14. The match finished before the rain started.
As :
15. The clock had struck twelve after I reached 1. I had him punished for his fault.
there.
2. He has a house built.
Hints—(1) have already finished; (2) has gone; 3. I have my essay corrected.
(3) met; (4) resigned; (5) has not written;
4. I shall have my letter typed.
(6) have served; (7) has already comp-
5. They can have their furniture repaired.
leted; (8) since 1990; (9) for many
months; (10) since July; (11) had arrested; Note—In the above construction get / got can also
be used in place of have, has, had. As :
(12) had dispersed…reached; (13) reached
the station…train had left; (14) had finis- 1. I got him punished.
hed… started; (15) struck twelve…had 2. I shall get my essay corrected.
reached. 3. He gets his furniture repaired every
year.
Rule 6. Subject + have / has / had + Infinitive
4. I am getting my house whitewashed.
or
Rule 8. ‘Have’ showing possession
Subject + have/has/had got + Infinitive
Have / has / had are also used to show
Some sentences are constructed as above. ‘Possession’ in the following form :
These sentences express the idea of necessity, Subject + have / has / had + Noun
compulsion or obligation. Subject + have / has / had got + Noun
As : As :
1. He has to obey me. He has got to obey 1. I have a book.
me. 2. He has a pen.
2. He has to borrow money. He has got to 3. They have a big house.
borrow money. 4. I had a good friend.
3. He had to borrow money. 5. I will have a house very soon.
4. They will have to follow me. 6. I have got a new book.
Note—The Negative of the above sentences is 7. They had got many good chances.
formed thus : Note—(i) The use of got before have / has / had
(i) Subject + have/has/had + not + Infini- increases emphasis.
tive (ii) Such sentences also show relationship.
or As :
1. A chair has four legs.
(ii) Subject + do / does / did + not have +
Infinitive 2. I have two brothers.
3. A cow has two horns.
As :
(iii) They also express the idea of take /
1. He has not to obey me. give / enjoy / experience.
2. He does not have to borrow money. 1. I have my breakfast at 8 a.m.
3. They do not have to follow me. 2. He had his bath very early in the
4. I do not have to follow you. morning.
130 | L.W.C.E.

3. I have two years’ experience of As :

working in the field. 1. I have no house.
4. We had a good day. 2. He has no house.
5. I have some friends there. 3. You had no house.
(iv) When ‘have’ means give / take / do, it 4. I have not (haven’t) any house.
can be used in Present Continuous
Tense also. As : 5. He has not (hasn’t) any house.
1. We are having a party today. 6. They had not (hadn’t) any house.
2. They are having very difficult times (ii) Subject + do / does / did + not + have +
these days. Noun
But we should not write such sentences : As :
1. I am having a book. 1. I do not have any pen.
2. She is having a small baby. 2. He does not / did not have any pen.
3. This book is having six chapters. 3. They do not / did not have any friend.
Exercise Note—Remember that after do not / does not /
Correct the following sentences : did not we always use ‘have’ (not has or
had) whether the subject is Singular or
1. You have get to carry out my orders. Plural, or of any Person.
2. You have to carried out my orders. Rule 10. Interrogative sentences with ‘Have’
3. He had to changed his programme. Interrogative sentences are formed in two
4. He does not had to change his progra- ways with the help of have / has / had :
mme. (i) Have / has / had + Subject + remaining
5. He did not has to change his programme. words
6. I had him reward for good work. As :
7. I can had you rewarded for good work. 1. Have you (got) a pen ?
8. He can has me transferred from here. 2. Has he (got) a pen ?
9. He can got me transferred from here. 3. Had they (got) a house ?
10. I am getting my scooter paint blue. (ii) Do / does / did + Subject + have + re-
11. He is having a son. maining words
12. My house is having four rooms. As :
13. He was hading a meeting. 1. Do I have a big house ?
14. The cow have two horns. 2. Does he have a big house ?
15. He having many good friends. 3. Do they have no house ?
Hints—(1) got; (2) to carry; (3) to change; (4) 4. Did you have a big house there ?
have to change; (5) did not have; (6) Note—As we have said above, we always use
rewarded; (7) can have; (8) can have; (9) ‘have’ (not has or had) after do / does /
can get; (10) painted blue; (11) has a son; did with every kind of subject.
(12) has; (13) was having; (14) has; (15)
has. Exercise
Correct the following sentences :
Rule 9. Negative Sentences with ‘Have’
1. I have no any friend.
Negative sentences with have / has / had can
be framed in the following two patterns : 2. I don’t have no friend.
(i) Subject + have / has / had + no + Noun 3. He don’t have any friend.
or 4. He doesn’t has any friend.
Subject + have / has / had + not any + Noun 5. Have you no any house ?
 VERBS | 131

6. Have I a house ? Rule 13. Sometimes Had is also used to express

7. Have you get a new scooter ? condition, wish or imagination.
As :
8. Did he had a new scooter ?
1. Had I been a king !
9. Do he has a new scooter ?
2. Had I seen the Olympic games !
10. Does he have no any new scooter ?
3. Had I won a lottery !
11. He will not has any prize ? 4. He behaved as if he had been my master.
12. Will he not got any prize ? Rule 14. Has been + Noun / Noun with Preposi-
Hints—(1) drop ‘any’; (2) ‘any’ in place of ‘no’; tion
(3) doesn’t have; (4) doesn’t have; (5) These sentences show that some action
drop ‘any’; (6) got a house; (7) got; (8) started in the Past and also ended in the
Did he have; (9) Does he have; (10) drop Past, and is not continuing in the Present.
‘no’; (11) have; (12) get. As :
Rule 11. Past Perfect + Infinitive 1. I have been a Professor.
There are some verbs which, if used in Past (i.e. I am not a Professor now.)
Perfect Tense, would indicate incompletion 2. I have been to England.
of action. These verbs express hope, wish, (i.e. I am not there now.)
desire, imagination. They are : 3. He has been a sportsman.
Wish, hope, want, expect, intend, suppose, Rule 15. Go = Lose
think.
Sometimes ‘Go’ is used in the sense of
Also remember that an Infinitive is used after ‘Lose’. In that case we should write is gone /
the Past Perfect form of these Verbs. was gone or is lost / was lost, but not has /
As : had gone or lost.
1. I had expected to find him here. As :
(But could not find him here.) 1. My suitcase is lost / is gone.
2. She had hoped to pass in the first divi- 2. My suitcase was lost / was gone in the
sion. train.
3. I had wished to buy a new car. Exercise
Note—In place of simple Infinitives can also be Correct the following sentences :
used Perfect Infinitives : 1. I had expected to meeting you at the club.
As : 2. We had supposed getting a house easily.
1. I had expected to have found him here. 3. You had intended to starting a new busi-
ness.
2. She had hoped to have passed in the first 4. I had supposed to have find him at the
division. club.
3. I had wished to have bought a new car. 5. You had hoped to have win the prize.
Rule 12. Have had, has had, had had, will have 6. You have have your chance.
had 7. She had have her dinner late in the night.
Sometimes have had, has had or had had are 8. I will had my turn by now.
used together. First time they are used as 9. Have I secured first position in the merit
Auxiliary Verbs and second time as Finite list !
Verbs. As : 10. Have he one more friend like you !
1. I have had my breakfast. 11. She has being a film-heroine.
2. She has had her breakfast. 12. I have be a member of this club.
3. She had had her breakfast very early. 13. My purse has gone.
4. He will have had his breakfast by now. 14. My chance had lost.
132 | L.W.C.E.

Hints—(1) to meet; (2) to get; (3) to start; (4) to Might + Subject + Verb + Object / Other
have found; (5) to have won; (6) have had; words
(7) had had; (8) will have had; (9) Had I As :
secured; (10) Had he; (11) has been; (12) 1. Might I use your pen, please ?
have been; (13) is gone; (14) was lost.
2. Might I borrow your pen for an hour ?
May / Might 3. Might I go now ?
Rule 1. May Note—Might can be used to show more courtesy
May expresses two ideas : in giving permission also.
As :
1. To give or take permission
You might go now.
2. To express Possibility / Probability or
Doubt Exercise
For taking permission : May + Subject + Correct the following sentences :
Verb in the Present Tense 1. May we played here, uncle ?
As : 2. Yes, you may be played.
1. May I come in, sir ? 3. He may be come by the next train.
2. May I sit on this chair ? 4. You may win the prize, though the
For giving Permission/expressing Possibility chances are very few.
or Doubt. 5. Might I sat by your side ?
Subject + may + Verb in the Present Tense 6. Might I be stay with you for a night ?
1. You may come in. (Permission) 7. Yes, you might stayed.
2. You may sit on this chair. (Permission) 8. He will may change his route.
3. It may rain. (Possibility) Hints—(1) play; (2) may play; (3) may come; (4)
4. He may be late. (Doubt) might win; (5) Might I sit; (6) Might I
Note—We can also use can in place of May for stay; (7) stay; (8) drop ‘will’.
giving or taking permission. Rule 4. May for Purposem or Wish
Rule 2. Might May is used to express purpose or wish also:
Might is the Past Tense of May. It is used to As :
express very little possibility or much 1. May you live long ! (Wish)
doubt. In May there is normal possibility or 2. May God help you ! (Wish)
doubt, but in Might the possibility is very 3. I came so early that I may find you at
little or doubt very much. Its structure is : home. (Purpose)
Subject + might + Verb in the Present 4. Workhard so that you may pass.
Tense (Purpose)
As : Rule 5. May + Perfect Infinitive
1. It might rain. (very little possibility) In some sentences May is used with Perfect
2. He might come today. Infinitive or Past Participle. These sentences
express the idea that there was much possi-
3. He might pass.
bility of an action being completed in the
4. He might change his mind. past, but whether the action was really
Rule 3. Might in Interrogative Sentences completed or not is not known. The structure
Might shows more courtesy than May. This of such sentences is this :
courtesy goes to the extent of doubt and Subject + may + Perfect Infinitive (‘to’ of
hesitation. Such sentences are always written the Infinitive remaining concealed)
in Interrogative form and begin with Might. or
Their structure is : Subject + may + have + Past Participle
 VERBS | 133

As : Hints—(1) might; (2) might; (3) May; (4) may;

1. He may have submitted his application. (5) might; (6) might; (7) might; (8) might.
2. He may have given him some help. Can / Could
Rule 6. Might + Perfect Infinitive Rule 1. Can /Could for Power, Ability or Capa-
These sentences show that there was much city
possibility of an action to have been comple- Can / Could express someone’s Power,
ted in the past, but it could not be. Their Ability or Capacity. The structure of such
structure is : sentences is this :
Subject + might + Perfect Infinitive (i) Subject + Can + Verb in the Present
or Tense
Subject + might + have + Past Participle As :
As : 1. He can read.
1. The robber might have killed him. 2. You can play.
(He escaped being killed.) 3. She can sing.
2. He might have robbed me. (ii) Negative Sentences will be formed thus :
3. The thief might have escaped from the 1. He cannot / can’t read.
police custody. 2. You cannot / can’t play.
Rule 7. Might in Indirect Narration 3. She cannot / can’t sing.
While converting a sentence from Direct into (iii) Subject + could + Verb in the Present
Indirect Narration, May is changed into Might Tense
if the Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense.
Could is the Past Tense of Can. It expresses
As : the idea that someone had the power, ability
He said, “My father may come today.” or capacity in the past. As :
He said that his father might come that day. 1. He could read.
Rule 8. Might for Dissatisfaction or Reproach 2. You could play.
Might is also used to express the sense of 3. She could sing.
dissatisfaction or reproach towards a person (iv) Negative Form :
for not doing his work satisfactorily or to his 1. He could not / couldn’t read.
full capacity. As :
2. You could not / couldn’t play.
1. You might pay a little more attention to 3. She could not / couldn’t sing.
your studies.
Rule 2. Can / Cannot
2. You might come a little earlier.
Can or cannot expresses the idea of a possi-
Exercise bility being or not being there.
Correct the following sentences : 1. It can rain today. It cannot / can’t rain
1. The roof may have fallen. today.
2. He can win the prize. He cannot win the
2. There may have been a serious accident.
prize.
3. Might he live long ! 3. He can lose the game. He cannot lose
4. He might prove a good friend. the game.
5. He said that the college may be closed for Rule 3. Can / Could
two days. Can/Could are also used for taking or giving
6. I replied that his suspicion may be true. permission like May / Might. In American
7. You may be a little more serious in your English can / could are more popular. As :
studies. 1. Can I go now ?
8. You may reply a little more politely. 2. Yes, you can go. No, you cannot go.
134 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 4. Can’t expresses the sense of negation Subject + can have + Past Participle
(no) : As :
1. You can’t meet her. 1. He can have reached by now.
2. You cannot / can’t enter the premises. (“He may have reached by now” has
Rule 5. Can / Could for forming Interrogative also the same meaning.)
sentences 2. He can have heard the news.
Can/Could are also used for making Interro- 3. He can have sold the horse.
gative sentences. Their structure is :
Can /Could + Subject + Verb in the Present Rule 8. Could + have + Past Participle / Perfect
Tense Infinitive
1. Can you help me ? Sentences of this structure show that someone
or something had the power or ability to do a
2. Can a horse swim ?
certain work, but still he could not do it. As :
3. Can he speak French ?
1. He could have passed the examination.
Could is used for extreme courtesy.
(But he could not.)
1. Could you lend me your pen ?
2. You could have reached in time.
2. Could you give me a lift by your car ?
(But could not.)
Rule 6. Can / Could in Indirect speech
3. He could have avoided the accident.
Can becomes Could in Indirect Narration
when the Reporting Verb is in Past Tense. Rule 9. Can in the Negative sense
As : Can is used in Negative (as cannot) or Inter-
1. He asked me, “Can you help me ? (Direct) rogative sentences, but May is used in Affir-
mative sentences only.
He asked me if I could help him. (Indirect)
1. Can he come ? (‘May he come ?’ is
2. He said, “I cannot go there.” (Direct) wrong.)
He said that he could not go there. (Indirect) 2. No, he cannot come. (‘may not come’ is
Exercise wrong.)
Choose the correct alternative from the 3. He may come.
bold letters : 4. Can this happen ?
1. Can you read ? No, I couldn’t / can’t. 5. No, this cannot happen.
2. Can this happen ? Yes / no, it can. Exercise
3. Can this happen ? No, it can / can’t. Correct the following sentences :
4. Can you lift / lifted this box ? 1. He can have leave the office by now.
5. Could you lift / lifted this box ? 2. He can have reach Kanpur this morning.
6. He said that he can / could carry the 3. He could be passed the test easily.
luggage.
4. His life have been saved.
7. He said, “I cannot / could not reach in
time.” 5. He may not solve this problem.
Hints—(1) Can’t; (2) Yes; (3) can’t; (4) lift; (5) 6. May he cross the river ?
lift; (6) could; (7) cannot. 7. May you challenge a tiger ?
Rule 7. Can have + Past Participle 8. No, he may not cross the river.
This structure expresses the idea of possibi- Hints—(1) left; (2) reached; (3) could have
lity or uncertainty about an action to have passed; (4) could have been saved; (5)
been done in the Past. Can have has the same cannot; (6) Can he cross; (7) Can you
sense as may have. Its structure is : challenge; (8) cannot cross.
 VERBS | 135

Shall / Should 1. I will keep my promise.

Will / Would 2. I will never be late now.
Rule 1. I / We + shall 3. We will fight to the end.
For Ordinary Future Tense shall is used with (2) To express possibility or probability :
First Person Pronoun (I / We). As : 1. He will need a bigger house.
1. I shall do it. 2. He will not reach in time.
2. We shall do it. 3. That will be my letter.
3. I shall go to office. 4. You will get through.
4. We shall go by bus. (3) For invitation, request or favour :
Note—But these days the use of ‘will’ with all 1. Will you have tea with me ?
persons is becoming popular. 2. Will you lend me your pen for a
Rule 2. You / Third Person + will minute ?
Second and Third Persons (you/h e/they) 3. Will you not support me ?
take ‘will’ to express Ordinary Future Note—In the above sentences in place of ‘Will’
Tense. we can also use would, woudn’t, or would
As : you mind. As :
1. You will go tomorrow. 1. Would you have tea with me ?
2. They will not do it. 2. Wouldn’t / won’t you have tea with me ?
Rule 3. Shall with Second / Third Persons 3. Would you mind having tea with me ?
Second and Third Persons take shall to Remember that ‘would’ shows more courtesy.
express command, promise and threat in the (4) To indicate some characteristic habit :
Future Tense. As : 1. He will only talk about his sons.
1. He shall not do it again. 2. He will play upon his guitar till midnight.
2. You shall get your share.
3. He shall be punished for his misbeha-
Exercise
viour. Choose the correct alternative :
Note—These days ‘will’ is being used in place of 1. We will / shall go tomorrow.
‘shall’ in such sentences also. 2. They shall / will do it willingly.
Rule 4. Shall with Second and Third Persons 3. He will / shall obey me.
for Permission 4. He will / shall have to obey me.
‘Shall’ is used with Second and Third Per- 5. I shall / will have to obey him.
sons to obtain Permission.
6. He shall / will not disobey me any longer
1. Shall I lock the gate ? now.
(i.e. Do I have your permission to lock 7. I will / shall have my pound of flesh.
the gate ?) 8. He will / shall not be allowed to remain
2. Shall I bring my father tomorrow ? here now.
(i.e. Do I have your permission to bring 9. Will/shall he attend the office tomorrow?
my father tomorrow ?) 10. Shall / will I see you tomorrow ?
3. Shall he be allowed to go ? 11. I shall / will do my best for you.
(i.e. Will he have your permission to go?) 12. Will / would you mind going on a picnic
Rule 5. Use of Will with us.
Will is used in the following cases also : Hints—(1) shall; (2) will; (3) will; (4) shall; (5)
(1) With First Person (I / We) to express will; (6) shall; (7) will; (8) shall; (9) Will;
determination : (10) Shall; (11) will; (12) Would.
136 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 6. Will have + Past Participle Rule 13. Should have + Past Participle
Will have + Past Participle express possibi- Should have + Past Participle express
lity or likelihood of an action having taken the sense that some person or thing
place in the Past. As : could not complete its allotted task in the
1. The train will have crossed Allahabad. Past. As :
2. He will have left the office by now. 1. They should have built their own
house.
Rule 7. Would have + Past Participle
2. He should have completed his work
Would have + Past Participle express the before going home.
idea of a work that could not be completed in 3. The tree should have borne fruit by
the Past. As : now.
1. If he had worked a little harder, he would Rule 14. Should sometimes expresses the sense of
have secured first division. ‘If’. As :
2. Had he come a few days earlier, he would 1. Should you come in time, I would
have seen his mother. give you a prize.
Rule 8. ‘Would’ also expresses the idea that a 2. Should I seek his help, he would
certain action occurred occasionally in certainly help me.
the Past. As :
1. He would often spend his evenings in the Exercise
club. Choose the correct alternative :
2. He would often go for swimming. 1. The match will / would have been over
Rule 9. Would rather / Would sooner by now.
These phrases express Preference. 2. The match will / would have been over
by now if it had not rained.
1. I would rather remain at home.
3. He will / would have been the manager
2. I would rather break than bend. of the factory if he had not offended the
3. I would sooner give up my claim. chairman.
Rule 10. ‘Should’ expresses the sense of Duty, 4. He will / would often be found sitting all
goodwill, and desirability or propriety alone on the sea-shore.
of some thought or action. As : 5. I will / would rather resign than bear this
1. We should be kind to the animals. insult.
2. You should serve your parents. 6. I will / would sooner vacate this house
3. You should not come late. than quarrel with the landlord.
4. He should be more reasonable. 7. We would / should be more considerate
to the poor and needy.
Rule 11. ‘Should’ also expresses the sense of
8. She should / would be major next year.
Advice or Opinion. As :
9. Would / should you apply next time, I
1. You should regularly go for the morning would consider your claim.
walk.
10. He would / should have taken more
2. You should not read in dim light. interest in his business.
Rule 12. Will / Would / Should Hints—(1) will; (2) would; (3) would; (4) would;
They express the sense of guess, assumption (5) would; (6) would; (7) should; (8)
or probability. As : should; (9) Should; (10) should.
1. She should be in class IV. Rule 15. Shall/Will changed into should / would
2. She would be around sixteen years of in Indirect Narration
age. While converting a sentence from Direct to
3. I see a boy coming. He will / would / Indirect Narration, ‘shall’ becomes ‘should’
should be my class-mate. and ‘will’ becomes ‘would’.
 VERBS | 137

1. He said, “I shall do it willingly.”(Direct) 1. He will travel by car.

He said that he should do it willingly. Or
(Indirect) He is going to travel by car.
2. You said, “You will not go there.” 2. I shall have my dinner at the Imperial
(Direct) Hotel.
You said that you would not go there. Or
(Indirect) I am going to have my dinner at the
Rule 16. Shall / Should, Will / Would help in Imperial Hotel.
making Interrogative sentences. Their Rule 19. Would after wish
structure is : If ‘would’ is used after ‘wish’, it expresses
Shall / Should / Will / Would + Subject + strong desire. As :
Verb in the Present Tense 1. I wish you would not refuse me.
As : 2. I wish you would study science.
1. Shall we go now ? Note—After ‘wish’ we do not use ‘will’.
2. Shall I be allowed to go now ?
3. Will he come today ? Exercise
4. Would you now go ? Correct the following sentences :
1. He said that he shall not start a new busi-
Rule 17. Would like / Should like
ness.
‘Should like’ is used with First Person (I /
2. He asked, “What will you do if you fail
W e ) and ‘would like’ with Second and in business ?”
Third Persons. Their structure is :
3. Will we start now ?
Subject + would like/should like + Infinitive
4. Shall he be able to do it ?
As :
5. He will like to know how you will pro-
1. I should like to know your future plan.
ceed in the matter.
2. He would like to know your future plan.
6. I will like to reach there by the earliest
Note—(i) In colloquial and American English available train.
‘would like’ can be used in place of
‘should like’. 7. We will prefer to have tea than a cold
drink.
(ii) There are some other expressions also
which are used like would like / should 8. I shall be glad to have the pleasure of
like : your company.
Would / should care / prefer / be glad / be 9. I really wish you will accept my pro-
inclined posal.
As : 10. I shall be going to purchase a new car.
1. I should prefer to travel by bus. 11. He will not be going to believe you.
2. He would be glad to meet you. 12. We wish they will be friendly with us.
3. I should be inclined to go with you. Hints—(1) ‘would’ in place of ‘shall’; (2) What
Rule 18. Shall / Will = Going to would you do; (3) Shall; (4) Will or
In some sentences ‘going to’ can be used in Would; (5) would like to know; (6)
place of shall / will for Future Tense. But it would like to reach; (7) would prefer; (8)
should be remembered that ‘going to’ is used should be glad; (9) you would accept;
to express the sense of ‘immediate Future’ (10) am going to purchase; (11) is not
only (not ‘distant Future’). As : going to believe; (12) would be friendly.
138 | L.W.C.E.

Must / Ought Rule 7. Must be / Must have been also convey

the sense of certainty. As :
Rule 1. Must / Ought express compulsion or
necessity. As : 1. He talkes very proudly. He must be an
arrogant person.
1. You must come to office at 10 O’clock.
2. He spoke very fluently. He must have
2. You ought to come to office at 10 been an orator.
O’clock.
Rule 8. Ought to have
Note—Remember that after ought the Infinitive
comes with ‘to’, but after m u s t the This expression conveys the sense that a
Infinitive is used without ‘to’. certain action ought to have been completed
in the Past, but it could not be. As :
Rule 2. Must not / Mustn’t Or Ought not /
1. He ought to have appeared at the
Oughtn’t
examination.
They convey the sense of Negative com- 2. He ought to have told the whole truth.
pulsion or Prohibition (i.e. emphatic ‘no’ or
restraint) 3. He ought to have come out in your
support.
1. You mustn’t jump out from a moving
train. Exercise
2. You oughtn’t to jump out from a moving Correct the following sentences :
train. 1. He must to meet me this evening.
Rule 3. Must / Ought 2. He ought meet me this evening.
They express the sense of Assumption or 3. This problem must to have been solved
Likelihood. As : like this.
1. This book must be very popular. 4. This problem ought have been solved
2. This book ought to be very popular. like this.
Rule 4. Must / Ought 5. You must not to act in a hurry.
They also express the sense of Duty and 6. You ought not act in a hurry.
Obligation. As : 7. He ought have reached well in time.
1. We must love our country. 8. I ought have done it much earlier.
2. We ought to love our country. 9. He ought not to have fight in the street.
3. We must / ought to be kind to the poor. 10. We ought not to have encourage him so
much.
Rule 5. Must / Ought
Hints— (1) drop “to” before ‘meet’; (2) ought to
They also convey the sense of Advice or meet; (3) must have been solved; (4)
warning. ought to have been solved; (5) must not
1. You must drive cautiously. act; (6) ought not to act; (7) ought to have
2. You ought to drive cautiously. reached; (8) ought to have done; (9)
3. You must avoid strong drinks. fought; (10) encouraged.
4. You ought to avoid strong drinks. Need / Needn’t
Rule 6. Must have + Past Participle Rule 1. Need denoting ‘Necessity’
This structure conveys the idea that a certain When Need is used in the simple sense of
action must have been completed in the Past. necessity, it is used as an ordinary verb; i.e. in
As : the Present tense, third person, singular it
1. He laboured very hard. He must have is needs, and in the Past Tense, it is needed.
secured first division. As :
2. He started very early. He must have 1. I need a pen.
caught the train. 2. You / they need a pen.
 VERBS | 139

3. He needs a pen. Exercise

4. I / you / he / they needed a pen. Choose the correct alternative :
5. I don’t need a pen. 1. I need / am need a good house.
6. She doesn’t need a pen. 2. I am need / in need of a good house.
Rule 2. Need in Negative Sentences 3. He doesn’t need / needs your help.
In Negative sentences wherein need is 4. He need / needs not go so early.
followed by a Negative word (not, never, 5. Ram need / needs not apply again.
none) or a Semi-Negative word (scarcely,
hardly), we use need (not needs) even with 6. He need / needs hardly any more
Third Person, Singular in the Present medicine now.
Tense. And after that comes the Infinitive 7. Need / needs he meet you there ?
without ‘to’. As : 8. Does he need meet / to meet you there ?
1. He need not fear me. 9. Did he need to quarrel / quarrel over
2. He need never fear me. such a petty matter ?
3. He need hardly take my help. 10. He needn’t to wait / wait so long.
4. He need scarcely demand any more help. 11. She needn’t have sell / sold her car.
Rule 3. Need in Interrogative Sentences 12. Your father needn’t to have / have
In Interrogative sentences beginning with worried so much about you.
Need also we use only need (not needs) even Hints—(1) need; (2) in need; (3) need; (4) need;
with Third person, Singular. And then we (5) need; (6) need; (7) Need; (8) to meet;
use Infinitive without ‘to’. As : (9) to quarrel; (10) wait; (11) sold; (12)
1. Need he go there ? have.
2. Need he try again ? Dare / Daren’t
Rule 4. Need in ‘Do’ Interrogatives Rule 1. Dare denoting ‘Challenge’
In Interrogative sentences beginning with Do When Dare is used in the sense of challenge,
/ does / did, we use the Infinitive with ‘to’. we use it as an ordinary verb. That is, it is
As : used according to the Number and Person of
1. Do I need to go with him ? the subject in the Present Tense as either
2. Does he need to go with you ? dare or dares. The Infinitive is used with
3. Did you need to behave like this ? ‘to’. As :
Rule 5. Needn’t 1. He dares me to climb to the peak.
Needn’t expresses the sense of not binding. 2. I dare you to compete with me.
We use needn’t both with the Singular and
Plural. As : 3. They dare me to move this boulder.
1. You needn’t work so hard. Rule 2. ‘Dare’ in Negative Sentences
2. He needn’t go there. In Negative sentences when dare is followed
3. They needn’t go there. by a Negative word (not, never, none) or
Semi-Negative word (hardly, scarcely), we
Rule 6. Needn’t have + Past Participle
use dare (not dares) even with T h i r d
This construction means that an action com- Person, Singular in the Present Tense. Also,
pleted in the past was either not necessary or the Infinitive is used without ‘to’. As :
not proper. As :
1. He dare not fight with me.
1. He needn’t have gone there.
(unnecessary) 2. I dare not stand before you.
2. He needn’t have behaved like this. 3. They dare not question my integrity.
(improper) 4. He dare hardly speak before me.
140 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 3. ‘Dare’ in Interrogative Sentences 11. We daren’t / not dare act against his
In Interrogative sentences beginning with will.
Dare, we use dare (not dares) even with 12. Did he dare to neglect / neglect you ?
Third Person, Singular in the P r e s e n t Hints—(1) dares; (2) dare; (3) dare; (4) dare; (5)
Tense. Also, the Infinitive coming after it is speak; (6) disobey; (7) speak; (8) Dare;
used without ‘to’. As : (9) to wrestle; (10) daren’t; (11) daren’t;
1. Dare he speak before you ? (12) to neglect.
2. Dare he repeat the mistake ? Used to
Rule 4. ‘Dare’ in ‘Do’ Interrogatives Rule 1. Used to carries the sense that an action
In Interrogative sentences beginning with was done either continually or habitu-
Do / Does / Did, the Infinitive is used with ally.
‘to’. As : 1. He used to work on daily wages.
1. Does he dare to challenge you ? 2. He used to quarrel with his neighbour.
2. Did he dare to argue with you ? 3. He used to play football in his school
3. Do I dare to stand before him ? days.
Rule 5. Daren’t Rule 2. Negative and Interrogative of ‘Used to’
In Negative sentences both with Singular Negative and Interrogative sentences with
and Plural subjects we use daren’t (not used to are formed as given below :
daresn’t). As : 1. He used not to live in this house.
1. He daren’t come before me. 2. Used he to live in this house ?
2. I daren’t go there alone. Rule 3. Subject + Verb ‘to be’ + used to +
Rule 6. Daren’t have + Past Participle Noun / Gerund
This construction means that an action com- These sentences express the idea of being
pleted in the Past was either not necessary or habituated to a certain matter or action. As :
not proper. As : 1. He is used to hard life.
1. He daren’t have gone alone in the deep 2. I am used to reading till late in the night.
wood. 3. They are used to travelling in crowded
2. You daren’t have challenged him like buses.
this. Rule 4. Do + use to
Exercise In colloquial and spoken English we make
Choose the correct alternative : Negative or Interrogative sentences with do
/ does / did followed by use to (not used to).
1. He dare / dares me to swim across the As :
river.
1. He did not use to live in this house.
2. I dare / dares you to swim across the
river with me. 2. Did he use to live in this house ?
3. He dare / dares not accept my challenge. Exercise
4. She dare / dares not speak before me. Correct the following sentences :
5. He dare hardly speak / to speak before 1. We use / used to work here together.
me. 2. He use / used to be so kind to me.
6. I dare not disobey / to disobey him. 3. He used not / did not used to wear white
7. Dare he speak / to speak before me ? khadi.
8. Dare / dares he wrestle with me ? 4. He used to sit / sit on the last bench.
9. Does he dare wrestle / to wrestle with 5. I used / am used to an easy-going life.
me ? 6. He is used to read / to reading till late in
10. He daren’t / daresn’t challenge me. the night.
 VERBS | 141

7. He did not use / used to drive his own car. Exercise

8. Did he use / used to go every day by bus ? Correct the following sentences :
Hints—(1) used; (2) used; (3) used not; (4) to sit; 1. He can write and will write a long essay.
(5) am used; (6) to reading; (7) did not use; 2. He should tell and will tell you a good
(8) Did he use. story.
Two Auxiliaries and Principal Verb 3. He has not and will not place all the facts
before you.
Rule 1. Two Auxiliaries + Principal Verb
4. He cannot and has not done any good to
Sometimes two Auxliary Verbs can be used anybody.
with One Principal Verb only. But this is
5. He dare not and has not gone alone to the
possible only when the same form of the
wood.
Principal Verb may be used with both the
Auxiliaries. As : 6. We should not and have never quarrelled
over our property.
1. He neither can nor will help you.
7. We did not and have never told a lie.
2. He did not and should not tell a lie. 8. We have never and will never hide
The use of Auxiliaries and the Principal Verb anything from you.
is correct in both these sentences. In the first Hints—(1) can and will write; (2) should and will
sentence the Auxiliaries are can and will and tell; (3) has not placed; (4) cannot do; (5)
with them the use of the same form of the dare not go; (6) should not quarrel; (7) did
Principal Verb help is grammatically correct. not tell; (8) have never hidden.
In the second sentence the Auxiliaries are did
Position of Subject, Verb, Object and
and should both of which would take the
Complement
same form of the Principal Verb tell.
Rule 1. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object
But if the Auxiliaries in the sentence are such
as would need different forms of the Principal Simple Affirmative sentence has the follow-
Verb, the same form of the Principal Verb ing structure :
would not serve the purpose. In that case, 1. He killed a snake.
different forms of the Principal Verb with 2. She loves her home.
each Auxiliary will be needed. As : Rule 2. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object (Indirect)
1. He neither has helped nor will help you. + Object (Direct)
2. He has not told and should not tell a lie. There are some verbs which may take two
objects. One of these objects is generally
In the first sentence there are two Auxiliary living ( a n i m a t e ) and the second is
Verbs—has and will. They will take two inanimate. The animate object is called
different forms of the Principal Verb : Has Indirect Object and the Inanimate object is
will take ‘helped’ and will ‘help’. Therefore called Direct object. As :
the Principal Verb will be used separately in
the proper form with each helping Verb. In 1. He gave me a book.
the same way, in the second sentence has will I n this sentence m e (animate) is Indirect
take ‘told’ and should ‘tell’ separately with Object and b o o k (inanimate) is Direct
each Auxiliary Verb. Object. In such sentences Indirect Object is
We cannot write the above sentences as used first and Direct Object at the second
below : place.
1. He neither has nor will help you. In some cases b o t h the objects may be
Inanimate. The question would then arise
2. He has not and should not tell a lie. which of the two inanimate objects is Direct
Such errors are common and should be avoi- object and which is Indirect object. In this
ded. regard it should be remembered that the object
142 | L.W.C.E.

with which we may use ‘to’ or ‘for’ within Rule 3. Subject + Tr. Verb + Object + Comple-
the sentence would be Indirect Object, and ment
that with which ‘to’ or ‘for’ may not be used Remember that complement is used after the
is Direct Object. As : object. As :
1. He has given his car a new look. I nominate you member of the committee.
2. We have given your village a new appro- Here you is object and member is comple-
ach road. ment.
In the first of these two sentences we can use Rule 4. Causative Verbs (make / get / have)
‘to’ before the object his car, but we cannot
use ‘to’ or ‘f o r’ before the second object Causative Verbs are those in which the Sub-
look. In the same way, we can use ‘to’ before ject itself does not act, but causes something
village in the second sentence, but not before or someone else to act on its behalf. The
road. Therefore in these two sentences car structure of these sentences is as follows :
and village are Indirect objects, and look and Subject + Make / get / have + Object +
road are Direct objects. remaining part
Now the question is whether Direct object 1. He made him run away.
should be used first or the Indirect one in such 2. I got him dismissed.
cases. The general rule, as we have said 3. He had the orders passed.
above, is that Indirect object comes first and
the Direct object later. But over and above Rule 5. Verb + Preposition / Adverb + Noun
this rule two more points should be kept in There are some sentences in which the Verb
mind : is used along with some Preposition / Adverb
(1) The object to which we want to give more (up / on / off / in / down / out / away). At the
importance should be used first. With the same time the Verb also has a Noun or a
change of emphasis, the sense of the whole Pronoun for its object. Now the question is
sentence also changes a little. Look at the whether the Preposition / Adverb is to be used
following sentence : earlier or the object. For this the general rule
is that if the object is small (of one word
‘He gave me a book.’ only), it should be used before the Preposition
In this sentence the emphasis has been laid on / Adverb, but if the object contains more
me because it has been used as the first words, it should be used after the Preposition
object. The sentence, therefore, means that he / Adverb. As :
gave the book to me alone and to none else. 1. Turn him out.
But if we write the same sentence thus : (Object before the Preposition)
‘He gave a book to me.’ 2. Bring him in.
Now the emphasis has been changed from me (Object before the Preposition)
to book. The sentence now means that he
3. I’ll see you off.
gave me only a book and nothing else.
(Object before the Preposition)
(2) Another point to be kept in mind is that be-
tween the two objects, the one which is 4. Take your coat off.
smaller (in fewer words) is used first, and (Object before the Preposition)
the bigger one (in more words) is used later. 5. Put your shirt on.
As : (Object before the Preposition)
‘He gave sweets to every member of the 6. Turn out the dirty beggarly man.
family.’ (Object after the Preposition)
Here ‘sweets’ is the smaller object and there- 7. Bring in my very dear friend.
fore used first, and every member of the (Object after the Preposition)
family, being the bigger object (in number of
words), is used later (although it is Indirect 8. Put on your blue sport shirt.
object). (Object after the Preposition)
 VERBS | 143

Question-Tags / Tail Questions (c) When the subject of the statement is All
of you / some of you / none of you / one
Question–tags or Tail Questions are often of you / most of you, the subject of the
used in conversational or Colloquial language. Question–tag would be ‘you.’ As :
Question–tags are often placed after some state-
ment, request, proposal or command. They are 1. All of you can do it, can’t you ?
always in Question form. As : 2. None of you can do it, can you ?
1. You love me, don’t you ? (d) When the subject of the statement is All
2. Let us now play, shall we ? of them / some of them / none of them /
3. You don’t love me, do you ? one of them / most of them, the subject
4. Don’t go there, will you ? of the question–tag would be, ‘they’. As :
1. All of them were present, weren’t
The following are the rules for framing
they ?
Question-tags :
2. None of them were present, were
Rule 1. With Positive statement / request we add they ?
Negative Question-tag and with Negative
(e) When the subject of the statement is
statement or request we add Positive
Nothing / something / everything /
Question-tag.
anything, the subject of the Question–tag
Positive → Negative would be ‘It’. As :
Negative → Positive 1. Everything is lost, isn’t it ?
As : 2. Nothing is lost, is it ?
1. He is a good man, isn’t he ? (f) If the subject of the statement is I am,
2. He is not a good man, is he ? and the statement is affirmative, the
3. He doesn’t work hard, does he ? subject of the Question–tag would be
4. He works hard, doesn’t he ? aren’t I (not, ‘am not I’), but if the
Note—Semi-negative words As : few, little, statement is Negative, we use ‘am I ?’
hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, etc. are As :
also believed to be Negative and therefore 1. I am only a student, aren’t I ?
we use Positive Question–tags after them. 2. I am not a student, am I ?
As : (g) When the statement has this pattern :
1. He rarely comes here, does he ? There + Auxiliary Verb + Subject, the
2. Few people are interested in this Question–tag would have ‘Verb + there’
scheme, are they ? (not Verb + Pronoun). As :
Rule 2. The subject of a Question–tag is always 1. There is no good college, is there ?
a Pronoun (not a Noun). ( Not, Is it there ?)
The rules for this are : 2. There is a good college, is not there ?
(a) When the subject of the statement is ( Not, Is it not there ?)
None / anyone / someone / every one / (h) When the statement has need / needs, the
everybody / anybody / nobody, the Question–tag would have d o n ’ t /
subject of the Question–tag would be ‘he doesn’t, and with used to, we use didn’t.
/ they.’ As : As :
1. No one will come, will he / will they ? 1. I need a book, don’t I ?
2. Any one can come, can’t he / can’t 2. He needs a book, doesn’t he ?
they? 3. He used to live here, didn’t he ?
(b) When the subject of the Statement is All (i) For positive request / command, we use
of us / some of us / none of us / one of will you / won’t you ? in the Question–
us / most of us, the subject of the tag, but for negative request / command,
question–tag would be ‘we.’ As : we use only will you ? As :
1. All of us will go, shall we not ? 1. Ring the bell, will you ? Or won’t you ?
2. None of us has done it, have we ? 2. Don’t ring the bell, will you ?
144 | L.W.C.E.

(j) If the statement begins with Let, it may 13. Does he dare offend you ?
have two meanings, and with them two 14. He never smiles nor ever will.
different types of Question–tags are 15. He has never been true nor will ever be true
added : to me.
(i) If the statement suggests Proposal 16. He has not and never can dismiss my case.
or Suggestion, the Question–tag
17. He will often talk of his school days.
will have Shall we ?
18. I wish he will come for my rescue.
1. Let us now go for dinner, shall we ?
19. He said that he will not wait any longer.
2. Let us form a society, shall we ?
20. Little did I know that he will deceive me.
(ii) If the statement suggests Permis-
sion, the Question–tag will have will Revision Exercise —2
you ? As : Choose the correct alternative :
1. Let them read here, will you ? 1. I believe I (should, can, may) be able to go.
2. Let her take the book, will you ? 2. He (shall, will, dare) not return your book
Exercise until he is compelled.
Add Question-tags to the following state- 3. You (should, would, ought) to be punctual.
ments : 4. I wish you (will, would, should) be
1. They love and admire you. successful.
2. I have not seen Calcutta. 5. (Shall, will, would) you please help me ?
3. He does not know English. 6. (Shall, will, may) I help you ?
4. He can speak French. 7. You (should, ought, must) return my book
5. Few people know him. at once.
6. No one will like your attitude. 8. He (need, dare, would) not ask for any
7. Every one is most welcome here. promotion.
8. All of us should play a game. 9. (Shall, might, could) you show me the way
9. Nothing could be saved. to the station ?
10. I am a soldier. 10. I (would, used, ought) to be a teacher but
11. There is no Railway station here. now I have taken to business.
12. Call the peon. 11. I (will, shall, am) to address a meeting in
the afternoon.
Revision Exercise —1
12. I wish he (should, would, may) not betray
Correct the following sentences : me.
1. I think it shall rain tonight. 13. He (is, was, has) to carry out my orders.
2. Will I buy a television ? 14. (Doesn’t, oughtn’t, hasn’t) he served you
3. Shall you be able to visit us tomorrow ? so faithfully ?
4. I shouldn’t have done this if I was you ? 15. I am your true follower, (amn’t, aren’t,
5. If I was the President of India, I would isn’t) I ?
make English a compulsory subject. 16. There is no news, but he (may, would,
6. He needs not have shouted at me. should) come.
7. He dares not go against the wishes of his 17. (Should, would, may) you have one more
master. cup ?
8. He needs not to pay the next instalment. 18. He said that he (is, was, will) in great
9. The earth moves round the sun, isn’t it ? trouble.
10. You will be going home in the summer, 19. (May, might, would) I borrow your pen for
will you ? a minute ?
11. Why you are so sad ? 20. You (needn’t, couldn’t, haven’t) wait for
12. Take your old shoes off ? her any longer.
 11 Non-Finite Verbs
Kind of Non-Finite Verbs pleted. But there are some Verbs after which
Infinitives are used without ‘to’.
Non-Finite Verbs are of three kinds :
Infinitive without ‘to’ : The following are
1. The Infinitive
the rules of the use of Infinitives without ‘to’ :
2. The Gerund
Rule 1—The Infinitive is used without ‘to’ after
3. The Participle these Verbs—hear, see, feel, make, let,
All these Non-Finite Verbs are Independent bid, watch, behold, know, notice,
verbs. They are called independent because they observe, need not, dare not. As—
are not governed by the Number and Person of 1. He bade me go.
the Subject like other verbs. They are indepen- 2. We shall watch him dance.
dent of the subject.
3. Let him sing.
Let us consider the rules governing the Non-
4. Make him work.
Finite Verbs one by one.
5. Behold / see / observe him play.
(1) The Infinitive Note—
Kinds of Infinitive—Infinitives are of two (i) If ‘dare’ and ‘need’ sentences have do/
kinds : does/did used within them, the Infinitive
1. T h e Noun-Infinitive—Noun-Infinitive is is used with ‘to’. Also affirmative sente-
also called Simple Infinitive. It is used like a nces with ‘need’ and ‘dare’ take the Infi-
Noun. Therefore it is also called Verb–Noun. It nitive with ‘to’, As—
performs all the Functions of a Noun. 1. Does he dare to challenge you ?
2. The Gerundial Infinitive—Gerundial 2. Does he need to challenge you ?
Infinitive is also called Qualifying Infinitive. It
performs the Functions of an Adjective or an 3. He dares me to cross the river.
Adverb. 4. He needs to go at once.
Tense-Forms of the Infinitive—The Infini- (ii) If the verbs listed above under Rule 1 are
tive has the following Forms according to Tense used Passively, they will take the Infini-
or Time : tive with ‘to’. As—
Tense/Time Form Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple To do To be done
Continuous To be doing
Past Perfect To have done To have been done
Perfect Continuous To have been doing
There is no Future form of the Infinitive. 1. He was made to do it.
Infinitive with or without ‘To’ 2. He was known to have hidden the trea-
Most of the Infinitives have ‘to’ before them. sure.
This is the sign to recognize them, as—to go, to 3. He was bidden to go.
eat, to drink, to be loved, to have been com- 4. He was seen to be crossing the river.
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Rule 2—The Infinitives coming after these verbs 7.I would sooner to yield before my father
also do not take ‘to’ before them—shall, than to oppose him.
will, should, would, do, did, may, 8. He would rather to give up his claim.
might, must, can, could. As—
9. He can do nothing but to abuse
1. He could do it. shamelessly.
2. We shall try. 10. She is better able to sing than to dance.
3. You would laugh. 11. I would have you to keep your promise.
4. He can play. 12. You had better to apologize to your
master.
Rule 3—Infinitives do not take ‘to’ after these
expressions a l s o —had better, had Hints—(1) drop “to”; (2) drop “to”; (3) to refuse;
rather, would sooner, would rather, (4) to swim; (5) drop “to”; (6) to keep; (7)
sooner than, rather than, had sooner. drop “to” before “yield” and “oppose”;
As— (8) drop “to”; (9) drop “to”; (10) drop
1. He had better resign. “to” before dance; (11) drop “to”; (12)
2. He would rather withdraw. drop “to” before “apologize.”
3. I would sooner resign than serve in Uses of Noun-Infinitives
these conditions. Noun-Infinitives have the following uses :
4. I would study rather than waste my 1. As the Subject of a Verb
time.
To err is human.
Rule 4—‘To’ is not used with the Infinitive after To find fault is easy.
the conjunction ‘than’. As—
To earn is not so difficult as to spend (is
He is better able to write than speak. difficult)
Rule 5—‘To’ is not used with the Infinitive after To live honourably is not easy.
the Preposition ‘but’, provided that but
2. As the Object of a Verb.
has ‘do’ Verb before it. As—
He loves to read novels.
1. She can do nothing but weep.
I want to go.
2. We did nothing but play.
He likes to play chess.
Rule 6—If Have / has / had have a Noun or a
He desires to settle down here.
Pronoun after them, the Infinitive com-
ing thereafter will not have ‘to’ with it. 3. As the Object of a Preposition
As— He has no choice but to go.
1. I will have you remember me. The show is about to start.
2. He had him know his fault. The enemy is about to surrender.
3. He will have me forget my insult. I want nothing but to be free.
Exercise 4. As the Complement of a Verb
Correct the following sentences : My only ambition is to be a doctor.
1. You need not to pity him. His habit is to sleep in the afternoon.
2. Behold him to dance on the stage. The old custom was to sacrifice a goat.
3. Do you dare refuse me ? His dream is to have a huge factory.
4. He dares me swim against the flow of the 5. As an Objective Complement
river. I saw him dance.
5. I watched him to cross the road. I bid you go.
6. He was bidden keep quiet. I will have you accept your fault.
 NON-FINITE VERBS | 147

Functions of the Gerundial Infinitive 1. Please tell me how to reach there.

Gerundial Infinitives have the following func- 2. I wonder how to account for it.
tions— 3. Please show me how to close it.
1. To qualify a Noun 4. I can’t decide how to get out of the fray.
There is no book to read. Rule 2—Verb + Infinitive
I have no time to waste.
Some Verbs when joined with an Infinitive
He is not a man to be respected. show the occurrence of an action. They also
I have a horse to sell. carry the sense of sudden occurrence of the
2. To qualify an Adjective action concerned. These Verbs are : happen,
This book is good to read. seem, chance, appear. As—
Mangoes are sweet to eat. 1. I happened to see a snake.
I am eager to go. 2. He seemed to have forgotten me.
The weather is pleasant to enjoy. 3. I chanced to meet him in the market.
3. To qualify a Verb (to express a pur-
pose) 4. He appeared to recognize me.
He came to seek my permission. Rule 3—Noun / Adjective + Infinitive
We earn to live comfortably. In some sentences an Infinitive is used after a
We work to make a living. Noun or an Adjective. This Infinitive quali-
fies the Noun or the Adjective concerned.
He went to meet his friend.
As—
4. To qualify a sentence
1. The problem is easy to solve.
To tell the truth, I am very tired.
2. He has a horse to sell.
He was, so to speak, pierced to the heart.
3. I have a house to furnish.
Exercise 4. He is hard to please.
(A) Use the following Infinitives as directed : 5. These mangoes are sweet to eat.
1. “To write” as the subject and object of a Note—In such sentences the Infinitive is used
verb only in Active Voice, not in Passive
2. “To love” as the subject and object of a Voice. Therefore we cannot write the
verb. following sentences:
3. “To fight” as the object of a preposition. 1. The problem is easy to be solved.
4. “To obey” as the object of a preposition. 2. He has a horse to be sold.
5. “To walk” as the complement of a verb.
3. I have a house to be furnished.
6. “To preach” as the complement of a verb.
4. He is hard to be pleased.
(B) Use the following Verbs as Gerundial
Infinitives— 5. These mangoes are sweet to be eaten.
Serve, conquer, bathe, taste, work, study, Rule 4—Noun / Infinitive + Preposition
admit, tell, travel, arrive. In some sentences an Infinitive comes after
Other Uses of Infinitives the Noun and at the end of the sentence
comes a Preposition. In such sentences the
Rule 1—How + Infinitive Noun functions as the agent or instrument to a
If an Infinitive is used as the object of the purpose. As—
following verbs, how is used before the 1. I have no pen to write with.
Infinitive. These verbs are :
2. There is a chair to sit on.
know, see, learn, observe, forget, discover,
decide, teach, show, wonder, ask, enquire, 3. I have a house to live in.
explain, tell. As— 4. There is no friend to talk to.
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Rule 5—Verb + Object + Infinitive Exercise

There are some Transitive Verbs which take Correct the following sentences :
an Object after them, and after the object an 1. Could you tell me to explain the point ?
Infinitive. These verbs are :
2. I really wonder to express my gratitude to
Allow, permit, order, advise, tell, request,
you.
force, invite, remind. As—
1. He allowed me to go. 3. Do you know to drive a car ?
2. He forced me to resign. 4. This exercise is not easy to be done.
3. I advise you to go. 5. I have an essay to be written.
4. You remind him to come. 6. He has a growing family to be maintained.
Rule 6—There are some Verbs and some Adjec- 7. I have no debt to be paid.
tives after which only an Infinitive is 8. The river is very deep to be crossed.
used, not a Gerund (verb + ‘ing’). These
Verbs are—Agree, desire, hope, expect, 9. She has no colours to paint.
want, wish, promise, refuse, dare, 10. There is no blackboard to write.
decide, fail, glad, happy, eager, 11. She has no friend to go.
anxious, easy, hard, able, ready. As—
12. I invite to come this evening.
1. I am ready to go. (Not, ‘ready to going’
or ‘ready for going’) 13. He ordered to make the payment at once.
2. He expects to pass. (Not, ‘to passing’) 14. I request to help me.
3. He promised / refused to come. (Not, 15. Don’t fail in reaching in time.
‘to coming’) 16. He is eager for meeting you.
4. I shall be glad to allow your request.
17. I am really glad to be meeting you.
(Not, ‘to allowing’)
18. He hopes of passing in the first division.
Rule 7—Subject + Verb + Infinitive / Gerund
There are s o m e Verbs after which either 19. You cannot force to accept your terms.
Infinitve or Gerund (verb + ‘ing’) can be 20. I again advise to be serious about your
used. But then their meanings change. studies.
‘Verb + Gerund’ show that an action is Hints—(1) how to explain; (2) how to express; (3)
being done in the normal course, while Verb how to drive; (4) easy to do; (5) to write;
+ Infinitive show that an action is being done (6) to maintain; (7) to pay; (8) to cross; (9)
under some special situation or on a to paint with; (10) to write on; (11) to go
particular occasion. These Verbs are : like, to; (12) invite you to come; (13) ordered
dislike, stop, begin. As— me to make; (14) request you to help; (15)
1. I like dancing. to reach; (16) to meet; (17) to meet; (18) to
2. I like to dance on such occasions. pass; (19) force me to accept; (20) advise
3. He began writing. you to be serious.
4. He began to write. (2) The Gerund
5. He has stopped going there. Its Form
6. He has stopped to go there. “A Gerund is that form of the verb which
Rule 8—Infinitive of Purpose / Result ends in “ing” and has the force of a Noun and a
Some Infinitives come after the Verb and Verb.” (Wren and Martin)
they carry the sense of some special purpose It would appear from the above definition that
or result. As— a Gerund is formed by adding ‘ing’ to a Verb,
1. He went to Agra to see the Taj. and it performs the functions of both Noun and
2. He came to return my books. Verb. The sign of recognizing a Gerund is that it
3. He failed to win the prize. is always a ‘Verb + ing’, as—running , walking,
4. He came to repent sincerely. driving, reading, writing, etc.
 NON-FINITE VERBS | 149

Note—It may be remembered in this connection 4. As the Complement of a Verb

that in form the Present Participle is also 1. What I hate is telling lies
Verb + ing. But the functions of Gerund
2. His habit was reading till late in the
and Present Participle are quite different.
night.
The function of Gerund is Verb + Noun,
while that of Present Participle is Verb + 3. What I detest most is sitting idle.
Adjective. 4. His weakness is drinking.
Gerund = Verb + Noun (Verbal Noun) 5. As case in Apposition
Participle = Verb + Adjective (Verbal 1. It is no use running after shadows.
Adjective) 2. It is useless talking to him.
Its Different Forms 3. It was foolish of him weeping alone.
Tense Active Voice Passive Voice 4. It was so sweet of her trusting me.
Present or Loving Being loved 6. Absolute use
Continuous Hunting being hateful to him, we did
Perfect Having loved Having been loved not carry our guns.
Gerund and Noun-Infinitive Drinking being his weakness, we did
not take him with us.
As we have said above the function of Gerund
Rules of the Use of Gerund
is Verb + Noun. The function of Noun Infinitive
is also Verb + Noun. Therefore in most sentences The following are the Rules of the use of
either Gerund or Noun Infinitive can be used Gerund :
without any change in meaning. Rule 1—Gerund and Possessive Case
Teaching is easy. (Gerund) The Noun or Pronoun coming before Gerund
must be used in Possessive case. As—
To teach is easy. (Infinitive)
1. I am sorry for my being late.
To see is to believe. (Infinive)
(not “for me / I being late”)
Seeing is believing. (Gerund)
2. I am glad at your reaching here in time.
Functions of Gerund (not “at you reaching”)
Like Infinitive, Gerund also performs the 3. Please excuse me for my coming late.
following functions of the Noun : (not “me / I coming late”)
1. As the Subject of a Verb 4. Nobody can prevent my going there. (not
1. Walking is good for health. “me going there”)
2. Seeing is believing. Note—(i) If the Noun coming before Gerund is a
3. Fishing is popular in coastal areas. lifeless thing, it should not be used in the
Possessive case. As—
2. As the object of a Verb
1. There is a chance of the milk turning
1. Stop shouting. sour. (not “milk’s turning”)
2. I hate telling lies. 2. There is danger of the roof falling in
3. He loves hunting. rains. (not “roof’s falling”)
4. He likes sitting idle. (ii) In the same way, Possessive case should
3. As the object of a Preposition not be made of Plural Nouns ending in –
s, or of Demonstrative Pronouns (this /
1. He is fond of reading novels.
that / these / those).
2. I was tired of waiting.
Rule 2—There are some Verbs after which only
3. I believe in working hard. Gerund should be used (not Infinitive).
4. I am against fighting. These Verbs are :
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Feel, mind, avoid, consider, enjoy, excuse, 3. You cannot force me withdrawing my
finish, miss, can’t help, look forward, to claim.
give up, go on, it is n o good, it is no use. 4. There is risk of the train’s being late.
As—
5. There is likelihood of a storm’s coming in
1. I avoid going there. (not “avoid to go”) the evening.
2. I can’t help rejecting your application. 6. We look forward to meet you again soon.
(not “can’t help to reject”)
7. It is no use to cry over your loss now.
3. We just missed catching the train. (not
8. Don’t give up to try again.
“missed to catch”)
9. The writing this book was not easy.
4. Would you mind leaving me alone. (not
“mind to leave”) 10. Coming of the storm was forecast.
Rule 3—Compound Nouns as Gerunds Hints—(1) my failing; (2) your deceiving; (3) my
The following compound Nouns have Verb + withdrawing; (4) train being; (5) storm
ing as one part of their form. This Verb + ing coming; (6) to meeting; (7) crying; (8)
part is called its Gerund. As— trying; (9) the writing of ; (10) the coming
Walking-stick, writing-table, frying-pan, of.
hunting-whip, sitting-room, inking-pad, (3) The Participle
etc. Definition—“A participle is that form of the
This is because the ‘ing’ part is not separable verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb
from the complete word, and therefore it can- and of an adjective.” (Wren and Martin)
not be a qualifying Adjective.
Thus a Participle performs the functions both
Rule 4—Compound Gerunds
of the Verb and the Adjective. Therefore it is also
Sometimes Gerunds can be formed by using called Verbal Adjective.
Past Participle form of the Verb after Having
or Being. They are called Compoud Ger- Kinds of Participle—
unds. As— Participles are of three kinds—
1. He is fond of being praised. 1. Present Participle (Verb × ‘ing’)
2. He is afraid of being punished. e.g. running, dancing, singing, crying, etc.
3. We hear of his having won a reward. 2. Past Participle (third form of the verb
4. He is guilty of having deceived a friend. usually ending in—ed, –d, –t, –en, –n)
Rule 5—Gerunds as Ordinary Nouns e.g. tired, learned, burnt, broken, hurt, etc.
Sometimes Gerunds can be used as pure 3. Perfect Participle (having + Past Parti-
ordinary Nouns. They have ‘The before ciple)
them and ‘of’ after them. e.g. having done, having completed,
1. Now there remains only the signing of having seen, etc.
the treaty. Forms of Participles—Participles have the
2. From here we can watch the setting of following forms—
the sun. Active Voice Passive Voice
3. Let us now begin the singing of the Present : loving Present : being loved
hymns.
Perfect : having loved Past : loved
4. This is no time for the playing of cards.
Perfect : having been
Exercise loved
Correct the following sentences : Uses of the Participle
1. I am sorry for me failing in my duty. Since the Participle performs the same func-
2. I can never pardon you for you deceiving tions as the Adjective, it can be used in three
me. ways like the Adjective—
 NON-FINITE VERBS | 151

1. Attributive Use : The day being rainy, the college remai-

1. He jumped off a running train. ned closed. (‘being’ has ‘day’ before it.)
2. The river has flowing water. 2. It being a cold morning, I did not go for
a walk. (‘being’ has ‘It’ before it.)
3. The tired horse could run no farther.
or
4. The wounded soldier was carried to
The morning being cold, I did not go for
the camp.
a walk. (‘being’ has ‘morning’ before it.)
2. Predicative Use : Rule 2—Wrongly Attached Participle
1. I had to keep waiting. There is another serious error generally com-
2. He felt completely exhausted. mitted in the use of Participle. The sen-tence
3. He came running. containing a Participle has two parts—one
part containing the Participle, and the
4. He seems much worried.
second main part. In such a case, if the part
3. Absolute Use (with a noun or pronoun containing the Participle has no Subject, the
going before) Subject of the main part will be considered
1. The day being hot, we did not go out. to be the subject of the Participle part / phrase
2. Time permitting, I will surely come. also.
3. God willing, we shall win the match. From this point begins the problem. If the
subject of the Participle phrase and that of the
4. The sun having set, nothing could be main part is the same common person or
seen. thing, no difficulty arises, because that would
Note—Under the Absolute use, the part contain- be the common subject of both the parts. The
ing the Participle is quite independent of difficulty arises when the subjects of the two
the main part. parts are different, and the subject of the
Participle part has not been given.
Rules of correct use of Participles
In such a case, a little slip or carelessness can
Rule 1—Unattached Participle entirely change the sense of the whole
Since the Participle performs the same func- sentence and make it absurd and ridiculous.
tion as the Adjective, it must have a Noun or For example, look at the following sentence—
a Pronoun before it, which it must qualify. ‘Going to school, a dog bit Ram.’
Without this Noun or Pronoun the Participle Now this sentence has two parts—one, Parti-
will have no function to perform. Such a ciple part (‘Going to school’), and the other,
participle is called unattached Participle, main part (‘a dog bit Ram’). Now since the
which is a serious error in Grammar. Look at Participle part has no subject, the subject of
the main part (i.e. dog) will be considered the
the following sentences—
subject of the Participle part also. This would
1. Being a rainy day, the college remained mean as if the ‘dog’ was going to school and
closed. it bit Ram. This becomes ridiculous. This error
2. Being a cold morning, I did not go for a can be corrected by changing the construction
walk. of the main part in such a way that its Subject
The use of the Participle ‘Being’ in both the may become a common Subject with the
sentences above is wrong because there is no Participle part. This can be done by changing
Noun or Pronoun used before it, which it may the Voice (from Active to Passive) of the main
qualify. This error can be corrected by using a part. The sentence would then become—
Noun or a Pronoun (real or imaginary) before Going to school, Ram was bitten by a dog.
‘Being’. Thus the above sentences can be correc- Now Ram becomes the common subject of
ted as below : both the parts, and the sentence is correct.
1. It being a rainy day, the college remained If you don’t want to change the sentence like
closed. (‘being’ has ‘It’ before it.) this, the second way is to convert the Parti-
or ciple phrase into a whole clause thus :
152 | L.W.C.E.

While Ram was going to school, a dog bit 9. Tired of the day-long labour, no more
him. work could be done.
Take another sentence : 10. Driving my car, the way was lost.
Jumping from behind the bush, Ram was Hints—(1) It being a fine day; (2) It being
attacked by a tiger. Sunday; (3) he made no further attempt;
In this sentence, Ram (the subject of the main (4) we could not know the history of the
part) becomes the common subject of the Taj; (5) he was hit by a thief on the head;
Participle part also. That would mean as if (6) I saw a snake under my table; (7) he
Ram jumped from behind the bush and was found some old coins; (8) I lost my cycle;
attacked by a tiger. This error can be corrected (9) I could do no more work; (10) I lost
by changing the main part from Passive to my way.
Active Voice. The sentence would then be : Rule 3—Past Participles used as pure Adjec-
Jumping from behind the bush, a tiger tives
attacked Ram. There are some Past Participles which are
The sentence is now corrrect. used as pure Adjectives, not as the Past
Participle form of Verbs. They are—Drun-
Similarly see the following sentences which ken, molten, bounden, c l o v e n , graven,
are all correct— stricken, shrunken, sunken, shorn.
1. Walking along the footpath, he was hit They can qualify only a Noun, as—a drunken
with a stone. driver, molten lava, bounden duty, cloven
2. Being tired of night-long journey, he foot, graven image, stricken heart, shrunken
could do no work. face, sunken ship, shorn sheep.
3. Insulted by his demotion, he resigned The normal Past Participle forms of the above
from service. noted Past Participles are these :
4. Having finished my work, I returned Drunk, melted, bound, clove, graved,
home early. struck, shrunk, sunk, sheared.
5. Having been injured, he stopped fighting. Rule 4—Past Participle and Passive Voice
Both the parts of the above noted sentences Most Past Participles are used in Passive
have a common subject. Voice. Therefore they are used after the Noun.
Exercise As—
Correct the following sentences : 1. Remember the lessons taught by him.
1. Being a fine day, we went on a picnic 2. I live in the house built by you.
party. 3. Where is the book written by you ?
2. Being Sunday, I am not going to office 4. I shall never forget the favour shown to
today. me.
3. Having failed in the first attempt, no Note—But there are some Past Participles which
further attempt was made by him. can be used both as Verbs and Adjec-
4. Having no guide with us, the history of tives. They are—Torn, written, born, bro-
the Taj could not be known. ken, fallen, given, spoken, stolen. As—
5. Sleeping in his room, a thief hit him on 1. Here is the broken window.
the head. 2. Where is the window broken by the
thief.
6. Reading in my room, a snake was seen
under my table. 3. I want a written statement.
7. Ploughing his field, some old coins were 4. This is the letter written by me.
found. Rule 5—Present Participle and Active Voice
8. Returning from the market, my cycle was Present Participles are mostly used in Active
lost. Voice before the Noun. As—
 NON-FINITE VERBS | 153

1. This is our reading room. Rule 9—Participles of Condition.

2. There is no drinking water. 1. Turning to the left, you will see the
3. Hawk is a hunting bird. Railway station. (i.e. If you turn to the
left.)
4. Don’t get down a running bus.
2. Conditions remaining the same, there
Rule 6—Participles used as Prepositions will be no problem in organizing the
Some Participles are used as Prepositions and function. (i.e. If conditions remain the
they depend on the main part of the sentence. same.)
As— Rule 10—Participles of Concession / Contrast
1. Referring to your letter, I have to say 1. Believing what you say, I will still look
that........ into the matter myself. (i.e. Even though I
2. Regarding my qualifications, I would believe what you say.)
submit that..... 2. Living from hand to mouth, he yet
Rule 7—Participles of Time maintains his self-respect. (i.e. Though he
lives from hand to mouth.)
Some Participles suggest time. The sense of
time becomes more clear when the Participle Exercise
phrase is converted into a clause. As— Correct the following sentences :
1. Going to school, I dropped my pen 1. I am not duty bounden to go.
somewhere. (i.e. while I was going to 2. He was stricken on the head.
school.) 3. A goat has clove feet.
2. Having finished my work, I returned 4. He was picked up dead drunken.
from my office. (i.e. After I had finished 5. Here is a spun wheel.
my work.) 6. This is my written book.
Rule 8—Participles of Reason / Cause 7. We live in your built house.
1. Being tired, I could not go any farther. 8. This is our ground playing.
(i.e. Because I was tired.) Hints—(1) duty bound; (2) was struck; (3) cloven
2. Having been satisfied, I did not take any feet; (4) dead drunk; (5) spinning wheel;
further action. (i.e. Because I had been (6) the book written by me; (7) in the
satisfied.) house built by you; (8) playing ground.
 12 Time and Tense
Distinction Between Time and Tense Tense, but in sense the first sentence is in Past
In order to understand this chapter, it is Time, the second in Present Time, the third in
necessary first to understand the meanings of Future Time. As—
Time and Tense and the distinction between the 1. I sent a message to my brother yesterday.
two. Time is used in the ordinary sense as we (Past Tense and Past time)
know it in life. Time has three dimensions—the 2. If I sent a message to my brother just now,
Present Time, the Past Time, and the Future Time. he would receive it tomorrow. (Past Tense
But Tense is a grammatical term, showing the and Present time)
grammatical forms of the Verb. Thus Time points 3. If I sent a message to my brother tomor-
to the meaning of the Verb, and Tense to the row, he would receive it on Sunday morn-
form of the Verb. There are three broad divisions ing. (Past Tense and Future time)
of Tense—the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and Therefore a student must clearly understand
the Future Tense. Each Tense is further divided the distinction between Present Tense and Present
into four sub-divisions—1. Simple, 2. Continuous Time, Past Tense and Past Time, and Future Tense
(Progressive), 3. Perfect, 4. Perfect Continuous. In and Future Time.
this way Time has three divisions, while Tense Let us now study in detail the Tenses and
has twelve divisions. Time Sense.
It may further be pointed out that One Tense Three Forms of Verbs
may show more than one dimension of Time.
For example, Simple Present Tense may show Present, Past and Past Participle Forms of
Present Time, Past Time and Future Time. Like- Some Difficult Verbs
wise, Simple Past Tense can also show Present Each Verb has Three Forms :
Time, Past Time and Future Time.
I Form or Present Tense.
For example, see the following Question and
its Answer : II Form or Past Tense.
III Form or Past Participle.
Q. How does Ram earn his living ?
Ans. He runs a shop. Since no sentence can be formed without
using a Verb in a certain form, we give below a
The above Answer is in Simple Present
list of the I, II, and III Forms of some typical
Tense, but in its sense it shows Past, Present and
Verbs in the use of which an error is often
Future Time, because he had the shop in the past;
committed :
he has it in the present, and he will keep it in
future too. In other words this sentence is in Group I
Simple Present Tense but in Past, Present, and
Future Time. I Form II Form III Form
Now see this sentence— Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
“I go to Bombay tomorrow morning.” Arise arose arisen
This sentence is in Simple Present Tense, but Bear bore born
in sense it shows Future Time. Bear bore borne
Now see the following sentences written in Beat beat beaten
Simple Past Tense. All these sentences are in Past Beget begot begot
 TIME AND TENSE | 155

I Form II Form III Form I Form II Form III Form

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
Bid bade bidden Slide slid slid
Bite bit bitten Smell smelt smelt
Bind bound bound Smite smote smitten
Blow blew blown Speak spoke spoken
Break broke broken Spoil spoilt spoilt
Burn burnt burnt Steal stole stolen
Chide chid chid Stride strode stridden
Choose chose chosen Strike struck struck
Creep crept crept Strive strove striven
Deal dealt dealt Swear swore sworn
Dwell dwelt dwelt Sweep swept swept
Draw drew drawn Take took taken
Drink drank drunk Teach taught taught
Drive drove driven Tear tore torn
Eat ate eaten Throw threw thrown
Fall fell fallen Tread trod trodden
Feel felt felt Wear wore worn
Fly flew flown Weave wove woven
Forbear for bore forborne Weep wept wept
Forget forgot forgotten Write wrote written
Forsake forsook forsaken Group II
Freeze froze frozen
Abide abode abode
Get got got
Awake awoke awoke
Give gave given
Build built built
Go went gone
Become became become
Grow grew grown
Begin began begun
Hang hanged hanged
Behold beheld beheld
Hide hid hidden
Bend bent bent
Kneel knelt knelt
Cling clung clung
Know knew known
Come came come
Laugh laughed laughed
Dig dug dug
Lie lay lain
Feed fed fed
Mean meant meant
Fight fought fought
Ride rode ridden
Rise rose risen Find found found
See saw seen Fling flung flung
Shake shook shaken Grind ground ground
Show showed shown Hold held held
Shrink shrank shrunk Lend lent lent
Sink sank sunk Lead led led
Sow sowed sown Ring rang rung
Slay slew slain Run ran run
Sleep slept slept Read read read
156 | L.W.C.E.

I Form II Form III Form 1. PRESENT TENSE

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Read the following sentences carefully—
Shine shone shone
Sing sang sung 1. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
Spin spun spun (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Spring sprang sprung I read my book.
Stand stood stood He loves his school.
Stick stuck stuck You help the poor.
Sting stung stung They love their country.
String strung strung
(ii) Negative Sentences—
Swim swam swam
Win won won I do not read my book.
Wind wound wound He does not love his school.
Wring wrung wrung You do not help the poor.
They do not love their country.
Group III
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
The following Verbs remain the same in all the tive—
three forms :
Do I read my book ?
Bet bet bet
Burst burst burst Does he love his school ?
Cast cast cast Do you help the poor ?
Cut cut cut Where does he go ?
Cost cost cost (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Hit hit hit
Do I not read my book ?
Hurt hurt hurt
Let let let Does he not love his school ?
Put put put Do you not help the poor ?
Read Read Read Where does he not go ?
Rid rid rid
Rules
Set set set
Shed shed shed Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, We, You,
They and Plural Nouns take the verb in
shut shut shut the First Form. But He, She, It and
Split split split Singular Nouns take the Verb in the
Spread spread spread First Form with s / es. [See (i)]
Thrust thrust thrust Structure :
Structure of Sentences According to I / We / You / They / Plural Nouns + V1
Tenses He / She / It / Singular Nouns + V1 + s / es
As we have said above, there are Three
Tenses, and each tense is further divisible into Rule 2—In Negative sentences I, We, You, They,
four sub-divisions. Thus there are in all twelve and Plural Nouns take donot + Verb in
divisions, and each division has its own gramma- the First Form. But He, She, It and
tical structure. We are giving below examples of Singular Nouns take does not + Verb
all these twelve structures along with their Rules. in the First Form. [See (ii)]
Note—In the Rules given below, V1 stands Structure :
for the First Form (Present Tense) of the Verb, V2 I / We / You /They/Plural Nouns + do not + V1
for the Second Form (Past Tense) and V3 for the
He / She / It / Singular Nouns + does not + V1
Third Form (Past Participle) of the Verb.
 TIME AND TENSE | 157

Rule 3—Interrogative Sentences have two struc- Structure :

tures : I + am + V1 x ‘ing’
(i) Those that begin with Do Verb (do, We/You/They/Plural Nouns + are + V1 x ‘ing’
does, did). After the Do Verb comes the
subject and thereafter Verb in the First He / She / It / Singular Nouns + is + V1 x ‘ing’
Form. Rule 2—In Negative Sentences not is added after
(ii) Those that begin with Interrogative is, am, are in the above noted structures.
Adverb (What, Where, Why, When, [See (ii)]
W h o , etc.). After the Adverb there
follows the same structure as given Structure :
above. [See (iii)] I + am + not + V1x ‘ing’
Structure : We / You / They / Plural Nouns + are + not +
V1x ‘ing’
(i) Do Verb + Subject + V1
He / She / It / Singular Nouns + is + not + V1 x
(ii) Adverb + Do Verb + Subject + V 1 ‘ing’
Rule 4—In the Interrogative Negative Senten-
Rule 3—Interrogative sentences begin with the
ces both the structures are the same as
under Rule 3 above except that in them Auxiliary Verb Is / Am / Are. Adverbial
not is added after the subject. [See (iv)] Interrogatives are used even before the
Auxiliaries. [See (iii)]
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Structure :
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
I am reading my book. Am + I + V1 x ‘ing’
He is going to school. Are + We / You / They + V 1 x ‘ing’
They are playing football. Is + he / she / it + V 1 x ‘ing’
You are going.
(ii) Negative Sentences— Rule 4—Interrogative Negative Sentences fol-
I am not reading my book. low the same structures as given under
Rule 3 above except that not is used
He is not going to school. before the Principal Verb. [See iv]
You are not going.
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- Structure :
tive— Am + I + not + V1 x ‘ing’
Am I reading my book ? Are + We / You / They + not + V1 x ‘ing’
Is he going to school ?
Is + he / she / it + not + V1 x ‘ing’
Are you going ?
Where are you going ?
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Am I not reading my book ? (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Is he not going to school ? I have read my book.
Are you not going ? You have finished your work.
Where are you not going ? He has gone to Calcutta.
They have left Agra.
Rules
(ii) Negative Sentences—
Rule 1—In Affirmative Sentences I takes am +
V1x ‘ing’, You, We, They and Plural I have not read my book.
Nouns take are + V1x ‘ing’, and He, She, You have not finished your work.
It and Singular Nouns take is + V1 x He has not gone to Calcutta.
‘ing’. [See (i)] They have not left Agra.
158 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- 4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

tive— TENSE
Have I read my book ? (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Have you finished your work ? I have been working for four hours.
Has he gone to Calcutta ?
He has been sleeping since 6 O’clock.
Have they left Agra ?
Where have they gone ? You have been living here since July.
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— (ii) Negative Sentences—
Have I not read my book ? I have not been working for four hours.
Have you not finished your work ? He has not been sleeping since 6 O’clock.
Has he not gone to Calcutta ? You have not been living here since
Have they not left Agra ? July.
What have they not done ? (iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
Rules tive—
Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, We, You, Have I been working for four hours ?
They, and Plural Nouns take have + Has he been sleeping since 6 O’clock ?
third form of the Verb. He, She, It and Why has the child been weeping for two
Singular Nouns take has + third form hours ?
of the Verb. [See (i)]
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Structure :
Have I not been working for four hours ?
I / We / You / They + have + V3 Has he not been sleeping since 6 O’
He / She / it + has + V 3 clock?
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after Why have you not been reading since the
has or have in the above structures. morning ?
[See (ii)] Rules
Structure : Rule 1—Perfect Continuous Tense expresses per-
iod of time. If the period of time is defi-
I / We / You / They + have + not + V3 nite (i.e. the starting point of time is
He / She / it + has + not + V3 known), we use since, as since July, since
4 O’clock, since Monday, since 1964,
Rule 3—Interrogative sentences begin with the etc. But if the period of time is not
Auxiliary Have or H a s, after which definite (i.e. the starting point of time is
comes the Subject and then Verb in the not known), we use for, as for some
Third Form. Interrogative Adverbs, if time, for five hours, for fifteen years,
any, are used even before Have or Has. etc.
[See (iii)] Rule 2—In Affirmative Sentences I, We, You,
Structure : They, and Plural Nouns take have been
Have / Has + Subject + V3 followed by the Verb in the First Form
X ‘ing’. He, She, It and Singular Nouns
Interrogative Adverb + have/has+Subject + V3 take has been followed by the Verb in the
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences not First Form X ‘ing’. [See (i)]
is used before the Verb. [See (iv)] Structure :
Structure : Subject + have/has been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time
Have / Has + Subject + not + V3
Rule 3—In Negative Sentences we use not after
Interrogative Adverb + have / has + Subject + have or has in the above structure.
not + V 3 [See (ii)]
 TIME AND TENSE | 159

Structure : Structure : Subject + V2

Subject + have not been / has not been + V1 x Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use did not
‘ing’ + Time followed by the Verb in the First Form
Rule 4—In Interrogative Sentences we use Have / with every Subject. [See (ii)]
Has at the beginning of the Sentence, Structure : Subject + did not + V 1
followed by the Subject and then comes
been and then Verb in the First Form X Rule 3—In Interrogative Sentences we begin the
‘ing’, and then Time. [See (iii)] sentence with D i d , and then use the
Structure : Subject and after that Verb in the First
Have / Has + Subject + been + V1 x ‘ing’ + Form. [See (iii)]
Time Structure : Did + Subject + V1
Rule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences not
use not before been. [See (iv)] is used before the main verb. [See (iv)]
Structure :
Structure : Did + Subject + not + V1
Have / Has + Subject + not + been + V 1x ‘ing’
+ Time. 6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
2. PAST TENSE
I was reading my book.
Read the following sentences carefully—
He was going to school.
5. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
They were playing football.
(i) Affirmative Sentences—
You were going.
I helped my friend.
(ii) Negative Sentences—
You loved your school.
He wrote a book. I was not reading my book.
(ii) Negative Sentences— He was not going to school.
I did not help my friend. You were not going.
You did not love your school. (iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
He did not write a book. tive—
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- Was I reading my book ?
tive— Was he going to school ?
Did I help my friend ? Were you going ?
Did you love your school ? Where were you going ?
Did you write a book ? (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Where did you go ?
Was I not reading my book ?
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
Was he not going to school ?
Did I not help my friend ?
Were you not going ?
Did you not love your school ?
Where did you not go ? Where were you not going ?
Rules Rules
Rule 1—In Affirmative Sentences we use the Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I, He, She, It
Second Form of the Verb with every and Singular Nouns take was + V 1x
Subject of any Person or any Number. ‘ing’. You, We, They and Plural Nouns
[See (i)] take were + V1x ‘ing’. [See (i)]
160 | L.W.C.E.

Structure : (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—

I/He/She/It/Singular Noun + was + V1x ‘ing’ Had I not taken my dinner before the sun
set ?
You/We/They/Plural Nouns+were + V1x ‘ing’
Had he not gone before you reached
Rule 2—In Negative Sentences not is used after there ?
was or were. [See (ii)] Had the patient not died before the doc-
Structure : tor reached ?
Subject + was / were + not + V1x ‘ing’ Why had you not gone before he came ?
Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences the Auxiliary Rules
Verb was or Were is used at the
Rule 1—In sentences of Past Perfect Tense there
beginning of the sentence. Interrogative
is usually an expression of Time, a s
Adverb, if required, is used even before
before, after, already, long ago, etc. The
was or were. [See (iii)]
verb used is in the form of had + verb in
Structure :
the Third Form with every subject of
Was / Were + Subject + V 1x ‘ing’. any Person or Number. [See (i)]
Interrogative Adverb + was / were + Subject + Structure : Subject + had + V3
V1x ‘ing’.
Rule 2— Past Perfect Tense is usually used in
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative Sentences not Complex sentences. The Subordi-nate
is used before the main verb. [See (iv)] clause i s connected with the Principal
Structure : clause with before or after.
Was / Were + Subject + not + V1x ‘ing’ Rule 3—In sentences in which before is used, the
Principal clause requires the verb as had
7. PAST PERFECT TENSE + V3 (Past Perfect) and the Subordinate
(i) Affirmative Sentences— clause requires only V 2 (Past Indefinite
He had left India before independence. Tense). [See (i & ii)]
He had already gone. Structure :
I had taken my dinner before sunset.
Subject + had + V3 + before + Subject + V2
He had gone before you reached there.
The patient had died before the doctor (Principal Clause) (Sub. ord. Clause)
reached. Rule 4—In sentences in which after is used, the
Mohan came after Ram had left. Principal clause requires only Past
(ii) Negative Sentences— Indefinite Verb (V2) and Subordinate
I did not take my dinner after the sun had Clause Past Perfect Verb (had + V3).
set. [See (ii)]
He had not gone before you reached Structure :
there.
The patient had not died before the doc- Subject + V2 + after+ Subject + had + V3
tor reached. (Principal Clause) (Subordinate Clause)
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
tive— Rule 5— In Negative sentences formed under
Rule 1 above not is used after had; in
Did I take my dinner after the sun had sentences formed under Rule 3 above
set ? not is used in the Principal Clause after
Had he gone before you reached there ? had ; and in sentences formed under
Had the patient died before the doctor Rule 4 above, the Past Indefinite Verb
reached ? (V 2) in the Principal Clause is con-
Why had you gone before he came ? verted into did not + V1. [See (ii)]
 TIME AND TENSE | 161

Structure : Had he been sleeping since 6 O’clock ?

(1) Subject + had + not + V3 Had we been living in Delhi since
1980?
(3) Subject + had + not + V3 + before + Why had the child been weeping for
Subject + V2 two hours ?
(4) Subject + did not + V1 + after + Subject + (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—
had + V3 Had I not been working for four hours ?
Rule 6—In Interrogative sentences formed under Had he not been sleeping since 6
Rules (1) and (3) above, had is shifted to O’clock ?
the beginning of the sentence (keeping Had we not been living in Delhi since
the remaining structure unchanged). In 1980 ?
sentences formed under Rule (4) above, Why had you not been reading since the
Sub-ject + V2 are converted into Did + morning ?
Subject + V1. [See (iii)] Rules
Structure : Rule 1—Sentences of Past Perfect Continuous
Tense also carry the sense of Time. For
(1) Had + Subject + V3
definite starting point of time we use
(3) Had + Subject + V3 + before + Subject + since, and for indefinite point of time we
V2 use for (as under Past Perfect Tense
(4) Did + Subject + V1 + after + Subject + had above).
+ V3 Rule 2— In Affirmative Sentences we use the
Verb in the form of had been + Verb in
Rule 7—In Interrogative Negative sentences not the First Form x ‘ing’ with every subject
is used before the main Verb in each of any Person or any number. [See (i)]
form. [See (iv)] Structure :
Structure :
Subject + had been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time phrase
(1) Had + Subject + not + V 3
Rule 3— In Negative Sentences we use not
(3) Had + Subject + not + V3 + before + between had and been. [See (ii)]
Subject + V2 Structure :
(4) Did + Subject + not + V1 + after +
Subject + had not been + V 1x ‘ing’ + Time
Subject + had + V3
Rule 4—In Interrogative sentences we begin the
8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE sentence with Had, or with Interroga-
(i) Affirmative Sentences— tive Adverb used even before Had.
I had been working for four hours. [See (iii)]
He had been sleeping since 6 O’clock. Structure :
We had been living in Delhi since 1950. Had + Subject + been + V1 x ‘ing’ + Time
(ii) Negative Sentences— phrase
I had not been working for four hours. Interrogative Adverb + Had + Subject + been
He had not been sleeping since 6 x ‘ing’ + Time
O’clock. Rule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
We had not been living in Delhi since use not before b e e n in the structure
1960. under Rule 4 above. [See (iv)]
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- Structure :
tive—
Had + Subject + not + been + V1x ‘ing’ + Time
Had he been working for four hours ?
162 | L.W.C.E.

3. FUTURE TENSE Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences we begin the

sentence with shall or will, or with Inter-
Read the following sentences carefully— rogative Adverb used even before Shall /
9. FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE Will. [See (iii)]
(i) Affirmative Sentences— Structure :
I shall help you.
Shall / will + Subject + V1
He will come today.
Interrogative Adverb+shall/will + Subject+V1
You will do your work.
They will go to Kanpur. Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
(ii) Negative Sentences— use not before the main verb in the
structure under Rule 3 above. [See (iv)]
I shall not help you.
Structure :
He will not come today.
You will not do your work. Interrogative Adverb / shall / will + Subject +
They will not go to Kanpur. not + V 1
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- Rule 5—Sometimes for the sake of emphasis we
tive— use will with I / We, and shall with He /
Shall I help you ? You / They / any Noun.
Will he come today ? 10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
Will you do your work ? (i) Affirmative Sentences—
Will they go to Kanpur ? I shall be helping you.
Where will they go ? You will be going to Kanpur.
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— He will be coming today.
Shall I not help you ? (ii) Negative Sentences—
Will he not come today ? I shall not be helping you.
Will you not do your work ? You will not be going to Kanpur.
Will they not go to Kanpur ? He will not be coming today.
Where will they not go ? (iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
Rules tive—
Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I and We take Shall I be helping you ?
shall followed by Verb in the First Form, Will you be going to Kanpur ?
and He, You, They and every Noun take Will he be coming today ?
will followed by Verb in the first Form.
Where will you be going ?
[See (i)]
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative
Structure :
Shall I not be helping you ?
I / We + Shall + V1 Will you not be going to Kanpur ?
He / You / They / any Noun + will + V1 Will he not be coming today ?
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after Where will you not be going ?
shall or will in the structure under Rule 1 Rules
above. [See (ii)] Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I / We take
Structure : shall be followed by Verb in the First
I / We + shall + not + V1 Form X ‘ing’, and You / He / They / any
Noun take will be followed by Verb in
He / You / They / any Noun + will + not + V1 the First Form X ‘ing’. [See (i)]
 TIME AND TENSE | 163

Structure : (iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative—

I / We + shall be + V1x ‘ing’. Shall I not have finished my work ?
Will you not have gone before he
You/He/They/any Noun + will be + V1x ‘ing’.
comes?
Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after Will he not have reached the station
shall / will. [See (ii)] before the train leaves ?
Structure : Why will he not have gone before you
I / We + shall + not + be + V1 x ‘ing’. reach ?
You / He / They / any Noun + will + not + be Rules
+ V1 x ‘ing’. Rule 1—In Affirmative sentences I / We take
shall have, and You / He / They / every
Rule 3—In Interrogative sentences we use Shall Noun take will have, followed by the
/ Will at the beginning of the sentence or verb in the Third Form.
Interrogative Adverb even before shall
[See (i)]
/ will. [See (iii)]
Structure :
Structure :
Interrogative Adverb / Shall / Will + subject + I / We + shall have + V3
be + V1x ‘ing’. You / He / They / Noun + will have + V3
Rule 4—In Interrogative Negative sentences we Rule 2—In Negative sentences we use not after
use not before be in the structure under shall / will. [See (ii)]
Rule 3 above. [See (iv)] Structure :
Structure :
Subject + shall not have / will not have + V3
Shall / Will + Subject + not + be + V1x ‘ing’
Rule 3—The Interrogative sentence begins with
Rule 5—For emphasis we use will with I / We Will or Shall. Interrogative Adverb, if
and shall with You / He / They / every any, is used even before will / shall.
Noun.
[See (iii)]
11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Structure :
(i) Affirmative Sentences— Shall / Will + Subject + have + V3
I shall have finished my work.
You will have gone before he comes. Rule 4—Interrogative Negative sentences take
not before have. [See (iv)]
He will have reached the station before
the train leaves. Structure :
(ii) Negative Sentences— Shall / Will + Subject + not have + V3
I shall not have finished my work.
You will not have gone before he comes. 12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
TENSE
He will not have reached the station
before the train leaves. (i) Affirmative Sentences—
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma- I shall have been reading for four hours.
tive— He will have been living in Delhi since
Shall I have finished my work ? 1980.
Will you have gone before he comes ? You will have been waiting for him for
Will he have reached the station before two hours.
the train leaves ? (ii) Negative Sentences—
Why will he have gone before you I shall not have been reading for four
reach? hours.
164 | L.W.C.E.

He will not have been living in Delhi Rule 5—In Interrogative Negative sentences we
since 1980. use not before have in the structure under
You will not have been waiting for him Rule 4 above. [See (iv)]
for two hours. Structure :
(iii) Interrogative Sentences : Affirma-
Shall / Will + Subject + not + have been + V1x
tive—
‘ing’.
Shall I have been reading for four hours?
Will he have been living in Delhi since Uses of the Tenses
1980 ?
Why will he have been waking for four (i) Simple Present Tense
hours ? The Simple Present Tense is used in the
(iv) Interrogative Sentences : Negative— following situations—
Shall I not have been reading for four 1. To express some universal Truth or Prin-
hours ? ciple. These sentences carry the sense of Past,
Will he not have been living in Delhi Present and Future Time. As—
since 1980 ? 1. The sun rises in the east.
Why will he not have been waiting for
2. The earth moves round the sun.
us since morning ?
3. The moon appears in the night.
Rules
4. The rose smells sweet.
Rule 1—These sentences always use some phrase
5. Water freezes at – 4°C.
of Time. For a definite starting point of
time we use since, and for an indefinite 2. To express some Permanent Activity or
starting point we use for. Nature. They indicate Past, Present and Future
Rule 2—In Affirmative sentences I / We take Time. As—
shall have been, and You / He / They / 1. Birds lay their eggs in their nests.
any Noun take will have been, followed 2. Fish live in water.
by Verb in the First Form x ‘ing’. 3. She is always cheerful.
[See (i)]
4. I regularly go for a walk.
Structure :
3. To express some habitual action or some
I / We + shall have been + V1x ‘ing’ repeated action. As—
You / He / They / any Noun + will have been 1. I love children.
+ V1x ‘ing’. 2. She uses heavy cosmetics.
Rule 3—In Negative sentences not is used after 3. He reads till late in the night.
shall / will. [See (ii)] 4. He does not talk much.
Structure : 4. To express some Programme, Function or
Subject + shall not have been / will not have Decision fixed for Future. It indicates Future
been + V1 + ‘ing’ Time. As—
1. Our examinations begin tomorrow.
Rule 4—Interrogative sentences begin with shall
/ will, or with Interrogative Adverb, if 2. We play a friendly match next Sunday.
required, even before shall / will. 3. I go to Bombay tomorrow morning.
[See (iii)] 4. Deepawali falls next month.
Structure : 5. To express some historical truth, vivid
description, live commentary or broadcasting.
Shall / Will + Subject + have been + V1x ‘ing’
As—
Interrogative Adverb + shall / will + Subject +
1. Now Shivaji escapes from the Fort of
have been + V1x ‘ing’
Agra.
 TIMES AND TENSE | 165

2. India gets Independence on the 15th of 1. We are playing a match tomorrow.

August, 1947. 2. I am leaving for Calcutta this evening.
3. In the course of the exciting car rally a 3. My father is coming today.
car falls into the valley. 4. I am going to the cinema tonight.
4. Now Kapil Deo strikes a sixer.
3. To express some possibility or determina-
5. The Prime Minister hoists the national tion. As—
flag.
1. I am going to buy a car.
6. Clauses of time or condition are also ex-
2. She is going to give a performance.
pressed in Simple Present Tense. As—
3. He is going to boat in the lake.
1. If you work hard, you will pass.
4. You are going to lose in this bargain.
2. You will be appointed if you apply.
3. Please wait until I come. (iii) Present Perfect Tense
4. The train will leave before you reach. Present Perfect Tense is used in the follow-
7. The following Verbs are mostly used in ing situations—
the Simple Present Tense. They should not be 1. To indicate an action that has just been
used in Present Continuous Tense. These Verbs completed and has, therefore, ceased to have its
are : connection with the present time. As—
1. Verbs of perception .......... 1. He has just closed the shop.
see, hear, smell, notice, recognize. 2. I have just come from Delhi.
2. Verbs of appearing .......... 3. You have finished your work.
4. She has gone with her father.
appear, look, seem.
2. It is also used to indicate an action that
3. Verbs of emotion ……….. started some time in the past and continuing up to
want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, the present moment. As—
hate, hope, refuse, prefer. 1. I have lived in Bombay for five years.
4. Verbs of thinking ………. 2. She has been ill since last week.
think, suppose, believe, agree, 3. I have not met him for a long time.
consider, trust, remember, for- 4. They have not come here for many
get, know, understand, imagine, months.
mean, mind.
3. To indicate past actions of which time is
5. Verbs of “having” ......…. not given and not definite. As—
have, own, possess, belong to, 1. He has never come here.
contain, consist of, be (in the 2. He has been a famous actor.
active voice)
3. I have read Shakespeare.
(ii) Present Continuous Tense 4. He has been to America.
4. The following Adverbs or Adverbial
Present Continuous Tense is used in the
phrases can be used with the Present Perfect
following situations—
Tense—just, ever, never, often, so far, till now,
1. To express an action going on at the time already, for, since, today, this morning, this
of speaking. As— week, etc. As—
1. He is reading his book. 1. He has never come till now.
2. The baby is sleeping. 2. I have just arrived.
3. The teacher is teaching. 3. He has not seen me so far.
4. The birds are flying. 5. Adverbs or Adverbial phrases of Past
2. To indicate a certain programme or a time (yesterday, last year, some time ago, etc.)
decision scheduled to take place in near future. It cannot be used with the Present Perfect Tense.
carries the sense of Future Time. As— The following sentences are wrong :
166 | L.W.C.E.

1. He has come yesterday. 2. This Tense also expresses some persistent

2. He has passed M. A. last year. h a b i t s in the past. Adverbs of Frequency
(always, often, continually, etc.) are often used
Such sentences should be written in Simple
with this Tense. As—
Past Tense. As—
1. He was often grumbling.
1. He came yesterday.
2. He was always complaining.
2. He passed M. A. last year.
3. She was continually harassing her hus-
(iv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense band.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is (vii) Past Perfect Tense
used to express the actions that began some time
in the past and are still continuing. As— Past Perfect Tense is used in the following
situations—
1. He has been studying since 6 O’clock.
1. To express an action already completed
2. It has been raining since morning.
before a certain point of time in the past. As—
3. He has been working in this factory for
1. He had built his house before 1980.
many years.
2. He had resigned from his post before
4. I have been living in this house since
joining here.
1990.
3. Cholera had broken out in Africa fifteen
(v) Simple Past Tense years earlier also.
Simple Past Tense is used in the following 4. He had already decided to settle down
cases— in America.
1. To express actions that ended in the past, 2. If reference is to two activities completed
and carry the sense of Past Time. As— in the past, one activity having been completed
earlier than the other, the one completed earlier
1. I wrote a letter yesterday will require Past Perfect Tense, and the later one
2. She came to me this morning. Simple Past Tense. As—
3. I studied in this college. 1. The doctor arrived after the patient had
4. I met him in the market. died.
2. This tense also expresses past habits or 2. The patient had died before the doctor
style of working. As— arrived.
1. He used to wear white trousers. 3. He reached the station after the train had
2. He never went to bed before midnight. left.
3. He never told a lie. 4. He had gone to bed before you reached
4. He often came on foot. there.
Note—(i) The Conjunctions used to connect the
Note—In such sentences Adverbs of Frequency
Principal and Sub-ordinate clauses in such
are often used.
sentences are before or after.
(vi) Past Continuous Tense (ii) If two actions are completed almost at
Past Continuous Tense is used in the the same time in the past, the Simple Past
following cases— Tense is used for both. As—
1. The Past Continuous Tense indicates an 1. He closed the door and went to bed.
action going on till some time in the past. These 2. The servant came and gave me a glass of
sentences may or may not use some phrase of water.
time. As—
(viii) Past Perfect Continuous Tense
1. We were watching the T.V. this evening.
2. They were playing football. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used
to express an action started before a certain point
3. I was teaching them Shakespeare. of time in the past and continuing to the present
4. I was sleeping at that time. moment. As—
 TIME AND TENSE | 167

1. It had been raining for two hours. 1. We shall be playing the match at this
2. He had been teaching at this school for time.
ten years. 2. I shall be staying with my brother.
3. He had been playing cricket in England 3. We shall be travelling by train.
for five years. 2. These sentences also convey the sense of
4. I had been practising law for a number future planning or intention. As—
of years. 1. I shall be meeting the Prime Minister on
Tuesday.
(ix) Simple Future Tense
2. We shall be attending a conference at
Simple Future Tense is used to convey the Delhi next week.
following sense—
1. To indicate an action scheduled to take (xi) Future Perfect Tense
place in future. As— 1. Future Perfect Tense is used to convey
1. I shall go to office tomorrow. the sense of completion of an action by a certain
2. We shall have holiday tomorrow. point of time in future. As—
1. I shall have reached Calcutta by this
3. He will come on Monday.
time tomorrow.
4. You will get your chance next time. 2. We shall have completed our project by
Note—To express strong will, determination, the end of the next month.
warning or order / command, I / We take The Future Perfect Tense also conveys the
will + Verb, and You / He / They take sense of likelihood or probability. It refers to an
shall + Verb. As— action in the past. As—
1. I will not act against my conscience. 1. You will have met my brother at
2. We will not accept our defeat. Calcutta.
3. You shall not be late. 2. You will have seen the Taj.
4. He shall not be allowed to go. 3. He will have been at your residence.
2. Some Interrogative sentences begin with (xii) Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Shall I / Shall we, which convey the sense of
advice / suggestion / request / proposal, and they The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indi-
express Present time. As— cates the continuance of some action for a long
1. Shall I draw the curtain ? time in future. As—
1. He will have been building his house.
2. Shall we now go ?
2. I shall have been preparing for my
3. Shall I prepare tea for you ? examination.
4. Shall we start the match now ?
Exercise 1
3. Sometimes Simple Future Tense is used to
convey universal truth or habit. These sentences Correct the following sentences :
express all the three times—Past, Present and 1. I had been married in 1990.
Future. As— 2. She finished her work when I met her.
1. Sin will be sin. 3. They had gone to Calcutta last night.
2. Roses will bloom in spring. 4. Who had invented the gramophone ?
3. A drunkard will drink. 5. The fair had been over ten days ago.
6. He had come to my room while I was
(x) Future Continuous Tense reading.
Future Continuous Tense is used to convey 7. I saw her when I had been passing yester-
the following ideas : day.
1. To convey the sense that a certain activity 8. He was ill for a week when the doctor was
will continue for some time in future. As— sent for.
168 | L.W.C.E.

9. The rain had ceased yesterday. Exercise 3

10. I have written my application yesterday. Choose the correct alternative form of the
11. The lion had been caged last night. verb given in brackets :
12. I understood what you say. 1. He (wants, is wanting) to talk to you.
13. I lived for twenty years in Bombay. 2. You (bought, had bought) a new scooter
14. He had come only yesterday. last week.
15. Examinations have been held next month. 3. I (have just cleaned, just cleaned) my
Hints—(1) was married; (2) had finished; (3) shoes.
went to Calcutta; (4) invented; (5) was 4. She (has done, did) a lot of work today.
over; (6) came into my room; (7) was
5. I shall return your book when I (will come,
passing; (8) had been ill; (9) ceased
come) next time.
yesterday; (10) wrote my application;
(11) was caged; (12) understand; (13) have 6. She (has been, is) ill for over a week.
lived; (14) came; (15) will be held/are 7. I know all about this book because I (read,
going to be held. have read) it twice.
Exercise 2 8. I (didn’t see, have not seen) him since we
Choose the correct verb form from those met a year ago.
given in brackets : 9. I (smell, am smelling) something burning.
1. He (has, is having) a house in Bombay. 10. My father (arrives, will have arrived)
3. The earth (moves, moved) round the sun. tomorrow morning.
3. We (saw, have seen) the Prime Minister 11. We (finished, have finished) our lunch half
yesterday. an hour ago.
4. I shall meet you when he (comes, will 12. Did you think you (have seen, had seen)
come) back. him sometime earlier also ?
5. It started raining while we (played, were
13. The train (has left, will have left) before we
playing) football.
reach the station.
6. Can I have some milk before I (go, am
going) to bed ? 14. He jumped off the train while it (ran, was
7. He (fell, had fallen) asleep while he was running, had been running).
driving. 15. He rarely (comes, is coming) these days.
8. I am sure I (met, had met) him at the Hints—(1) wants; (2) bought; (3) have just
station yesterday. cleaned; (4) has done; (5) come; (6) has
9. He (is living, has been living) in this house been; (7) have read; (8) have not seen; (9)
for ten years. smell; (10) arrives; (11) finished; (12) had
10. He thanked me for what I (have done, had seen; (13) will have left; (14) was running;
done) for him. (15) comes.
11. She (is, will be) twenty next birthday. Exercise 4
12. We (have been working, are working) in Fill in the blanks with the correct form of
this factory for five years. the verb given against each sentence :
13. She (is wanting, wants) to be a doctor. 1. It is years since I . . . . . . . him. (see)
14. If you (start, started) at once, you will reach 2. Of late he. . . . . . . me. (not meet)
there by this evening.
3. In a fit of rage she . . . . . . . up the letters.
15. He (went, had gone) out five minutes ago.
(tear)
Hints—(1) has; (2) moves; (3) saw; (4) comes; (5)
4. The old man . . . . . . . by a mad dog. (bite)
were playing; (6) go; (7) had fallen; (8)
met; (9) has been living; (10) had done; 5. A better day for this function could not……
(11) will be; (12) have been working; (13) . (choose)
wants; (14) start; (15) went. 6. The cart . . . . . . . in the mud. (stick)
 TIME AND TENSE | 169

7. She had . . . . . . . all through the winter. (7) has been reading; (8) knew; (9) had
(work) met; (10) work hard; (11) am writing; (12)
8. I wish I . . . . . . . him. (know) began the work; (13) stops; (14) is living;
(15) go; (16) has been teaching; (17) has
9. If only I . . . . . . . her. (know) his breakfast; (18) passed; (19) has already
10. I . . . . . . . him a week ago. (see) done; (20) discovered.
11. He . . . . . . . here for more than five years. Tenses and Time
(work)
12. Take your raincoat in case it . . . . . . . . Normally Present Tense, Past Tense and
(rain) Future Tense indicate Present Time Past Time,
and Future Time. But in some typical sentences
13. I . . . . . . . to my office tomorrow. (go) and their implied sense some Tenses express more
14. He often . . . . . . . late. (reach) dimensions of Time than the main time for which
15. My sister . . . . . . . twenty on the they stand. We have already discussed in detail
Deepawali day. (will be) the relationship between Time and Tense in the
Hints—(1) saw; (2) has not met; (3) tore up; (4) earlier part of this chapter. Now we give
was bitten; (5) have been chosen; (6) was hereunder a brief chart of the relationship between
stuck; (7) had been working; (8) knew; (9) Time and Tense.
knew; (10) saw; (11) has worked; (12) 1. Simple Present Tense
rains; (13) go; (14) reaches; (15) would be.
Simple Present Tense expressses the follow-
Exercise 5 ing dimensions of Time—
Correct the following sentences : (i) All Inclusive Time—Past, Present and
Future Time. As—
1. It is high time you resolve your differences.
(a) Sentences of Eternal Truth
2. He retired to bed before we reached there.
1. The sun shines during the day.
3. I know him for many years.
2. Birds fly.
4. I am having a car.
3. Cows are animals.
5. He left for America next week.
4. A week has seven days.
6. I will return as soon as he came.
(b) Sentences of Permanent Nature
7. She is reading since the morning.
1. Men wear clothes.
8. I wish I know him.
2. She never comes late.
9. I met him before he came to the town.
3. Sugar is sweet.
10. You won’t pass until you will work hard.
4. Trees are useful.
11. I write an essay this time.
(c) Sentences Showing Long Habits
12. It is time we will begin the work.
1. He knows swimming.
13. Don’t get down the bus until it will stop.
2. She loves her children.
14. He lives in Calcutta now.
3. I read in the morning.
15. I am going to office every day by bus.
4. He is always merciful.
16. He is teaching at this school since 1985.
17. He is having his breakfast at 8 a. m. (ii) Future Time
18. He has passed M. A. last year. (a) Sentences of Programme and Planning
19. He already does his work. 1. I go to Calcutta tomorrow.
20. Who has discovered the force of gravita- 2. My brother returns from America next
tion? week.
Hints—(1) resolved; (2) had retired; (3) have 3. The marriage takes place on Monday next.
known; (4) have; (5) leaves; (6) he comes; 4. So we meet tomorrow.
170 | L.W.C.E.

(b) Sentences of Time and Condition (b) Sentences of Advice or Suggestion

1. I shall help you if you come. 1. You had better leave me alone.
2. He will miss the train if he doesn’t start at 2. I would rather go alone.
once. 3. I would sooner resign than work under
3. He will wait for you until you reach. these conditions.
(c) Sentences of “It is time + Verb in the Past
4. He will not awake until the sun rises. Tense”
(iii) Past Time 1. It is time we returned home.
Sentences of Historical Truth 2. It is high time you had given up this habit.
1. Now Napoleon advances towards (ii) Future Time
England. Sentences having would/could in Indirect
2. Octavius Caesar succeeds Julius Caesar. Narration
3. Now America drops atom bombs on 1. He said that he would not stay.
Japan. 2. He said that he could not reach there.
4. Finally Hitler commits suicide. Present/Future Time
2. Present Continuous Tense (a) If-clause for Simple Past Tense
1. If he worked regularly, he would be
Present continuous Tense expresses Future
successful.
time also. As—
2. If he applied in time, he would be called
(a) Sentences of Programme and Planning for interview.
1. We are leaving for U. K. next month. (b) Sentences of “wish” (Impossible wish)
2. They are playing a friendly match this 1. I wish I were a Prince. (Present Time)
Sunday.
2. I wish I were there. (Present Time)
3. They are shortly opening a new branch.
3. If I were a King. (Present Time)
4. They are returning tomorrow morning. 4. Simple Future Tense
(b) Sentences of Probability and Intention (i) Present Time
1. We are soon building a new house. Interrogative Sentences of request/advice/
2. It is going to rain. suggestion
1. Shall I bring a cup of tea for you ?
3. They are not going to buy a car so soon.
2. Shall I lock the front gate ?
4. He is unnecessarily inviting trouble for
3. Shall we now go ?
himself.
(ii) All-inclusive Time—Past, Present and
3. Simple Past Tense Future
Simple Past Tense expresses the following 1. Servants will be servants.
dimensions of Time— 2. Kings will be kings.
(i) Present Time 3. The poor will always be there.
(a) Sentences of Request 4. If I were a King !
1. Could you lend me your pen for a min- 5. Future Perfect Tense
ute? (i) Past Time
2. Would you do it for me ? 1. You will have met him there.
3. Might I expect some help from you ? 2. She will have reached home.
 13 Active and Passive Voice
Some sentences can be written in two forms the Object in the Passive form. Some-
—in Active Voice or in Passive Voice. These times by is kept understood or implied
sentences can be converted from the Active Voice also. As—
to the Passive Voice and from the Passive Voice Active : Ram loves Shyam.
to the Active Voice. As— Passive : Shyam is loved by Ram.
Active : I read a book. Rule 2—While interchanging the Subject and
Passive : A book is read by me. Object in the Passive Voice, the Arti-
There are definite Rules for conversion from cles, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
the Active Voice to the Passive Voice. But before connected with each are also carried over
discussing these Rules, it is essential to know with them. They are not separated either
some basic concepts. from the Subject or the Object. As—
Active : All the children heard an
Conditions under which Conversion interesting story.
into the Passive Voice is not possible Passive : An interesting story was heard
1. The sentences in which the main verb is by all the children.
Intransitive cannot be converted into the Passive Rule 3—When the Pronouns are transferred from
Voice. Only those sentences which have a Transi- the place of Object in the Active Voice
tive Verb can be converted into the Passive Voice. to the place of Subject in the Passive
For example, look at the following sentences— Voice, their form is changed as follows—
1. I read. I in place of Me
2. We go. We in place of Us
3. They laugh. He in place of Him
These sentences cannot be converted into She in place of Her
the Passive Voice because the Verbs used in them They in place of Them
are Intransitive. Note—No change is made in the use of You or It
2. The sentences of Future continuous Tense or any Noun.
cannot be converted into the Passive Voice. Active : Ram loves her.
3. No Perfect Continuous Tense of any Passive : She is loved by Ram.
Tense can be converted into the Passive Voice. Active : Mohan hates them.
Rules for Conversion from the Active Passive : They are hated by Mohan.
to the Passive Voice Rule 4—When the Pronouns are transferred from
Rule 1—Interchange of Subject and Object the place of Subject in the Active Voice
to the place of Object in the Passive
While changing from the Active to the Voice, their form is changed as follows—
Passive Voice, the Subject is made the
By me in place of I
Object, and the object becomes the
Subject in the Passive Voice. Also, by is By us in place of We
used before the Subject when it is made By him in place of He
172 | L.W.C.E.

By her in place of She Structure of the Verb :

By them in place of They Am / Is / Are + V 3 (Third Form of the Verb)
Note—There is no change in You, It or any (ii) Continuous :
Noun, but by is added before them. Active : He is writing a letter.
Active : We love the child. Passive : A letter is being written by him.
Passive : The child is loved by us. Active : They are reading books.
Active : I see a bird. Passive : Books are being read by them.
Passive : A bird is seen by me. Active : Ram is helping me.
Active : You write a letter. Passive : I am being helped by Ram.
Passive : A letter is written by you. The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
Rules for Change in Verbs is/ am/ are + being + III form of the Verb.
Rule 5—The following changes are made in the (iii) Perfect :
Verb— Active : Ram has written a letter.
(i) The main Verb is used in the Third (Past Passive : A letter has been written by
Participle) Form. Ram.
(ii) An appropriate Verb ‘to be’ (is, are, am, Active : Mohan has read many books.
was, were, be, been, being) is used Passive : Many books have been read by
before the Third Form of the main Verb Mohan.
according to the Number and Person of Active : He has helped me.
the Subject and Tense of the Verb. Passive : I have been helped by him.
The different forms of the Verb ‘to be’ used The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
with the Verb Love, for illustration, are given in
the following Table— Has/ have + been + III form of the Verb.
Verb ‘to be’ + Love in Passive Voice
Tense Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect
Present am loved am being loved have been loved No Passive Voice
is loved is being loved has been loved No Passive Voice
are loved are being loved have been loved No Passive Voice
Past was loved was being loved had been loved No Passive Voice
were loved were being loved had been loved No Passive Voice
Future will be loved × will have been loved No Passive Voice
shall be loved × shall have been loved No Passive Voice
Examples B. Past Tense
A. Present Tense (i) Simple Past Tense / Indefinite Past Tense :
(i) Indefinite : Active : Ram wrote a letter.
Active : He reads a book. Passive : A letter was written by Ram.
Passive : A book is read by him. Active : Ram read many books.
Active : Ram writes letters. Passive : Many books were read by Ram.
Passive : Letters are written by Ram. Active : He helped me.
Active : Ram follows me. Passive : I was helped by him.
Passive : I am followed by Ram. The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is :
You will see from the Table above that am, Was/ were + III form of the Verb.
is, or are have been used before the Third Form of
the main Verb according to the Number and (ii) Past Continuous :
Person of the Subject. Active : Ram was writing a letter.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE | 173

Passive : A letter was being written by Note—In Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect
Ram. Continuous and Future Continuous and
Active : Hari was reading a book. Future Perfect Continuous Tense there can
be no conversion from the Active to the
Passive : A book was being read by Hari. Passive Voice.
Active : Ram was helping me. Rule 6—In sentences in which auxiliary Verbs
Passive : I was being helped by Ram. can / could / may / might / should /
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : would are used with Finite Verbs, the
auxiliaries are retained as they are, and
Was/ were + being + III form of the Verb.
they are followed by be + Third Form
(iii) Past Perfect : of the Verb. Structure of the Verb in the
Active : Ram had written a letter. Passive Voice is :
Passive : A letter had been written by Auxiliary Verb (unchanged) + be + V3 As—
Ram. Active : They can help you.
Active : Ram had read many books. Passive : You can be helped by them.
Passive : Many books had been read by Active : She should help Sita.
Ram. Passive : Sita should be helped by her.
Active : Ram had helped me. Rule 7—In some sentences Verb ‘to be’ (am, is,
Passive : I had been helped by Ram. are, was, were) is followed by has /
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : have / had, which are followed by an
Infinitive (to + Verb). While converting,
Had + been + III form of the Verb. such sentences into the Passive Voice,
C. Future Tense Verb ‘to be’ and has / have / had are
retained in the form appropriate to the
(i) Future Indefinite : subject, after which are used to be +
Active : Ram will write a letter. Verb in the Third Form.
Passive : A letter will be written by Ram. The Structure of the Verb would be :
Active : Ram will read books. Verb ‘to be + to be + V3
Passive : Books will be read by Ram. Has / have or had + to be + V3 As—
Active : Ram will help me. Active : I am to help him.
Passive : I shall be helped by Ram. Passive : He is to be helped by me.
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : Active : She has to help me.
Will/ shall + be + III form of the Verb. Passive : I have to be helped by her.
(ii) Future Perfect Tense : Active : He was to bring you here.
Passive : You were to be brought here by
Active : Ram will have written a letter.
him.
Passive : A letter will have been written
Rule 8—Sometimes an Intransitive Verb joined
by Ram.
with a Preposition does the work of a
Active : Ram will have read many Transitive Verb. Sentences using this
books. type of Verb are converted into the
Passive : Many books will have been read Passive Voice according to the normals
by Ram. Rules, keeping in mind that the Pre-
Active : Ram will have helped me. position must be retained with the Verb.
Passive : I shall have been helped by As—
Ram. Active : She looks after him.
The Structure of the Verb in this Tense is : Passive : He is looked after by her.
Will/ shall + have been + III form of the Active : They laughed at him.
Verb. Passive : He was laughed at by them.
174 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 9—Some sentences have two objects— Active : Show the papers.
(i) Direct (or Inanimate) object, (ii) Indirect Passive : Let the papers be shown.
(or Animate) object. As— Rule 12—If the Imperative sentence carries the
‘She teaches me grammar.’ sense of request or advice, should be
Here ‘grammar’ is Direct Object and ‘me’ is must be used before the Third Form of
Indirect Object. the Verb. These sentences do not begin
with Let. As—
While converting such sentences into the
Passive Voice, the Indirect (or animate) Active : Help the poor.
object should be used as the Subject. Passive : The poor should be helped.
As— Active : Feed the child.
Active : She teaches me Hindi. Passive : The child should be fed.
Passive : I am taught Hindi by her. Active : Love your country.
Active : They gave you a prize. Passive : Your country should be loved.
Passive : You were given a prize by them. Note—In Passive Voice expressions such as
Active : I shall give you necessary help. Please, Kindly, etc. are left out.
Passive : You will be given necessary Rule 13—If the Imperative sentence is Negative,
help by me. the Passive Voice should have Let not in
place of Do not. Also, after the Subject
Note—Sometimes, however, Direct (or Inani- be + Third Form of the Verb should be
mate) Object can also be used as the Sub- used. As—
ject in the Passive Voice. As—
Active : Do not read a bad novel.
Active : He teaches me Hindi.
Passive : Let not a bad novel be read by
Passive : I am taught Hindi by him. you.
Or Active : Do not beat the child.
Hindi is taught to me by him. Passive : Let not the child be beaten.
Rule 10— Some sentences containing double Active : Do not defend the thief.
objects begin with Let in the Active Passive : Let not the thief be defended.
Voice. In Passive Voice also these
sentences begin with Let, and the Direct Rule 14—Conversion of Negative Sentences
(Inanimate) object is used as the Subject. into Passive Voice
Also, be should be used before the Third Negative Sentences are converted into the
Form of the Verb. As— Passive Voice just like the Affirmative sen-
Active : Let him bring a glass of water. tences. Not is retained at its normal position,
i.e. after the first auxiliary Verb. As—
Passive : Let a glass of water be brought
by him. Active : The boy did not kill the cat.
Passive : The cat was not killed by the
Conversion of Imperative Sentences boy.
into Passive Voice Active : The baby was not hitting a toy.
Rule 11—If the Imperative sentence carries the Passive : A toy was not being hit by the
sense of order or command, its Passive baby.
Voice should begin with Let, and be Active : This boy cannot lift the box.
should be used before the Third Form Passive : The box cannot be lifted by this
of the Verb. As— boy.
Active : Bring the pen. Rule 15—Conversion o f Interrogative Senten-
Passive : Let the pen be brought. ces into Passive Voice
Active : Shut the door. If the Interrogative sentence begins with a
Passive : Let the door be shut. Helping Verb (do, does, did, is, was, were,
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE | 175

are, am, has, have, had), the Passive Voice Rule 17—Some sentences begin with ‘There’,
also begins with the Helping Verb, but the followed by Verb + Subject + Infini-
form of the helping Verb changes according tive. No change is made in such sente-
to the new Subject in the Passive Voice. nces in the Passive voice except that the
Note—(i) Has, have, had take been before the Simple Present Infinitive is changed into
Third Form of the Verb. the Past Infinitive (to be + Past Parti-
(ii) Interrogative sentences beginning with ciple). The rest of the sentence remains
an Interrogative Pronoun / Adverb unchanged. As—
(Who, What, Whom, etc.) begin in the Active : There is no milk to waste.
Passive Voice with by whom or By / Passive : There is no milk to be wasted.
with what. As—
Active : Does he help Ram ? Active : There is no time to waste.
Passive : Is Ram helped by him ? Passive : There is no time to be wasted.
Active : Has he killed the dog ? Rule 18—In some sentences Infinitive without
‘to’ is used. As—
Passive : Has the dog been killed by him ?
Active : I made him run away.
Active : Who has deceived you ?
Passive : By whom have you been decei- Passive : He was made to run away.
ved ? In sentences of this pattern normal Rules are
Active : What pleased you so much ? applied for conversion into the Passive Voice,
Passive : With what were you pleased so with one more provision that Infinitive with
much ? ‘to’ is used in place of Infinitive without
Some Other Structures ‘to’. The structure of the main Verb would
Rule 16—Usually by is used before the Object in be—
the Passive Voice. But there are some to ‘be’ + Past Participle
Verbs on account of which some other Here are some more sentences of this pat-
Prepositions are used before the Object tern—
in place of by. As— Active : We saw him jump the ditch.
(i) ‘at’ is used after : Surprised, astonished,
Passive : He was seen to jump the ditch.
shocked, alarmed, disappointed, displea-
sed, distressed Active : He let me go.
(ii) ‘to’ is used after : Known and obliged Passive : I was let go.
(iii) ‘With’ is used after : Pleased, satisfied, Note—It may be noted here that ‘to’ is not used
disgusted, impressed after ‘let’ even in the Passive Voice.
(iv) ‘in’ is used after : Interested, consisted, Rule 19— In some sentences that + a N o u n
contained clause is used after the Principal clause,
Active : Her behaviour disappointed me. and this Noun clause is the Object of the
Passive : I was disappointed at her behavi- Transitive Verb in the Principal clause.
our. Some special care has to be taken in
Active : His condition alarmed me. converting such sentences into the Pas-
Passive : I was alarmed at his condition. sive Voice. In such sentences no Passive
Active : I know his sister. Voice is made of the Principal clause,
only its sense is expressed in some way.
Passive : His sister is known to me.
Then the Noun clause is changed into the
Active : Your honesty has pleased me. Passive Voice according to normal Rules.
Passive : I have been pleased with your In such sentences we don’t usually use
honesty. by + object. As—
Active : This job interests me. Active : We know that he is a great scho-
Passive : I am interested in this job. lar.
Active : Your talk displeases me. Passive : He is known to be a great scho-
Passive : I am displeased at your talk. lar.
176 | L.W.C.E.

Active : It is believed that he is absolu- Exercise 2

tely honest. Change the following sentences from Active
Passive : He is believed to be absolutely into Passive Voice :
honest. 1. They are singing a song.
Note—The Verbs after which a Noun clause can 2. He will have written a poem.
be used as the object are these—
3. Does she love flowers ?
Know, say, believe, think, consider, find,
4. Do you know him ?
claim, report, hold, etc.
5. Does he ever read a book ?
Rule 20— Sometimes in the sentences of the
above pattern, the Noun clause is already 6. Fear God.
in the Passive Voice. As— 7. Forgive the innocent.
‘He wants that he should be recognized as a 8. I am to help him.
great scholar.’ 9. They are to support me.
In converting such sentences into the Passive 10. Has he written a play ?
Voice, the Principal clause is retained 11. Have they closed the factory ?
unchanged. The that + Subject + Verb of the 12. I am going to build a house.
Noun clause are removed. After the Verb of 13. Open the main gate.
the Principal clause we should use to be +
14. I shall have finished my book.
Third Form of the Verb of the Noun clause.
As— 15. He has given up smoking.
Active : He wants that he should be Exercise 3
recognized as a great scholar.
Change the following sentences into Passive
Passive : He wants to be recognized as a Voice :
great scholar.
1. He kept me waiting.
Active : He desires that he should be
respected by all. 2. The man is crossing the river.
Passive : He desires to be respected by all. 3. He told me to leave the room.
4. The Principal is watching you very care-
Exercise 1 fully.
Change the following sentences into Passive 5. You promised me a present.
Voice : 6. We saw the storm approaching.
1. He killed a serpent. 7. The nurse looks after the patients.
2. I can pardon you this time. 8. Don’t look down upon the poor.
3. He does not like music. 9. She brought up the orphan child.
4. A dog was chasing a cat. 10. He gave me a new book.
5. She was writing a letter. 11. I showed him the best house.
6. She will forgive him. 12. Do you know him ?
7. I know my friend very well. 13. There is no money to spare.
8. He has given up all his bad habits. 14. We saw him fight with a sword.
9. The President will give him a medal. 15. They let the prisoner go.
16. People know that he is a cheat.
10. We should love our country.
17. They believe that he is dead.
11. He can never discover the fact.
18. He claims that he is the real successer.
12. He may appoint you.
19. The old man wants that he should be
13. You have done your duty. loved and respected.
14. Bring a glass of water. 20. Every poor man wants that he should be
15. Never tell a lie. helped.
 14 Direct and Indirect Narration
SOME GENERAL TERMS Rules for Connectives
We can report the words of a speaker in two The whole sentence in the Direct Narration
ways—(i) Direct Reporting or Direct Narration, form consists of two parts. The first part is
(ii) Indirect Reporting or Indirect Narration. outside the Inverted commas which is called
Direct Narration—It is the method in which Reporting Speech, and the second part is within
the actual words of the speaker are reported within the Inverted commas which is called Reported
inverted commas. As— Speech. When the whole sentence is required to
be changed from Direct into Indirect narration,
Ram said, “I am going.” the two parts of the sentence are joined by some
Mohan says, “He is my friend.” connectives. There are some Rules for using the
Indirect Narration— It is the method in correct connectives. The following are these
which the substance or idea of the speaker’s words Rules—
is reported without using his actual words. (1) Assertive Sentences— If the Reported
The sentences given above in Direct Narra- speech is in the form of an assertive sentence, the
tion would be converted into Indirect Narration, connective used to join it with the Reporting
thus— speech is ‘that’—
Ram said that he was going. As—
Mohan says that he is his friend. Direct : He said, “He is going home.”
Reporting Speech—The part of the whole Indirect : He said that he was going home.
sentence outside the Inverted Commas in Direct (2) Interrogative Sentences—If the Reported
Narration is called the Reporting Speech, and the speech is in the form of an Interrogative sen-
Verb used in this part is called the Reporting tence, it can be connected in two ways according
Verb. to the structure of the Interrogative sentence.
Reported Speech— The part of the whole (a) If the Interrogative sentence begins with an
sentence in which the actual words of the speaker Interrogative Adverb (Where, What,
are written within the Inverted Commas is called When, How, Why, etc.) or with an Interro-
the Reported Speech, and the Verb used in this gative Adjective / Pronoun (Who, Whose,
part is called the Reported Verb. Whom, Which, What, etc.), no connective
is required to join it. It is a serious mistake
Rules for Changing Direct Narration into to use that to connect such a sentence. As—
Indirect Narration
Direct : He said, “Where are you going?”
The Rules for changing the Direct Narration Indirect : He asked (me) where I was
into Indirect Narration may be divided into four going.
groups— ( Not, that where I was going)
1. Rules for Connectives Direct : He said, “Who is your friend ?”
2. Rules for Change of Tenses Indirect : He asked me who my friend
3. Rules for Change of Persons was.
4. Other Rules for Miscellaneous Changes. ( Not, that who my friend was)
178 | L.W.C.E.

(b) If the Interrogative sentence begins with an Reported speech. For example, in place
Auxiliary Verb, the connective whether or of say or said, we can use tell or told, or
if is used to join it (not, that whether or that we can use replied, remarked, asked,
if). observed, declared, etc. according to the
Direct : He said, “Is he a doctor ?” sense. But in no case there should be a
change in the Tense of the Reporting
Indirect : He asked whether (or if) he was Verb.
a doctor.
Rule 2—If the Reporting Verb is in the Present
(Not, that whether (or if) he was or Future Tense, no change is made in
a doctor) the Tense of the Reported Verb. But, of
Direct : I said, “Do you smoke ?” course, the form of the Auxiliary Verb
Indirect : I asked whether (or if) you smo- will change according to the change in
ked. Person of the Subject in the Indirect
Narration form. For example, am can be
(Not, that whether (or if) you
changed into is or are; or do and have
smoked)
can be changed into does or has, but no
(3) Imperative Sentences—If the Reported change can be made in the Tense in the
speech is in the form of an Imperative sentence process of this change. As—
(indicating command or request), no connective Direct : He says, “I am not feeling well
is needed but the main Verb of the Imperative today.”
sentence is converted into an Infinitive. As—
Indirect : He says that he is not feeling
Direct : He said, “Please give me a glass well today.
of water.”
Direct : He will say to me, “You are not
Indirect : He requested to give him a glass kind to me.”
of water. Indirect : He will tell me that I am not
Direct : He said to the servant, “Close kind to him.
the door.”
Solved Examples
Indirect : He asked the servant to close the
door. Direct : I often say to my friends, “You
are all very dear to me.”
(4) Exclamatory Sentences—If the Reported
sentence is in the form of an Exclamatory sen- Indirect : I often tell my friends that they
tence (indicating surprise, fear, contempt or are all very dear to me.
wish), it is changed into an Assertive sentence in Direct : You say to your father, “My tea-
the Indirect Narration form, and connective ‘that’ cher is very kind and sympathe-
is used to join it with the Reporting sentence. tic.”
As— Indirect : You tell your father that your
Direct : He said, “May you live long ! ” teacher is very kind and sympa-
Indirect : He wished that you may live thetic.
long. Direct : I will go and say to my father, “I
am not satisfied with the job that
Direct : He said, “What a horrible scene
you have found for me.”
!”
Indirect : I will go and tell my father that I
Indirect : He observed that it was a horri- am not satisfied with the job that
ble scene. he has found for me.
Rules for Change of Tenses Direct : Mohan will go to Delhi to tell
Rule 1—It should first be remembered that no his uncle, “Are you not finding
change is ever made in the Tense of the some job for me ? ”
Reporting Verb. But, of course, without Indirect : Mohan will go to Delhi to ask
changing the Tense, the verb can be his uncle whether he is not
changed according to the sense of the finding some job for him.
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 179

Direct : I shall say to my father, “Please Direct : Ram said, “He visited Delhi last
let me participate in the marri- year.”
age of my friend.” Indirect : Ram said that he visited Delhi
Indirect : I shall request my father to let last year.
me participate in the marriage of Direct : He said, “The horse died last
my friend. night.”
Direct : I say to my father whenever I Indirect : He said that the horse had died
meet him, “I do not want to last night.
marry at such an early age.”
(b) Past Continuous is changed into Past
Indirect : I tell my father whenever I meet Perfect Continuous Tense.
him that I do not want to marry
at such an early age. As—
Direct : Mohan will say to his servant, Direct : He said, “My brother was work-
“You are the greatest dunce that ing in this factory.”
I have ever seen in my life.” Indirect : He said that his brother had
Indirect : Mohan will tell his servant that been working in that factory.
he is the greatest dunce that he (c) No change is made in Past Perfect and
has ever seen in his life. Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
Rule 3—If the Reporting Verb is in the Past As—
Tense, the Tense of the Reported Verb Direct : He said, “I had finished my
is changed according to the following work long ago.”
Rules—
Indirect : He said that he had finished his
(I) (a) Present Indefinite is changed into Past work long ago.
Indefinite Tense. As—
Direct : Ram said, “I had been doing that
Direct : He said, “I am unwell.” work for several years.”
Indirect : He said that he was unwell. Indirect : Ram said that he had been doing
(b) Present Continuous is changed into Past that work for several years.
Continuous Tense. As—
Rule 4—Will and shall of the Future Tense are
Direct : He said, “My father is reading changed into Would and Should. As—
his book.”
Direct : He said, “I shall definitely do
Indirect : He said that his father was read- this work.”
ing his book.
Indirect : He said that he would definitely
(c) Present Perfect is changed into Past do that work.
Perfect Tense. As—
Direct : He said, “Ram will go to the
Direct : He said, “I have passed the exa- market.”
mination.”
Indirect : He said that Ram would go to
Indirect : He said that he had passed the the market.
examination.
(d) Present Perfect Continuous is changed Rule 5—May is changed into might and can into
into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. As— could. As—
Direct : Mohan said, “I have been work- Direct : He said, “I can do this work.”
ing hard since July.” Indirect : He said that he could do that
Indirect : Mohan said that he had been work.
working hard since July. Direct : The teacher said, “He may be
(II) (a) Ordinarily no change is made in the Past allowed to go.”
Indefinite Tense, but sometimes it is Indirect : The teacher said that he might
changed into Past Perfect Tense. As— be allowed to go.
180 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 6—There is no change in Must. As— Direct : My friend said, “I am going to

Direct : He said, “I must go at once.” write a letter to my father.”
Indirect : He said that he must go at once. Indirect : My friend said that he was go-
ing to write a letter to his father.
Rule 7—If the Reported speech refers to some Direct : He said, “I have been successful
universal truth or habitual action, no in my work.”
change is made in the Tense of the
Indirect : He said that he had been succe-
Reported Verb, even if the Reporting
ssful in his work.
Verb is in the Past Tense. As—
Direct : He said, “Ram’s dog has killed
Direct : The teacher said in the class, my hen.”
“The sun rises in the east.”
Indirect : He said that Ram’s dog had
Indirect : The teacher said in the class that killed his hen.
the sun rises in the east.
Direct : He said, “I do not believe in the
Direct : He said, “Man lives by bread.” orthodox principles of Hindu-
Indirect : He said that man lives by bread. ism.”
Chart of Changes in Tenses
Tense of the Reporting Original Tense of the Reported Changed Tense of the Reported
Verb Verb Verb
Present Tense or Future Tense No Change No Change
Past Tense Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Generally no change‚ but
Past Indefinite sometimes changed into
Past Perfect Tense
Past Tense Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect
Or No Change
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Tense Will or shall Would or should
Can or may Could or might
Must No Change
Universal Truth No Change

Solved Examples Indirect : He said that he did not believe

in the orthodox principles of
Note the changes made in the Tense of the Hinduism.
Reported Verb in the following examples—
Direct : Ganesh said, “I have been suffe-
Direct : The Station Master said, “This ring from this disease for six
train is going to Punjab.” months.”
Indirect : The Station Master said that that Indirect : Ganesh said that he had been
train was going to Punjab. suffering from that disease for
Direct : “I cannot believe you ?” said the six months.
merchant in anger. Direct : He said, “My servant has been
Indirect : The merchant said in anger that working in the field since this
he could not believe him. morning.”
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 181

Indirect : He said that his servant had Direct : He said, “I am doing my work.”
been working in the field since Indirect : He said that he was doing his
that morning. work.
Direct : Mohan said, “I reached the stat- Direct : You said, “I am going to Delhi
ion before the arrival of the to meet my uncle.”
train.”
Indirect : You said that You were going to
Indirect : Mohan said that he had reached Delhi to meet your uncle.
the station before the arrival of
Direct : I said, “I am reading my book.”
the train.
Indirect : I said that I was reading my
Direct : She said in the court, “My hus-
book.
band had been leading an immo-
ral life for several years before I Rule 2—Every Second Person Pronoun in the
was married to him.” Reported speech is changed according to
the Object / Predicate of the Reporting
Indirect : She said in the court that her
Verb.
husband had been leading an
immoral life for several years Direct : Ramesh said to him, “You are
before she was married to him. not doing your work seriously.”
Direct : He said, “The students were Indirect : Ramesh told him that he was
learning their lessons in the not doing his work seriously.
class.” Direct : Mohan said to you, “You are not
Indirect : He said that the students had doing your work seriously.”
been learning their lessons in the Indirect : Mohan told you that you were
class. not doing your work seriously.
Direct : “One of the servants had stolen Direct : Ramesh said to me, “You are
my watch,” said Sohan. not doing your work seriously.”
Indirect : Sohan said that one of the ser- Indirect : Ramesh told me that I was not
vants had stolen his watch. doing my work seriously.
Direct : He said, “I had made all arrange- Rule 3—Third Person Pronoun remains unchan-
ments for the reception of the ged.
President before his arrival at Formula
Agra.”
All First Persons Changed according to the
Indirect : He said that he had made all Subject of the Reporting
arrangements for the reception Verb
of the President before his arri-
val at Agra. All Second Persons Changed according to the
Object or Predicate of the
Direct : Mohan said, “I was doing my Reporting Verb
work when Ram came to me.”
Third Persons No Change
Indirect : Mohan said that he had been
doing his work when Ram came Solved Examples
to him. Direct : He said, “I have completed my
Rules for Change in Persons work with my own hard labour.”
All Pronouns (I, we, you, he, she, they) used Indirect : He said that he had completed
in the Reported speech are changed according to his work with his own hard
the following Rules— labour.
Rule 1—Every First Person Pronoun used in the Direct : You said to your friend, “I am
Reported speech is changed according to going to Delhi today.”
the Person of the Subject of the Report- Indirect : You told your friend that you
ing speech. were going to Delhi that day.
182 | L.W.C.E.

Direct : My teacher said to me, “You Hither Thither

will fail if you do not work Here There
hard.”
Hence Thence
Indirect : My teacher warned me that I
Thus So
would fail if I did not work hard.
Come Go
Direct : The watchman said to you, “You
cannot pass through this lane at Today That day
this time of the night.” Tomorrow Next day
Indirect : The watchman told you that you Yesterday The previous day
could not pass through that lane Last night The previous night
at that time of the night.
Ago Before
Direct : My father said to him, “You
seem to be proud of your stren- Direct : He said, “I will do this work
gth.” now.”
Indirect : My father told him that he see- Indirect : He said that he would do that
med to be proud of his strength. work then.
Direct : “I cannot give you a single pice,” Direct : He said, “I came to this village
said my father to the street-beg- long ago.”
gar, “because you are strong Indirect : He said that he had gone to that
enough to earn your livelihood.” village long before.
Indirect : My father told the street-beggar Exercise
that he could not give him a sin- Change the following sentences from Direct
gle pice, because he was strong into Indirect Narration :
enough to earn his own liveli-
hood. 1. He said, “I cannot help you at present be-
cause I am myself in difficulty.”
Direct : I said to my father, “I cannot go
to school today because I am not 2. Mohan said, “We shall go to see the Taj in
feeling well.” the moonlit night.”
Indirect : I told my father that I could not 3. My father said to us, “We should study to-
go to school that day because I gether and get a good division in the exami-
was not feeling well. nation.”
Direct : Mohan said to him, “Your bro- 4. The servant said, “He met Ramesh when he
ther is a good sportsman.” was coming from the market after deliver-
ing the letter.”
Indirect : Mohan told him that his brother
was a good sportsman. 5. Ram said, “He met his father last Sunday.”
Direct : Mahesh said to Ram, “I have 6. The watchman cried, “The thieves have
lost your purse on account of my broken into the house and stolen away all
carelessness.” the property.”
Indirect : Mahesh told Ram that he had lost 7. Ramesh said, “I was having my dinner
his (Ram’s) purse on account of when the peon called upon me.”
his (Mahesh’s) carelessness. 8. Mohan said, “I have been studying very
regularly since July.”
Miscellaneous Changes
9. My friend said, “He had been running a
(i) Some typical words used in the Reported shop in Bombay before coming to U.P.”
speech are changed as listed below—
10. My mother will say, “You cannot go
Words Changed Form anywhere at this hour of the night.”
Now Then 11. My father says, “A good student should not
This or these That or those waste his time in idleness.”
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 183

12. Ramesh said, “I am not taking the examina- needed to join it with the Reporting
tion because I am not very confident about speech. This is a very important Rule and
my studies.” must be very carefully observed.
13. My friend will say to you, “I have never Rule 5—The Interrogative sentence is changed
seen a more intelligent person than into an Assertive sentence in the Indirect
Ramesh.” Narration. In order to change an Interro-
14. The teacher said, “The earth moves round gative sentence into an Assertive one, the
the sun.” Subject is used before the Verb, and the
Mark of Interrogation should be remo-
15. Lord Christ said, “Man is mortal.” ved.
16. He said, “I am so confident of myself that I Rule 6—The Auxiliary do or does of the Repor-
can take the work independently.” ted speech is removed, and in their place
17. Ram said, “The matter shall be decided the Past Indefinite Tense of the main
here and now.” Verb is used. As—
18. Mohan says, “I shall go tomorrow.” Direct : He said to Ram, “Do you know
19. My friend says, “My father is not at home his name ?”
and therefore I cannot go out.” Indirect : He asked Ram whether he knew
20. His letter says, “I herewith offer you the his name.
appointment.” Direct : Ram said to him, “Does Suresh
go to school ?”
(2) Interrogative Sentences Indirect : Ram asked him whether Suresh
Interrogative Sentences can begin in two went to school.
ways— Rule 7—The Auxiliary did of the Reported
(i) With Auxiliary or Helping Verb such as— speech is removed and the Past Perfect
Is, are, am, was, were, has, have, had, will, form of the main Verb is used. As—
shall, do, did, does, can, could. Direct : I said to him, “Did you go to
school yesterday ?”
(ii) With Interrogative Adjective/Pronoun or
Interrogative Adverb such as— Indirect : I asked him whether he had gone
to school the previous day.
Who, whom, whose, which, what, when,
Rule 8—If the Reported speech has do not or
where, why, how.
does not, in the Indirect Narration, it will
Rules have did not + First Form of the Verb.
Rule 1—We can make a change in the Reporting As—
Verb according to the sense, but without Direct : He said to Ram, “Do you not
making any change in its Tense. For know me ?”
example, in place of said, we can use Indirect : He asked Ram whether he did
asked, enquired, demanded, etc. not know him.
Rule 2—Connective ‘that’ is not used to join any Direct : Mohan said, “Does not Ramesh
kind of Interrogative sentence. tell a lie ?”
Rule 3—If the Interrogative sentence begins with Indirect : Mohan asked whether Ramesh
an Auxiliary or Helping Verb in t h e did not tell a lie.
Direct Narration, i t begins with If or Rule 9—If the Reported speech has did not, in
Whether in the Indirect Narration. the Direct Narration, it will have had
Rule 4—If the Interrogative sentence begins with not + Past Perfect Form of the Verb in
an Interrogative Adverb / Adjective / the Indirect Narration. As—
Pronoun in the Direct Narration, it will Direct : I said to him, “Did you not pro-
begin with the same Interrogative mise to come ?”
Adverb / Adjective Pronoun in the Indirect : I asked him whether he had not
Indirect Narration also. No connective is promised to come.
184 | L.W.C.E.

Rule 10—The Rules for change in Pronouns are Direct : The teacher said to the student,
the same as applicable in Assertive sente- “How can you prove that the
nces. earth is round ?”
Solved Examples Indirect : The teacher asked the student
Direct : He said, “What is your name ?” how he could prove that the
earth is round.
Indirect : He asked (him) what his name
was. Exercise
Direct : Ram said to Mohan, “Where do Change the following sentences from Direct
you live ?” into Indirect Narration :
Indirect : Ram asked Mohan where he 1. Ram said, “Are these mangoes sweet ?”
lived. 2. He said, “Were you present at the scene of
Direct : Keshav said to his wife, “Which accident ?”
of these sarees do you like 3. He said to me, “Why do you want to go
most?” home ?”
Indirect : Keshav asked his wife which of 4. Ramesh said to him, “How do you do ?”
those sarees she liked most. 5. He said, “Am I responsible for your fail-
Direct : The teacher said, “Who is the ure?”
author of this book ?” 6. Ram said, “Who does not know that he is a
Indirect : The teacher asked (the boys) thief ?”
who the author of that book was. 7. He said, “How can I help you in these
Direct : He said, “Are you going to circumstances ?”
Delhi?” 8. My father said to me, “What have you done
Indirect : He asked (him) whether (if) he with all the money I gave you ?”
was going to Delhi. 9. The teacher said, “Who has prepared this
Direct : Mohan said to his friend, “Can chapter thoroughly ?”
you help me in unloading my 10. My friend said to the Station Master,
cart ?” “When does the Punjab Mail reach Agra ?”
Indirect : Mohan asked his friend if he 11. He said, “Why did you enter my house
could help him in unloading his without taking my permission ?”
cart. 12. He said, “Can I be of any service to you ?”
Direct : Ramesh said to the Station 13. Ram said, “Could I get another chance to
Master, “Has the train left ?” try my luck ?”
Indirect : Ramesh asked the Station 14. Ram said, “Had I not warned you long ago
Master whether (if) the train had that the work is difficult ?”
left. 15. Mohan said, “What have you been search-
Direct : Mohan said to his friend, “Are ing for all these hours ?”
you in a position to help me
now?” (3) Imperative Sentences
Indirect : Mohan asked his friend whether The sentences which carry the sense of order,
he was in a position to help him request, wish, advice, etc. are called Imperative
then. sentences. These sentences often begin with
Direct : My father said to me, “Why are Finite Verb. As—
you so eager to go to picture Go away; Work hard; Bring a glass of water,
today ?” etc.
Indirect : My father asked me why I was Sometimes these sentences also begin with—
so eager to go to picture that Let, Please, Kindly and such other polite expres-
day. sions. As—
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 185

Please help me; Kindly leave the seat; Let Direct : The captain said to the soldier,
him come. “Go to the batallion office and
Rules come back within half an hour.”
Rule 1—The Reporting Verb can appropriately Indirect : The captain ordered the soldier
be changed according to the sense, but to go to the batallion office and
without making any change in its Tense. (to) come back within half an
For example, in place of ‘said’, we can hour.
use requested, asked, ordered, advised, Direct : The doctor said to the patient,
suggested, proposed, forbade, etc. “Do not smoke so long as you
Rule 2—The Reported Verb is changed into an are under my treatment.”
Infinitive (to + Verb). No other change Indirect : The doctor instructed the patient
is made in the Verb. As— not to smoke so long as he was
Direct : The teacher said to the students, under his treatment.
“Work very hard.” Direct : The teacher said to Mohan, “Im-
Indirect : The teacher advised the students prove your handwriting if you
to work very hard. want to pass.”
Direct : Ram said to his servant, “Bring a Indirect : The teacher advised Mohan to
glass of water.” improve his handwriting if he
wanted to pass.
Indirect : Ram ordered his servant to bring
a glass of water. Direct : He said, “Save me from this
calamity.”
Rule 3—If the Reported speech begins with Do
not, we remove Do, and the main Verb is Indirect : He appealed (to them) to save
changed into an Infinitive. As— him from that calamity.
Direct : My father said to me, “Don’t go Direct : Ram said, “Please come with
there.” me.”
Indirect : My father advised me not to go Indirect : Ram requested (him) to go with
there. him.
Rule 4—The Rules for change in Tense and Pro- Direct : The teacher said, “Always speak
nouns are the same as discussed under the truth.”
Assertive sentences. Indirect : The teacher advised (the stu-
Rule 5—Some Imperative sentences carry the dents) always to speak thetruth.
sense of prohibition. In such sentences Direct : He said to his friends, “Let us
forbid or forbade can be used. As— go on a picnic.”
Direct : My father said, “Don’t play in Indirect : He proposed to his friends to go
the sun.” on a picnic.
Indirect : My fahter forbade me to play in Direct : I said to my father, “Please let
the sun. me go to Delhi.”
Solved Examples Indirect : I requested my father to let me
Direct : Ram’s father said to him, “Do go to Delhi.
not be impatient about the result Exercise
of your examination.”
Change the following sentences from
Indirect : Ram’s father advised him not to Direct into Indirect Narration :
be impatient about the result of
his examination. 1. Ram said to him, “Please be quiet.”
Direct : He said, “Please do not enter my 2. The teacher said to the student, “Do not talk
room without my permission.” nonsense.”
Indirect : He requested (them) not to enter 3. My father said to me, “Work very hard lest
his room without his permission. you should lose your division.”
186 | L.W.C.E.

4. Mohan said to the servant, “Bring a hot cup Direct : He said, “O, what a chance !”
of tea.” Indirect : He exclaimed that it was a fine
5. Ram said to me, “Welcome home.” chance.
6. He said, “Let the sweets be distributed Direct : His mother said, “May you live
among the children.” long !”
7. He said to me, “Please lend me your foun- Indirect : His mother wished (prayed) that
tain-pen.” he might live long.
8. My fahter said to me, “Speak the truth and Direct : He said, “What a piece of work
be noble.” is man !”
9. He said, “Let us go for the morning walk.” Indirect : He exclaimed that man is a
10. He said, “Please do not disturb me in my strange piece of work.
studies.” Exercise
( 4) Exclamatory Sentences Change the following sentences from Direct
The sentences which carry the sense of sudden into Indirect Narration :
joy, sorrow, wonder, disappointment are called 1. Ram said, “Alas ! I am ruined.”
Exclamatory sentences. These sentences generally 2. Mohan said, “Alas ! My friend has drow-
begin with such exclamatory words as—Alas, Oh, ned.”
Hurrah, Bravo, How, What a, etc. 3. Mohan said, “Bravo! We have got the
Rules shield.”
4. He said, “How happy I am !”
Rule 1—In place of the Reporting Verb ‘said’
some other Verbs as exclaimed, wished, 5. My mother said, “May Heaven bless you !”
prayed are used according to the sense. 6. The poor man said, “May Heaven hear my
Rule 2—Connective ‘that’ is used. prayers !”
Rule 3—After the Reporting Verb, we use such 7. Ram said, “Good Heavens ! What a sight it
expressions as joyfully, sorrowfully, was !”
with sorrow, with joy, in astonishment, 8. Mohan said, “O ! You have come !”
etc. according to the sense. 9. He said, “Could I see my mother at this
Rule 4—Exclamatory sentence is changed into hour !”
Assertive sentence. 10. Ram said, “O, could I help him !”
Rule 5—The Rules for change of Tense and
Pronoun are the same as used in Asser- (5) Question-Tags
tive sentences. Question-Tags can be added to two types of
Rule 6—If the Exclamatory sentence in the Direct sentences—Interrogative sentences and Imperative
Narration is incomplete, it is made a sentences. We shall consider them separately.
complete sentence in the Indirect (I) Interrogative Question-Tags
Narration by adding appropriate Subject
and Verb. The following Rules apply in changing the
Question–Tags connected with the Reported
Solved Examples
speech from Direct into Indirect Narration—
Direct : He said, “Alas ! I am ruined.”
Rule 1— While changing into Indirect Narration,
Indirect : He cried with grief that he was the Assertive sentence is left out.
ruined.
Rule 2— The Question-Tag is changed into Indi-
Direct : The Captain said, “Bravo ! We rect Narration under normal Rules, but
have won the match.” the Question–Tag (which is generally an
Indirect : The Captain exclaimed with joy incomplete sentence) is made a complete
that they had won the match. sentence. As—
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 187

Direct : He said, “You are a good sports- Let : Proposal

man, aren’t you ?” Sometimes Let suggests Proposal. In these
Indirect : He asked whether I was a good sentences the following Rules apply—
sportsman. (i) Proposed or suggested is used for Re-
Direct : I said, “Ram has secured first porting Verb.
division, hasn’t he ?” (ii) Connective that is used.
Indirect : I asked whether Ram had secu- (iii) Let is removed, and ‘should’ is used in
red first division. its place.
(II) Imperative Question-Tag (iv) The Objective case coming after ‘Let’
The Imperative Question–Tags are changed is changed into Nominative case. As—
into Indirect Narration under the following Rules– Direct : The Captain said, “Let us play a
Rule 1—In the Indirect Narration the Question– friendly match.”
Tag is left out. Indirect : The Captain proposed that we
Rule 2—Only the Imperative sentence is conver- should play a friendly match.
ted into Indirect form under normal Rules Let : Wish
discussed earlier in this chapter. The
Sometimes ‘Let’ suggests wish or desire. In
Reporting Verb is changed into told,
these sentences the following Rules apply—
asked, requested, etc., and the main Verb
is changed into an Infinitive. As— (i) Requested, wished or desired are used
for Reporting Verb.
Direct : He said to me, “Bring me a cup
of tea, will you ?” (ii) Connective that is used.
Indirect : He requested me to bring him a (iii) Should is used in place of Let.
cup of tea. (iv) The Objective case coming after Let is
Direct : He said, “Go away from here, changed into Nominative Case. As—
will you ?” Direct : The boy said, “Let me go out to
Indirect : He asked me to go away form play.”
there. Indirect : The boy wished that he should
(6) Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ go out to play.
Direct : The man said, “Let me have the
Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ express the
first choice.”
sense of order, wish, proposal, imagining, con-
dition, etc. They are converted into Indirect Indirect : The man wished that he should
Narration according to their sense. The Reporting have the first choice.
Verb is changed into ordered, requested, pro- Some General Observations
posed, wished, supposed, etc. according to the
sense. In all such sentences ‘Let’ is removed and (1) In order to maintain continuity of thought,
connective ‘that’ is used. Other changes are made different sentences in a paragraph are connected
according to normal Rules. Some typical points with such expressions as the following—
are given below— He continued, He further said, He also
Let : Order said, Continuing he said, etc.
Sometimes Let suggests order. In such (2) As we have stated above, the Interroga-
sentences orderd, asked, or directed are used for tive and Imperative sentences in the Reported
the Reporting Verb. In place of L e t we use speech are changed into Assertive sentences. For
should. As— doing so, the subject is used before the Verb.
Direct : The Principal said, “Let no stu- As—
dent stand here.” Direct : He asked, “Where are you go-
Indirect : The Principal ordered that no ing?”
student should stand there. Indirect : He asked where he was going.
188 | L.W.C.E.

Direct : He said, “Hurrah ! We have won Direct : The teacher said, “Where are
the match.” you going, Ramesh ?”
Indirect : He exclaimed joyfully that they Indirect : Calling Ramesh the teacher
had won the match. asked him where he was going.
Direct : He said, “Alas ! he is dead.” Direct : The policeman said, “I will put
Indirect : He mournfully exclaimed that he you behind the bars, you
was dead. wicked.”
(3) The sense of Oh, Alas, Hurrah, Bravo, Indirect : Calling him wicked the police-
etc. used in Exclamatory sentences is expressed by man said to him that he would
such expressions as the following— put him behind the bars.
He said sorrowfully or joyfully or cheerfully Direct : He said, “Give unto me the light
or surprisingly or mournfully etc. of truth, Reverend Father.”
(4) When words like Sir, your Honour, your Indirect : Calling him Reverend Father he
Majesty, Please, Kindly, etc. are used in the implored him to give unto him
Reported speech, their sense is expressed by using the light of truth.
the following expressions with the Reporting
(8) When ‘May’ is used in the sense of
Verb, and these words are dropped—
request or prayer in the Reported speech, it is
He said respectfully or politely or humbly or shifted from there and its sense is expressed by
gently or reverently etc. As— such words as ‘He prayed ……’ along with the
Direct : The student said to the teacher, Reporting Verb. As—
“Sir, mark me present.” Direct : He said, “May you live long !”
Indirect : The student respectfully reques- Indirect : He prayed for a long life to him.
ted the teacher to mark him pre-
sent. (9) The student can exercise his own
discretion too and use certain words from his own
(5) In the same way, the sense of G o o d
side in order to make the sense clear in the
Morning, Good Evening, etc. is expressed by
Indirect Narration.
such expressions as ‘He greeted him’.
(6) When words like Yes, No, Certainly, Not Solved Examples
at all, Never, etc. are used in the Reported speech, (I) Direct : A fawn one day said to his
their sense is expressed by such expressions as— mother, “Mother, you are
“He replied in the affirmative or negative.” bigger than a dog and swifter
and better-minded, and you
Direct : Ram asked him, “Will you go to
have horns to defend yourself:
Delhi ?” He replied, “No”.
how is it that you are so afraid
Indirect : Ram asked him whether he of the hounds ?” She smiled
would go to Delhi. He replied in and said, “All this, my child, I
the negative. know fully well. But no soo-
(7) When some person or thing is addressed ner do I hear a dog bark than
to in the Reported speech, or when some special somehow or other my heels
Adjective is used for a thing or person, those take me off as fast as they can
words of address or admiration are shifted from carry me.”
there and expressed with the Reporting Verb. Indirect : A fawn one day said to her
As— mother that she was bigger
Direct : The speaker said, “Ladies and than a dog, and swifter and
Gentlemen, it is my proud privi- better-minded, and she had
lege to talk to you this after- horns to defend herself : how
noon.” was it, then, he asked, that she
Indirect : Addressing the audience he said was so afraid of the hounds.
that it was his proud privilege to At that she smiled and ans-
talk to them that afternoon. wered to her child that she
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 189

knew all that fully well; but (VI) Direct : Pt. Nehru said, “Ladies and
no sooner did she hear a dog gentlemen, the whole society
bark than somehow or other, is responsible for the preva-
her heels took her off as fast lence of corruption in the
as they could carry her. country.”
(II) Direct : But the sea-god cried, “Do not Indirect : Addressing the audience Pt.
be afraid, noble prince; I have Nehru said that the whole
taken pity on you and will society was responsible for
help you.” the prevalence of corruption
Indirect : But the sea-god told the noble in the country.
prince not to be afraid, and (VII) Direct : He said, “Please daddy, let me
assured him that he had taken attend the marriage party of
pity on him (the prince) and my friend.”
would help him.
Indirect : He requested his daddy to per-
(III) Direct : “Curse it !” exclaimed the dri- mit him to attend the marriage
ver, “Who could have fore- party of his friend.
seen such ill-luck ? But for
the accident we should have (VIII) Direct : He said to me, “Are you not
caught the train easily.” going to school today?” I said,
“No.”
Indirect : The driver exclaimed with a
curse that nobody could have Indirect : He asked me whether (if) I
foreseen such ill-luck, and was not going to school that
said that but for that accident day. I answered that I was not.
they would have caught the (IX) Direct : He said, “I am not going to
train easily. help you, you fool.”
(IV) Direct : Once a rich man said to his Indirect : Calling him a fool he said that
poor brother, “Why do you he was not going to help him.
not enter the service of the
(X) Direct : “Let us see him today”, said
king, so that you may relieve
Ram.
yourself from the baseness of
labour ?” Indirect : Ram suggested (proposed) that
Indirect : Once a rich man asked his they should see him that day.
poor brother why he did not
enter the service of the king,
Revision Exercise 1
so that he might relieve him- Change the following sentences into Indirect
self from the baseness of Narration :
labour. 1. Ram said to Mohan, “I can tell you what
(V) Direct : Finding no remedy she said to strikes me as the most useful medicine in
herself, “It is better to die than the world.” “Can you, Ram ? I should like
to live in such misery as I am to hear of it ? What is it used for ?” asked
compelled to suffer from a Mohan.
husband who treats me and 2. “This beautiful girl, ”said he,“ is one whom
has always treated me so un- I have decided to marry.”
kindly.”
Indirect : Finding no remedy she said to 3. “Can you tell me the address of Mr.
herself that it was better to die Somprakash ?” said the stranger to me, “I
than to live in such misery as have to see him in connection with some
she was compelled to suffer important business.”
from a husband who treated 4. He said to me, “Is it the suit you put on last
her and had always treated her night ?” “No”, I said, “that was a different
so unkindly. one.”
190 | L.W.C.E.

5. “Can you tell me the name of your father ?” 19. All her maidens watching said, “She must
said the teacher to the boy, “I want to see weep, or she will die.”
him before Sunday.” 20. “I am sorry indeed”, replied the king, “that
6. Mohan said, “It is a pleasant time when the my vessel is already chosen; and I cannot
sun is setting and the birds are returning to therefore sail with the son of the man who
their nests. I want to go for a walk.” served my father.”
7. He said, “Father ! take pity. The purse has 21. “The person who caused me this injury was
been stolen by the servant and not by me.” wearing a black suit,” said the injured
8. The lawyer said, “My profession is one that person returning to consciousness, “I can
needs strenuous work and serious study.” recognise him if he is brought before me.”
9. “And you are the most naughty boy of the 22. He said, “Let him do whatever he can; I am
class,” said the teacher, “I shall turn you not afraid of him.”
out of the class.” 23. Mohan said to his brother, “Do not go to
10. The doctor said, “Do not take butter while the river today. It is in flood and you may
you are under my treatment, otherwise the drown.”
disease is likely to be aggravated.” 24. “And the game was excellently played by
11. Churchill said, “Believe in conciliatory them,” said Sohan : “they lost only 4
politics but keep the powder dry.” wickets for 150 runs.”
12. The violent man said, “What violence have 25. The lawyer said, “What could I do if the
I done ? What anger have I been guilty of Magistrate himself was a fool ? But why
?” Then the other laughed and to said to should you worry about his judgment. Let
him, “Why should we speak ? You have us prefer an appeal to the High Court.”
given us sufficient proof of your violent 26. My friend said, “M/s Pannalal Manikchand
temper.” are a very honest firm. You can safely deal
13. “Your drawing room is excellently decora- with them.”
ted,” said the visitor : “Where did you find 27. The teacher said entering the classroom,
the artist who painted these pictures ?” “Why? What is the matter ? The attendance
14. The sailor said, “We were all frightened is so thin.” The boys replied, “Sir, most of
when the ship started tilting towards the our friends have gone to visit the exhibi-
right. After a few seconds the engine- tion.”
chamber was flooded and the ship ultima-
tely sank to the bottom.” 28. The money-lender said, “Why should I wait
for a week ? Didn’t you promise to pay me
15. The old woman said, “I have surprised today ? I cannot budge an inch without
many people by saying that I am seventy- realising the whole amount from you.”
five years old, because I do not look so old
on account of my good health.” 29. He said, “I will help you whenever you
need my help but you will have to work at
16. “I shall persuade my friend to give up the same time.”
smoking, ” said Ramesh to the doctor. “He
should recover otherwise his family will 30. The holyman said, “Do not be impatient
starve.” about the result. Leave it to God. You have
done your duty, that’s all.”
17. He cried to them in agony, “Row back at
any risk ! I cannot bear to leave her behind 31. He said, “My father was groaning with pain
to be drowned.” when the doctor came. But his medicine
was so effective that pain disappeared in
18. And he said, “I will arise and go to my
five minutes.”
father, and will say unto him : Father, I
have sinned against heaven and before thee 32. He said to me, “Your brother has secured
and am no more worthy to be called thy first class in B.A. What have you thought
son. Make me as one of thy hired servants.” about his further studies ?”
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT NARRATION | 191

33. My neighbour said, “Last night the dacoits 3. Kali, the youngest of them began to sob and
raided my house. They searched the entire moan. “What shall I do ?” she cried, “So
house and took away the ornaments with young to die ! I have not yet seen life.”
them. Didn’t you hear the gun-shots ?” “Peace, child, ” said Sita, the eldest among
them. “wailing will not help us. Let us seek
34. The servant said, “Sir, somebody has come aid from the gods, they will surely hear us.”
to meet you. He is waiting outside.”
4. The teacher said to Hari, “Bring your book
35. He said, “It was raining heavily when I left and stand near me.” Hari was a little
my house. But I was saved by my over- nervous and replied. “Sir, I bring my book
coat.” to school everyday but I have forgotten to
36. When the water started boiling, the lid of bring it today.” At this the teacher was
the kettle was flung aside by the force of angry and said, “Why are you not looking
steam, and James Watt said, “Oh ! Steam is into the book of your friend, then ? Are you
very powerful. I can work wonders with its not ashamed of yourself ?”
help.” 5. “I saw your father and he was looking very
Revision Exercise (Advanced) 2 ill,” I said. “Yes”, Sita replied, “that is just
what worries me.” “But why worry”, I said,
Change the following sentences from Direct “why not consult a physician ?” She kept
into Indirect Nar-ration : quiet for a while and then said, “Alas ! We
1. “Why did you not come to school yesterday are too poor for that.”
?” asked the teacher. “My mother is very 6. Ram : “Please come and tell me some-
ill, sir, and my father has gone to Calcutta”, thing.”
replied Govind. “Is there no one else to Shyam : “What do you want me to tell
look after your mother”, enquired the you?”
teacher. Govind said there was none and Ram : “There is not anything special, for I
prayed, “Please excuse me for being absent only want to know how many children were
yesterday and grant me leave for today and born in Calcutta yesterday ?”
tomorrow.” 7. “What are you doing here ?” said the Tiger
2. The master said to the servant, “What have to the Hare. “I am looking at my grand-
you done with the money I gave you yester- father’s going,” replied the Hare. “Where is
day ?” “I have spent it all, sir, but I will not it ?” asked the Tiger. The Hare said, “It is
ask for any today,” replied the servant. “Is there under the tree. Have a good look at it,
that the way to talk to your boss?” enquired but please don’t kill me.”
the master. The servant was sorry and said 8. “Pardon me, dear master,” said Ariel, “I
with folded hands, “Please, forgive my will obey your commands.” “Do so,” said
rudeness.” his master, “and I will set you free.”
 15 Analysis
Some General Observation Principal, Co-ordinate and Subordinate clauses
and pointing out their mutual grammatical rela-
Some Basic Concepts tionships.
Clause— How to break up a sentence into its Clauses—
“A group of words that forms part of a While breaking up a complex / compound
sentence, and has a Subject and a Predicate of its sentence into its clauses, it should be remembered
own, is called a Clause.” (Wren) that it will have as many clauses as it has Finite
Clauses are of Three kinds : Verbs. It should be kept in mind that only the
1. Principal Clause Finite Verbs, and not Gerunds, Infinitives, or
2. Subordinate Clause Participles make the clauses.
3. Co-ordinate Cluase How to find the Principal Clause—
Principal Clause—Principal Clause is the The first step in clause Analysis is to find out
main clause of the whole sentence. the Principal Clause. The question is how to
Subordinate Clause—“A Subordinate distinguish a Principal clause from its co-ordinate
Clause is a component part of some other clause, or Subordinate clauses. In this connection it
in which it does the work (without possessing the should be remembered that a sub-ordinate clause
form) of a Noun, Adjective or Adverb”. (Nesfield) always begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Likewise, a Co-ordinate clause begins with a co-
Co-ordinate Clause—“A Co-ordinate clause ordinating conjunction. Therefore a clause which
is not a component part of any other clause but begins neither with a subordinating nor a co-
forms a complete grammatical whole by itself.” ordinating conjunction is the Principal Clause.
(Nesfield) The following are the Subordinating conjunctions
Simple Sentence—A simple sentence is one with which a subordinate clause may begin—
which has only one Finite Verb, and may have a
Subject and a Predicate. When, where, which, what, how, who,
Or whom, whose, whether, if, provided, provided
that, notwithstanding, as, as if, as though, as
“A Simple Sentence is one which has only
much as, as far as, as soon as, as long as, so
one Finite verb.” (Wren)
long as, according as, after, before, because,
Complex Sentence—A complex sentence is since, until, unless, for, in that, than that, now
one that contains one Main Clause (Principal that, though, so that, in order that, so much so
clause) and one or more Subordinate clauses.” that.
(Wren)
Compound Sentence—“A Compound Sent- A Principal clause will not begin with any of
ence is one made up of two or more Co-ordinate the above listed conjunctions—
clauses.” For example—
It may or may not have a subordinate clause. I met the man who came yesterday.
Clause Analysis In this sentence there are two clauses :
Clause Analysis means analysing or breaking One, ‘I met the man’, and the second, ‘who
up of a complex or compound sentence into its came yesterday’. Now, this second clause begins
 ANALYSIS | 193

with the Subordinating conjunction who; therefore (III) Noun Clause as the Object of a Preposi-
this is the Subordinate Clause. The first clause tion—
does not begin with any Subordinating conjunc- (a) Give full attention to what I say.
tion and is, therefore, the Principal Clause.
“what I say” is the object of the Pre-
Analysis of Complex Sentences position ‘to’.
As we have stated above, a complex sentence (b) My success in future depends upon how
has a Principal clause and one or more Subordi- you help me in this case.
nate clauses.
“how you help me in this case” is the
Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds— object of the Preposition ‘upon’.
1. Subordinate Noun Clause (c) This book will sell for what it is worth.
2. Subordinate Adjective Clause
(d) I can find no meaning in what you have
3. Subordinate Adverb Clause said.
(I) Subordinate Noun Clause (e) I have no complaint except that I have
Subordinate Noun Clause does the work of a a headache.
Noun— (IV) Noun Clause as a Complement to a
A Noun Clause has the following Five func- Verb—
tions— (a) This is what I told you.
(i) The Subject of a verb “what I told you” is the complement to
(ii) The Object of a Transitive verb the Verb ‘is’.
(iii) The Object of a Preposition (b) My great fear is that he may drown.
(iv) The Complement to a verb of incomp- “that he may drown” is the comple-
lete predication. ment to the Verb ‘is’.
(v) Case in apposition to a noun. (c) Life is how we live it.
(I) Noun Clause as the Subject of a verb— (d) My question was whether you could do
(a) Where he lives is not known to me. this work.
“Where he lives” is the subject of the (e) This is where I lived last year.
Verb ‘is’. (V) Noun Clause as Case in Apposition to a
(b) That you should tell a lie surprises me. Noun—
“That you should tell a lie” is the subject (a) The rumour that he committed the
of the Verb ‘surprises’. murder has come true.
In the same way :
“that he committed the murder” is case
(c) How he reached there is a mystery. in apposition to the noun ‘rumour’.
(d) When I shall return is uncertain.
(b) The report that the enemy is coming is
(e) Whether he will help you is not sure. wrong.
(II) Noun Clause as the Object of a Transitive “that the enemy is coming” is case in
verb— apposition to the noun ‘report’.
(a) He told me that he was going to Calcutta. (c) Your suspicion that the servant has
“that he was going to Calcutta” is the stolen the watch is baseless.
object of the Verb ‘told’. (d) His hope that he would be selected for
(b) I do not know where he lives. the post has been belied.
“where he lives” is the object of the Verb (e) His ambition that he may become the
‘know’. President of India is illfounded.
(c) I spend what I earn. How to recognize a Noun Clause—
(d) I do not know which book you want. Noun Clause often begins with the following
(e) He replied that he did not go there. three connectives—
194 | L.W.C.E.

(I) Conjunction “That” 15. Except that he is annoyed very soon, he is

A clause beginning with that and coming an excellent man.
immediately after a Transitive Verb is a Noun 16. Your verision of the case that Ram
clause. As— committed the theft is wrong.
He said that he was not guilty. 17. His argument that an absconder is always
(II) A clause beginning with any Relative or a thief, is untenable.
Interrogative Adverb is a Noun clause, provided 18. The news that I have passed in the first
that the Adverb so used does not have its antece- divison has given great pleasure to my
dent. As— mother.
I want to know where he lives. 19. This is what I never expected.
Or 20. I wanted to know whether you can help
I do not know why he came last night. me in this work.
(III) A clause beginning with any Relative or 21. Tell me how you found out the solution
Interrogative Pronoun is a Noun clause, provi- of this problem.
ded that the Pronoun so used does not have its 22. Which is the biggest city in the world is
antecedent. As— not known to many people.
I want to know who has done this. 23. ‘That Christ is the embodiment of God on
Exercise earth’ is the belief of an orthodox Chris-
tian.
Pick out the Noun Clauses in the following
24. Whatever you learn is forgotten without
sentences and point out their functions—
practice.
1. It is not known whether the school is
25. I cannot rely on what you say.
closed today.
2. How the horse received such a grievous (II) Subordinate Adjective Clause
injury is difficult to tell. “An Adjective Clause is one which does the
3. What you have done today will bring work of an Adjective in relation to some other
disgrace to you. clause.” (Nesfield)
4. I know that my son is innocent. An Adjective Clause is the clause which
5. Mohan can tell you where your friend has qualifies a Noun or a Pronoun in some other
gone. clause in the sentence.
6. That the sun is hot is known to (1) An Adjective clause begins with a Rela-
everybody. tive Pronoun or a Relative Adverb, provided the
Pronoun or Adverb has its Antecedent immedia-
7. It is evident from his conduct that he is tely before it. As—
not prepared to compromise.
(a) This is the boy who stole my fountain-
8. I believe that you are the only successful pen.
student in the whole class.
“who stole my fountainpen” is an
9. I knew that the thief had escaped. Adjective Clause because it begins with
10. Even a fool can tell that an elephant is the Relative Pronoun ‘who’ and its Ante-
bigger than a bull. cedent ‘boy’ has been used immediately
11. I am prepared to face whatever calamity before it.
falls on me. (b) I want to know the time when the train
12. Perceiving what an error he had arrives here.
committed, he yielded. “when the train arrives here” is an
13. A man’s salary depends upon what post Adjective Clause because it begins with
he holds. the Relative Adverb ‘when’ and its Ante-
cedent ‘time’ comes immediately before
14. My ring is made of what we call gold.
it.
 ANALYSIS | 195

(c) Do you know the place where he lives ? beginning with ‘than’ is an Adjective
(d) Tell me the reason why you have dismis- clause.
sed me. (b) It was a blow than which no crueler
(e) He is the man whom I admire most. could be struck.
(f) This is the serpent that is most poison- In this sentence ‘than which’ means ‘in
ous. comparison to which’, therefore the
clause begining with ‘than’ is an Adjec-
(g) He is the man whose house caught fire tive clause.
last night.
(2) Sometimes the Relative Pronoun or the
Exercise
Relative Adverb with which the Adjective clause Pick out the Adjective clauses in the follow-
begins, remains understood. In such a case, the ing sentences and point out the Noun or Pronoun
Relative Pronoun / Adverb should be mentally which they qualify—
added from your side before attempting the 1. The ring I lost was very costly.
analysis. As— 2. Tell me the time when you want me to go
(a) He is the man λ I know very well. there.
In this sentence ‘whom’ is understood at 3. Do you know the spot where gold is
the point marked thus λ . Therefore ‘I hidden ?
know very well’ is an Adjective clause. 4. He who reads without understanding is
(b) Return the book λ I gave you. sure to fail.
‘that’ is understood. 5. He does best who begins best.
6. All that glitters is not gold.
(c) Here is the servant λ I engaged yesterday.
7. He that is poor need fear no theft.
In this sentence ‘whom’ is understood.
8. We are such stuff as dreams are made of.
(d) He is the man λ I called here yesterday.
9. There was not a soldier in the squad but
‘whom’ is understood. could hit the target.
(3) Sometimes ‘but’ is used as a Relative 10. All the milk we use comes from villages.
Pronoun, which is negative in meaning. In such a
11. God helps those who help themselves.
case the clause beginning with ‘but’ is an
Adjective clause. As— 12. The hour I chose to meet my friend was
odd.
(a) There was not a soldier but fought
bravely to the end. 13. The time when the sun sets is very plea-
sant.
In this sentence ‘but’ means ‘who did
not’, and therefore but ‘fought bravely’ is 14. He is the boy who stole my pen.
an Adjective clause. 15. There is not a man in India but adores
(b) There is no man but loves his country. Mahatma Gandhi.
Here ‘but’ means “who does not.” 16. The woman I married turned unfaithful.
(c) There is no crime but can be detected. 17. The gods we adore write their names on
our faces.
Here ‘but’ means ‘that cannot be’.
18. I have seen the place where Mahatma
(4) Sometimes ‘than’ is used as a Preposi- Gandhi was born.
tion before a Relative Pronoun. In such a case, the
clause beginning with ‘than’ is a Relative Pro- 19. Those whom God loves die young.
noun. As— 20. Those who live in glass houses should not
throw stones at others.
(a) We are all followers of the principles of
Mahatma Gandhi than whom India has (III) Subordinate Adverb Clause
produced no nobler saint. “An Adverb Clause is one which does the
In this sentence ‘than whom’ means ‘in work of an adverb to some Verb, Adjective, or
whose comparison’, therefore the clause Adverb in some other clause.” (Nesfield)
196 | L.W.C.E.

Like an Adverb it qualifies some verb, Adjec- (III) Adverb Clause of Purpose—points to
tive or Adverb in another clause. The following some purpose and begins with that, so that, lest,
are its Adverbial functions— etc.
(i) Adverb Clause of Time (a) He worked very hard that he may pass.
(ii) Adverb Clause of Place “that he may pass” is Adverb Clause of
Purpose because it shows purpose.
(iii) Adverb Clause of Purpose (b) Go quickly lest you should miss the
(iv) Adverb Clause of Cause or Reason train.
(v) Adverb Clause of Condition (c) Forgive so that you may be forgiven.
(vi) Adverb Clause of Result (IV) Adverb Clause of Cause or Reason—
(vii) Adverb Clause of Comparison points to c a u s e or reason and begins with
because, since, as, for, that, etc.
(viii) Adverb Clause of Supposition.
(a) I must take rest because I am tired.
(I) Adverb Clause of Time—Adverb Clause “because I am tired” is Adverb Clause of
of Time shows time and begins with Adverbs of Reason.
time like ‘When’, ‘Whenever’, ‘While’, ‘After’, (b) Since you are so clever, I cannot trust
‘Before’, ‘Since’, ‘As’, etc. you.
(a) I shall go with you when you return (c) As I am indisposed, I cannot attend the
from Kanpur. college today.
“when you return from Kanpur” is (d) I am glad that you have come in time.
Adverb Clause of Time because it shows (V) Adverb Clause of Condition—shows
time. condition and begins with If, Whether, Unless,
(b) I shall come whenever you need my Provided, On condition, etc. As—
help. (i) (a) I shall go if you come in time.
(c) Do not disturb while the patient is sleep- “if you come in time” is Adverb Clause of
ing. Condition.
(b) I shall not help you unless you promise
(d) He reached here after the clock had to work very hard.
struck ten.
(c) You must go whether you receive my
(e) Take rest before you are tired. reply or not.
(f) I have not been well since I returned (d) I can forgive you on condition that you
from America. do not repeat the crime.
(g) Apply the brakes as I give you the (ii) Sometimes Adverb Clause of condition has
signal. the connective ‘If’ understood. As—
(a) Had I not seen it with my own eys, I
(h) No sooner did I enter the room than the would not have believed it.
thief bolted away. Here “Had I not” means “If I had not”
(II) Adverb Clause of Place—Adverb Clause (b) Were he more honest, he would have
of Place points to place and begins with Adverbs been happier.
of place like ‘Where’, ‘Wherever’, ‘Whence’, Here “Were he” means “If he were”.
‘Whither’, etc. (iii) If the Relative Pronoun or the Relative
(a) You should stand where you are. Adverb does not have its Antecedent before
it, the clause beginning with it can be an
“where you are” is Adverb Clause of Adverb Clause of Condition. As—
Place because it points to place.
(a) I shall go whatever happens.
(b) I shall purchase the book wherever it (b) We cannot reach before sunset which-
may be found. ever train we catch.
(c) Return at once whence you came. (c) However you try, you cannot deceive
(d) The wind bloweth whither it listeth. me.
 ANALYSIS | 197

(VI) Adverb Clause of Result points to some (VIII) Adverb Clause o f Supposition—It
result and often begins with ‘that’, preceded by points to some supposition and often begins with
‘so’ or ‘such’. It can also begin with ‘therefore’. the Subordinating conjunction ‘Though’,
As— ‘Although’ or ‘Even if’. As—
(a) He worked so hard that he secured first (a) Although he was tired, he finished the
division. work before sunset.
“that he secured first divison” is Adverb “Although he was tired” is Adverb
Clause of Result. Clause of Supposition.
(b) He is so saintly that everybody respects (b) Though he is poor, he is honest.
him. (c) Do not be depressed, even if you fail.
(c) He worked hard so he passed. Exercise
(d) He worked i n such a defective manner
Pick out the Adverb clause in each of the
that he failed to get success.
following sentences and tell which kind of Adverb
(e) I worked hard, therefore I passed. clause it is and which word in the Principal it
(ii) Sometimes the connective ‘that’ may be modifies—
understood also. 1. He is honest, though he is poor.
He is so tired, λ he cannot stand. In this 2. Do in Rome as the Romans do.
sentence ‘that’ is understood. 3. The doctor was as kind as I thought.
(VII) Adverb Clause of Comparison— 4. Your handwritting is so beautiful that
There are two kinds of Adverb Clause of compari- everyone should admire it.
son. 5. A glutton lives that he may eat.
(i) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree. 6. The thief was caught on the road as he was
(ii) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Manner. running away with the purse.
(1) Adverb Clause o f Comparison of De- 7. I reached the station after the train had
gree—It shows comparison of state or situation steamed off.
and often begins with the Subordinating con- 8. I will keep awake while you sleep.
junction ‘than’ or Relative Adverb ‘as’. As— 9. Wash your hands before you take your
(a) He is not so foolish as his father thinks. meals.
“as his father thinks” is Adverb Clause 10. I have been ill since I left Simla.
of Comparison of degree. 11. He failed as I could not help him.
(b) Her heart is as pure as her face is beauti- 12. I will give you money whenever you need.
ful.
13. I must meet my friend wherever I may
(c) Your health is better than it was before. find him.
(ii) In Adverb Clause of Comparison the Verb 14. The wind bloweth whither it listeth.
often remains understood.
15. It is better to reign in hell than to serve in
As— heaven.
(a) I am a better swimmer than you (are). 16. If you do not strike while the iron is hot,
Here Verb ‘are’ is understood. you cannot mould it.
(b) You have visited a larger number of 17. He promised to pay Rs. 100/-in cash, lest
foreign countries than I (have). he should lose the bargain.
(2) Adverb Clause of Comparison of Man- 18. He ran very fast that he might catch the
ner—It shows comparison of manner, and often train.
begins with the Relative Adverb ‘as’.
19. Women are more sentimental than they are
(a) As you earn so you must spend. wise.
“as you earn” is Adverb Clause of 20. Since the man was very cruel, his wife
Comparison of manner. refused to go with him.
(b) He did as he pleased. 21. I am glad that you have come in time.
198 | L.W.C.E.

22. Some people talk as though they were very (d) I put several questions to him but he
honest. failed to answer any of them.
23. Enmity with a wise man is better than (II) Sometimes co-ordinating connective re-
friendship with a fool. mains understood. In that case the comma (,) or
24. He is stronger than he looks. Semi-Colon (;) does the work of connective con-
25. Have you gone mad that you stare at me in junction. Sometimes even the Verb also remains
such a manner ? understood. As—
26. The thief, while he was passing through (a) His life is simple; his thoughts sublime.
the gallery, was seen by the servant of the (b) Action is life, idleness death.
house. (c) Beauty is truth, truth beauty.
27. Strike the iron while it is hot. (d) Prosperity finds friends, adversity tries
them.
28. The cuckoo comes when the winter is
over. (III) Sometimes a co-ordinate clause may
begin with a subordinating connective. As—
29. I love you as much as your father.
(a) I shall meet you tomorrow, when we
30. The moon is cool though it shines.
shall finalise the plan.
31. The farmer works all day that he may earn
In this sentence ‘when’ means ‘and then’.
his bread.
Therefore the clause beginn-ing with
32. He looks quite healthy considering that he when is a co-ordinate clause.
is above seventy.
(b) We went to the aerodrome, where we
33. Men fear death as children fear to go in the bade him adieu.
dark. Here “where” means “and there”.
34. Had there been no sun, it would have been (c) I found a purse, which I brought home.
dark all over the world. Here “which” means “and which”.
35. As soon as you get the clue, give the (IV) Sometimes Compound sentences are
signal to me. written in their contracted form, and only one
36. If my uncle comes today, I shall leave for Verb is used for both the Verbs. As—
Calcutta with him.
(a) He is rich but unhappy.
37. He is so weak, he can hardly speak.
In the above sentence ‘but unhappy’ is the
38. I know more about my brother than you
contracted form of “but he is unhappy”.
know about him.
Therefore this is a co-ordinate clause.
39. The souls of holy men go to heaven
whence they do not return. (b) Either you must pay or your father.
40. I do it because I cannot help doing so. Here “or your father” means “or your
father must pay”.
Analysis of Compound Sentences (c) Neither my father nor I can help you.
A Compound Sentence is one which has one This sentence would mean “Neither my
Principal Clause and one or more Co-ordinate father can help you nor can I help you”.
Clauses to the Principal Clause. It may or may not (d) All the soldiers as well as the comman-
have Subordinate Clauses. der were killed on the battle-field.
(I) Co-ordinate Clause often begins with This sentence means “All the soldiers
Conjunction ‘And’ or ‘But’ As— were killed on the battle-field as well as
(a) I went to the market and purchased a the commander was killed on the battle-
book. field”.
“and purchased a book” is Co-ordinate (V) Sometimes a co-ordinate clause may
Clause. begin with some Subordinating conjunctions like
(b) He went to Delhi yesterday and met the either……or; neither……nor; else, otherwise,
President there. etc. As—
(c) I offered to help him but he declined. (a) Either work hard or give up your studies.
 ANALYSIS | 199

(b) Neither you nor your father will get any (a) Breathes there the man with soul so dead
help. ……… (Principal Clause)
(c) Act according to my advice otherwise (b) Who never to himself hath said ………
you will repent. (Adjective Clause, Subordinate to Clause
(d) Behave properly, else I shall report A, qualifying ‘man’ in Clause A.)
against you. (c) “This is my own my native land” ………
Solved Examples (Noun Clause, Subordinate to Clause B,
Object to the Verb ‘hath said’.)
Analyse the following sentences :
The whole sentence is complex.
1. I have a generous friend, who gave me more 5. He that holds fast the golden mean,
monetary help than his financial condition
would have allowed. And lives contentedly between
The little and the great,
(a) I have a generous friend ………………
(Principal Clause) Feels not the wants that pinch the poor,
Nor plagues that haunt the rich man’s door,
(b) Who gave me more monetary help ……
(Subordinate Adjective Clause, qualify- Embittering all his state.
ing “friend” in Clause A.) (a) He ……… feels not the wants. (Principal
(c) Than his financial condition would have Clause)
allowed ………… (Subordinate Adverb (b) that holds fast the golden mean ……
Clause of Comparison) (Adjective Clause, qualifying ‘he’ in
The whole sentence is complex. Clause A.)
2. We, who are fortunate enough to live in this (c) and lives contentedly between the little
enlightened century, hardly realise how our and the great. (Co-ordinate to Clause B.)
ancestors suffered from their belief in the (d) that pinch the poor ……… (Adjective
existence of mysterious and molevolent Clause, qualifying ‘wants’ in Clause A.)
beings.
(e) Nor (feels) plauges ……… (Co-ordinae
(a) We … hardly realise. (Principal Clause)
Clause to A.)
(b) Who are fortunate enough to live in this
enlightened century, ……… (Subordinate (f) that haunts the rich man’s doors, embit-
Adjective Clause, qualifying “We” in tering all his state…… (Adjective Clause,
Clause A.) Subordinate to Clause E, qualifying
(c) How our ancestors suffered from their “Plagues” in Clause E.)
belief in the existence of mysterious and The whole sentence is compound.
malevolent beings ……… (Noun Clause, Exercise (General)
Object to the Verb ‘realise’ in Clause A.)
Analyse the following sentences :
The whole sentence is complex.
1. My heart leaps up when I behold the
3.A mere scholar who knows nothing but
rainbow in the sky.
books, must be ignorant even of them.
2. He is the greastest literary artist the world
(a) A mere scholar ……… must be ignorant
has ever produced.
even of them. (Principal Clause)
3. It is a common plea of the coward that
(b) Who knows nothing but books ……… success depends mainly upon luck.
(Adjective Clause, Subordinate to Clause
4. If the human arteries do not work properly,
A, qualifying “scholar” in Clause A.)
the body gets sick and a doctor has to be
The whole sentence is complex. called in.
4. Breathes there the man with soul so dead who 5. When the old man had gone, God called
never to himself hath said, “This is my own, Abraham and asked him where the stranger
my native land !” was.
200 | L.W.C.E.

6. That Ahimsa is the highest duty of man is called the slaves of the person who bought
the teaching of Jainism. them.
7. A man who wants to control his animal 20. The history of mankind is a long story of
passions can easily do so if he controls his bloody wars and its most prominent figures
palate. are those who conquered other countries or
8. Milton said that he did not educate his defended their own against foreign
daughters because one tongue was enough invasions.
for a woman. 21. It is this line of argument that was extended
9. If we could only get a detached view of the to us when we were called upon to maim
continued efforts of mankind, we would be and kill, to wound and destroy people
amazed and profoundly moved. against whom we have no ill-will.
10. Indian culture has lived and flourished and 22. Those who want to perform national
will continue to do so because of the service or to have gleam of real religious
mighty creation of Vyas. life must lead a celebate life renouncing all
the pleasures of the world.
11. When I am ill, I am far more interested in
what the doctor hears through the 23. The man who can play most heartily when
stethoscope in the flutterings of my heart. he has the chance of playing, is generally
the man who can work most heartily when
12. I hope it will give comfort to great numbers
he must work.
who are passing through the world of
obscurity, when I inform them how easily 24. Should you be so unfortunate as to suppose
distinction may be obtained. that you are a genius and that things will
come to you, it would be well to undeceive
13. All who have meant good work with their
yourself as soon as it is possible.
whole heart, have done good work,
although they may die before they have the 25. We have seen how the government is
time to sign it. taking care of our railways, roads and ships
so that they can act as better carriers for the
14. Whatever luxuries a bachelor may be nation and add to the economic prosperity
surrounded with, he will always find his of the people.
happiness incomplete unless he has a wife
26. We cannot have peace until all the nations
and children who may share and enhance
deal with each other in a spirit of equality
his pleasure.
and friendliness until we develop a new
15. History says that Socrates, when he was conception of integrated social life.
given the cup of hemlock, continued to talk 27. Even in ordinary affairs we know that
to the friends who were standing around people do not know who rules or why and
him, as he drank it. how he rules; and yet they know that there
16. If you put the end of an iron in the fire and is a power that certainly rules.
hold it there, you do something more than 28. A gentleman who was fashionably dressed
heat that end, for you heat the whole of it was strolling, with a goldheaded cane in his
up to the end that you hold in your hand. hand, when he was hailed by a miserable
17. The valley, which is called the Vale of looking lame man who was apparently in
Kashmir, is so charming that it has a world- needy circumstances.
wide fame. 29. If we recollect that we live among men
18. The rich man was much pleased that on who are imperfect by nature, we should not
account of the honesty of the owner of the be in such a fear when we find our friend’s
hut, he got back his bag which contained a failings.
hundred coins of gold. 30. Each generation is inclined to think that it
19. In olden times the cruel custom was in is wiser than all those that have gone
vogue that men, women and even children before, and in some respects the claim can
were sold as sheep and goats and they were be made good.
 16 Synthesis
Synthesis of Sentences— Separate : Turn to the left. You will
“Synthesis is the opposite of Analysis and reach the hospital.
means the combination of a number of simple Combined : Turning to the left you will
sentences into one new sentence—Simple, Com- reach the hospital.
pound or Complex.” (Wren) Separate : He sat on the sofa. He took
Synthesis has mainly three forms— his pen. He wrote a letter.
1. Combining of two or more Simple sente- Combined : Sitting on the sofa and taking
nces into a single Simple Sentence. his pen, he wrote a letter.
2. Combining of two or more simple sente- Exercise
nces into a single Complex Sentence.
Combine the following groups of sentences
3. Combining of two or more simple sente- into a new Simple Sentence by using Partici-
nces into a single Compound Sentence. ples :
Combining of Two or More Simple 1. He drew his sword. He wounded his
Sentences into a Single enemy.
Simple Sentence 2. He took off his clothes. He plunged into the
The following are the six ways of combining river.
two or more Simple sentences into a single Simple 3. He opened his purse. He produced a five
Sentence— rupee-note. He purchased the ticket.
1. By using a Participle. 4. He drew his revolver. He loaded it quickly.
2. By using a Noun or a Phrase in Apposi- He fired at the dacoit.
tion 5. I saw two pretty girls. They were playing
3. By using a Preposition with a Noun or with a ball.
Gerund 6. I was returning home. I saw a milk-man.
4. By using a Nominative Absolute He was milking his cow.
5. By using an Infinitive 7. The thief saw the policeman. He made
6. By using an Adverb or Adverbial Phrase. good his escape.
We give below the details of each way— 8. He decided to pass the examination. He
(1) By using a Participle— studied day and night.
Separate : He saw a lion. He fled away. (2) By using a Noun or a Phrase in Apposi-
Combined : Seeing a lion he fled away. tion—
Separate : He jumped up. He ran away. Separate : Shakespeare died in 1616. He
Combined : Jumping up he ran away. was the greatest English poet
Separate : He was tired of reading. He and dramatist.
retired to bed. Combined : Shakespeare, the greatest
Combined : Tired (Being tired) of reading English poet and dramatist,
he retired to bed. died in 1616.
202 | L.W.C.E.

Separate : Agra was once the capital of Combined : The train had left before our
the Mughal Empire. It is now reaching the station.
a very backward city. Or
Combined : Agra, once the capital of the Before our reaching the
Mughal Empire, is now a very station, the train had left.
backward city.
Separate : The Magistrate examined the
Separate : Subhashchandra Bose was statement. He found it full of
killed in a plane-crash. He gross errors.
was one of the greatest Combined : On examining the statement,
fighters for India’s freedom. the Magistrate found it full of
Combined : Subhashchandra Bose, one of gross errors.
the greatest fighters for Separate : The servant swept the room.
India’s freedom, was killed in He found a rupee. The rupee
a plane-crash. was lying in the corner.
Separate : I love Mohan very much. He Combined : While sweeping the room, the
is my friend. servant found a rupee lying in
Combined : I love my friend Mohan very the corner.
much. Separate : He saw an advertisement in
Separate : I saw the famous wrestler. His the paper. He applied for the
name was Dara Singh. post. It was the post of an
Combined : I saw the famous wrestler, Accountant.
Dara Singh. Combined : On seeing an advertisement
for the post of an Accountant,
Exercise he applied for it.
Combine the following sentences into a Separate : He has failed many times. He
Simple Sentence by using a Noun or a Noun still hopes to get success at
phrase— last.
1. His father died. He was a man of eighty. Combined : In spite of many failures he
2. Columbus discovered America. He was a still hopes to get success at
famous sailor. last.
3. Everyone knows Dr. Radhakrishanan. He Separate : He failed at the examination.
was a great philosopher. He heard the news. He disap-
peared.
4. Gama died at Lahore at the age of eighty.
He was a world champion. Combined : On hearing the news of his
failure at the examination, he
5. London is one of the biggest cities in the disappeared.
world. It is the capital of Great Britain.
Great Britain is a great country. Exercise
6. Nalanda was once the biggest centre of Combine the following sentences into a
learning. It is now a heap of ruins. Simple Sentence by using a Noun or a Gerund
7. Twice I have been to Delhi. It is the capital with a Preposition—
of India. 1. I made a thorough enquiry. I found him
8. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru was a famous guilty.
lawyer. He studied at Agra College. Agra 2. I reached the house of my friend. He had
College is the oldest institution. gone to the market before that time.
(3) By using a Noun or a Gerund with a Pre- 3. He ran very fast. He could not catch the
position— thief.
Separate : We reached the station. The 4. I requested the teacher. He pardoned the
train had left by that time. boy.
 SYNTHESIS | 203

5. My brother was beaten with canes. I was 7. My brother received a serious injury. I took
present. him to the hospital.
6. His behaviour was strange. I was taken 8. The level of water had gone low. The crow
aback. started dropping pebbles in the jar.
7. He has died. I am sure. 9. The king was killed. His army ran away.
8. Your behaviour is very good. I am highly 10. My friend had lost his way. He was looted
pleased. by a robber.
(4) By using a Nominative Absolute— (5) By using Infinitives—
Separate : The house caught fire. All the Separate : I am going to Delhi. I have to
furniture was burnt to ashes. purchase a car.
Combined : The house having caught fire, Combined : I am going to Delhi to pur-
all the furniture was burnt to 0chase a car.
ashes. Separate : He is very much tired. He
Separate : The deer was caught in the cannot work.
net. He struggled hard for Combined : He is too tired to work.
escape. Separate : He is very weak. He cannot
Combined : Having been caught in the net, pass this year.
the deer struggled hard for Combined : He is too weak to pass this
escape. year.
Separate : The thieves were caught by Separate : There are still three questions
the police. They surrendered left. I have to solve them.
the stolen property.
Combined : I have still three more ques-
Combined : Having been caught by the tions to solve.
police, the thieves surrendered
the stolen property. Separate : There are three prisoners in
the jail. They are to be tried.
Separate : Rains have been plentiful this
year. The crop of sugarcane Combined : There are three prisoners in
has been rich. the jail to be tried.
Combined : Rains having been plentiful Separate : I have only one servant. He
this year, the crop of sugar- cooks my food. He washes the
cane has been rich. utensils.
Combined : I have only one servant to
Exercise cook my food and wash the
Combine the following sentences into a utensils.
Simple Sentence by using Nominative Abso-
lute— Exercise
1. The day was very hot. I did not go to the Combine the following sentences into a
office. Simple Sentence by using Infinitives—
2. My father was angry. He did not give me a 1. My father has gone to market. He has to
single rupee. purchase a watch.
3. The sun set. The birds started flying 2. I am writing a book. It will be published.
towards their nests. 3. He is a great liar. He cannot be believed.
4. My sister has run into debt. I have to 4. I cannot leave him behind. He will lose his
support her. way.
5. The arrow pierced the deer’s neck. It fell 5. He went to the library. He wanted to read
down. the newspaper.
6. The train left before my arrival. I looked for 6. He went to his teacher’s house. He wanted
a bus. to study Milton.
204 | L.W.C.E.

7. I am very busy. I cannot talk to you. (c) Adjective / Adverb + Enough—

8. I have sent my son to England. He will be Separate : He is rich. He can buy a car.
educated there. Combined : He is rich enough to buy a
9. He has painted a beautiful picture. It will be car.
presented to the President. Separate : He is intelligent. He can solve
10. He keeps a pair of dogs. They will guard this problem.
his house. They will keep away burglars. Combined : He is intelligent enough to
(6) (a) By using an Adverb or an Adverbial solve this problem.
Phrase— Separate : This hall is large. Two hun-
Separate : He has been punished. The dred persons can sit in it.
punishment was unjust. Combined : This hall is large enough for
Combined : He has been unjustly punis- two hundred persons to sit.
hed. Separate : He has much time. He can
complete the book.
Separate : The thief was flogged by the
police. The flogging was very Combined : He has time enough to comp-
severe. lete the book.
Combined : The thief was very severely Exercise
flogged by the police. Combine the following sentences into a
Separate : It was morning. The train had Simple Sentence by using an Adverb or an
not reached by that time. Adverbial phrase—
Combined : The train had not reached by 1. He admitted his fault. He apologised.
morning. 2. He declined to answer the question. He
regretted his inability to answer.
Separate : He was dismissed from ser-
vice. His dismissal was unde- 3. He was absent from the meeting. His
served. absence was unavoidable.
4. He was in the fault. There is no doubt about
Combined : He was undeservedly dismis-
it.
sed from service.
5. He did this work. He did not do it carefully.
Separate : He has passed in the first
division. It was very credi- 6. The programme was ammended. It was
table. made suitable to me.
7. Mohan put on his clothes. He was in a great
Combined : He has very creditably passed
hurry.
in the first division.
8. I shall return by the morning. I am definite
(b) By using Too + Adjective/Adverb— about it.
Separate : He is tired. He cannot run. 9. The river was flowing. Its flow was rapid.
Combined : He is too tired to run. 10. Everyone listended to his lecture. There
Separate : He is weak. He cannot stand. was perfect silence.
Combined : He is too weak to stand. 11. He is weak. He cannot lift this heavy box.
Separate : She is poor. She cannot have a 12. He is frank. He will tell you the whole
new dress. truth.
Combined : She is too poor to have a new Exercise (General)
dress. Combine the following sets of sentences into
Separate : I am old. I cannot drive a car. Simple Sentences :
Combined : I am too old to drive a car. 1. The accused was innocent. He was let off.
Such sentences always express a negative 2. I arrived at the station. I found the train
sense. ready to steam off.
 SYNTHESIS | 205

3. He has completed the work. He is worthy Separate : He is a thief. Everybody

of admiration for it. knows it.
4. He has sent his daughters to Bombay. He Combined : Everybody knows that he is a
wants them to be trained in dancing. thief. (Object)
5. The sun set. My father had not returned. Separate : I told you that yesterday. You
6. My brother fell seriously ill. I could not go must rely on it.
to the school yesterday. Combined : You must rely on what I told
7. I received my father’s letter. I left for you yesterday.
Bombay. I had to see a gentleman. The (Object to a preposition)
gentleman was the friend of my father.
Separate : He has failed. The reason is
8. He looked round him. He found no place of his negligence.
shelter. He climbed up the tree. He decided
to pass the night there. Combined : The reason of his failure is
that he is negligent.
9. My watch was late. I reached the station.
The train had left before my reaching there. (Complement)
10. The camel saw the signs of storm. He sat Separate : He was innocent. This was his
down with his neck between the legs. He statement. It was wrong.
wanted to save his eyes from dust. Combined : His statement that he was
11. The sun rose. The fog disappeared. The innocent was wrong.
General determined to delay no longer. He (Case in apposition)
gave the order to advance.
12. The sun set. The thief started from his Exercise
house. He wanted to commit theft in the
house of an old man. The old man was a Combine the following sentences into a
wealthy merchant. single Complex Sentence—
13. The train received the signal. It started 1. Mohan is the best boy of the class. It is
moving. Its movement was slow. true.
14. The sun rose. Govind started to his sister’s 2. He is doing something. I do not know what
house. He did not reach there before sunset. it is.
15. The day is very hot. We should go very 3. You wish me to do something. I cannot do
early. We have to do a little marketing. that.
Combining two or more Simple 4. The accused is guilty. It has been proved
Sentences into a single Complex beyond doubt.
Sentence 5. You should go to the Principal immedia-
tely. This is my advice to you.
(1) By using a Noun Clause—
6. He is dishonest. I cannot, however, prove it.
It has been discussed in the chapter on Clause
Analysis that a Noun clause performs five 7. I came late. It is true.
functions—(i) Subject of a verb, (ii) Object of a 8. The function will be held somewhere. Do
Transitive Verb, (iii) Object of a Preposition, (iv) you know where ?
Complement of a verb of Incomplete Predication 9. He hid something in his pocket. I could not
(is, was, are, a m, were), and (v) case in Appo- see it.
sition to a Noun. We can do synthesis by using a
10. You threatened him with a knife. That was
Noun Clause in any one of these five forms. We
his complaint.
give below examples of each form—
Separate : You are telling a lie. It is 11. Where have you been so long ? Tell me.
known to all. 12. I gave you something yesterday. You can
Combined : That you are telling a lie is play with it.
known to all. (Subject) 13. His father had died. This news was true.
206 | L.W.C.E.

14. He is a fool. This was my apprehension. It 6. My brother has gone somewhere. I do not
is wrong. know the place.
15. The new dam has cracked. I want to know 7. Here is a book. I purchased it yesterday.
the cause of the same. 8. The murder was committed last night. The
(2) By using an Adjective Clause murderer has been caught.
We can make an Adjective Clause beginning 9. You seem to be very happy these days. Can
with a Relative Pronoun or a Relative Adverb— you tell me the reason ?
Separate : I met an old man. He was 10. The sailor helped me cross the river. He
very poor. should be rewarded.
Combined : I met an old man who was 11. I went there yesterday. The time was odd.
very poor. 12. I met him yesterday. I do not remember the
Separate : I saw a fountain-pen. It was place.
black in colour. 13. London is one of the largest cities of the
Combined : I saw a fountain-pen which world. It is the capital of Great Britain.
was black in colour.
14. I met a man in the street. I could not
Separate : I met your friend. His box was recognise him.
stolen in the train.
15. I heard the charming music. A girl was
Combined : I met your friend whose box singing it.
was stolen in the train.
Separate : I have seen the park. The (3) By using an Adverb Clause—
murder was committed there. We have explained above in the chapter on
Combined : I have seen the park where Clause Analysis that an Adverb Clause may point
the murder was committed. to Time, Place, Reason, Condition, Compari-
Separate : You went there yesterday. son, Contrast, Manner, or Result. A complex
Tell me the hour. sentence can be made by using an Adverbial
clause showing any one of these functions. As—
Combined : Tell me the hour when you
went there yesterday. Separate : I could not come. I was tired.
Separate : I have purchased a house. It Combined : I could not come because I
has a big hall. The hall is well was tired.
furnished. Separate : He committed the theft. He
Combined : The house that I have pur- has been caught by the police.
chased has a big hall which is Combined : He committed the theft, so he
well furnished. has been caught by the police.
Exercise Separate : He is poor. He is honest at the
Combine the following sentences into a same time.
Complex Sentence by using an Adjective Combined : Though he is poor, he is
Clause— honest.
1. I met the father of my friend. I had never Separate : Tell me the truth. I shall par-
seen him before. don you.
2. This is a chest. I have kept my valuables in Combined : I shall pardon you if you tell
it. me the truth.
3. My father will come from Bombay. Do you Separate : America is a powerful coun-
know the time ? try. Russia is not so powerful.
4. Somebody has stolen my watch. Do you Combined : Russia is not so powerful as
know him ? America (is).
5. I gave you a book last week. Please return Separate : He is intelligent. His brother
it. is equally intelligent.
 SYNTHESIS | 207

Combined : His brother is as intelligent as Combining two or more Simple

he (is). Sentences into a Compound Sentence
Separate : My examination is about to be By using Co-ordinating Conjunctions—As
over. Thereafter I shall go to we have explained in the chapter on Clause
the hills. Analysis, Co-ordinate clauses can be made by
Combined : I shall go to the hills after my using co-ordinating conjunctions such as and,
examination is over. but, either, or, neither, nor, too, also, so,
therefore, likewise, either……or, neither……
Separate : He fled somewhere. The nor. Sometimes only a comma (,) or a Semicolon
police could not pursue him. (;) can be used as a co-ordinating conjunction. A
Combined : He fled where the police compound sentence can be made by using any one
could not pursue him. of these co-ordinating conjunctions. As—
Separate : The thief saw the police. He Separate : I went to the market. I saw a
took to his heels. beautiful watch. I could not,
however, purchase it.
Combined : As soon as the thief saw the
police, he took to his heels. Combined : I went to the market and saw
a beautiful watch but could
Exercise not purchase it.
Combine the following sentences into a Separate : He is slow. He is regular.
single Complex Sentence by using an Adverb Combined : He is slow but (he is) regular.
Clause— Separate : Do not be a borrower. Do not
1. Last night it was very hot. I could not have be a lender either.
a sound sleep. Combined : Neither a lender (be) nor a
2. I entered the room. I heard a sound. borrower be.
3. The orphan went in. The hermit was Separate : Get in. You may catch cold.
performing his worship there. Combined : Get in or you may catch cold.
4. She loves me. A mother loves her son in Separate : Do not run so fast. You may
the same way. fall.
5. Go on working. You will succeed. Combined : Do not run so fast; you may
6. The problem was intricate. It could not be fall.
solved. Separate : I shall try to solve your pro-
blem. I cannot guarantee.
7. His behaviour was unnatural. One could not
bear it easily. Combined : I shall try to solve your pro-
blem; I cannot, however, gua-
8. The lake is very deep. You cannot cross it.
rantee.
9. She is beautiful. Her elder sister is more Separate : He is industrious. He is intel-
beautiful. ligent.
10. He is strong. He is timid at the same time. Combined : He is not only industrious but
11. You are not a chance offender. I cannot also intelligent.
excuse you. Separate : It was very hot last night. I
12. The show was delightful. Still many people could not have a sound sleep.
did not like it. Combined : It was very hot last night and
13. He sent his daughter to Bombay. He therefore I could not have a
wanted her to be trained in dancing. sound sleep.
14. You told me to do it. I have done it in the Separate : He was annoyed. Still he kept
same manner. quiet.
15. The bride is not beautiful. Her complexion Combined : He was annoyed, still he kept
is nevertheless fair. quiet.
208 | L.W.C.E.

Exercise ment, otherwise he would be

punished.
Combine the following sentences into a
single Compound Sentence— (Complex Sentence)
Separate : The girl was beautiful. She
1. Her hair was long. Her feet were light.
was well educated. He did not
2. He is strong. He is timid. marry her. Her parents were
3. He is rich. He leads a simple life. poor.
4. The sky was cloudy. The night was dark. Combined : Though the girl was beautiful
The way was lonely. and well educated, he did not
5. He was angry. I did not say anything. marry her because her parents
were poor. (Complex)
6. She is beautiful. She is also good-natured.
Or
7. We can go by the train. We can also go by The girl was beautiful and
the bus. well educated but he did not
8. He lifted his eye to the door. He saw a man marry her because her parents
coming towards his room. were poor. (Compound)
9. You may take Aspro. You may take Separate : I offered him help. He needed
Anacin. You must take either of the two. help. He persisted in refusing
10. Your pants are clean. Your shirt is dirty. help. I left him to his fate.
11. The Indian cows have hump. They have Combined : I offered him help, as he
horns. needed it, but he persisted in
12. The tail of a peacock is beautiful. Its legs refusing it, and therefore I left
are ugly. him to his fate. (Compound)
13. He is guilty. He is the object of compas- Separate : Ravindranath Tagore was a
sion. great poet. He was born in
Bengal. He was the author of
14. The woman was pregnant. She was not Gitanjali. He was awarded
punished with death. the Nobel Prize.
15. He is weak. He can walk. Combined : Ravindranath Tagore, born in
16. He is a hermit. He can also be a beggar. Bengal, a great poet and
17. The food was tasty. I had no appetite. author of Gitanjali, was
18. My father is poor. My uncle is rich. awarded the Nobel Prize.
19. Mohan is afraid of the tiger. He does not go (Simple)
to the forest. Or
20. She loves me. I do not like her. Ravindranath Tagore, who
was born in Bengal, was a
Solved Examples great poet and author of
Separate : He should not leave the court Gitanjali, and was awarded
without completing his state- the Nobel Prize.
ment. He would be punished. (Compound)
The witness was warned. Or
Combined : The witness was warned, on Ravindranath Tagore who was
pain of punishment, not to born in Bengal and who was a
leave the court without com- great poet and author of
pleting his statement. (Simple) Gitanjali was awarded the
Or Nobel Prize. (Complex)
The witness was warned that Separate : There was a crow. It was very
he should not leave the court clever. It started dropping
before completing his state- pebbles into the jar. It wanted
 SYNTHESIS | 209

to bring up the level of the 3. He is quite rich. He lives a miserly life.

water. 4. He is the same gentleman. He came last
Combined : A clever crow started dropp- year too. He is a famous doctor.
ing pebbles into the jar in 5. The problem is very easy. I can solve it in
order to bring up the level of no time.
the water. (Simple)
6. We drove very fast. We could not reach in
Or time. We missed a golden chance.
There was a clever crow 7. I returned late in the night. It was raining at
which started dropping peb- that time.
bles into the jar, for it wanted
to bring up the level of the 8. She wrote a letter. She wrote the letter to
water. (Complex) her father. She described her miserable
condition in the letter. Her father was much
Exercise pained at it.
Combine the following sets of sentences into 9. He laboured very hard. He fell ill. He had
Simple Sentences : to go under a long treatment.
1. I cannot tell him. What should he do ? 10. I saw his garden. It is a very large garden.
All kinds of fruits grow there.
2. He heard the noise. He came out of the
door. 11. He is a good and loyal servant. This is the
report about him. I believe it.
3. He is sad and disappointed. I found him so.
12. The king walked into the hut. He saw an
4. He came to me. He wanted money. He old woman there. The old woman wel-
wanted to purchase some books. comed him. She offered him fruits.
5. His wife encouraged him. She is a highly 13. You have failed. I am sorry to hear this.
refined lady. He persevered. You have failed a second time.
6. The thief had been in prison before. He was 14. He has come. I do not know the reason of
severly punished. his coming a second time. He has no
7. He felt tired. He retired to bed. business with me. This is as far as I think.
8. He could not eat hard food. He was very 15. We have seen the Himalayas. The Hima-
old. He had lost his teeth. layas guard our northern border. They are
9. Maharana Pratap was the ruler of Mewar. spread from east to west of the country.
He was a great patriot. He fought with the Exercise
Mughals. Combine the following sets of sentences into
10. I have told you the facts. I have nothing Compound Sentences :
more to say. I will sit down.
1. The sun set. Darkness prevailed over the
11. I was returning home. I saw a man. He landscape. We could see nothing.
looked very old. He was groaning with
2. He is foolish. He is obstinate also. He can-
pain.
not adjust himself.
12. He will reach Mathura soon. He will go by 3. His father was not at home. He had no
bus. He may go by his scooter also. money to pay his fee. His name was struck
13. The storm ceased. The sun came out. off.
14. He solved the problem. It took him no time. 4. I had a message for you. You were not
Exercise available. I left the message with your
friend.
Combine the following sets o f sentences into 5. You have to follow the school discipline.
Complex Sentences : You will be expelled.
1. He is a very noble person. This is known to 6. Make haste. You will be late. There is no
all. other train available. You will miss your
2. What is my duty ? Who will tell me ? interview.
210 | L.W.C.E.

7. He was my class-fellow. He has become a 7. A hermit is born in the world. He lives in

great man. He refuses to recognize me. the world. He has nothing to do with the
8. He is dumb. He is deaf too. He is very world.
laborious. He weaves beautiful carpets. 8. Some people help others. They are respec-
9. I do not refuse your offer. I do not like it. I ted. Some people help others without a
have no use of it. selfish motive. They are still more respec-
10. The clouds gathered. The wind blew. There ted.
were sharp showers. 9. I was highly confused in the examination. I
11. He is all right. He is only tired. He needs could not answer a single question
rest. correctly. I knew their answers very well.
12. It is raining heavily. I must take my um- 10. India has produced several saints. Gandhiji
brella. I shall spoil my suit. was the noblest of them. His contribution to
13. The monsoon failed. The tanks became dry. the cause of freedom was great. We can
There was no drinking water available. never forget him.
14. You can travel by train. You can travel by 11. He lifted the cradle. He found the child
bus. You cannot reach before morning. unhurt. He found an enormous snake lying
15. Mohan is ill. He cannot work. He still goes dead on the floor. The snake had been
to office. killed by his faithful dog.
Exercise (General) 12. The other day I met a man. He wore a long
Combine the following sets of sentences into beard. He had painted his beard red. He
Simple, Complex or Compound Sentences : liked this colour more than any other.
1. Fire is hot. You cannot touch it. 13. The bell rang for the third time. The old
man came out of his room into the
2. He is an honest man. That is my opinion.
courtyard. There he met the young stranger.
3. My enemies are many. My friends are few. The stranger recognized him at once.
Courage is my greatest friend. It is always
with me. I am safe. 14. There were five hundred persons on board
the ship. All of them drowned. Only one
4. Our milkman is very regular. We open the
escaped. His name was Krishna.
door in the morning. We find him standing
before the door. 15. I met my friend yesterday. He lives at
5. The train whistled. It steamed off. All the Allahabad. Allahabad is a holy city. It is on
passengers bolted the doors. the banks of Ganga and Yamuna. Many
pilgrims bathe in these rivers.
6. It is no good having a foolish friend. It is
better to have a wise enemy. The wise 16. Agra is an old city. Every foreigner visits it
enemy may do some harm. The foolish on account of the Taj. The Taj is famous all
friend may do a still greater harm. over the world.
 17 Transformation
TRANSFORMATION OF Let us consider all these methods one by one
SENTENCES in detail.
“To transform a sentence is to change it from 1. Transformation of Sentences Containing
one grammatical form to another without altering “too” or “so”
its sense.” (Nesfield) (i) He is too tired to walk.
Thus in Transformation we change the cons- ‘Too’ in such sentences has a negative
truction of a sentence from one grammatical form meaning, or ‘beyond necessary or desir-
to another without changing its meaning. able limits.’
There are a number of ways in which a given The above noted sentence can, therefore,
sentence can be transformed from one form to be transformed as below—
another. The following are the main ways in “He is so tired that he cannot walk.”
which the Transformation of Sentences can be In the same way—
carried out— (ii) He is too clever to be deceived.
1. Interchange between “too” and “so”. He is so clever that he cannot be decei-
2. Interchange between different forms of ved.
Conditional Sentences. (iii) This news is too good to be true.
3. Interchange between different forms of This news is so good that it cannot be
sentences expressing Concession or Con- true.
trast. (iv) He is too lazy to keep pace with you.
4. Interchange of Degrees of Adjectives. He is so lazy that he cannot keep pace
5. Interchange between two “Voices”—from with you.
Active to Passive and Passive to Active. Exercise
6. Interchange between Affirmative and Transform the following sentences by
Negative sentences. changing “too” into “so…that”, or “so…that”
7. Interchange between different Parts of into “too” :
Speech. 1. He is so foolish that he cannot understand
8. Interchange between Exclamatory and you.
Assertive sentences. 2. He is so small that he cannot go alone.
9. Interchange between Simple and Com- 3. The light is so dim that I cannot read in it.
plex sentences— Noun, Adjective and
Adverb clauses. 4. He speaks too fast to be followed.
10. Interchange between Simple and Com- 5. It is never too late to mend.
pound sentences. 6. Your writing is too illegible for me to read.
11. Interchange between Complex and Com- 7. That spectacle was too horrible to be des-
pound sentences. cribed.
12. Interchange between Principal and Sub- 8. This boat is too heavy to be steered by one
ordinate Clauses. rudder.
212 | L.W.C.E.

9. The pan is too hot to be touched. 3. In case we are divided in opinion, we will
10. She is too beautiful to be appreciated in refer the matter to a third person.
words. 4. Had you started your business, you would
11. The girl was too timid to go alone. have made enormous profit by this time.
12. He is too idle to work hard. 5. Provided the weather is good, the school
will open tomorrow.
2. Conditional Sentences—
6. I will not buy the machine unless you give
Conditional Sentences have several forms. A guarantee for its durability.
given sentence can be transformed into any one of
those forms. As— 7. I cannot part with the horse except on
payment of the price in advance.
If you speak the truth, I shall pardon you.
8. Had you been more careful, you would
The above sentence can be transformed into have done the work better.
any one of the following forms—
9. Take care of your digestion and you will
Rule 1—By adding—Conjunction ‘Unless’ remain healthy.
Unless you speak the truth, I shall not 10. But for my help, he would not have passed.
pardon you.
11. Supposing he does not turn up in time, we
Rule 2—By keeping ‘If’ understood or concea- shall make Mohan our opening batsman.
led—
12. If you are poor, you need not have fear of
(i) Should you speak the truth, I shall par- thieves.
don you.
13. Were you more frank in telling me the true
(ii) Had you spoken the truth, I should have story, I would have given you a better
pardoned you. advice.
(iii) Were you to speak the truth, I should 14. You cannot succeed in business unless you
have pardoned you. are honest.
In the last two examples the Tense changes. 15. You can accomplish this task provided you
Rule 3—By using a Conjunctional Phrase are persistent and firm.
In case you speak the truth, I shall par- 3. Sentences showing Concession or Con-
don you. trast—
Rule 4—By using a Participle Phrase These sentences also can have many forms,
(i) I shall pardon you provided you speak and they can be transformed into any of them.
the truth. Though he is poor, he is honest.
(ii) Supposing you speak the truth, I shall Rule 1—By using “Notwithstanding”
pardon you. He is honest notwithstanding that he is
Rule 5—By using the Imperative Mood poor.
Speak the truth, and I shall pardon you. Rule 2—By using “However”
However poor he is, he is honest.
Rule 6—By using a Prepositional Phraseu
Rule 3—By using the Conjunction “As”
But for your speaking the truth, I shall Poor as he is, he is honest.
not pardon you.
Rule 4—By using the Phrase “all the same”
Exercise He is poor; all the same he is honest.
Transform the following sentences in as Rule 5—By using a “Participle”
many forms as possible : Admitting that he is poor, he is honest.
1. If you control your palate, you can control Rule 6—By using the Phrase “At the same
your other animal passions easily. time”
2. Had you been wise, you would not have He is poor; at the same time he is
done it. honest.
 TRANSFORMATION | 213

Rule 7—By using the Phrase “for all that” 2. Some metals are at least as heavy as iron.
He is poor; for all that he is honest. (Positive degree)
Rule 8—By using the Adverb ‘indeed’ followed (i) Iron is not heavier than some other
by the conjunction ‘but’. metals. (Comparative degree)
He is poor indeed but he is honest. (ii) Some metals are not less heavy than
iron. (Comparative degree)
Exercise
(iii) Iron is not the heaviest of all metals.
Transform the following sentences in as many (Superlative degree)
forms as possible :
1. He is wrong; all the same he is bold. Exercise
2. He is uneducated indeed but he is a man of Transform the following sentences by
high eminence. changing the Degree of Adjective :
3. Admitting that he is not poor, he yet wears 1. The son is wiser than his father.
tattered clothes. 2. Running is the best exercise.
4. You should not doubt his competence not- 3. Kapil Deo is the best of cricket players.
withstanding that he is weak in Grammar. 4. Few countries are as cold as England.
5. Though he is obedient, his father does not 5. Gold is not heavier than Platinum.
love him.
6. A deer can run faster than a dog.
6. Admitting that you were hungry, you might
yet have waited till my arrival. 7. Malt is the best of foods.
7. There is hardly any hope of compromise; 8. I know his character better than you.
all the same I will do my best to effect one. 9. Honesty is the best policy.
8. Poor as I am, I will not serve a villain. 10. The Americans are the richest people in the
9. He still loves you, though you were insin- world.
cere to him. 5. By interchanging Active and Passive
10. Though he was put to great physical tor- Voices—
ture, he did not confess his crime. 1. Active : The policeman has caught the
11. Howsoever good you may be in swimming, thief.
you cannot cross the Atlantic. Passive : The thief has been caught by the
12. Though he is poor, he is a man of character. policeman.
13. Cow’s milk is better than other kinds of 2. Passive : My pen has been stolen by this
milk, though it has a lower percentage of boy.
fat. Active : This boy has stolen my pen.
14. Ugly though she is, her husband loves her 3. Active : Your honesty has impressed me
deeply. much.
15. Honesty makes a man admirable though it Passive : I have been much impressed with
does not make him rich. your honesty.
4. By changing Degrees of Adjectives— 4. Active : It is now time to test your know-
1. No other king in the history of India is as ledge.
great as Ashok. (Positive degree of Adjective) Passive : It is now time for your knowledge
In the above sentence the Adjective ‘great’ is to be tested.
in Positive Degree. This can be changed into 5. Active : Observe the rules of the road
Comparative or Superlative Degree. As— while you walk.
(i) No other king in the history of India is Passive : The rules of the road must be
greater than Ashok. observed while you walk.
(ii) Ashok is the greatest king in the history 6. Active : Some people rely on medicine for
of India. keeping their health.
214 | L.W.C.E.

Passive : Medicine is relied upon by some 3. He will be defeated by me.

people for keeping their health. 4. You are requested to stay here.
7. Passive : It is too much to be expected by 5. Instruct him not to move an inch from his
you. place.
Active : It is too much for you to expect. 6. These travellers have been robbed by the
8. Active : Summer follows winter. thieves.
Passive : Winter is followed by summer. 7. Always obey your elders.
9. Passive : Let the room be lighted before 8. Can you permit me to see this book ?
you enter. 9. The watch has been stolen.
Active : Light the room before you enter. 10. You cannnot gain anything without efforts.
10. Active : Your behaviour has astonished me 11. His sudden visit surprised me.
much.
12. Who has broken the glass ?
Passive : I have been much astonished at
13. Why do you suspect me ?
your behaviour.
14. The ship was set on fire and abandoned by
11. Active : They are building the house very
the crew.
quickly.
15. He has broken the university record.
Passive : The house is being built very
quickly by them. 16. It is not necessary to consult a doctor.
12. Passive : He begged his father that he might 17. I am worried about your health.
be forgiven. 18. Let your ideas be known to me.
Active : He begged his father to forgive 19. Never trust those who have deceived you
him. once.
13. Passive : Our army has been defeated by 20. The wise are always admired.
the enemy. 6. By interchanging Negative and Affirmative
Active : The enemy has defeated our sentences—
army. 1. Affirmative : America is more powerful
14. Passive : I shall be obliged to stay. than Russia.
Active : Circumstances will oblige me to Negative : Russia is not as powerful as
stay. America.
15. Passive : What cannot be cured must be 2. Affirmative : Ramesh is more clever than
endured. Ram.
Active : We must endure what we cannot Negative : Ram is not so clever as
cure. Ramesh.
16. Passive : Better behaviour can be expected 3. Negative : There is none who does not
from the students of a university. love his country.
Active : One can expect better behaviour Affirmative : Everybody loves his country.
from the students of a university. 4. Negative : He did not find him honest.
17. Active : The crowd laughed at him. Affirmative : He found him dishonest.
Passive : He was laughed at by the crowd. 5. Negative : His services cannot be for-
Exercise gotten.
Transform the following sentences by Affirmative : His services have been too
changing them from Active to Passive Voice or great to be forgotten.
Vice Versa : 6. Negative : A wise man will not tell a lie.
1. He gave me some money. Affirmative : A wise man will abstain
2. The thief was caught by me. himself from telling a lie.
 TRANSFORMATION | 215

7. Negative : None but a lawyer can ans- 7. By interchanging Exclamatory and Asser-
wer this question. tive sentences—
Affirmative : A lawyer alone can answer 1. Exclamatory : Oh, what a horrible sight it
this question. was !
8. Negative : No sooner did I enter the Simple : It was a very horrible sight.
room than he started rebuking 2. Exclamatory : O, for a beaker of vintage !
me.
Simple : I wish I had a beaker of
Affirmative : As soon as I entered the
vintage.
room, he started rebuking
me. 3. Exclamatory : May you live long !
Exercise Simple : I wish you a long life.
(a) Transform the following sentences by Or
changing them from Negative to Affirmative : I wish you may live long.
1. Learned men are not always wise. 4. Exclamatory : O, that I had the wings of a
2. No one can doubt that your son did his best. dove !
3. It is not difficult to run half a mile at a time. Simple : I wish I had the wings of a
4. Great men belong to no one nation, nor to dove.
one particular class. 5. Exclamatory : What sweet delights a quiet
5. Never again will I see my friend. life gives !
6. As long as the teacher was in the class, not Simple : A quiet life gives very sweet
a boy broke silence. delights.
7. The tragedies of Shakespeare are not likely Exercise
to be forgotten. Change the following sentences from Excla-
8. His wishes cannot be disregarded. matory to Simple sentences :
9. It was not long after his departure that I 1. O, what a fall was there, my countrymen !
came to know of the disappearance of the
ring. 2. What a delicious flavour these mangoes
have !
10. He left no scheme untried.
3. O, for a glass of cool water !
(b) Transform the following sentences from
Affirmative to Negative : 4. That you should dare to abuse me !
1. You are as foolish as your brother. 5. What would I not do to see you happy !
2. We all expect him to succeed in the long 6. How nicely he handles the bat !
run. 7. O, that I were young again !
3. Your son is a boy of uncommon intelli- 8. Alas, that fortune should be so short-lived !
gence. 9. That we should meet here !
4. This book can only be understood by one 10. Shame on you to kick the poor beggar !
who knows English.
8. Interchange of One Part of Speech for
5. Your daughter is beautiful. another—
6. The happening of such an event is possible (i) Your work does not satisfy me.
in future.
In this sentence the Verb ‘satisfy’ can be
7. He is greater than I.
changed into a Noun. As—
8. As soon as the lion came out of the cave, I
ran away. Your work does not give me satisfaction.
9. She is too beautiful to be admired in ordi- (ii) Do your work carefully.
nary words. In this sentence the Adverb ‘Carefully’ can be
10. My father was doubtful whether I would changed into a Noun. As—
pass. Do your work with care.
216 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) He has successfully finished the work. 4. The meaning of the word ‘useful’ is not the
In this sentence the Adverb ‘successfully’ can same as that of ‘valuable’.
be changed into a Verb. As— 5. No one can gain admission without prior
He has succeeded in finishing the work. permission.
6. He has no intention of leaving the town in
(iv) He is a disgrace to the family.
near future.
In this sentence the Noun ‘disgrace’ can be 7. I have a disinclination for work today.
changed into a Verb. As—
8. He refused to give his consent to my going.
He has disgraced the family.
(v) Mohan is more intelligent than his elder Exercise
brother. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
In this sentence the Adjective ‘intelligent’ can Adverbs in bold letters into Verbs—
be changed into a Noun. As— 1. I have completed my work successfully.
Mohan has more intelligence than his elder 2. London is admittedly the largest city in the
brother. world.
(vi) He was dismissed on the charge of negli- 3. The scene was surprisingly beautiful.
gence. 4. They welcomed the news most joyfully.
In this sentence the Noun ‘negligence’ can be 5. The silver dishes should be used sparingly.
changed into an Adjective. As—
Exercise
He was dismissed because he was negligent.
Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
(vii) The two events occurred differently in Verbs and Adjectives in bold letters into Nouns—
point of time.
1. The younger brother is more diligent than
In this sentence the Adverb ‘differently’ can the elder one.
be changed into an Adjective. As— 2. He is active and industrious and is admi-
The time of the occurrence of the two events red by everybody.
was different. 3. You must sign a receipt before I pay you
Or what is due to you.
The two events occurred at different times. 4. The best way to be healthy is to abstain
(viii) His dress was poor and shabby. from the use of harmful things.
5. The fact that you admit your fault will not
In this sentence the Adjectives ‘poor’ and
impair your prestige.
‘shabby’ can be changed into Adverbs. As—
He was poorly and shabbily dressed. Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences, changing
(ix) He broke the rule without any intention
Nouns and Adverbs in bold letters into Adjec-
of doing so.
tives—
In this sentence the Noun ‘intention’ can be 1. In all certainty he will get success.
changed into a Gerund. As—
2. He was dismissed for negligence rather
He broke the rule without intending to do so. than incompetence.
Exercise 3. Her beauty was remarkable.
Rewrite the following sentences, changing the 4. He was certainly clever but evidently he
Nouns in bold letters into Verbs— lacked diligence.
1. He did not fulfil his promise. 5. There can be no dispute on this point.
2. Gold gains stiffness if copper is mixed with Exercise
it. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the
3. He made a compromise of his claims with Nouns and Adjectives in bold letters into
the other party. Adverbs—
 TRANSFORMATION | 217

1. Your dress is shabby. 9. He must attend the court on pain of

2. I have come to you on purpose. prosecution.
3. A careful inspection of the letter by you 10. The train having stopped at the platform, all
may disclose a number of relevant facts. the passengers alighted.
4. His mistake was evident, but his sincerity 11. With all his strength he is far from being
was also obvious. proud.
5. He hurt you without any intention of 12. Entering the Darwar Hall Akbar sat down
doing. on the golden throne.
13. Notwithstanding several efforts, he failed.
9. (A) By converting Simple sentences into
Compound sentences— 14. Taking pity on the cat, the holy sage turned
it into a dog.
1. Simple : He died a brave death leaving
an example in the world. 15. Being desirous to win his favour, he agreed
to serve the holy man for six months.
Compound : He died a brave death and left
an example in the world. 16. Possessing all the advantages of money and
guidance, he could not make a good career
2. Simple : To his own disadvantage he
as a student.
broke off with his brother.
Compound : He broke off with his brother 9. (B) By converting Compound sentences into
and it was to his own dis- Simple sentences—
advantage. 1. Compound : He took a piece of paper and
started writing on it.
3. Simple : Besides robbing the traveller,
they also murdered him. Simple : Taking a piece of paper he
started writing on it.
Compound : They not only robbed the
traveller but also murdered 2. Compound : He was poor but he was res-
him. pected by all the people of his
village.
4. Simple : He must work hard to pass
this year. Simple : In spite of his poverty, he was
respected by all the people of
Compound : He must work hard or he will
his village.
not pass this year.
3. Compound : Do not steal or you will be
Exercise punished.
Change the following sentences from Simple Simple : Do not steal on pain of puni-
into Compound Sentences : shment.
1. He was turned out on account of his 4. Compound : You must either pay the bill at
arrogance. once or return the goods.
2. Coming forward, he pushed the door open. Compound : Failing prompt payment the
goods must be returned.
3. Taking off his clothes, he plunged into the
swelling river. Exercise
4. The toy being beautiful, we decided to Change the following sentences from Com-
purchase it at any cost. pound into Simple Sentences :
5. In his tower sat the poet gazing at the sea. 1. Somebody pulled the chain and the train
6. Despite the stupendity of his learning he is stopped.
not an original thinker. 2. He opened the casement and cast a glance
7. To my extreme horror the engine of the at the dark forest.
train was derailed. 3. He is rich, yet he is not contented.
8. Besides educating his nephew, he also set 4. He was a dull boy and therefore he was
him up in business. often rebuked by his teachers.
218 | L.W.C.E.

5. Make haste or else you will miss the train. 6. Simple : His silence proves his guilt.
6. He worked hard, but he failed. Complex : The fact that he is silent
7. He must have killed the lion for he is a proves his guilt.
good marksman. (Noun Clause)
8. His wife died and it added to his misfor- 7. Simple : He owed his success to my
tunes. help.
9. He practised daily and so he became an Complex : It was owing to my help that
expert player. he succeeded.
10. The peasants had not completed their work (Noun Clause)
and the sun set. 8. Simple : The house was thoroughly
11. He was found guilty of murder and hanged. searched.
12. He is a good and regular worker; only he is Complex : The house was searched as
rather slow. completely as it was possi-
ble. (Adverb Clause)
13. Your mother is very old and you must take
9. Simple : A man’s smartness is in
care of her.
inverse proportion to his bulk.
14. He is a learned man but in matters of Complex : The more bulky a man is the
business he is a fool. less smart he is.
15. Though he is poor, he is honest. (Adverb Clause)
10. (A) By converting Simple sentences into 10. Simple : Wise men do not talk too
Complex sentences— much.
1. Simple : He admitted his fault. Complex : The men who are wise do not
Complex : He admitted that he was at talk too much.
fault. (Noun Clause) (Adjective Clause)
2. Simple : The king took shelter in the 11. Simple : His ambition is to become a
hermit’s hut. doctor.
Complex : The king took shelter in the Complex : His ambition is that he may
hut which belonged to the become a doctor.
hermit. (Adjective Clause)
(Noun Clause)
3. Simple : This bill is likely to be intro-
duced in the parliament at the 12. Simple : My son worked on my advice.
commencement of the winter Complex : My son worked as I advised
session. him. (Adverb Clause)
Complex : This bill is likely to be intro- 13. Simple : He is strong for a child of ten.
duced in the Parliament when
Complex : He is very strong although he
the winter session comme-
is a child of ten.
nces. (Adverb Clause)
4. Simple : Non-vegetarians are not admi- (Adverb Clause)
tted. 14. Simple : Intelligent boys never fail.
Complex : If you are not a vegetarian, Complex : The boys who are intelligent
you cannot be admitted. never fail.
(Adverb Clause) (Adjective Clause)
5. Simple : It was the cruelest blow. 15. Simple : We are sure of winning the
Complex : It was a blow than which no match.
crueler could have been. Complex : We are sure that we shall win
(Adjective Clause) the match. (Noun Clause)
 TRANSFORMATION | 219

16. Simple : He had to leave for want of Exercise

efficiency. Convert the following Simple sentences into
Complex : He had to leave because he Complex sentences, using Adjective clauses—
was not efficient. 1. Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian to
(Adverb Clause) receive the Nobel Prize.
17. Simple : Men’s evils live after them. 2. He is spending his father’s earnings.
Complex : Evils which men do live after 3. Have you seen the blind musician ?
them. (Adjective Clause) 4. The advantages of study are innumerable.
18. Simple : He cannot succeed without 5. The watch is not a toy for you to play.
your help. 6. Brutus was a man of grand character.
Complex : He cannot succeed unless you 7. Shakespeare, the greatest of English drama-
help him. (Adverb Clause) tists, died in 1616.
8. It is the work of the government.
19. Simple : Ayodhya is the place of Ram’s
birth. 9. That is not the way of addressing the court.
Complex : Ayodhya is the place where 10. This is not the method of becoming rich.
Ram was born. Exercise
(Adjective Clause) Convert the following Simple sentences into
20. Simple : Listen to the teacher. Complex sentences, using Adverb clauses—
Complex : Listen to what the teacher 1. He absconded to avoid arrest.
says. (Noun Clause) 2. Since the time of our last meeting, I have
hardly entertained any other guest.
Exercise 3. Between the two brothers the elder is
Convert the following Simple sentences into stronger.
Complex sentences, using Noun clauses— 4. Do not enter the hall without ticket.
1. I cannot disclose the grounds of my conclu- 5. He married in the days of prosperity.
sion.
6. He is honest notwithstanding his poverty.
2. He confessed his guilt.
7. With all his riches, he is not cotented.
3. The secret of his success is not known.
8. I shall do according to the wishes of my
4. I wish you happiness. father.
5. His father is sure of his success at the 9. He replied to the best of his ability.
examination. 10. (B) By converting Complex sentences into
6. He is said to be a good orator. Simple sentences—
7. Her husband is likely to divorce her. 1. Complex : It is popularly believed among
8. I cannot believe his report. orthodox Hindus that the
earth rests on the hood of a
9. I am glad at your arrival in time. big snake. (Noun Clause)
10. He pleaded ignorance of the law. Simple : According to the popular ortho-
11. I hope to pass this year. dox Hindu belief, the earth
rests on the hood of a big
12. We believed the information to be true. snake.
13. Do you want me to accompany you to 2. Complex : The men who have risen by
Delhi ? their own efforts are always
14. I do not think it proper to disturb him in his respected. (Adjective Clause)
sleep. Simple : Self-made men are always res-
15. His rudeness has surprised me. pected.
220 | L.W.C.E.

3. Complex : Success comes automatically to 13. Complex : You can eat as much as you
a man who is diligent and like. (Adverb Clause)
patient. Simple : You can eat to your full satis-
(Adjective Clause) faction.
Simple : Success comes automatically to 14. Complex : I want a locality where I may
a diligent and patient man. be away from the noise and
4. Complex : Everyone admires a man if the bustle of the town.
man is honest. (Adjective Clause)
(Adverb Clause) Simple : I want a locality away from the
Simple : Everyone admires an honest noise and bustle of the town.
man. 15. Complex : When the cat is away, the
5. Complex : As you sow so you will reap. mice will play.
(Adverb Clause) (Adverb Clause)
Simple : You will reap the fruits of your Simple : The mice will play in the
own sowing. absence of the cat.
6. Complex : Youth i s the time when seeds 16. Complex : What he wrote was illegible.
of character are sown. (Noun Clause)
(Adverb Clause) Simple : His writing was illegible.
Simple : Youth is the time for the forma- 17. Complex : We get up when it is six
tion of character. O’clock.
7. Complex : He said that he was not guilty. (Adverb Clause)
(Noun Clause) Simple : We get up at six O’clock.
Simple : He pleaded innocence. 18. Complex : He speaks as if he were a boy
8. Complex : He was so weak that he could of ten.
not walk. (Adverb Clause)
(Adverb Clause) Simple : He speaks like a boy of ten.
Simple : He was too weak to walk. Exercise
9. Complex : Ashoka who was one of the
greatest of Indian Kings, em- Convert the following Complex sentences
braced Buddhism. into Simple sentences by removing the Noun
Clauses—
(Adjective Clause)
1. I doubt that you are honest.
Simple : Ashoka, one of the greatest of 2. I was astonished to know how old the saint
Indian Kings, embraced Buddh- was.
ism.
3. I want to know how much you earn every
10. Complex : I want to know where your month.
father lives. (Noun Clause) 4. We hope that you will pass.
Simple : I want to know the address of 5. The king ordered that the traitors should be
your father. punished.
11. Complex : No one knows whence the oil 6. The news that the enemy had landed spread
comes. (Noun Clause) like wild fire.
Simple : No one knows the origin of oil. 7. It cannot be said when he will return.
12. Complex : He died at the village where he 8. I am not sure whether I shall succeed this
was born. time.
(Adjective Clause) 9. Whoever is honest is respected.
Simple : He died at his native village. 10. Do not ask why I love you.
 TRANSFORMATION | 221

Exercise 3. Compound : Send the money within fif-

teen days or you will not get
Convert the following Complex sentences the books.
into Simple sentences by removing Adjective
Clauses— Complex : You will not get the books
unless you send the money
1. The solidiers who are brave are respected.
within fifteen days.
2. Rivers which are deep flow in silent maje-
sty. 4. Compound : Waste not, want not.
3. People who live in glass houses should not Complex : If you do not waste, you will
throw stones at others. not want.
4. All that glitters is not gold. 5. Compound : Kalidas was sitting on the
branch of a tree and was
5. Yesterday I saw a man who was very tall.
cutting it with his axe.
6. He who is poor is served by God.
Complex : Kalidas was sitting on the
7. Uneasy lies the head that wears the crown. branch of a tree, which he
8. The men who rise by their own efforts are was cutting with his axe.
always respected.
9. The services he has rendered to the country
Exercise
cannot be forgotten. Convert the following Compound sentences
into Complex sentences—
10. The boy who stood first got the prize.
1. Be careful in your studies or you will fail
Exercise this year.
Convert the following Complex sentences 2. The enemy aeroplane was shot down by our
into Simple sentences by removing Adverb fighters but its pilot was not killed.
Clauses—
3. Speak the truth and you will be pardoned.
1. I returned home after the sun had set.
4. He failed in his first attempt and never tried
2. He was so weak that he could not speak. again.
3. He gave me the signal as soon as he heard
5. Spare the rod and spoil the child.
the news.
4. A businessman grows rich in the long run if 6. He was all right; only he was fatigued.
he is honest. 7. I shall not oppose your design; I cannot
5. Nobody talked to him because he was poor. however approve it.
6. He worked hard that he may succeed. 8. He was obstinate, therefore he was punis-
7. I have done it as you advised me. hed.
8. I admire her because she is beautiful. 9. I was ill yesterday and could not attend the
function.
9. I could not come to you because I had no
time. 10. Only do the right and you will have no
10. He cannot go until I permit him. reason to feel ashamed.
11. (A) By converting Compound sentences into 11. My brother may not be industrious but he is
Complex sentences— certainly intelligent.
1. Compound : Be honest and you will be 12. He grew very weak but he did not break the
respected by all. fast.
Complex : If you are honest, you will 13. Do not take your supper in the rainy season
be respected by all. and you will not need medicine.
2. Compound : Do not go ahead or you may 14. Give him an inch and he will demand a
be drowned. yard.
Complex : If you go ahead, you may be 15. Take care of the pence and the pounds will
drowned. take care of themselves.
222 | L.W.C.E.

16. Her complexion was fair but her face was 7. I shall not cross the river because the flood
ugly. has not yet receded.
17. The thief ran away or he would have been 8. I do not think he will come.
caught. 9. If you do not quit the room, you will be
18. It seems too good to be true; nevertheless it thrown out.
is a fact. 10. I should go there as it is my duty.
19. The Rajputs were few, but they were brave. 11. Though they were few, they were brave.
20. His starting was good and so he won the 12. His bark is worse than his bite.
race. 13. If you wrap yourself in a blanket, you will
11. (B) By converting Complex sentences into be safe from cold.
Compound sentences— 14. Because he committed theft, he was
1. Complex : I know that you are a swin- punished.
dler. 15. I would have come, had I not fallen ill.
Compound : You are a swindler and I 16. Take down his words, lest you should
know this. forget them.
2. Complex : If you search his pocket, 17. However clever you may be, you cannot
you will find the watch. succeed without hard labour.
Compound : Search his pocket and you 18. If I put a civil question, I expect a civil
will find the watch. reply.
3. Complex : He ate more than ten cakes 19. As the question was difficult, no one could
which he could not digest. answer it.
Compound : He ate more than ten cakes, 20. They bear witness to the fact that Bhagat
and he could not digest them. Singh was a great patriot.
4. Complex : If I get some help from my 12. By interchanging Principal and Subordi-
father, I shall succeed in nate Clauses—
setting up my business. (i) I suggested for you a bride who was
Compound : I may get some help from my very beautiful.
father and in that case I The bride I suggested for you was very
shall succeed in setting up beautiful.
my business. (ii) I did not reach the station until the train
5. Complex : A glutton lives that he may had left.
eat. The train had left before I reached the
Compound : A glutton wants to eat and station.
therefore he lives. (iii) No sooner did I threaten him than he
Exercise confessed the guilt.
Convert the following Complex sentences He confessed the guilt as soon as I
into Compound sentences— threatened him.
1. As the man was absent from his house, I (iv) I met your father when he was going to
could not meet him. the office.
2. I loved a beautiful girl, though I could not Your father was going to the office
marry her. when I met him.
3. Unless you tell your name and address Exercise
correctly, you will be put behind the bars. Transform the following sentences b y con-
4. Had you not reached there in time, he verting the Principal Clause into Subordinate
would have put an end to his life. Clause and vice versa :
5. We eat that we may live. 1. He screamed as soon as he saw the lion.
6. The evil that men do, lives after them. 2. Many days shall pass before I return.
 TRANSFORMATION | 223

3. No sooner did he appear than all were 11. The day-before-yesterday I was able to
silent. play. (Negative and Interrogative)
4. The sun did not set until the farmers finis- 12. Rich people have four meals a day.
hed their work. (Negative and Interrogative)
5. I never make a promise which I cannot ful- 13. I have had some tea. (Negative)
fil. 14. Tell everybody that I shall go to Delhi.
6. Abhimanyu learnt all the tactics of the (Negative)
battle before he was fourteen. 15. I know something about it. (Negative)
7. That is the most hazardous step that you 16. They both must go. (Negative)
have taken. 17. The man in the corner is my friend.
8. No sooner did he earn fifty pounds than he (Complex Sentence)
squandered them. 18. They thought him to be a clever man and
9. As soon as he saw the policeman, he took called him master magician.
to his heels. (Passive form)
10. You are wiser than I thought. 19. When the sun set the birds stopped singing.
11. I cannot give my opinion until I see the (Simple Sentence)
pros and cons of the case. 20. Govind is brighter than any other boy in the
12. He is more kind and courteous than he class. (Superlative form)
appeared to be. 21. The man ate some fruits and the woman
Revision Exercise drank a little water. (Into Negative form)
Change the following sentences according 22. Mohan did not work hard and so he did not
to the instructions given in brackets : pass.
1. The old lady who is standing on the river- (Into positive conditional form using ‘If’)
bank is Sita’s grandmother. 23. Each of the books his father gave him costs
(Change into Simple Sentence) a lot. (Into Interrogative form)
2. Satish did not come to my house yesterday, 24. They say that another world war will dest-
and Harish did not come either. roy all life on earth. (Into Passive form)
(Simple Sentence) Revision Exercise
3. I met a man this morning. He had a long Transform the following sentences accord-
beard. (Simple Sentence) ing to the instructions given in brackets—
4. Last year Mr. Sharma went to England. His 1. She is too beautiful to be admired.
brother went with him. (Remove “too”)
(Simple Sentence) 2. My father is so weak that he cannot walk.
5. He works hard from morning till night. (Use “too”)
(Present perfect continuous) 3. His brother is too foolish to become a law-
6. The man ate and drank as much as he yer. (Remove “too”)
could. (Interrogative) 4. That merchant is so dishonest that we
7. You did not ask him where he lived. cannot trust him. (Use “too”)
(Interrogative) 5. Can the sun ever set in the east ?
8. The boy meets his friend and gives him all (Assertive)
he has. (Plural)
6. This picture is beautiful. (Negative)
9. Nobody would like to be called a fool.
7. He is not courageous. (Assertive)
(Interrogative)
10. Who is fitter than he for the job ? 8. Happiness is not abiding. (Assertive)
(Negative) 9. When can their glory fade ? (Negative)
224 | L.W.C.E.

10. Everest is the highest peak in the world. 31. We hope for the betterment of our financial
(Interrogative) conditon. (Complex)
11. Brahmaputra is longer than any other river 32. It is unjust to discriminate among people on
in India. (Positive degree Adjective) racial grounds. (Complex)
12. Steel is not the heaviest metal. 33. He is more intelligent than his elder bro-
ther. (Positive degree)
(Positive degree Adjective)
34. Provided you work hard, your success is
13. My house is not as big as yours. sure. (Use ‘If’)
(Comparative degree Adjective) 35. His wife is beautiful, but her health is poor.
14. He has broken the rule unintentionally. (Complex)
(‘unintentionally’ to be changed into Noun) 36. Loading his gun he fired at the lion.
15. The company has gone into liquidation. (Compound)
(‘liquidation’ to be changed into Verb) 37. Your adversary is too strong to be defeated
16. It is beyond my expectation. by you. (Active voice)
38. European history has been thoroughly
(‘expectation’ into Verb)
studied by me. (Active voice)
17. His lecture was very scholarly.
39. He is so brave that no one can defeat him.
(Complex sentence)
(Passive voice)
18. He opened the chest and pulled out a
40. Do not miss the golden opportunity.
bundle of bank notes. (Simple)
(Passive voice)
19. Though heavy, your ring is not made of
pure gold. (Complex and Compound) 41. As a rule, the English Parliament should be
called at least once a year. (Complex)
20. How can I believe a man who has deceived
me thrice ? (Assertive) 42. It is abundantly clear from his behaviour
that he is not inclined to help us. (Simple)
21. The management of the company is likely
43. When the cat is away, the mice must play.
to change. (Complex)
(Simple)
22. Do not cross the railway line, or you may
be killed by the running train. (Complex) 44. Their friendship is not permanent.
23. He has committed the crime, but he is an (Assertive)
object of compassion. (Complex) 45. He admitted his fault. (Complex)
24. O, How can I discharge your obligation ! 46. The name of the American President is not
(Assertive) known to me. (Active voice)
25. Deep rivers flow in silent majesty. 47. The broth is spoilt by too many cooks.
(Complex) (Active voice)
26. He has been released without any condi- 48. We are confident of our success.
tion. (Complex)
49. We must work, otherwise we cannot live.
(‘condition’ to be change into Adverb)
(Simple)
27. Rice is not the most nutritious of grains.
50. Your work does not satisfy me.
(Positive and Comparative degree Adjec-
tive) (‘Satisfy’ change into Adjective)
28. A burnt child dreads the fire. (Complex) 51. Sita is the eldest member of the family and
of her four daughters Urmila is the pret-
29. Barking dogs seldom bite. (Complex) tiest. (Comparative degree Adjective)
30. Peacock is the most beautiful of birds. 52. The difficulty was solved by means of spe-
(Comparative and Positive degree Adjec- cial service devised for the occasion
tive) (‘Service’ be made Subject)
 TRANSFORMATION | 225

53. You are already as well acquainted with my 60. I am very desirous to meet you once more.
friends as I am. (Use ‘Known’) (Exclamatory)
54. There was hardly a man who did not res- 61. He is so clever that I cannot keep pace with
pond to his call. (Simple Assertive) him. (‘too’ to be used)
55. When the commander informed the king
that his troops had won a great victory, he 62. He was more worthy of praise than any one
ordered national rejoicing. (Passive voice) else. (Negative)
56. Our expenditure goes up with our income. 63. Every man within India can claim the pro-
(Complex) tection of law.
57. When the war broke out, prices went up (Negative and Interrogative)
rapidly. (Simple) 64. Work hard and you will succeed at last.
58. You can imagine my horror at the news of
dacoity in my house. (Complex) (Complex)
59. It is most probable that he will come back 65. But for prompt medical help, he would
today. have succumbed to his injuries.
(‘Probable’ to be changed into Adverb) (Complex)
 18 Formation of Words
Every Language of the world is a kind of – ery, – ry : slavery, drudgery, machinery.
well-knit and progressive huge family. Every – ful : mouthful, handful, spoonful.
word of that language is a member of that family.
(ii) Common Noun to Abstract Noun
Therefore the development of the whole language
depends upon the development of each word in it. – hood : womanhood, boyhood, priest-
Further, each word has its own family too, and its hood, knighthood.
family also grows and develops by slow degrees. – dom : officialdom, martyrdom, wis-
Every word has its origin in some Primary or dom.
Base Word. Many words are formed from each – ship : kingship, friendship, member-
Primary word through a number of linguistic ship, fellowship.
processes. Many new words are formed by the
addition of Prefixes and Suffixes to the Primary (iii) Adjective to Noun (Abstract)
words and their Derivatives, and these new words – ness : Happiness, kindness, gentleness,
belong to different Parts of Speech and are of greatness.
different Numbers and Genders. Thus, for – ity : seniority, diversity, activity,
example, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, etc. can be superiority.
formed from Nouns, and so on. The Vocabulary of (iv) Other words to Noun (Abstract)
a student can develop immensely by under-
standing and making use of these linguistic pro- – t, th (With frequent changes in Vowels) :
cesses. Therefore, we give below a comprehensive high-height, thief-theft, dead-death, hot-heat.
list of Suffixes and Prefixes and the words formed (v) Verb to Noun
by them. – er, or : driver, waiter, writer, actor, dic-
Prefixes are used before and Suffixes after tator.
the Primary words or their Derivatives to form – ant : consultant, informant, inhabi-
new words. tant, determinant.
Let us first take the Suffixes. These Suffixes – ee : payee, employee, nominee.
are called Conversion Suffixes because they – action : dictation, citation, starvation,
convert the Primary words into different Parts of exploitation.
Speech and their kinds—
– ment : judgement, postponement, pay-
Suffixes ment, government.
(1) Noun Suffixes – al : arrival, dismissal, disposal, pro-
posal.
(i) Noun to Noun
– ing : painting, drawing, gardening,
– an : Republican, Indian, Russian. drinking.
– ese : Chinese, Japanese. – age : cartage, postage, usage, carriage.
– ist : Florist, socialist, royalist. (vi) Nouns made by change of Vowel or Con-
– ism : idealism, absenteeism, Buddh- sonant in the Verb
ism. breathe-breath; lose-loss; lend-loan; feed-
– eer : engineer, profiteer. food; think-thought.
 FORMATION OF WORDS | 227

(2) Verb Suffixes Nume-

Noun / Adjective to Verb rals : five-rupee note, three-storied,
(i) – ify : beautify, classify, modify, simp- fifty-year old, fourteenth-century
lify, terrify. poet.
– ize : sympathize, humanize, memo- (4) Adverb Suffixes
rize, idealize.
– en : quicken, widen, heighten, – ily, ly : heavily, largely, painfully,
strengthen. greatly, easily.
(ii) Prefixes be–, en–, em– : embitter, empower, – ward(s) : downward(s), upward(s), heaven-
enrage, encourage, bemoan, belittle. ward(s), homeward(s).
(3) Adjective Suffixes – wise : lengthwise, clockwise, money-
wise.
(i) Noun to Adjective
A list of popular words converted into
– ful : beautiful, useful, helpful, boun-
tiful. different parts of speech is given below :
– less : harmless, useless, childless, (i) NOUNS INTO VERBS
meaningless. Authority – Authorize Class – classify
– y, ly : hairy, glassy, rosy, lovely, Apology – apologize Colony – colonize
manly, brotherly.
Allusion – allude Collision – collide
– like : childlike, teacherlike.
Blood – bleed Company – accompany
– ish : selfish, girlish, foolish.
Beauty – beautify Custom – accustom
– some : handsome, troublesome.
Body – embody Camp – encamp
– worthy : praiseworthy, trustworthy, air-
Circle – encircle Character – characterize
worthy.
Excellence – Excel Origin – originate
– al : cultural, natural, agricultural.
Economy – economize Office – officiate
– ive : attractive, expensive, responsive.
Food – feed Perception – perceive
– ous, eous,
Fool – befool Patron – patronize
ious : amitious, injurious, pious, virtu-
ous, famous, beauteous. Force – enforce Peace – pacify
Friend – befriend Person – personify
– ie : heroic, scientific, emphatic.
Grass – graze Prison – imprison
– esque : picturesque, statuesque.
Glory – glorify Peril – imperil
– arian,
ean : authoritarian, Shakespearean. Gold – gild Power – empower
(ii) Verb / Adjective to Adjective Habit – habituate Right – rectify
Harmony – harmonize Relief – relieve
– able,
Haste – hasten Sermon – sermonize
ible : dependable, readable, memor-
Height – heighten Shrine – enshrine
able, comprehensible, divisible.
Idol – idolize Slave – enslave
– ish : longish, bluish,s greenish, smal-
lish. Justice – justify Substance – substantiate
– ing : running, rising, sinking, boiling. Knee – kneel Throne – enthrone/
Loss – lose dethrone
– ed : tired, walled, spotted, adopted. List – enlist Title – entitle
(iii) Compound Adjectives Monopoly – monopolize Tomb – entomb
Present Participle Magnet – magnetize Utility – utilize
(– ing) : fast-moving train, long-suffering Memory – memorise Verse – versify
man, grass-cutting, high-flying. Nature – naturalize Vigour – invigorate
Past Participle Notice – notify Vacancy – vacate
(– ed, – t) : long-haired, well-fed, thin-cove- Necessity – necessitate Victim – victimize
red, wind-swept, well-kept. Vice – vitiate
228 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) VERBS INTO NOUNS (v) NOUNS INTO ADJECTIVES

Accom accomplish- Respond – response Advice – advisable Angel – angelic
plish – ment Heal – health Air – aerial Authority – authoritative
Accom accom- Know – knowledge Angle – angular Autumn – autumnal
pany – paniment Lend – loan Bounty – bounteous Merchant – merchantile
Acquit – acquittal Move – motion Brass – brazen Metal – metallic
Bathe – bath Narrate – narration Beast – bestial Medicine – medicinal
Betray – betrayal Oblige – obligation Contempt – contemp- Merit – meritorious
Conceive – conception Persuade – persuasion tuous/ Minister – ministerial
Commit – commitment Please – pleasure contemptible Muscle – muscular
Calamity – calamitous Myth – mythical
Deceive – deception Precise – precision
Circle – circular Money – monetary
Defy – defiance Pursue – pursuit
College – collegiate Night – nocturnal
Deny – denial Redeem – redemption
Conscience – conscientious
Do – deed Urge – urgency
Circumstance – circumstantial
Rely – reliance Vary – variety
Emperor – imperial Nose – nasal
(iii) OTHER WORDS INTO ABSTRACT Expectation – expectant Offence – offensive
NOUNS Example – exemplary Omen – ominous
Apt – aptness Long – length Enemy – inimical Population – populous
Beautiful – beauty Machine – mechanism Essence – essential Professor – professorial
Bond – bondage Regent – regency Explana- explana- Pathos – pathetic
Beggar – beggary Servant – service tion – tory Picture – picturesque/
Coward – cowardice Sad – sadness Fraud – fraudulent pictorial
Courageous – courage Smooth – smoothness Flower – floral Prejudice – prejudicial
Fable – fabulous Problem – problematic
Dead – death Short – shortness
Fever – feverish Palace – palatial
Difficult – difficulty True – truth
Fate – fatal Ruin – ruinous
Deep – depth Weak – weakness
Grief – grievous Supersti- supersti-
Generous – generosity Wise – wisdom Grass – grassy tion – tious
Hero – heroism Witch – witchery Hand – handy Sun – solar
Infant – infancy Warm – warmth Hypocrite – hypocritical Star – starry
Jealous – jealousy Young – youth Industry – industrious Sedition – seditious
(iv) ADJECTIVES INTO NOUNS Joy – joyous Service – serviceable
Able – ability Local – locality Joke – jocular Secretary – secretarial
Acid – acidity Merry – merriment Judge – judicial Study – studious
Brief – brevity Magnificent – magnifi- Licence – licentious Tribe – tribal
Busy – business cence Lustre – lustrous Vice – vicious
Chaste – chastity Notorious – notoriety Voice – vocal
Civil – civility Obedient – obedience (vi) FORMATION OF SOME TYPICAL
False – falsehood Pious – piety ADJECTIVES
Ferocious – ferocity Public – publicity Age – senile Church – ecclesias-
Gay – gaiety Rival – rivalry Brother – fraternal tical
Grand – grandeur Secret – secrecy Blood – sanguinary Dog – canine
Generous – generosity Splendid – splendour Cat – feline Egg – oval
Humble – humility Vain – vanity City – urban Eye – optical
Just – justice Wide – width Flock – gregarious Flesh – carnal
Liberal – liberality Worthy – worth Hair – capillary Sun – solar
 FORMATION OF WORDS | 229

Life – vital Tooth – dental Negotiate – negotiable Terrify – terrific

Love – amorous Town – urban Perish – perishable Transfer – transferable
Moon – lunar Taste – palatable Punish – punishable Vary – various
Punishment– penal Village – rural Permit – permissible Work – workable
Salt – saline War – martial Negative Prefixes and Suffixes
Sea – marine Woman – effeminate
Antonyms are formed by adding the follow-
Ship – naval Watch – vigilant
ing Prefixes or Suffixes before or after some
Sky – etherial Youth – juvenile words—
Spring – vernal Year – annual
(a) Prefixes
(vii) ADJECTIVES INTO VERBS il –before words beginning with l ( as illegal )
Able – enable Large – enlarge im–before b, m, or p, ( as imbalance, imma-
Abundant – abound Little – belittle ture or impure )
Bitter – embitter Long – prolong ir–before r ( as irreligious )
Base – debase Mad – madden in–before other letters (as inability, indepen-
Clear – clarify Moist – moisten dent )
Civil – civilize Noble – ennoble un–( as untrue )
Clean – cleanse Public – publish
dis– ( as disadvantage )
Different – differentiate popular – popularise
non–(as nonviolence, nonvegetarian, non-
Double – duplicate Poor – impoverish
sense)
Dramatic – dramatize Perpetual – perpetuate
Equal – equalize Pure – purify (b) Suffix-less (as graceless, meaningless,
powerless)
Fat – fatten Real – realize
Fertile – fertilize Rich – enrich (c) Verb Prefixes
Firm – confirm Safe – save em – ( as empower, embody, embitter )
Fresh – refresh Sweet – sweeten en – ( as enable, ensure, encourage )
Feeble – enfeeble Solid – solidify re – ( as recall, remind, reopen )
Fond – fondle Sure – ensure
de – ( as devalue, decompose, decontrol)
General – generalize Vile – vilify
mis – ( as misunderstand, miscalculate )
Venerable – venerate
pre – ( as prepaid, prejudge )
(viii) VERBS INTO ADJECTIVES
A list of popular Antonyms formed by
Agree – agreeable Change – changeful
Negative Prefixes is given below :
Accept – acceptable Divide – divisible
Bear – bearable Defend – defensive (i) il —
Break – breakable Desire – desirable Legal illegal Legible illegible
Consider – considerable Deceive – deceitful Legitimate illegitimate Liberal illiberal
Encourage – courageous Resist – resistible Literate illiterate Logical illogical
Fear – fearful Read – readable (ii) im—
Gain – gainful Regret – regrettable Balance imbalance Material immaterial
Govern – governable Respect – respectable Mature immature Measurable immeasurable
Harm – harmful Respond – responsive Mobile immobile Modest immodest
Hate – hateful Receive – receptive Moral immoral Mortal immortal
Imagine – imaginative Spend – spendthrift Movable immovable Perfect imperfect
Injure – injurious Succeed – successful Pertinent impertinent Pious impious
Loathe – loathsome Slip – slippery Partial impartial Possible impossible
Marry – marriageable Solicit – solicitous Patient impatient Penitent impenitent
Manage – manageable Taste – tasteful Proper improper Prudent imprudent
Meddle – meddlesome Tire – tiresome Pure impure
230 | L.W.C.E.

(iii) in— (v) un—

Ability inability Accessible inaccessible Able unable Answerable unanswerable
Accurate inaccurate Action inaction Bearable unbearable Called-for uncalled-for
Adequate inadequate Animate inanimate Certain uncertain Comfor- uncomfor-
Applicable inapplicable Artistic inartistic Fit unfit table table
Fortunate unfortunate Foreseen unforeseen
Coherent incoherent Competent incompetent
Known unknown Happy unhappy
Complete incomplete Consistent inconsistent Pleasant unpleasant Natural unnatural
Conveni- inconveni- Social unsocial Seen unseen
ence Correct ence incorrect Timely untimely Thinkable unthinkable
Credible incredible Capable incapable Well unwell Usual unusual
Decent indecent Dependent independent (vi) dis—
Advantage disadvantage Agree disagree
Direct indirect Domitable indomitable
Agreeable disagreeable Appear disappear
Efficient inefficient Elegant inelegant Appoint disappoint Close disclose
Fallible infallible Formal informal Comfort discomfort Connect disconnect
Human inhuman Organic inorganic Credit discredit Encourage discourage
Grace disgrace Honest dishonest
Secure insecure Sincere insincere
Honour dishonour Like dislike
Sufficient insufficient Tolerant intolerant Order disorder Qualifica- disqualifica-
Valid invalid Variable invariable Regard disregard tion tion
Vulnerable invulnerable Satisfaction dissatisfaction Respect disrespect
Union disunion Service disservice
(iv) ir— Unity disunity
Rational irrational Recoverable irrecoverable (vii) less—
Regular irregular Religious irreligious Artful artless Careful careless
Reconcil- irreconcil- Removable irremovable Cheerful cheerless Colourful colourless
able able Reparable irreparable Fruitful fruitless Graceful graceless
Hopeful hopeless Harmful harmless
Resolute irresolute Repressible irrepressible
Merciful merciless Powerful powerless
Redeem- irredeemable Painful painless Remorseful remorseless
able Tasteful tasteless Thoughtful thoughtless
 19 Antonyms
“Antonyms are words of the same gramma- Analysis : (breaking up) synthesis
tical class (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, etc.) that (combination)
have opposite meanings.” David Green Ancestor : (forefathers) descendant
Antonyms are of two kinds— (coming down
(i) The first kind of Antonyms are those that from ancestors)
are formed by the addition of Prefixes or Ancient : (old) modern (of the
Suffixes before or after some words. present time)
(ii) The second kind of Antonyms are those Aristocrat : commoner
words that have opposite meanings to the Arrive : depart
given words without having any etymolo- Ascent : (rising) descent (declining)
gical relationship with them—
Assent : (agree) dissent (disagree)
The Antonyms that are formed by the addi- Asset : (capital) liability
tion of some Prefixes or Suffixes have been discu-
(debit side)
ssed in detail above in chapter 18 (Formation of
Words). In that chapter a Complete list of Anto- Attract : repel
nyms so formed has also been given. Therefore, Awake : asleep
the student should study this part of chapter 18 Barren : (unproductive) fertile (productive)
carefully before studying the present chapter. Base : noble
The Antonyms of the second category are Beautiful : ugly
independent words, which are not bound by any Belief : doubt
rules. Therefore, a long list of such Antonyms has Benediction : (blessing) malediction (curse)
been given below for the student’s ready
reference. Meanings of difficult words have also Benevolence : (generosity) malevolence(lack
been given. of generosity)
Bold : timid
Above : below or beneath.
Bonafides : (Trustworthiness) malafides
Abstract :
(not trustworthy)
(unreal, conceptual only) concrete (real)
Boom : (rise) slump (fall)
Accept : reject
Bravery : cowardice
Acquit : (to set free) condemn
Bright : dim or dull
(to punish)
Carnal : (of the senses) spiritual (of the
Advance : retreat
Affirm : (accept, admit) deny (refuse) spirit or soul)
Affluence : (prosperity) poverty Centrifugal : (moving away centripetal
(being poor) from the centre) (drawn towards
Aggravate : (increase) alleviate or lessen the centre)
(reduce) Cheap : dear or costly
Agree : differ Cheerful : gloomy
Allow : forbid Clean : dirty
232 | L.W.C.E.

Clergy : (priest) laity Exclude : (leaving out) include

(common men) (counting in)
Clever : stupid Exit : (gate to go out) entrance
Common : rare (gate to come in)
Compulsory : optional Exotic : (foreign / strange) indigenous (local /
Concord : (agreement) discord native)
(disagreement) Expand : contract
Confident : diffident Explicit : (clear) implicit (implied)
(having confidence) (lacking Exterior : (outside) interior (inside)
confidence) External : internal
Convex : concave Extravagant : (wasteful) frugal or thrifty
Covert : (concealed) overt (open) (careful in
Create : destroy spending)
Dark : light Famous : obscure
Dawn : dusk Fast : loose or slow
Debit : credit Fat : lean or thin
Debtor : (one in debt) creditor (one Fictitious : (imaginary) real
who gives loans) Flattery : detraction
Deduction : (from general to induction (from Float : sink
particular) particular to Forget : remember
general) Foreign : (of other countries) native
Deep : shallow (of one’s own
Defendant : (defending side) plaintiff country)
(complainant) Frequent : rare
Defensive : (on the defense) offensive (one who Fresh : stale
offends) Friendly : hostile
Deficit : (short balance) surplus (saving, Full : empty
extra) Gain : loss
Deflate : inflate Gather : scatter
Deliberate : unintentional or General : particular or
accidental. special
Democracy : autocracy Generous : (large–hearted) mean (narrow–
Diligent : lazy minded)
Dilute : concentrated Gentle : rough
Dwarf : giant Genuine : (real / pure) spurious (impure /
Ebb : flow imitation)
Efflux : (flow out) influx (flow in) Glut : (too much supply) scarcity (short
Egoism : (of the self) altruism (of the supply)
others beyond self) Gradual : abrupt or sudden
Elevation : (rise) depression (fall) Grave : gay
Emigrant : (citizens of our immigrant Guilty : innocent
country settled in other (Foreigners settled Harsh : gentle
countries) in our country) Hasty : leisurely
Exaggeration : understatement Hate : love
(high estimation) (low estimation) Haughty : meek
 ANTONYMS | 233

Heavy : light Landlord : tenant

Help : hinder Lascivious : (sensual) chaste (pure / holy)
Hero : villain Licentious : moral (of noble
High : low (given to immoral habits) character)
Hit : miss Lewd : (immoral, of low virtuous
Hollow : solid values) (possessing good
Homogenous : heterogeneous qualities)
(of the same kind) (of a different Later : earlier
kind) Latter : former
Honour : shame Lead : follow
Hope : despair Lend : borrow
Host : guest Let : hire
Hurt : heal Liberate : enslave
Ideal : actual Literal : (actual) figurative
Idle : busy (decorative)
Imagination : reality Loose : tight
Immanent : (indwelling) transcendent Loquacious : (too talkative) taciturn (gentle
(beyond the and soft-spoken)
material world) Lose : find
Import : export Major : minor
Increase : decrease Many : few
Individual : general Marriage : celibacy
Industrious : (hard working) indolent or lazy Masculine : feminine
(slow in working) Material : spiritual
Inferior : superior Maximum : (highest) minimum (lowest)
Inhale : (to breathe in) exhale (to breathe Memory : (in remembrance) oblivion
out) (forgotten)
Input : output Microcosm : macrocosm
Insert : extract (in small measure) (in large measure)
Jolly, Jovial : morose or gloomy Mild : stern or severe
Joy : sorrow Miser : spendthrift
Junior : senior Monogamy : (system of one polygamy
Justify : (to hold right) condemn marriage only) (system of many
(to blame) marriages)
Keen : blunt or dull Monotheism : (worshipping polytheism
Kernel : shell of one God only) (worshipping of
Kill : resurrect many gods)
(to revive) Monotony : variety or diversity
Kind : cruel Motion : rest
Kindle : extinguish Naive : (simple) sophisticated
King : subject (highly cultivated)
Knowledge : ignorance Narrow : broad
Lament : (to weep in sorrow) rejoice Native : foreign
(to feel delighted) Natural : artificial
234 | L.W.C.E.

Nebulous : (hidden in mist) distinct (clear) Promote : demote

Negative : positive Prow : (front part of the ship) stern (back part of
Neutral : partial the ship)
Niggard : (very greedy) spendthrift Public : private
(wasteful) Quiet : noisy
Noxious : (harmful) wholesome Queer : normal
(useful) Rash : (hasty) cautious (careful)
Observe : reverse Rapid : slow or leisurely
Odd : even Recede : (going backward) advance
Offer : refuse (going forward)
Often : seldom Ralative : absolute
Omission : (leaving out) commission Reluctant : (hesitant) ready or willing
(devoted to action) Remember : forget
Optimistic : (hopeful) pessimistic Remitter : (he who sends) receiver or
(hopeless / sad) recipient (he who
Oral : written receives)
Oriental : (of the East) occidental Reserved : sociable
(of the West) Resist : (to stand against) submit (to yield)
Original : (real / first copy) duplicate (false Retail : wholesale
copy, not real) Reward : punish
Orthodox : (believer in heterodox Ripe : raw
religion) (non-believer in Rise : fall or set
religion) Rough : smooth
Ostensible : (showy) actual (real) Rude : polite
Partly : wholly Sacred : (holy) profane (unholy)
Permanent : temporary Safe : risky or dangerous
Permit : prohibit Saint : sinner
Philanthropist : (given to misanthropist Servant : master
public good) (against public Sharp : blunt
good) Simple : complex or
Pleasure : pain. complicated
Practice : theory Sink : swim or float
Pragmatic : (practical) idealistic Smile : frown
(in ideal state only) Sober : drunk or rash
Praise : blame Solid : liquid
Precede : (coming before) succeed Starboard : (right side of port or larbord
(coming after) the ship) (left side of the
Pride : humility ship)
Profit : loss Straight : crooked or curved
Progress : regress or Strait : broad
retrogression Strange : familiar
Progressive : (forward going) reactionary or Subjective : objective
retrograde Succeed : fail
(backward going) Sure : doubtful
 ANTONYMS | 235

Sweet : bitter or sour Urban : (of the city) rural (of the
Sympathy : (kind attitude) antipathy village)
(unkind attitude) Urbane : rude or uncultured
Tall : short Vacant : occupied
Temporal : (physical) spiritual or eternal Vague : clear or definite
(of the spirit / soul) Variable : (changing) constant (fixed)
Tense : relaxed Vanguard : (front portion) rearguard
Terrestrial : (of the earth) celestial (back portion)
(of heaven) Vertical : (standing,
Thesis : antithesis perpendicular) horizontal (flat)
Thick : thin Victory : defeat
Tight : loose or slack Virtue : vice
Top : bottom Voluntary : (optional, free) compulsory
Tranquil : (quiet) Disturbed or (obligatory)
agitated (unquiet) Wake : sleep
Transparent : opaque Wax : (grow) wane (reduce)
Triumph : defeat Wealth : poverty
Trivial : important Wide : narrow
True : false Win : lose
Unite : separate Wise : foolish
Upper : lower Zenith : (highest point) nadir
Upright : dishonest (lowest point)
 20 Synonyms
Synonyms are the words which have the 5. Ill—(not in health)
same meaning. They are the opposite of Anto- He is ill these days.
nyms. Antonyms are the words which are opposite
to each other in meaning, while Synonyms are the Sick—(under the effect of some disease)
words which are similar to each other in mean- A sick man must take his medicine regu-
ing. But a close study would reveal that though larly.
the synonyms are similar in meaning, there is 6. Mistake—(misunderstanding or miscalcula-
always a shade of difference in their intention and tion)
application. Therefore, a student must understand
They mistake him for a gentleman.
the minute distinction between their meanings to
be able to use them carrectly. We give below a list Don’t commit such a mistake again.
of popular Synonyms explaining the delicate Blunder—(serious or gross mistake)
difference in their meanings and their use in
sentences. You would be committing a blunder if
1. Home—(dwelling place with all its happy you don’t report the matter to the police.
associations such as furnishings, family, love, Error—(departure from established rules or
etc.) practice).
He is returning home after many years. Avoid grammatical errors.
House—(dwelling place, building only) 7. Oral—(in the spoken form)
He has built a big house. The teacher took an oral test.
2. Hear—(in the ordinary sense) Verbal—(in words only as against in writing)
We could hear them talking. Let me have your statement in writing; I
Listen—(implies careful attention) shall not accept your verbal assurance.
The whole class will listen to you. 8. Presume—(to believe what we think to be
3. Infectious—(refers to a disease that spreads true)
through air or water) I presume he is an honest man.
Cholera is an infectious disease. Assume—(in matters that ought to be true)
Contagious—(a disease that spreads by phy- I assume my father will send me money
sical contact) in time.
Small-pox is a contagious disease. 9. Possible—(not contrary to natural conditions
4. Idle—(inactive or without work through or reason)
circumstances) If we drive a little faster, it is possible we
He has been sitting idle for several may reach before sunset.
months now. Probable—(what may happen)
Lazy—(inactive by habit or temperament) It is probable that the examination may
He is too lazy to finish his work in time. be postponed.
 SYNONYMS | 237

10. Praise—(refers to one’s actions) ● The post of the accountant has fallen
● We must praise his efforts. vacant.
Admire—(refers to one’s qualities or posses- Empty—(where there is nothing)
sions) ● The room is empty.
● We must admire his courage. 18. Assent—(relates to matters of judgment)
11. Prohibit—(legal or official restriction) ● The President has given his assent to the
● Drinking is prohibited here. bill.
Forbid—(in personal or private matters) Consent—(relates to matters of conduct)
● My father forbids me to leave today. ● My father has given his consent to my
proposal.
12. Recollect—(call to mind through some efforts)
19. Allow—(denotes a negative action and means
● Can you recollect what he said ? abstain from refusal)
Remember—(call to mind with very little or ● I can’t allow you to go there
no efforts)
Permit—(denotes a positive action and means
● I remember we met last month. to give a decided assent)
13. Regret—(unhappiness over what one has ● My parents have permitted me to join the
done or left undone) Navy.
● To my great regret, I have suspended him. 20. Abstain—(from a thing)
Sorrow—(refers to some loss or evil) ● You must abstain from hard drinks.
● His wife’s death has plunged him into Refrain—(from an action)
deep sorrow. ● You are refrained from taking any further
14. Say—(to assert; to declare) action.
● I say I have not done it. 21. Avenge—(just punishment on evil-doers)
Speak—(to express in the ordinary way) ● I shall avenge my father’s death upon the
● He speaks very fast. murderer.
Tell—(to inform; to narrate) Revenge—(to inflict pain or injury out of
resentment or grudge)
● He will tell you the whole story.
● I will certainly revenge myself on him for
15. See—(without any effort) this insult.
● We see greenery all around us. 22. Admit—(to acknowledge or accept)
Look—(with effort or intention) ● I admit my fault.
● Please look at me. Confess—(to acknowledge responsibility or
Watch—(to observe closely) guilt)
● You must watch his movements care- ● He confessed his involvement in the
fully. crime.
16. Scenery—(landscape) 23. Anger—(sudden feeling of displeasure)
● Every visitor admires the scenery of ● He showed much anger at his irresponsi-
Kashmir. ble behaviour.
Scene—(Place or spot of some action or Resentment—(a lasting feeling of displea-
occurrence) sure)
● He was present at the scene of accident. ● He bears resentment against me for a
cause not known to me.
17. Vacant—(refers to a thing or situation which
is at present free or unoccupied but which was 24. Answer—(a question is answered)
previously filled) ● Answer any five questions.
238 | L.W.C.E.

Reply—(a letter or a charge is replied) Daring—(courage with rashness)

● You have to reply these charges within a ● He showed much daring in jumping into
week. the flooded river.
25. Attain—(to get by exertion or labour) 30. Battle—(a single contest between two oppo-
● He has attained proficiency in English. sing armies)
Acquire—(to have some hold permanently) ● The battle of Haldighati was fought bet-
ween Maharana Pratap and the Mughals.
● He has acquired one more house.
War—(a series of contests between two opp-
26. Ancient—(opposed to modern) osing armies)
● This is an ancient fort. ● The First World War started in 1914.
Old—(opposed to young or new) Fight—(a combat between a small number of
● He deals in old books. persons)
27. Ability—(power to do something physical or ● There was a fierce fight between the
intellectual) police and the dacoits.
● He has remarkable ability to guide you in 31. Begin—(used on all occasions)
this field. ● Let us begin the match.
Capacity—(power to achieve, hold or con- Commence—(used only in official and for-
tain) mal language)
1. He has the capacity to consume one full ● The University examinations commence
bottle of whisky. on April 15.
2. This hall has a seating capacity for two Start—(implies an idea of an actual physical
hundred people. motion)
28. Astonishment—(extreme surprise) ● Now the match starts.
● I was astonished to see a crowd of people
32. Beautiful—(implies certain degree of deli-
standing before my gate. cacy, not applicable to men)
Surprise—(due to something new or unex- ● She is a very beautiful girl.
pected)
Hadsome—(is used for men)
● I was surprised to find my father waiting
● He is a handsome young man.
for me in my room.
Wonder—(surprise mixed with admiration) 33. Cutom—(generally refers to the repeated
action of many persons, a community, a
● I wondered at her great skill in dancing. society, a race, etc.)
29. Bravery—(physical) ● Community feast after death is a bad
● He showed much bravery in challenging custom in India.
the dacoits. Habit—(is applicable when we are speaking
of just one person)
Courage—(born of reason and reflection)
● He is in the habit of reading late in the
● He showed much courage in refusing to
night.
pay any hush money.
34. Cite—(is used for things or persons)
Valour—(highest quality of courage)
● I can cite the authority of Tagore on this
● Maharana Pratap was the very model of
point.
bravery.
Quote—(is used for things only)
Boldness—(short-lived courage for an occa-
sion) ● I quote a passage from Milton.
● He exhibited much boldness in facing the 35. Compulsion—(is physical)
critical situation. ● I have to work here under compulsion.
 SYNONYMS | 239

Obligation—(is moral) ● I forcefully deny my participation in this

● I am under obligation to vote for him. criminal act.
36. Confer—(conferring is an act of authority) Refuse—(refers to matters of wish or request)
● The Chancellor will confer the Degrees. ● I refuse to accept your request.
Bestow—(bestowing is an act of generosity 44. Doubt—(to doubt a fact or a statement)
or charity) ● I doubt his version of the incident.
● I bestow an old-age pension on you. Suspect—(to suspect is to be inclined to think
37. Crime—(an offence against the law) a thing untrue)
● Smuggling is a crime. ● I suspect his honesty.
Vice—(an offence against morals) 45. Discover—(to find out a thing or country that
existed before)
● Smoking is a vice.
● Columbus discovered America.
Sin—(an offence against the law of God or
religious law) Invent—(to create what did not exist before)
● Illicit love is a sin. ● Wright Brothers invented the aeroplane.
38. Ceiling—(the inner side of a roof) 46. Drown—(refers to persons)
● The colour of our ceiling is white. ● A man drowned in the river.
Roof—(the entire covering of a room or Sink—(refers to things)
house) ● A boat sank in the river.
● The roof is leaking. 47. Desire—(is used of that which is near at hand
39. Character—(mental or moral nature) or in thought)
● He is a man of high character. ● I have a keen desire to attend my friend’s
marriage.
Conduct—(one’s actions)
Wish—(is used of that which is remote)
● His conduct is praiseworthy.
● I wish I could set up a large factory.
40. Contentment—(a state of mind in which one
does not wish for more) Want—(is used of that which is lacking or
absent)
● Contentment is the basis of happiness.
● The crops have dried up for want of rains.
Satisfaction—(fulfilment of one’s expecta-
tions) Need—(is used of that which is both lacking
and necessary)
● The achievement of my son has given me
● I urgently need a good dictionary.
full satisfaction.
Require—(demand or ask for in words)
41. Cool—(denotes a pleasant sensation)
● I require your personal help.
● A cool breeze is blowing.
48. Envy—(feeling uneasy at others’good for-
Cold—(denotes an unpleasant sensation) tune)
● The weather is very cold. ● It is a common weakness to envy the
42. Defend—(refers to present danger) good fortune of others.
● I can well defend myself against this Jealousy—(Suspicious of rivalry, lack of
charge. trust)
Protect—(refers to approaching danger) ● He languishes under jealousy against all
● We should have a strong army to protect his friends.
our country against any attack. 49. Enough—(relates to the quantity which one
43. Deny—(refers to matters of fact or knowle- wishes to have)
dge) ● This amount is enough for your purpose.
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Sufficient—(relates to the use that is to be 55. Grateful—(one who remains indebted for the
made of anything) kindness of a benefactor)
● There is sufficient milk for four cups of ● I am grateful to my uncle for many favo-
tea. urs.
50. Event—(an important happening) Thankful—(one who cherishes the memory
● Marriage is an important event in the life of the favours shown by one’s benefactor)
of every person. ● I shall always remain thankful to all my
Incident—(an ordinary happening) friends for their encouragement.
● We forget many small incidents of life. 56. Hope—(is used when what we anticipate is
very likely to happen)
Accident—(an unexpected serious occur-
rence) ● He has every hope of passing in the first
division.
● Several persons were killed in the acci-
dent. Expect—(is use when what we anticipate is
good but not very certain. It refers to future)
51. Excuse—(is used with reference to trifling
● He expects to get some timely help from
matters)
his uncle.
● His illness is just an excuse for doing no
57. Watch—(to observe closely)
work.
● You must watch his conduct very closely.
Forgive—(is used with reference to offences)
● Please forgive me for this mistake. Witness—(is used of persons or events as
evidences)
Pardon—(is used with reference to simpler
● My friend is an eye-witness of the whole
offences)
incident.
● I beg your pardon for not bringing your
58. Sight—(faculty of vision ; anything seen)
book today.
● It was indeed a horrible sight.
52. Famous—(is used in a good sense)
Scenery—(the view of landscape)
● The Taj is a famous monument.
● The scenery of Kashmir is highly colour-
Notorious—(is used in a bad sense) ful.
● A notorious dacoit has been killed. Scene—(landscape, a place where an event or
Renowned—(is used for a high and dignified accident takes place)
kind of reputation) ● That is the scene where the battle was
● Dr. Tagore was a renowned poet. fought.
53. Freedom—(implies absence of restraint at 59. Trade—(it is business on either small or
the present moment) large scale)
● Everybody wants freedom. ● The trade of cotton cloth is on the dec-
Liberty—(implies freedom from previous line.
restraint; undue freedom) Commerce—(it is always on a large scale,
specially between countries)
1. The convict was set at liberty.
● India’s commerce with African countries
2. Too much liberty is bad.
is steadily increasing.
54. Falsehood—(something said or done with or 60. Libel—(unfavourable or dishonourable obser-
without the idea of deceiving a man) vations or defamation in written or printed
● He was guilty of falsehood when he said form)
that he had completed all his work. ● I am suing this newspaper for libel against
Lie—(speaking untrue words with the inten- me.
tion of deceiving others) Slander—(spreading defamation orally)
● He was certainly telling a lie when he ● He has been slandering me for no reason
said that he was the owner of the factory. or rhyme.
 SYNONYMS | 241

61. Place—(to put a thing somewhere) Steal—(to take away secretly)

● Please place this chair in the lawn. ● Here thieves may steal away even in day
Keep—(to put something for a long time) time.
● I keep my books in my study room. 64. Reverence—(deep respect, religious devo-
tion)
62. Redress—(relief or compensation as a matter
● The Archbishop was held in high revere-
of right or justice)
nce.
● The injured worker must get due redress Respect—(honour, high opinion)
from the factory.
● We all give him due respect for his schol-
Relief—(implies kindness or generosity) arship.
● Immediate relief should be provided to 65. Illegal—(deliberately against law)
the people in flood-affected areas. ● Smuggling of contraband articles is an
63. Rob—(to take away by force) illegal act.
● The dacoits robbed the whole family on Unlawful—(not in conformity with law)
the point of gun. ● Don’t do anything unlawful.
 21 Homonyms
Homonyms and Paronyms Excess—(superabundance; more than due)
Some words are so alike to each other in their ● Excess of everything is bad.
spellings, Pronunciation or meanings that it 3. Accept—(take)
becomes difficult to understand and use them ● Please accept my application.
correctly. There is very little difference in their
spellings and pronunciation (though their mean- Except—(leaving out)
ings are very different) so that one feels confused ● Every student except Ram was present.
in understanding and using them correctly. Such 4. Adapt—(suit ; accustomed to)
words are called Homonyms or Paronyms.
● He has now learnt to adapt himself to the
The words which are similar in pronuncia- local conditions.
tion, but different in spellings and meanings are
called Homonyms, as Site, cite, Sight. All these Adept—(expert ; skilful)
three words have the same pronunciation, but their ● She is adept in painting.
spellings and meanings are different. Site means Adopt—(take up)
the ‘situation’ of some building, Cite means ‘to
quote’, and ‘Sight means ‘a view’. Errors are ● I have adopted my brother’s son.
often committed in the correct use of such words. 5. Affect—(to pretend, to act upon)
These words are called Homonyms. ● This does not affect me.
Paronyms are those words which are derived Effect—(as verb it means accomplish, or
from the same root word, and therefore they look
carry into practice; as noun it means result)
alike, but in course of time their meanings have
become very different. For example, a root word ● What is the effect of this medicine ?
is ‘art’. From this root word have been derived 6. Addition—(putting more adding)
three words—artistic, artificial, and artful.
● This is in addition to your share.
Artistic means ‘full of beautiful art’; Artificial
means ‘unnatural’; and Artful means ‘cunning’. Edition—(a number of books printed at one
The correct use of such words is also very time)
difficult. ● This is the first edition of my book.
We give below the lists of popular Homo-
7. Alter—(change)
nyms and Paronyms with their meanings and use.
● I can’t alter my programme.
Homonyms
Altar—(place of offering in a temple or
1. Accede—(agree) church)
● He did not accede to my request.
● Put your offerings on the altar.
Exceed—(surpass ; to be greater than)
● The precis should not exceed 150 words. 8. Allusion—(indirect reference)
2. Access—(approach ; reach ; admittance) ● Make the allusion clear.
● I have no approach to the Managing Illusion—(a deceptive appearance)
Director. ● The world is an illusion.
 HOMONYMS | 243

9. Apposite—(proper ; suitable) 18. Berth—(sleeping place in a train)

● He made some very apposite observa- ● I have booked two berths.
tions on our system of education in his Birth—(coming to life)
speech.
● Today is my son’s birth-day.
Opposite—(standing in front of or contrary
to) 19. Bare—(uncovered)
● Our school is opposite the church. ● Don’t go bare-footed.
10. Assent—(agreement ; concurrence) Bear—(as verb, to carry or to tolerate)
● I have already given my assent to your ● I cannot bear this humiliation any longer.
proposal. Beer—(a kind of drink)
Ascent—(going up) ● He drank a glass of beer.
● The hill has a sharp ascent. 20. Beach—(shore)
11. Antic—(odd ; strange) ● Let us go for a walk on the beach.
● This is an antic piece of art. Beech—(a kind of tree)
Antique—(ancient; old-fashioned) ● Beech tree grows on the Himalayas.
● The church has an antique magnificence. 21. Brake—(lever; an instrument to stop a wheel)
12. Ail—(to be ill) ● The brakes of my scooter are loose.
● He has been ailing for over a week. Break—(to make apart)
Ale—(a drink) ● Don’t break the stick.
● He drinks country ale. 22. Bough—(a branch of a tree)
13. All together—(in a body) ● The monkey sits on the bough of a tree.
● They came all together. Bow—(bend a contrivance to shoot arrows)
Altogether—(completely) ● He came with a bow and arrows.
● This is altogether a lie. 23. Baron—(a Norman noble ; a landlord)
14. All ready—(all things or persons are ready) ● His father was a baron.
● We are now all ready to go. Barren—(not fertile ; unfruitful.)
Already—(before this time) ● This is a barren tract of land.
● I have already returned his book. 24. Bridal—(pertaining to marriage; adjective
15. Ark—(covered floating vessel) from bride)
● There is the bridal chamber.
● Noah saved himself and his tribe in an
ark. Bridle—(reins used to drive a horse)
Arc—(a part of a circle) ● Hold the bridle tight in your hand.
● The moon is in the shape of an arc. 25. Calendar—(chart showing the months and
days of the year)
16. Amiable—(lovable)
● This is a beautiful calendar.
● She is a girl of amiable nature.
Calender—(as verb, to press or give finish to
Amicable—(friendly) a piece of cloth)
● Let us come to an amicable settlement. ● Please calender my shirt.
17. Bale—(package of goods) 26. Cannon—(a big gun)
● I have taken delivery of a bale of clothes. ● Cannon-balls were fired.
Bail—(security) Canon—(principles)
● The suspect has been released on bail. ● These are the canons of taxation.
244 | L.W.C.E.

27. Canvas—(a kind of rough cloth) 34. Chord—(a string of a musical instrument)
● The tent is made of white canvas. ● Tight the chords of your guitar.
Canvass—(to solicit votes) Cord—(a thin rope)
● I shall not canvass for any political party. ● Hang the shirt on the cord.
28. Casual—(accidental or occasional) 35. Career—(profession)
● I had a casual meeting with him. ● He has made remarkable progress in his
Causal—(relating to cause) career.
● There is no causal connection between Carrier—(one that carries)
one’s poverty and level of intelligence. ● Place the bedding on the carrier.
29. Cast—(as a verbs to throw) 36. Course—(way, line of action)
● I shall cast away my old pair of shoes. ● I shall follow this course of action.
Caste—(community) Coarse—(rough)
● Character does not depend upon caste. ● Poor men wear coarse clothes.
30. Censer—(a vessel in which incense is burnt 37. Collision—(clashing; dashing together, acci-
in a temple) dent)
● A censer was placed on the altar. ● There was a serious collision between a
Censor—(an official examiner of plays, films car and a scooter.
etc) Collusion—(secret agreement for an evil
● Every film has to be passed by the cen- purpose)
sor. ● He is working in collusion with the
Censure—(disapprove ; criticise adversely) smugglers.
● The court censured him for his bad cha- 38. Corpse—(dead body)
racter. ● The corpse has been sent for postmortem.
31. Cite—(quote) Corps—(pronounced as ‘kore’, a body of
● I can cite a parallel stanza. troops)
Site—(local position) ● He belongs to the Gorkha corps.
● This is an ideal site for building a house. 39. Coma—(state of senselessness)
Sight—(view ; scene) ● He is lying in coma.
● It was a horrible sight. Comma—(a mark of punctuation)
32. Cession—(noun from the verb ‘cede’ which ● Put a comma after the first clause.
means ‘to yield’) 40. Complacent—(pleased, self-satisfied)
● India cannot make cession of even an ● He is complacent by nature.
inch of land of Kashmir to Pakistan.
Complaisant—(polite ; obliging)
Session—(the time when a court or a public
● She is a gentle girl of complaisant nature.
body sits)
● Hearing of the case will continue in the 41. Complement—(that which completes)
evening session. ● This verb must take a complement after
33. Check—(prevent, test) it.
● Please check my bill. Compliment—(salute ; regards)
Cheque—(a written order for money to a ● I offer my sincere compliments to you.
bank) 42. Conscious—(aware)
● I shall pay you by cheque. ● I am fully conscious of my responsibility.
 HOMONYMS | 245

Conscientious—(honest; careful; scrupulous) 50. Deference—(respect)

● He is a very conscientious person. ● I say this in due deference to his scholar-
Consensus—(agreement of opinion) ship.
● Public consensus should be invited on Difference—(dissimilarity)
this issue. ● There is no difference between man to
43. Council—(an assembly) man.
● He was a member of the Legislative 51. Descent—(coming down, slope)
Council. ● Go slow on the descent.
Counsel—(advice) Dissent—(as verb, to ‘differ’; as noun, ‘dis-
● He gave me a very sane counsel. agreement’)
44. Credible—(believable) ● I have given my note of dissent.
● His story is not credible. 52. Disease—(malady or illness)
Creditable—(worthy of praise) ● He suffers from a simple disease.
● He did a creditable service. Decease—(death)
45. Cease—(stop, discontinue) ● His sons quarrelled over his property
● He ceases to be a Government counsel. after his decease.
Seize—(catch ; hold tightly) 53. Dye—(as verb, ‘to colour’ ; as noun, ‘colour’)
● He seized the first opportunity. ● Dye my turban in deep green.
Siege—(state of being surrounded) Die—(expire)
● The fort lay in siege for many days. ● He is going to die soon.
46. Current—(a stream) 54. Duel—(a fight between two)
● The current in the river was very swift. ● There was a duel between the two com-
Currant—(dried grapes) batants.
● Currants are very nutritious. Dual—(double)
47. Capital—(centre of administration, money ● This machine serves a dual purpose.
invested in a business) 55. Dose—(the quantity of medicine taken at a
● New Delhi is the Capital of India. time)
Capitol—(Roman temple of Jupiter) ● Don’t take a very heavy dose of this
● Caesar was murdered in the Capitol. medicine.
48. Defy—(challenge) Doze—(sleep)
You can’t defy my orders. ● He dozed in the class.
Deify—(to worship as a God)
56. Draught—(the quantity of liquid drunk at a
● The sage stands deified in our country-
time)
side.
● There is not even a draught of water in
49. Desert—(as noun, a waste tract of sandy
land) the jug.
● There is little rain in a desert. Drought—(want of rain)
Deserts—(what one deserves) ● There is fear of famine on account of
drought.
● Do whatever you like; you will get just
your deserts. 57. Eminent—(distinguished)
Dessert—(fruit served after dinner) ● Many eminent personalities were there.
● There must be a course desserts after Imminent—(impending ; approaching)
dinner. ● There is imminent danger of war.
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58. Eligible—(fit to be chosen) 68. Goal—(aim)

● He is fully eligible for the post. ● I have come to achieve my goal.
Illegible—(indistinct ; that which cannot be Gaol—(prison ; jail)
read) ● The convict has been sent to the gaol.
● His handwriting is illegible. 69. Gild—(to apply a thin covering of gold)
59. Elusive—(baffling, escaping from grasp) ● Ornaments are gilded here.
● He gave some elusive replies. Guild—(society of men belonging to a parti-
Illusive—(deceptive) cular profession)
● The glamour of wealth is only illusive. ● I have joined the guild of artisans.
60. Fain—(gladly) 70. Hail—(frozen rain)
● I would fain go to the valley of flowers. ● There was a hail storm.
Feign—(pretend) Hale—(healthy)
● He is in the habit of feigning. ● I am hale and hearty.
61. Fair—(a show, temporary market) 71. Hoard—(a store)
● This fair is held every week. ● He has a hoard of rice.
Fare—(food, passage money) Horde—(a gang)
● I have already paid the fare. ● A horde of robbers was seen in the
62. Feat—(an exploit, skill) valley.
● It was a feat of real physical skill. 72. Hart—(a male deer)
Feet—(the plural of foot) ● Don’t shoot the hart.
● Her feet are so soft. Heart—(an organ of the body)
63. Forego—(go before) ● His heart beat is normal.
● This is a foregone conclusion. 73. Ingenious—(clever)
Forgo—(abstain from) ● He is a very ingenious statesman.
● I shall forgo my claim in your favour. Ingenuous—(frank and simple)
64. Felicity—(happiness) ● I like her for her ingenuous nature.
● Real felicity comes from contentment. 74. Incite—(to provoke to anger)
Facility—(ease, opportunity) ● Don’t incite him, please.
● We shall give you every facility. Insight—(a clear perception)
65. Foul—(dirty ; unfair) ● He is a man of deep insight.
● He was playing a foul game. 75. Jealous—(envious of another’s advantages)
Fowl—(a bird) ● I am not jealous of you.
● Many people eat the meat of fowls. Zealous—(enthusiastic)
66. Gage—(security ; pledge) ● He is so zealous about the Olympic
● I throw my ring as a gage. games.
Gaze—(to look attentively) 76. Lightening—(making lighter, reducing)
● His gaze was offensive. ● He has appealed to the High Court for
67. Gait—(manner of walking) lightening the sentence.
● Her gait is so graceful. Lightning—(electric discharge or flash in
Gate—(large door) clouds)
● Please lock the gate. ● There was fierce lightning and thundur.
 HOMONYMS | 247

77. Loath—(unwilling) 87. Marshal—(a military officer)

● I would loath do it. ● The Marshal will inspect the parade
Loathe—(to dislike greatly) today.
● I loathe him for his untidy habits. Martial—(warlike)
78. Loose—(adjective, slack or relaxed) ● He is skilled in all martial exercises.
● My shirt is very loose. 88. Oar—(is used for rowing a boat)
Lose—(to have no more, miss) ● Move both the oars together.
● I don’t want to lose this chance. Ore—(the mineral from which metal can be
extracted)
79. Mead—(meadow)
● Here is a stock of iron ore.
● Goats were grazing in the mead.
89. Ordinance—(a rule made by the Govern-
Meed—(reward) ment)
● Contentment is the meed of honesty. ● The Governor has issued an ordinance.
80. Metal—(iron, brass, copper, etc.) Ordnance—(a gun factory)
● No metal is used in making this chain. ● There is a famous ordnance depot.
Mettle—(spirit, courage) 90. Persecute—(to harass or oppress)
● This is the test of your mettle. ● You cannot persecute any poor or weak
81. Monetary—(relating to money) man now.
● We cannot go against our monetary Prosecute—(to bring before a court, to pursue)
system. ● The police prosecuted the suspects.
Monitary—(warning) 91. Physic—(medicine)
● I resent his monitary advice. ● No physic can cure a spiritual malady.
82. Moat—(ditch around a castle) Physique—(body health)
● It is not easy to cross the moat. ● He enjoys good physique.
Mote—(a dust particle) 92. Prescribe—(to give directions, to fix a course
● A mote fell into my eyes. of studies)
83. Maize—(a rough grain) ● The doctor will prescribe some tonic for
● The bread is made of maize. you.
Maze—(labyrinth) Proscribe—(to prohibit)
● We passed through a maze of rooms. ● The Government is going to proscribe the
84. Minor—(underage, lesser) publication of this book.
● He is still a minor. 93. Practice—(noun, use)
Miner—(One who works in a mine) ● I am out of practice these days.
● The life of a miner is very hard. Practise—(verb, to put in use)
85. Meter—(measuring instrument) ● I practise law.
● Your meter is defective. 94. Precede—(go before)
Metre—(of the verse) ● One precedes two.
● The metre of this poem is difficult. Proceed—(to go on)
86. Main—(chief) ● You can proceed further with your argu-
● Speak on the main point. ments.
Mane—(long hair on an animal’s neck) 95. Pray—(offer prayer to God, entreat)
● My horse’s mane are long and golden. ● Let us pray to God.
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Prey—(hunt and kill ; game) Rout—(put to flight)

● One should not prey upon animals. ● The robbers were soon put to rout.
96. Principal—(chief) 106. Spacious—(having enough room or space)
● He is the principal Secretary. ● We have a spacious building.
Principle—(a rule) Specious—(outwardly pleasing or attractive)
● I cannot go against my principles. ● They have made specious decorations.
97. Prophecy—(noun, something foretold) 107. Stationary—(fixed)
● No prophecy can be wholly true. ● The sun is stationary.
Prophesy—(verb, to foretell) Stationery—(writing material)
● I prophesy that he will lose the case. ● He deals in stationery.
98. Proffer—(offer) 108. Straight—(opposed to curved)
● I have no proposal to proffer at the
● Draw a straight line.
moment.
Prefer—(like more) Strait—(narrow)
● I prefer loose trousers to the tight ones. ● The ship has to pass through a strait.
99. Pair—(two of a thing) 109. Sore—(painful)
● I have a pair of dogs. ● I have a sore wound.
Pare—(to trim ; to part) Soar—(to fly high)
● Pare your finger nails. ● The eagle soars very high.
100. Plane—(level, to smoothen) 110. Story—(a tale)
● He would plane the ground for you. ● Tell me a story.
Plain—(simple ; easy) Storey—(floor of a building)
● It is a plain story. ● We live on the second storey of the build-
101. Quite—(altogether) ing.
● This is quite wrong. 111. Suit—(set of clothes, an action in a law
Quiet—(silent) court)
● Keep quiet in the class. ● He has filed a suit against me.
102. Rein—(bridle, to drive and control the horse) Suite—(retinue, a set of rooms)
● Pull the reins of the horse. ● There are four suites in this Guest House.
Reign—(rule) 112. Serge—(a kind of cloth)
● The king reigns in Nepal.
● The suit is made of blue serge.
103. Rite—(ceremony)
Surge—(move as in waves)
● This is a very old religious rite.
Write—(compose) ● The sea is rising in high surge.
● We write an essay. 113. Shear—(to clip the wool of sheep)
104. Rest—(peace ; respite) ● We shear the sheep in summer.
● We can have full rest here. Sheer—(downright)
Wrest—(snatch by force) ● This is sheer madness.
● Who can wrest my sword from my hand ? 114. Team—(a party of players)
105. Route—(course) ● We have a good football team.
● There is no direct route from here to Teem—(to abound in ; to be full of)
Kanpur. ● The locality teems with mosquitos.
 HOMONYMS | 249

115. Umpire—(a referee) Voracity—(greediness)

● The umpire is absolutely impartial. ● He has insatiable voracity for gold.
Empire—(dominion) 119. Vale—(valley)
● The British Empire has still a Queen. ● There is a cottage in the vale.
116. Vain—(useless ; proud) Wail—(to weep)
● All your efforts are going vain. ● The child is wailing.
Vein—(a blood vessel) 120. Waive—(forgo)
● The injection was given in the vein. ● I cannot waive any condition.
117. Vane—(weather-cock) Wave—(water currents in seas or rivers)
● Fix the vane on the front wall. ● High waves are rising in the sea.
Wane—(to decrease) 121. Yolk—(the yellow portion of the egg)
● The moon is on the wane. ● The yolk of the egg is nutritious.
118. Veracity—(truthfulness) Yoke—(bondage ; wooden structure put on a
● I cannot testify the veracity of his state- bullock’s neck)
ment. ● They work under the yoke of slavery.
 22 Paronyms
1. Alternate—(being or coming by turns) Artful—(cunning, clever)
● I go to the hospital every alternate day. ● He is too artful to be trusted.
Alternative—(one of the two courses or Artificial—(is opposed to natural)
things between which there is a choice) ● Her behaviour is very artificial.
● There is alternative choice between Hindi 7. Appropriateness—(suitability)
and English in the course.
● The appropriateness of this building for
2. Acceptance—(the act of accepting a thing) school purposes is excellent.
● I have already given my acceptance of the Appropriation—(making one’s own)
terms.
● His appropriation of this building is ille-
Acceptation—(the interpretation put on some- gal.
thing)
8. Affecting—(moving, touching, pathetic)
● This is the correct acceptation of the term
● The scene of departure of the bride was
‘Renaissance’.
very affecting.
3. Accession—(means actual coming to; so
accession to the throne i.e., becoming sove- Affectation—(false display, forced imitation)
reign) ● Her affectation of the Western culture
● Richard II’s accession to the throne was was so ridiculous.
splendidly celebrated. 9. Beside—(by the side of, close to)
Access—(means the possibility of coming to) ● My house is beside the church.
● I have no access to the President. Besides—(moreover, in addition to)
4. Admission—(being admitted) ● He has much cash besides gold.
● All admissions are closed. 10. Barbarian—(of the primitives)
Admittance—(letting in) ● This ritual is barbarian.
● Admittance is restricted here. Barbaric—(is used in a favourable sense and
5. Artist—(one who deals with a fine art) means simple or rough)
● She is a great artist. ● Akbar’s court had barbaric splendour.
Artiste—(a performer in singing, dancing, Barbarous—(is used in an unfavourable sense
etc.) and means cruel, inhuman)
● She is a stage artiste. ● Tamburlaine was a barbarous conqueror.
Artisan—(one who practises some handi- 11. Barbarism—(rude or uncivilized condition)
craft) ● There was barbarism in most countries
● This is a locality of artisans. upto the 10th century.
6. Artistic—(beautiful or having aesthetic Barbarity—(cruelty)
appeal) ● This kind of murder is an act of pure
● He has built a very artistic house. barbarity.
 PARONYMS | 251

12. Beneficial—(useful, advantageous) Continual—(implies that there are occasional

● Regular exercise is beneficial to health. breaks in continuity)
Beneficent—(kind, generous) ● There is continual rain through July and
● The owner of our factory is very benefi- August every year.
cent. 20. Continuance—(duration, or time of remain-
13. Confident—(to be sure, certain) ing in action)
● I am confident of my success. ● I shall complete all formalities during the
continuance of my service.
Confidant—(one who is entrusted with a
secret) Continuation—(prolongation or resumption)
● My confidant will never betray me. ● I am writing this in continuation of my
14. Completeness—(perfection) former report.
● No completeness is possible in a work of 21. Corporal—(of human body, physical)
art. ● Corporal punishment should not be given
Completion—(ending) to young children.
● My educational career is coming to a Corporeal—(of the nature of body, material)
completion. ● Saints do not seek any corporeal plea-
15. Ceremonious—(particular in observing sures.
forms; implies formalities over-done) 22. Childish—(used in a bad sense and means
● He was more ceremonious than sincere. silly, trifling)
Ceremonial—(relating to ceremony and rites) ● His actions were childish.
● A ceremonial parade was held in his hon- Child-like—(used in a good sense and means
our. as simple and innocent as a child)
16. Contemptible—(deserving contempt) ● I love him for his child-like innocence.
● His habits are contemptible.
23. Complacent—(pleased ; well-satisfied)
Contemptuous—(hateful, disdainful, expres-
● The poor workers are generally compla-
sing contempt)
cent by nature.
● He is contemptuous of the poor.
Complaisant—(polite; obliging)
17. Comprehensive—(extensive, including all
the aspects) ● She is a complaisant lady.
● He has given a very comprehensive 24. Dependent—(is an adjective meaning relying
account of the case. on)
Comprehensible—(capable of being under- ● I am still dependent upon my father.
stood) Dependant—(is a noun meaning one who
● His poetry is not comprehensible to the depends on others)
common reader. ● My servant is my dependant.
18. Considerable—(much, moderately large) 25. Dependence—(reliance; living at another’s
● He has given you considerable help. cost)
● Your dependence on your father at this
Considerate—(thoughtful, regardful of
others’ interests) age is not good.
● Our employer is very considerate to the Dependency—(subject country)
needs of all workers. ● India was once a dependency of Britain.
19. Continuous—(implies that continuity is 26. Disinterested—(unselfish; free from preju-
absolute and uninterrupted) dice and personal motive)
● There has been continuous rain since the ● I have assessed this case in a most dis-
morning. interested way.
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Uninterested—(indifferent; lacking in Efficacious—(means sure to have the desired

interest) effect)
● I am absolutely uninterested in his affairs. ● This medicine is quite efficacious in this
27. Distinctness—(clearness) disease.)
● There is remarkable distinctness in his 34. Envelope—(a noun meaning a letter-cover)
arguments. ● Put the letter in the envelope.
Distinction—(honour) Envelop—(a verb meaning to cover. surround
● He has completed his tenure of service or warp)
with distinction. ● The hills were enveloped in a thick veil
28. Divers—(several or sundry) of mist.
● Divers suggestions were given by diffe- 35. Egotist—(one who has the habit of talking a
rent speakers. lot about oneself, selfconceited)
Diverse—(markedly different or unlike) ● An egotist is always a conceited fellow.
● The views of the opposition parties were Egoist—(one who believes that self-interest
markedly diverse from our views. is the foundation of morality, who believes in
29. Deliverance—(rescue, freedom) systematic selfishness)
● Religion leads to man’s deliverance from ● I shall have no dealings with an egoist
the bondage of sin. like him.
Delivery—(style of speech, handing over of 36. Especial—(means to an exceptional degree)
letters or goods) ● Mahatma Gandhi had an especial sense of
● The delivery of his speech was remark- honesty and integrity.
able. Special—(means for one purpose and no
30. Device—(noun, a plan) other)
● The latest device has been used in the ● He is coming for this special purpose
manufacture of this machine. only.
Devise—(verb, to plan) 37. Elemental—(pertaining to the elements)
● Let us devise some other way to get out ● One cannot fight with elemental forces.
of this muddle. Elementary—(rudimentary ; introductory)
31. Decided—(definite) ● His knowledge of Physics is still elemen-
● This is my decided answer to you. tary.
Decisive—(that which ends a discussion or 38. Estimate—(approximate valuation of a thing)
controversy) ● Let us first make an estimate of invest-
● We have now taken a decisive step to ment.
solve this problem. Estimation—(opinion ; judgment)
32. Enviable—(means arousing envy) ● I hold him in high estimation.
● His achievement is really enviable.
39. Exposure—(being exposed to air, cold, etc.)
Envious—(means feeling envy)
● He has developed cold and fever on
● Don’t be envious of the progress of
account of exposure.
others.
Exposition—(explanation)
33. Effective—(means having a high degree of
‘effect’) ● Give a full exposition of the problem.
● The medicine was very effective. 40. Economic—(associated with economy)
Effectual—(applies to action, and means not ● This is our Government’s Economic
falling short of the desired effect) Policy.
● The step taken by him proved quite effec- Economical—(careful in expenditure)
tual. ● He is very economical in his habits.
 PARONYMS | 253

41. Funeral—(a burial procession or ceremony) 50. Historic—(Famous or likely to become fam-
● His funeral was held at Shanti Ghat. ous in history)
Funereal—(solemn or sad, dismal, gloomy) ● January 26 is a historic day.
● Why do you keep a funereal face ? Historical—(pertaining to history)
42. Fatal—(deadly) ● Red Fort is a historical building.
● Cancer is a fatal disease. 51. Imaginary—(fancied, unreal)
Fatalist—(one who believes in fate) ● He lives in an imaginary world.
● A fatalist depends upon God’s will. Imaginative—(given to imagining, contemp-
lative)
Fateful—(important ; producing important
results) ● A poet is an imaginative person.
● It was the most fateful day of my life. 52. Industrious—(diligent, laborious)
43. Fastal—(pertaining to a feast or a holiday) ● An industrious person must get success.
● Let us enjoy in fastal mood today. Industrial—(relating to industry or com-
merce)
Festive—(joyous, gay, mirthful)
● Kanpur is an industrial city.
● He is festive by nature.
53. Intelligent—(wise, sensible)
44. Forceful—(possessing force)
● She is quite intelligent.
● This was his most forceful argument.
Intelligible—(clear and understandable)
Forcible—(done by force or compulsion)
● His lecture was not intelligible to an
● Good work cannot be done under forcible
average student.
circumstances.
54. Judicial—(pertaining to legal justice, or to a
45. Godly—(pious)
judge)
● My grandmother is a very godly lady.
● We should not interfere with judicial
God-like—(resembling God)
proceedings.
● Many sages have God-like lustre in their
Judicious—(prudent; wise)
eyes.
46. Graceful—(handsome, refined) ● His advice is very judicious.
● Her manners are very graceful. 55. Luxuriant—(used to express richness in
Gracious—(merciful) growth)
● He is a very gracious old gentleman. ● She has a luxuriant growth of hair.
47. Human—(belonging to mankind) Luxurious—(implies luxury or fashion)
● It is only a human weakness. ● He lives in a very luxurious way.
Humane—(kind ; merciful) 56. Lovable—(worthy of love)
● He is always humane in his dealings with ● All her habits and manners are lovable.
his workers. Lovely—(exciting love, charming)
48. Healthy—(means enjoying good health) ● She is a lovely girl.
● He is quite healthy at this age.
57. Limit—(boundary, last degree)
Healthful—(means preserving or promoting
health) ● Don’t try me to the limit of my patience.
● Regularity is a very healthful habit. Limitation—(restriction or inability)
49. Honorary—(holding office without any re- ● I have my own limitations.
muneration or pay) 58. Momentous—(very important)
● He is working in an honorary capacity. ● I have taken a momentous decision.
Honourable—(worthy of honour) Momentary—(lasting only for a moment,
● Many saints are really honourable per- short-lived)
sons. ● His anger is only momentary.
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59. Memorable—(worth remembering) 67. Politic—(wise, prudent, sagacious)

● This is a memorable quotation. ● The measures taken by our Prime
Memorial—(statue, festival, etc. serving to Minister are really politic.
commemorate) Political—(pertaining to politics)
● A memorial statue has been installed in ● It is a serious political problem.
his honour. 68. Proportional—(in due proportion)
60. Negligent—(one who is careless in particular
● Let us come to a proportional distribution
things)
of the property.
● Don’t be negligent about your dress.
Proportionate—(equal, corresponding in
Neglectful—(one who is careless in general)
degree or amount)
● You should not be so neglectful.
● Your wages are proportionate to your
Negligible—(something so small or unimpor-
labour.
tant that it may be disregarded)
69. Prophecy—(noun, a forecast or prediction)
● His income is still so negligible.
● His prophecy came out true.
61. Observance—(strict and attentive perfor-
mance) Prophesy—(verb, to foretell)
● I am very particular in the observance of ● I cannot prophesy what may happen.
my regular habits. 70. Reverend—(means deserving reverence and
Observation—(notice ; remark) is applied to persons only)
● His observation was neither just nor ● The Archbishop is a reverend scholar.
balanced. Reverent—(means showing reverence and is
62. Official—(as a noun means an officer, as an applied to both persons and things)
adjective means pertaining to an office) We should be reverent to every religion.
● He has come on official duty. 71. Respectable—(deserving respect)
Officious—(too forward in offering unwanted ● He is a respectable teacher.
service) Respectful—(showing respect)
● He was very officious to me. ● One should be respectful to one’s tea-
63. Prudent—(wise, intelligent) chers.
● He is a very prudent person. Respective—(relating to particular persons or
Prudential—(those ideas or motives which things)
lead a man to prudent action) ● They did their respective duties faithfully.
● All his actions are prudential. 72. Righteous—(just)
64. Provident—(thrifty ; showing foresight) ● A judge ought to be a righteous person.
● One should be provident in both thought Rightful—(having a just and legal claim)
and action. ● This is my rightful property.
Providential—(divine, strikingly opportune) 73. Regretful—(full of regret or sorrow)
● He had a providential escape.
● He is regretful for his hasty action.
65. Practical—(opposed to theoretical)
● He was put to practical test. Regrettable—(causing regret)
Practicable—(capable of being performed) ● He acted in a regrettable way.
● This is not a practicable solution. 74. Servitude—(state of slavery)
66. Pitiable—(arousing pity) ● One cannot act freely in servitude.
● Her condition is pitiable. Servility—(means spirit of servitude)
Pitiful—(feeling pity) ● His attitude is one of servility.
● My grandfather is very pitiful. 75. Social—(relating to society)
Piteous—(means either exciting pity or ● This is a social obligation.
showing it) Sociable—(fond of mixing in society)
● Her cries were piteous. ● He is a sociable person.
 PARONYMS | 255

76. Sensible—(having sense or consistent with Temporal—(as opposed to spiritual)

reason) ● One should value spiritual gains more
● He is a sensible person. than temporal gains.
Sensitive—(one who is easily affected, 83. Transient—(of short duration)
touchy) ● Man’s life is transient.
● One should not be too sensitive. Transitory—(speedily vanishing)
Sensual—(used in a bad sense and means ● Material possessions are transitory.
voluptuous, carnal) 84. Unmoral—(applied to a person who is non-
● A sensual person is a person of weak moral ; one who has no idea of morals)
character. ● A child is an unmoral being.
Sensuous—(used in a good sense for one Immoral—(applied to a person or thing
who has a keen appreciation of the beautiful which is depraved and evil.)
relating to all senses) ● Don’t do anything immora.
● Keats was a sensuous poet. 85. Union—(act of uniting, an organization)
77. Speciality—(the state or quality of being ● He is a member of the Indian Trade
special) Union.
● What is the speciality in your machine ? Unison—(agreement of sounds)
Specialty—(special pursuit or skill) ● The hymns were sung by all in unison.
● His specialty is landscape painting. Unity—(oneness)
78. Signification—(meaning) ● There is strength in unity.
● What is the signification of the term 86. Vocation—(chief occupation or calling)
‘Renaissance’ ? ● Tailoring is his vocation.
Significance—(importance, value) Avocation—(diversion from usual occupa-
● This is not a matter of any significance to tion, hobby)
me. ● Painting is my avocation.
79. Spiritual—(pertaining to soul or spirit) 87. Virtual—(real ; in effect, though not in form)
● I believe in high spiritual values. ● He is in a state of virtual madness.
Spirituous—(alcoholic) Virtuous—(blameless, possessing moral
● One should avoid spirituous drinks. goodness)
80. Tolerable—(applied to things and conditions ● My mother is a very virtuous lady.
that are bearable) 88. Willing—(ready, having no reluctance)
● His behaviour is not tolerable. ● I am willing to go.
Tolerant—(usually applied to a person who Wilful—(deliberate, conscious)
is liberal and who will tolerate any opinion ● His negligence is wilful.
different from his own) 89. Wait—(often intransitive in use)
● My father is very tolerant. ● I shall wait for you.
81. Temperance—(moderation, sobriety) Await—(always transitive in use)
● One should exercise temperance in every- ● He was eagerly awaited.
thing. 90. Womanly—(used in a good sense and means
Temperament—(disposition, mental charac- affectionate and modest)
ter of an individual) ● She has womanly gentleness.
● She is a lady of sweet temperament. Womanish—(used in a bad sense and means
82. Temporary—(lasting for a short time) weak and cowardly)
● This is a temporary post. ● He is womanish in his behaviour.
 The Same Word Used as
23 Different Parts of Speech
There are many words in the English Lan- Bare—
guage which, in the same form, can be used as Adjective—He came with bare head.
different Parts of Speech. For example, take the Verb—Bare your arm before me.
word Look. When ‘Look’ is used in the sense of
Adverb—He came bareheaded.
View or apearance, it is a Noun. When it is used
in the sense of seeing, it is a Verb. We give below Bottle—
some popular words that can be used as different Noun—He has broken the bottle.
Parts of Speech. Verb—They do not bottle the drinks with
proper care.
Air—
Bell—
Noun—Let us walk in fresh air.
Noun—The bell is ringing.
Verb—All woollen clothes should be timely
aired. Verb—Who can bell the cat ?
Age— Brave—
Noun—What is your age ? Noun—We all respect the brave.
Verb—My father is aging very fast. Adjective—Indian soldiers are brave.
Arm— Book—
Noun—He was wounded in his arm. Noun—I am reading a book.
Verb—We should arm our forces with the Verb—Please book my luggage by the pass-
latest weapons. enger train.
Break— Bite—
Noun—There is no break in his service. Noun—I haven’t had a bite since the morn-
Verb—Don’t break the law. ing.
Better— Verb—The dog may bite you.
Noun—I always respect my betters. Close—
Adjective—This is certainly a better sugges- Noun—The meeting is soon coming to a
tion. close.
Verb—We must first try to better our econo- Adjective—We should discuss it only among
mic condition. close friends.
Boil— Verb—Please close the gate.
Noun—The boil in his arm is bleeding. Calm—
Verb—Please boil the soup. Noun—You should maintain your calm of
Back— mind.
Noun—He can carry heavy load on his back. Adjective—The atmosphere is calm and quiet.
Verb—I will never back a wrong cause. Verb—Please try to calm down the mob.
 THE SAME WORD USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH | 257

Count— Daily—
Noun—Please keep count of the runs. Noun—‘The Hindustan Times’ is an impor-
Verb—He is counting the runs. tant daily.
Cold— Adjective—This is a part of his daily progra-
Noun—I am suffering from cold. mme.
Adjective—The morning is very cold. Empty—
Court— Adjective—The box is empty.
Noun—The courts are closed today. Verb—Please empty the drum.
Verb—They are courting arrest. Earth—
Call— Noun—The earth moves round the sun.
Noun—There is a call for you. Verb—Let us earth our hostility for ever.
Verb—He will call upon you. Elder—
Cut— Noun—You must respect your elders.
Noun—He received a deep cut in the arm. Adjective—He is my elder brother.
Verb—Don’t cut your programme. Fast—
Catch— Noun—I am observing a fast today.
Noun—It was a beautiful catch. Adjective—He is my fast friend.
Verb—You cannot catch me. Verb—He has been fasting for a week.
Cane— Adverb—He ran very fast.
Noun—Here is a beautiful cane. Final—
Verb—He was caned publicly. Noun—Our team is playing in the finals.
Chair— Adjective—This chance is final.
Noun—Please bring a chair. Free—
Verb—The speaker chaired the session. Adjective—We are citizens of a free country.
Cover— Verb—Let us free ourselves from the age-old
Noun—Please put the cover upon the jar. customs.
Verb—Please cover your head properly in Fill—
this cold weather. Noun—We have eaten to our fill.
Deep— Verb—Please fill the jar with water.
Noun—They are fishing in the deep. Fix—
Adjective—It is a very deep river. Noun—He is in a fix.
Adverb—They have gone deep into the water.
Verb—Please fix up your programme at an
Drive— early date.
Noun—I am going out for a drive.
Face—
Verb—He drives the car very fast.
Date— Noun—Turn your face to the left.
Noun—What is the date of your birth ? Verb—He faced the situation boldly.
Verb—The Christian era dates with the birth Fool—
of Christ. Noun—He is a great fool.
Desire— Verb—You cannot fool me like this.
Noun—He has a great desire to be a doctor. Floor—
Verb—He desires to pass in the first division. Noun—They sat on the floor before my
Doubt— office.
Noun—I have no doubt about his honesty. Verb—Dara Singh floored down his oppo-
Verb—He doubts my sincerity. nent in two minutes.
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Fish— Little—
Noun—They have caught a large fish. Noun—I shall be satisfied with a little.
Verb—You cannot fish in this part of the Adjective—Here is a little gift for you.
river. Adverb—The river is a little deeper here.
Fell— Like—
Adjective—Cancer is really a fell disease. Noun—I shall never find the like of him
Verb—He fell into the well. again.
Gun— Adjective—They are all men of like interests.
Noun—This is my gun. Verb—I would like to have a cup of tea.
Verb—The police gunned down the abscon- Light—
der. Noun—There is sufficient light in the room.
Help— Adjective—I don’t appreciate his light talks.
Noun—He gave me a very timely help. Verb—Please light the candle.
Verb—Will you not help me out ? Love—
Hand— Noun—I have great love for my country.
Noun—He raised his hand. Adjective—This is a love poem.
Verb—Please hand over the book to the tea- Verb—Every mother loves her child.
cher. Laugh—
Humble— Noun—We had a hearty laugh at him.
Noun—We should help the humble and poor. Verb—Don’t laugh at the poor.
Adjective—He is a very humble pupil. Mud—
Verb—He is out to humble me in public. Noun—There is so much of mud here in the
Head— rains.
Noun—He wears a white cap on his head. Adjective—He lives in a mud house.
Verb—He heads the list of the successful More—
candidates. Noun—I don’t want any more.
Ill— Adjective—They will have many more
chances.
Noun—I have done you no ill.
Adverb—He is more intelligent.
Adjective—She is ill.
Man—
Idle— Noun—He is a brave man.
Adjective—He is an idle fellow. Verb—The ship is manned by trained sailors.
Verb—Don’t idle away your time like this. Master—
Know— Noun—He is the master of the ship.
Noun—I am in the know of everything. Adjective—We are drawing a master plan.
Verb—Do you know him ? Verb—I have mastered the whole lesson.
Kind— Move—
Adjective—He is a kind man. Noun—The army is on the move.
Noun—Here is another kind of the rose. Verb—Let us now move to the next room.
Less— Make—
Noun—He cannot be satisfied with less. Noun—What is the make of your watch ?
Adjective—He pays less attention to his Verb—Don’t make a noise here.
studies than to games. Need—
Adverb—This plot of land is less fertile than Noun—Your need is greater than mine.
the next one. Verb—He needs a pen immediately.
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Nurse— Sound—
Noun—She is a trained nurse. Noun—I hear a sound outside.
Verb—Please nurse the baby carefully. Adjective—He gave very sound arguments in
Number— his defence.
Noun—Please mark the number on the par- Verb—Please sound the horn.
cel. Spring—
Verb—Please number the articles serially. Noun—Flowers grow in abundance in spring.
Open— Adjective—They are bathing in the spring
Adjective—I have received an open letter. water.
Verb—Please open the door. Verb—The monkey springs from roof to
Poor— roof.
Noun—We must help the poor. Stone—
Adjective—She is a poor woman. Noun—Don’t roll down the heavy stone.
Past— Adjective—He broke through the stone walls.
Noun—We know very little of his past. Verb—The witch was stoned to death.
Adjective—He is a past master in all these Stand—
matters. Noun—I cannot change my stand.
Adverb—He is now past working age. Verb—Stand in a line, please.
Pocket— Stay—
Noun—My pocket is empty. Noun—I shall have a long stay in the country
Verb—He cannot pocket this insult. now.
Right— Verb—Will you stay here tonight ?
Noun—This is my own right. Adjective—The court has passed stay orders.
Adjective—He is the right man. Second—
Verb—Can you now right the wrong done to Adjective—He is my second son.
me ?
Verb—Will anyone second my proposal ?
Adverb—He drove the car right against me.
Adverb—He came second in the race.
Round—
Noun—The Principal is on a round. School—
Adjective—He dug a round hole. Noun—This is a public school.
Verb—The police has rounded up all the Verb—He has been very properly schooled.
pick-pockets. Adjective—We are school fellows.
Adverb—I could not bring him round to
Set—
agree with me.
Preposition—The train goes round the city. Adjective—I shall follow my set programme.
Reach— Verb—The sun sets in the west.
Noun—This is beyond my reach. Spear—
Verb—I will reach home before sunset. Noun—I have a long spear.
Run— Verb—The hunter speared down the boar.
Noun—He made fifty runs. Spoil—
Verb—He will run the 5000 meter race. Noun—The thieves have divided up the
Slow— spoils.
Adjective—He is a slow writer. Verb—Don’t spoil your child like this.
Verb—The train slowed down at the outer Skin—
signal. Noun—Her skin is oily.
Adverb—He works very slow. Verb—The child could not skin the banana.
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Silence— Water—
Noun—There was perfect silence in the class. Noun—Please bring me a glass of water.
Verb—Nobody can silence me. Verb—The gardner is watering the plants.
Table— Adjective—Lotus is a water plant.
Noun—This is our dining table. Work—
Verb—The draft resolution has been tabled Noun—I have no work today.
for discussion. Verb—He doesn’t work here.
Touch—
Wait—
Noun—Even a touch has a memory.
Noun—They lay in wait for the victim.
Verb—You cannot touch me.
Verb—I waited for you yesterday.
Turn—
Noun—Take a turn to the left at the next Walk—
crossing. Noun—I go to the park every morning for a
Verb—I hope he will turn up in time. walk.
Well— Verb—Let us walk down to the station.
Noun—There is no water in the well. Want—
Adjective—He is quite well now. Noun—There is no want of water in the
Adverb—It was well done. town.
Wrong— Verb—I want to purchase a car.
Noun—I have done you no wrong. Weekly—
Adjective—He is following a wrong policy. Noun—“Sunday Times” is a good weekly.
Verb—He has certainly wronged me. Adjective—They are working on weekly
Watch— wages.
Noun—I always keep a watch in my pocket. Wear—
Keep a watch on the children. Noun—We have a large stock of winter
Adjective—Where is the watch-dog ? wears.
Verb—He is watching for an opportunity. Verb—He wears a blue coat.
 24 One-Word Substitution
There are many words in English which have a very comprehensive meaning. A single word can
convey the sense of many words. The use of such words is considered to be good from the stylistic
point of view. These words add to the depth, brevity, clarity, aptness and effectiveness of the language.
For example, if we say, “This is a book published after the death of its author”, or “This is a child born
after the death of his father”, we can express this complete idea by the word “Posthumous”. We give
below a list of popular words of this kind.
1. A person who believes in the total abolition of war. Pacifist
2. A person who is fond of fighting. Bellicose
3. A person who believes in the existence of God. Theist
4. A person who does not believe in the existence of God. Atheist
5. A person who renounces the world and devotes himself to a strictly devout
life, torturing the body for the good of the soul. Ascetic
6. A person with whom money or gain is the most important consideration. Materialist
7. A person who is very fond of sensuous enjoyments. Epicure
8. A person who is indifferent to pleasure and pain. Stoic
9. A man who is womanish in his habits. Effeminate
10. A man who amuses himself by love-making. Philanderer
11. One who is very selective in one’s taste and choice. Fastidious
12. One who does not know reading and writing. Illiterate
13. One who is very simple and who easily believes whatever is told. Credulous
14. One with long experience in any field. Veteran
15. Consent of all. Unanimous
16. A book or a work of art whose author is not known. Anonymous
17. One who entirely depends on another. Parasite
18. One who takes up arms against the government. Rebel
19. Goods sent from one country to another for trade. Export
20. Goods received by one country from another for trade. Import
21. To import goods illegally without payment of customs duty. Smuggle
22. Murder of one’s own self. Suicide
23. Murder or murderer of man. Homicide
24. Murder or murderer of a king. Regicide
25. Murder or murderer of an infant. Infanticide
26. Murder or murderer of one’s own mother. Matricide
27. Murder or murderer of one’s own father. Patricide
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28. Murder or murderer of one’s own brother. Fratricide

29. A disease which spreads through air and water. Infectious
30. A disease which spreads by physical touch or contact. Contagious
31. A person who is unable to pay his debts or honour his commitments. Insolvent
32. Persons living at the same time. Contemporaries
33. One who does not care for art and literature, and whose interests are only
material. Philistine
34. Items of business for consideration at a meeting. Agenda
35. A diplomatic representative of one country in another. Ambassador
36. Nations engaged in war. Belligerent
37. The period of gradual recovery of health after illness. Convalescence
38. The worship of idols or images. Idolatry
39. To turn out of society. Ostracize
40. A remedy for all kinds of diseases or troubles. Panacea
41. A scene of wild noise and disorder. Pandemonium
42. Two countries or states whose frontiers touch. Contiguous
43. A thing which can be easily broken. Brittle
44. A plane figure with eight sides and angles. Octagon
45. A plane figure with five sides and angles. Pentagon
46. A plane figure with six sides and angles. Hexagon
47. Succession of rulers belonging to one family. Dynasty
48. A person, plant or animal who is below the usual size. Dwarf
49. An elderly unmarried woman. Spinster
50. Undue favour shown to one’s own relatives. Nepotism
51. A person who compiles a dictionary. Lexicographer
52. One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession. Amateur
53. One who is very particular or overscrupulous about small details. Meticulous
54. One who is a breaker of things of art and literature, or who
opposes established institutions. Iconoclast
55. One who assumes a character or title not his own to deceive others. Impostor
56. Speaking irreverently about God or sacred things. Blaspheme
57. The act of violating the sanctity of the church or any religious institution. Sacrilege
58. One who depends on and believes in fate. Fatalist
59. One who is filled with excessive and mistaken enthusiasm in religious
matters. Fanatic or Bigot
60. One who wishes to destroy all established governments, law and order. Anarchist
61. A lady’s umbrella. Parasol
62. A lady’s purse. Raticule
63. The passage of soul after death from one body to the other. Transmigration
64. Medical examination of the dead body. Post-mortem
65. Deviation or departure from common rule or standard or what is normal. Anomaly
66. A person chosen by quarrelling parties to settle their differences. Arbitrator, arbiter
 ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTION | 263

67. A soldier who fights for the sake of money. Mercenary

68. One who loves one’s country. Patriot
69. A person who looks to the bright side of things. Optimist
70. A person who looks to the dark side of things. Pessimist
71. A child whose parents are dead. Orphan
72. Science of the influence of the stars on human affairs. Astrology
73. Science of heavenly bodies such as the sun, moon, stars and planets. Astronomy
74. The study of coins. Numismatics
75. Collector of stamps. Philatelist
76. A place where dead bodies are kept before post-mortem. Mortuary
77. Animals which feed on herbs. Herbivorous
78. The man who does not eat meat. Vegetarian
79. The man who can eat meat preparations. Non-vegetarian
80. The man who can eat human flesh. Cannibal
81. One who eats too much. Glutton
82. A speech delivered without any preparation. Extempore
83. Something said or done at once without preparation. Impromptu
84. A speech or a poem recited at the beginning of a play. Prologue
85. A speech or a poem recited at the end of a play. Epilogue
86. Speaking aloud while alone. Soliloquy
87. A play or a dramatic performance in verse, with music, dance and
fine costumes. Masque
88. Morning prayer in the church. Matin
89. Evening prayer in the church. Vesper
90. Bells rung in the church in the evening. Curfew
91. A person who believes only in spiritual things. Spiritualist
92. An office for which no salary is paid. Honorary
93. An office for which high salary is paid for little or no work
or responsibility. Sinecure
94. Persons working in the same department. Colleagues
95. A government by one person. Autocracy
96. A government by a small group of powerful persons. Oligarchy
97. A government by a rich and powerful class. Plutocracy
98. A government by the nobles. Aristocracy
99. A government by the officials. Bureaucracy
100. A government by the churchmen. Theocracy
101. A government by the people, of the people, and for the people. Democracy
102. Rule by mob. Mobocracy
103. The skill and policy of a country’s statesmen and politicians. Diplomacy
104. A game or battle in which no party gains victory. Drawn
105. Voluntary renouncement of the throne by a king. Abdication
106. Animals which live in water. Aquatic
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107. Animals which live both on land and in sea. Amphibian

108. Animals which live in flocks. Gregarious
109. One who can use either hand with ease in writing or working. Ambidextrous
110. Things which contain elements of the same nature. Homogeneous
111. Things which contain elements of opposite nature. Heterogeneous
112. One who is well-versed in any subject, a critical judge of any art,
particularly fine arts. Connoisseur
113. One who knows many languages. Linguist
114. Science of the nature and growth of words and language. Philology
115. A style in which a writer makes a display of his knowledge and learning. Pedantic
116. An imaginary name assumed by an author. Pseudonym
117. A child born after the death of its father, or a book published after the death
of its author. Posthumous
118. A style full of superfluous words containing a small thought. Verbose
119. Repetition of a writing, word for word. Verbatim
120. A roundabout way of expression. Circumlocution
121. A word or custom which is no longer in use. Obsolete
122. That which can be interpreted in any way. Ambiguous
123. Matter written by hand. Manuscript
124. The practice of borrowing words and ideas from other authors and using
them as one’s own ; literary theft. Plagiarism
125. The science which deals with derivation of words. Etymology
126. Dramatic performance with dumb show. Pantomime
127. The life-history of a man written by himself. Autobiography
128. The life-history of a man written by someone else. Biography
129. The science of animal life. Zoology
130. The science of vegetable life. Botany
131. The science of earth’s history and rocks. Geology
132. The state of being unmarried (of a man). Bachelorhood
133. The state of being unmarried (of a girl). Maidenhood
134. The state of being married. Matrimony
135. The practice of marrying only one at a time. Monogamy
136. The custom of having two wives or two husbands at a time. Bigamy
137. The custom of having more than two wives at the same time. Polygamy
138. The custom of having more than two husbands at the same time. Polyandry
139. Allowance due to a wife on legal separation from her husband. Alimony
140. A woman whose husband is dead. Widow
141. A man whose wife is dead. Widower
142. Yearly return of the date of an event. Anniversary
143. That which happens once in a year. Annual
144. That which happens once in two years. Biennial
145. Present every where (God). Omnipresent
 ONE-WORD SUBSTITUTION | 265

146. All-powerful, without end or limit (God). Omnipotent

147. All-knowing; knowing everything (God). Omniscient
148. That which can be seen through. Transparent
149. That which cannot be seen through. Opaque
150. A lover of mankind. Philanthropist
151. A hater of mankind. Misanthrope
152. A lover of womankind. Philogynist
153. A hater of womankind. Misogynist
154. He who works for the welfare of women. Feminist
155. A lover of one’s ownself. Egoist
156. A lover of others. Altruist
157. A person who regards the whole world as his country. Cosmopolitan
158. One who dies for a noble cause. Martyr
159. One who acts only for money. Mercenary
160. Words which are inscribed on the grave. Epitaph
161. A truth which is often repeated. Truism
162. Fit to be chosen ; qualified. Eligible
163. A sound that cannot be heard. Inaudible
164. A person who cannot be easily approached. Inaccessible
165. Incapable of being corrected. Incorrigible
166. Incapable of being understood. Unintelligible
167. Incapable of being wounded. Invulnerable
168. Incapable of being imitated. Inimitable
169. Incapable of being avoided. Inevitable
170. Incapable of being read. Illegible
171. Incapable of being practised. Impracticable
172. Incapable of being repaired. Irreparable
173. A decision upon which one cannot go back. Irrevocable
174. An effect which has a reference to the past. Retrospective
175. A person who leaves his own country and goes to live in another. Emigrant
176. A person who comes to one country from another in order to settle there. Immigrant
177. Movement from one country to another. Migration
178. One who lives in a country without citizenship. Alien
179. One who commits the first act of attack, offence or hostility. Aggressor
180. An established principle of practical wisdom. Maxim
181. One who travels from place to place, particularly a preacher. Itinerant
182. One who can speak two languages. Bilingual
183. One who leads others in any field. Pioneer
184. One who does not take any intoxicating drinks. Teetotaller
185. One who suffers from nervous disorder. Neurotic
186. The place for luggage at a railway station. Cloakroom
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187. The place for corpses to be buried. Cemetery

188. The place for corpses to be burnt. Crematory
189. The place for books. Library
190. The place for monks. Monastery
191. The place for keeping historical curios and relics. Museum
192. The place where young plants are grown. Nursery
193. A garden of fruits. Orchard
194. The place where artists work. Studio
195. The place for clothes and garments to be kept. Wardrobe
196. The place where animals, reptiles, and birds, etc. are kept. Zoo
197. A medicine to cure the effect of poison. Antidote
198. A person unable to pay his debts. Bankrupt
199. List of books and other articles. Catalogue
200. Persons living at the same time. Contemporary
201. That which is fit to be eaten. Edible
202. A trade or act prohibited by law. Illicit
203. One who walks in sleep. Somnambulist
204. One who talks in sleep. Somniloquist
205. That which cannot be explained. Inexplicable
206. That without which one can’t do. Indispensable
207. That which cannot be cured. Incurable
208. That which can’t be believed. Incredible
209. That which never fails. Infallible
210. That which catches fire easily. Inflammable
211. The medicine that kills insects. Insecticide
212. A medicine that induces sleep. Narcotic
213. Property inherited from father and ancestors. Patrimony
214. That which cannot be compared. Incomparable
215. That which cannot be defeated. Invincible
216. That which cannot be seen. Invisible
 25 Idioms
We give below a list of Popular Idioms 12. At one’s fingers’ ends—To have full and
1. An apple of discord—Cause of quarrel ready knowledge
● The Himalayan range is an apple of ● A lawyer should have all the sections of
discord between India and China. the Act at his fingers’ ends.
2. An apple of one’s eye—Very dear 13. An axe to grind—Some personal motive
● Her only son is the apple of her eye. ● He flatters you so much ; perhaps he has
3. To add fuel to the fire—To aggravate some some axe to grind.
situation or matter 14. To beat about the bush—To stray from the
● His abusive language added fuel to the main point
fire. ● A good student never beats about the bush
4. A bed of roses—An easy and comfortable in answering his questions.
situation 15. To bear the brunt of—To endure the cala-
● The post of the Prime Minister is not a mity or difficult situation
bed of roses. ● Maharana Pratap bore the brunt of the
5. Adam’s ale—Pure water Mughal invasions bravely.
● In the dry districts people have to content 16. To bring to light—To disclose
themselves with Adam’s ale. ● The Enquiry Commission has brought
6. To add insult to injury—To harm as well as many startling facts to light.
humiliate 17. At sixes and sevens—In disorder
● He has added insult to injury by writing ● My young son has thrown my books at
this letter. sixes and sevens.
7. At daggers drawn—On inimical terms 18. At the eleventh hour—At the last moment
● At one time Russia and America were at ● He reached the examination hall at the
daggers drawn. eleventh hour.
8. Against the rainy day—Precaution for emer- 19. At one’s beck and call—At one’s command
gency ● I want my servants to be at my beck and
● You must save something every month call.
against the rainy day. 20. At one’s wits’ end—To be confused
9. At a loss—To be confused ● At the sudden appearance of the police the
● He was at a loss to understand what to do suspect was at his wits’ end.
against so much of opposition.
21. To bear the palm—To be victorious
10. At logger heads—Terms of hostility
● Our team bore the palm in the final match.
● He is at logger heads with his own bro-
ther. 22. Bosom friend—Intimate friend
11. At an arm’s length—To keep danger or evil ● Mohan is my bosom friend.
at a distance 23. Bag and baggage—With full luggage
● Keep such rascals at an arm’s length. ● He has left Agra bag and baggage.
268 | L.W.C.E.

24. To bury the hatchet—To end old enmity 37. Between the devil and the deep sea—To fall
● Let us now bury the hatchet for ever and between two great difficulties
live like friends. ● I have fallen between the devil and the
25. By leaps and bounds—Very rapidly deep sea; if I go to office, I lose the
examination; if I don’t, my employer feels
● India is progressing by leaps and bounds. annoyed.
26. To be in bad books of—Out of favour 38. To blow one’s own trumpet—To praise
● He is in bad books of his teachers. one’s ownself
27. To be in good books of—To be in kind fav- ● I hate those persons who blow their own
our trumpet.
● He is in good books of his teachers. 39. Bone of contention—The cause of quarrel
28. To be in bad odour of—To be out of favour ● Kashmir is the bone of contention bet-
● A dishonest servant is always in bad ween India and Pakistan.
odour of his master. 40. By fits and starts—Something done irregu-
29. To be in good odour of—To be in good larly
favour ● You can never finish the work in time if
● An honest servant is always in good odour you proceed by fits and starts.
of his master. 41. Black sheep—An undesirable person
30. Bolt from the blue—A sudden calamity ● Many police officers proved black sheep
● The news of his father’s death came as a in the Movement of 1942.
bolt from the blue. 42. By hook or by crook—By any means fair or
31. Bad blood—Enmity foul
● These two brothers have bad blood ● Some people are very clever in achieving
between them. their goal by hook or by crook.
32. Blue blood—To belong to an aristocratic 43. To be hand and glove with—Intimate
family friends
● Lord Byron, the famous poet, was very ● Ramesh and Mohan are hand and glove
proud of his blue blood. with each other.
33. To be born with a silver spoon in one’s 44. Child’s play—A very easy task
mouth—To be born in a rich family ● It is not a child’s play to get first division.
● Jawaharlal Nehru was born with a silver 45. To count chickens before they are hatched
spoon in his mouth. —To anticipate profit before hand
34. To burn the candle at both ends—To waste ● Do not make your plans so ambitious
one’s money or energy racklessly because it is no use counting chickens
● If you go on burning the candle at both before they are hatched.
ends, you will soon come to repentance. 46. To cut the Gordian knot—To solve a very
difficult problem
35. Birds of the same feather—Persons of the
same nature and taste ● The national leaders cut the Gordian knot
● All the employees of this office are birds by abolishing the native states.
of the same feather. 47. Cock and bull story—A fantastic story
36. Between Scylla and Charybdis—Between ● The tale of his adventures is nothing but a
two great dangers cock and bull story.
● I am between Scylla and Charybdis; if I 48. Cat and dog life—Quarrelsome life
tell the truth my friend goes to the jail; if I ● Mohan and his wife live a cat and dog
do not, I betray my employer. life.
 IDIOMS | 269

49. To call a spade a spade—To talk bluntly ● When Gandhiji appeared in his first case,
● Dr. Johnson never hesitated in calling a he cut a sorry figure in the court.
spade a spade. 63. To curry favour—To win favour by flattery
50. Cry for the moon—An unattainable ambi- ● He has risen so high by currying favour of
tion the Chairman of the factory.
● His hope of getting the Nobel Prize is a 64. To cast a slur—To bring disgrace
cry for the moon. ● Your actions will cast a slur on the good
51. Cry over spilt milk—To repent in vain after name of your family.
loss 65. A bull in a china shop—Heedless destroyer
● Be comforted, my friend, it is no use Nadir Shah proved a bull in a china shop.
crying over spilt milk.
66. To put the cart before the horse—To do
52. A close shave—A narrow escape something in a wrong way
● I had a close shave in a car accident. ● Instead of calling the mechanic to the
53. Crocodile tears—False show of grief work-shop, he took the whole machine to
● He shed crocodile tears on the death of his him. It was like putting the cart before the
step-mother. horse.
54. Cold reception—No hearty welcome 67. To die in harness—To die while on duty
● The English cricket team was given a cold ● Slaves die in harness.
reception in India. 68. Drop in the ocean—Very insignificant
55. To be caught red-handed—To be caught amount
while committing a crime ● All your knowledge of science is only a
● The thief was caught red-handed. drop in the ocean.
56. Capital punishment—Death penalty 69. A dark horse—A person suddenly coming
into prominence
● Capital punishment has been revived in
● Mohan came out as a dark horse after the
many countries.
election.
57. Corporal punishment—Bodily punishment
70. Drawn battle or Drawn match—A battle or
● Corporal punishment should not be given match in which no party wins
to young children. ● The drawn cricket match was replayed in
58. To carry coals to New Castle—Unnecessary Calcutta yesterday.
and useless work 71. Double dealing—Deceitful actions
● To export silk to China is like carrying ● His double dealings are now exposed to
coals to New Castle. the public.
59. To call names—To abuse 72. To give the devil his due—Even the wicked
Calling names is a bad habit. should be given the praise due to him
60. To cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth ● In spite of all his wickedness, he has
—To live within one’s own means helped you; the devil should be given his
● It is always wise to cut one’s coat accord- due.
ing to one’s cloth. 73. Dog in the manger—A selfish person
61. Chip of the old block—The son resembling ● He would rather keep his books locked
the father than give them to you, because he is more
● Ram is a drunkard like his father. He is a or less a dog in the manger.
chip of the old block. 74. Sword of Damocles—An imminent danger
62. To cut a sorry figure—To make a poor ● The aggressive policy of China is a sword
impression of Damocles hanging over India.
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75. To dance attendance upon—To flatter 87. To eat one’s word—To break one’s promise
Officers in the present day want their Whatever may happen, I shall not eat my
subordinates to dance attendance upon word.
them. 88. To see eye to eye—To agree
76. On the horns of a dilemma—To face a I do not see eye to eye with him on this
difficult situation between two problems. issue.
The new import policy has put many 89. To take an exception to—To object to some-
industries on the horns of a dilemma; they thing
can neither run these industries nor close
I take serious exception to this type of
them down.
remark.
77. To play ducks and drakes—To waste
money 90. Enough and to spare—Plentiful
He is a rackless fellow playing ducks and Even the poorest man in America has
drakes with his ancestral property. enough and to spare.
78. A double-edged sword—Capable of causing 91. To make both ends meet—To live within
harm to the other as to one’s ownself one’s income with difficulty
He has cheated many people by the help A school teacher hardly makes both ends
of his son, but this may prove a double- meet.
edged sword one day. 92. Elixir of life—Nectar of life
79. A dog’s life—Very miserable life Contentment is the elixir of life.
People dwelling in the slums of great 93. Foul play—Treachery
cities live a dog’s life. I suspect foul play in the dealings of this
80. A blessing in disguise—Something intrinsi- clever man.
cally good but having a bad appearance 94. Fool’s paradise—Foolish ambition
His last year’s failure was a blessing in I pity the man; he is living in a fool’s
disguise, because this year he has secured paradise.
first division.
95. Fair weather friend—Selfish friends of
81. To end in smoke—To end in nothing prosperous days
The Summit Conference has ended in As he was a fair-weather friend, he deser-
smoke. ted me in my hard days.
82. Eye wash—Ineffective remedy 96. From hand to mouth—Bare existence
The revised pay-scale of the teachers is a The labouring class people in India live
mere eye wash. from hand to mouth.
83. Every inch—Completely 97. Fair play—Just dealing
Mohan is every inch a gentleman. I expect nothing but fair play from you.
84. Over head and ears—Beyond one’s capacity 98. Fall flat—To produce no effect
He is over head and ears in debt. The repeated warnings of the Government
85. Easy money—Bribe have fallen flat on the militants.
No officer who accepts easy money can 99. Follow suit—To follow the example
sleep in peace. Gandhiji laid his life in the service of the
86. Hush-money—Bribe given for concealing poor; let us also follow suit.
secrets 100. To fish in troubled waters—To take advant-
He has given hush-money to the publisher age of the difficulties of others
of the daily newspaper for withholding the During epidemics many doctors fish in
publication of this scandal. troubled waters.
 IDIOMS | 271

101. To fan the flame—To aggravate The teacher gave a piece of his mind to
By writing this letter you will only be the mischievous boy.
fanning the flame. 115. To face the music—To face opposition
102. To show white feather—To betray cawar- Every new teacher has to face the music
dice on the first day in the class.
Maharana Pratap never showed the white 116. To give up the ghost—To die
feather. The poor beggar gave up the ghost last
103. To fight to the finish—To fight to the end night.
The Rajputs were pledged to fight to the 117. To get rid of—To escape from
finish.
I am trying my best to get rid of my quar-
104. To fly into a passion—To be enraged
rel some neighbour at the earliest.
Weak men easily fly into a passion.
118. To get the better of—To overcome
105. To make a fortune—To grow rich
He made a fortune in America. At last he got the better of his adversary.
106. To wear a long face—To look gloomy 119. To go to the dogs—To be ruined
Do not wear a long face on this happy This factory is gradually going to the dogs
occasion. under the new management.
107. Fair and square—Honest 120. To gird up the loins—To be well prepared
One must be fair and square in one’s deal- for some trying task
ings. Let us all gird up the loins to eradicate the
108. To kill the fatted calf for—To arrange a evil of untouchability from India.
lavish reception for some body 121. To grease the palm—To tip or bribe a per-
Queen Elizabeth killed the fatted calf for son
the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ You will find easy access to the Governor
meet.
if you grease the palm of his peon.
109. To play the fool—To act foolishly
122. A snake in the grass—Some hidden enemy
He played the fool in the hands of his
clever friends. I could never expect that he would prove a
snake in the grass.
110. From pillar to post—From one extreme to
another 123. For good—For ever
Every young man has to run from pillar to He has left Calcutta for good.
post in search of a job. 124. To hold one’s ground—To stand firm
111. From the bottom of one’s heart—Very The Rajputs held their ground to the end.
sincerely 125. A golden opportunity—Very favourable
The beggar thanked me from the bottom opportunity or chance
of his heart. You should not miss this golden opportu-
112. To throw down the gauntlet—To give nity.
challenge 126. To give vent to—To express one’s thoughts
Mohan has thrown down the gauntlet to or feelings
Ramesh. Every individual is freely allowed to give
113. Gift of the gab—The skill of oratory vent to his feelings.
Dr. Radhakrishnan possessed a divine gift 127. An hair-breadth escape—Very narrow
of the gab. escape
114. To give a piece of one’s mind—To scold a I had an hair-breadth escape last evening
person from a car accident.
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128. Harp on the same string—To keep on 142. To take to one’s heels—To run away
talking on the same topic ● As soon as the thief saw the police, he
● Why do you unnecessarily harp on the took to his heels.
same string ? 143. To pick holes in—To find fault with
129. Hang over one’s head—Under danger ● It is a bad habit always to try to pick holes
● Ever since the death of her husband, in others.
troubles have been hanging over her head. 144. To bring home—To explain
130. To hang in balance—To remain undecided ● Gandhiji brought home the fact that the
● I am hanging in balance whether I should heart of India lay in her villages.
accept this offer or not. 145. Hot water—Troubles
131. To hang by a thread—Critical condition ● You will fall in hot water if you displease
● The life of a cancer patient hangs by a him.
thread. 146. Hue and cry—Noise and confusion
132. Heart and soul—In all sincerity ● When fire broke out in the village, there
● He is devoted to his studies heart and was much hue and cry.
soul.
147. To break the ice—To break silence by
133. Hard and fast—Definite speaking first
● There is no hard and fast rule for getting ● The President broke the ice in the condo-
happiness in life. lence meeting with a short speech.
134. To hit below the belt—To take advantage 148. Ill blood—Enmity
by unfair means
● There is no ill blood between Ram and
● A Rajput warrior never hits below the Mohan.
belt.
149. A man of iron—A strong man
135. To hit the nail on the head—To act in the
right way ● Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel was a man of
● A good lawyer always hits the nail on the iron.
head in his arguments. 150. In cold blood—Very cruelly
136. Hard nut to crack—A difficult problem to ● The dacoits killed the old man in cold
solve blood.
● The problem of unemployment is a hard
151. In black and white—In writing
nut to crack.
137. Hold water—To prove sound ● The agreement must be made in black and
white.
● Your argument does not hold water in this
case. 152. In the teeth of—Against strong opposition
138. Hold good—Valid ; applicable ● The Finance Bill was passed in the teeth
● The rule no longer holds good. of strong opposition.
139. A Himalayan blunder—A serious mistake 153. In full swing—In full glory
● We committed a Himalayan blunder in ● The Kumbh Fair is in full swing these
trusting the assurances of America. days.
140. To make head or tail of—To understand 154. In the twinkling of an eye—In a moment, in
● The audience could make no head or tail no time
of his learned lecture on mysticism. ● The flash of lightning disappears in the
141. Heart to heart—Very frankly twinkling of an eye.
● Let us have a heart to heart talk on this 155. In a nut shell—In brief
complicated issue. ● Please report the whole case in a nut shell.
 IDIOMS | 273

156. In one’s teens—Before attaining the age of 171. Kith and kin—Close relations
twenty ● Who will not help his kith and kin ?
● My eldest son is still in his teens. 172. To knock against—To collide with
157. In a fix—In a difficult mental state ● The truck knocked against the running
● I am in a fix; I do not know what to do in train.
this situation. 173. To keep up appearances—To keep one’s
158. In the nick of time—Just in time prestige
● I reached the station in the nick of time. ● He is somehow keeping up appearances in
159. In embryo—Immature, in the making his old age.
● My scheme of setting up a silk factory is 174. To keep an eye—To watch
still in embryo. ● The police keeps an eye on the vaga-
160. Intents and purposes—For all practical bonds.
purposes 175. To keep at bay—To keep the enemy at a
● He is the manging Director for all intents distance
and purposes. ● It is not easy to keep the rebels at bay.
161. Inns and outs—All details and secrets 176. To keep the wolf from the door—To avoid
● I know all the inns and outs of this starvation
business. ● He has to work day and night to keep the
162. In vogue—Popular wolf from the door.
● Animal sacrifice is no longer in vogue in 177. To keep an open table—To entertain all
India. comers
163. In the same boat—In the same condition ● He is very generous and always keeps an
open table.
● Both these friends are sailing in the same
boat. 178. The knock down price—Auction-price
164. In no time—In a very short time ● You will have to pay one fourth of the
● I can solve his question in no time. knock down price just now.
179. To laugh in one’s sleeves—To laugh secre-
165. Jack of all trades—A person knowing a
tly
little of many things
● The lawyers laughed in their sleeves at the
● Ramesh is a Jack of all trades.
ignorance of the judge.
166. Juda’s kiss—False show of love
180. To win laurels—To win honours
● Who knows that his love is merely Juda’s
● Our athletes won laurels in the Olympic
kiss ?
games.
167. To hold one’s jaw—To stop talking
181. To lose the day—To be defeated
● Kindly hold your jaw; it is enough.
● Our team lost the day.
168. In the jaws of—In the grip of
182. To lick the dust—To accept defeat
● The patient is in the jaws of death.
● Be sure, you will have to lick the dust in
169. To kill two birds with one stone—To serve
the end.
two purposes at one time
● If you hold the meeting at Nainital in 183. Leap in the dark—Uncertainty about out-
come
summer, you will be killing two birds
with one stone. ● Marriage is a leap in the dark.
170. To kiss the dust—To be humiliated 184. To lay hands on—To seize
● In the wrestling bouts the boastful ● How can the government lay hands on my
wrestler had to kiss the dust. private property ?
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185. Lapped in luxury—Brought up in luxury 200. To leave one in the lurch—To leave one in
● The princes are lapped in luxury. difficulties
186. To lead by the nose—To wield undue influ- ● My faithful friend, Mohan, will never
ence leave me in the lurch.
● She leads her husband by the nose. 201. Long and short—Brief substance
187. To lie in wait—To keep waiting for the ● Let me know the long and short of his
victim speech.
● The robbers were lying in wait for the 202. To leave no stone unturned—To make all
belated travellers. possible efforts
188. To turn over a new leaf—To start a new ● I shall leave no stone unturned to help
way of life you.
● He has turned a new leaf at sixty. 203. To let by-gones be by-gones—To forget old
things
189. To throw light on—To explain
● Let us start anew and let by-gones be by-
● The President threw light on the terms of gones.
agreement.
204. Man of parts—Talented man
190. To wash dirty linen in public—To expose
private affairs in public ● I can certify that he is a man of parts.
● There is no wisdom in washing dirty linen 205. Mare’s nest—Illusory discovery
in public. ● The report of the discovery of gold-mines
proved to be a mare’s nest.
191. A man of letters—A learned man
206. Move heaven and earth—To make every
● Dr. Radhakrishnan was a man of letters. possible effort
192. A red letter day—A historic day ● He moved heaven and earth to find a job
● The 15th of August 1947 is a red letter but it was all in vain.
day in the history of India. 207. To make a clean breast of—To confess
193. A white lie—Clear falsehood ● The dacoits made a clean breast of their
● He is telling a white lie. crimes before Vinoba Bhave.
194. To look down upon—To hate a person 208. To make a mountain of a mole-hill—To
● The rich should not look down upon the exaggerate small things
poor. ● You are unnecessarily making a moun-
195. On one’s last legs—At the last stage of life tain of a mole-hill and quarrelling.
● The patient is on his last legs. 209. To make after—To pursue or chase
● The police made after the thief and caught
196. To lead to the altar—To marry
him.
● I took the vow of life-long sincerity when
210. By fair or foul means—By any means
I led her to the altar. possible right or wrong
197. Loaves and fishes—Material gains ● He is very tactful and will succeed by fair
● Do not fall from your ideals for loaves or foul means.
and fishes. 211. To make up one’s mind—To determine
198. To pull one’s leg—To befool a person ● He has made up his mind to appear at the
● Prevent them from pulling the leg of the examination this year.
old man. 212. To make much ado about nothing— T o
199. Lion’s share—The biggest share make much of little things
● The leader of the gang got the lion’s share ● You will only complicate the matter if
of the booty. you make much ado about nothing.
 IDIOMS | 275

213. To throw mud at—To scandalise 227. No love lost—Having no love

● Why do you throw mud at your collea- ● There is no love lost between them.
gues ? 228. Neither chick nor child—No child
214. Upto the mark—Upto standard ● The unfortunate old man has neither chick
● Your answers are not upto the mark. nor child.
215. To make one’s mark—To achieve distinc- 229. To strain every nerve—To make every
tion possible effort
● India made its mark at the SAARC Sum- ● He will surely strain every nerve to get his
mit meet. work done.
216. Milk of human kindness—Human com- 230. To feather one’s own nest—To serve one’s
passion own purpose
● The heart of Gandhiji overflowed with the ● Many a so-called social worker merely
milk of human kindness. feathers his own nest.
217. To make amends—To compensate 231. Open secret—Known to all
● You will have to make amends for caus- ● This is now an open secret.
ing so much harm to me.
232. Order of the day—Some popular thing of
218. To meet half-way—To be prepared for com- the age
promise
● Armament race is the order of the day.
● Gandhiji was always prepared to meet his
adversaries half-way. 233. On the wrong side of—One’s age being
more than
219. To join the majority—To die
● He is on the wrong side of fifty.
● The poor beggar has joined the majority.
234. Out of sorts—Indisposed
220. To make out—To understand
● I am out of sorts today.
● I can hardly make out any meaning in
your speech. 235. Old head on young shoulders—One over-
intelligent and experienced for one’s age
221. Man in the street—Common man
● My young son reads books of philosophy
● The life of the man in the street is very
with interest; he has an old head on young
hard.
shoulders.
222. To nip in the bud—To destroy in the very
236. To oil someone’s hands—To bribe
beginning
● Oiling the hands of officials is an offence.
● All his hopes have been nipped in the bud.
237. To pay one back in one’s own coin—Tit for
223. Null and void—Rendered invalid tat
● The court has declared these laws null and ● You have deceived Mohan and, therefore,
void. take care that you may have to pay back
224. Nook and corner—At every place in your own coin.
● The police searched for the thief in every 238. To put the saddle on the right horse—To
nook and corner. blame the really guilty person
225. To set at naught—To ruin ● By arresting Mohan the police have put
● All my plans have been set at naught on the saddle on the right horse.
the death of my father. 239. To put one’s shoulder to the wheel—To do
226. Narrow circumstances—Hard days, poverty one’s work with one’s own efforts
● He is living in narrow circumstances these ● God helps those who put their shoulders
days. to the wheel.
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240. Pros and cons—Points for and against/good 253. Pin prick—Small troubles
or bad ● You should not lose your patience at such
● Let us consider all the pros and cons of pin pricks.
the whole affair before we advance fur- 254. To play a second fiddle—To take a sub-
ther. ordinate position
241. To poke one’s nose into—To interfere with ● It is strange that your Principal plays the
the affairs of others
second fiddle to the Manager.
● It is not wise to poke one’s nose into the
255. To play a double game—To act dubiously
affairs of others.
● Take care, he is playing a double game
242. To pour oil on troubled waters—To pacify
with you.
the anger of others
● He poured oil on troubled waters by his 256. To play fast and loose—To be unfaithful
gentle and honest replies. ● You can never prosper if you play fast and
243. Pandora’s Box—A source of evil powers loose with your own men.
● Greed opens Pandora’s box. 257. To play truant—To run away from the class
244. To play one’s cards well—To play an inte- ● He is in the habit of playing truant from
lligent role the class.
● A good statesman always plays his cards 258. To play one false—To deceive
well. ● You should not have played me false.
245. To poison one’s ears against—To set a 259. Past master—An expert
person against another ● He is past master in acting on the stage.
● He has poisoned the ears of my employer 260. To put a spoke in one’s wheel—To stand in
against me. the way of one’s progress
246. To set price on one’s head—To offer ● My own brother is putting a spoke in my
reward for killing or helping in the arrest of a wheel.
criminal
261. Pell mell—In confusion
● The government have set a price of
50,000/- on the head of the rebel leader. ● People ran pell mell at the first tremor of
the earthquake.
247. Part and parcel—An essential part
262. To pull the wire—To exercise secret influ-
● A good laboratory is the part and parcel of ence
the equipment of a scientist.
● America is pulling the wire behind
248. To pester with—To be troubled with Pakistan’s activities.
● We are pestered with mosquitoes here. 263. Point blank—Clearly
249. To take pains—To work hard ● He has refused point blank to help me.
● Nothing can be gained without taking 264. Petticoat-Government—The undue influ-
pains. ence of women
250. To put up with—To tolerate ● There is petticoat government in most
● I cannot put up with this insult. social organizations in France.
251. To pull to pieces—To criticise adversely 265. To put to the sword—To kill
● He has pulled my proposal to pieces. ● Nadirshah put even children to the sword.
252. To put pen to paper—To begin writing 266. Rank and file—Lower middle class people
● I put my pen to paper at the first stroke of ● The learned speeches of the great orator
the bell. cannot be appreciated by the rank and file.
 IDIOMS | 277

267. To rain cats and dogs—To rain heavily 281. Slip of the pen—A small unintentional mis-
● It is raining cats and dogs. take in writing
268. To rise to the occasion—To come to help at ● Please excuse me for this slip of the pen.
the hour of need 282. Slip of the tongue—A slight mistake in
● My brother is there to rise to the occasion speaking
to help me. ● Do not give so much importance to his
269. To run short—Not proving sufficient, short- slip of the tongue.
age of something 283. Square meal—Full meal
● I am running short of money these days. ● Many people can hardly arrange even a
square meal.
270. A rolling stone—A man not sticking to his
job 284. To save one’s skin—To escape safely
● I have somehow saved my skin from the
● He will not prosper because he is a rolling
scandal.
stone.
285. To roll up one’s sleeves—To be prepared
271. Right-hand man—A very helpful person
for contest
● My manager is my right-hand man.
● When Mohan gave him the challenge, he
272. To read between the lines—To discover rolled up his sleeves.
secret meaning
286. To give the cold shoulder—To discourage a
● It is a simple statement; why do you read person
between the lines ? ● I went to him for help, but he gave me the
273. A broken reed—An unreliable person cold shoulder.
● Every body knows that he is a broken 287. At a stone’s throw—At a little distance
reed; don’t depend on him. ● My house is at a stone’s throw from here.
274. Without rhyme or reason—Without any 288. To stand on one’s own legs—To become
justification independent
● He has been criticising me without rhyme ● Now you are old enough to stand on your
or reason. own legs.
275. To go to rack and ruin—To be completely 289. Summer friends—Friends of prosperity
ruined
● All my summer friends have deserted me
● His business has gone to rack and ruin. in my adverse days.
276. To rub shoulders with—To come in close 290. To screw up one’s courage—To gather
contact with courage
● I have rubbed shoulders with great scho-
● Do not be so disheartened; screw up your
lars.
courage.
277. To hold the scales even—To be impartial
291. To see the light—To be born
● A judge must hold the scales even.
● His father died before he saw the light.
278. To scratch one’s head—To be perplexed
● When I saw the Mathematics paper, I just 292. Seal of love—Kiss
scratched my head. ● The mother bade him farewell by
279. Storm in a tea-cup—Much hue and cry over imprinting a seal of love on his forehead.
a little matter 293. The sheet of anchor—The place of protec-
● You have unnecessarily raised storm in a tion or shelter
tea-cup over this little matter. ● Her employer proved to be the sheet of
280. Stand in good-stead—To be of great service anchor to her.
● Your upright character will always stand 294. A thick-skinned person—Insensitive person
in good stead. ● He is a very thick-skinned person.
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295. Through thick and thin—Through all diffi- 310. White elephant—A very expensive thing
culties ● A European wife is a white elephant for
● She faithfully stood with her husband an Indian.
through thick and thin. 311. Wolf in sheep’s clothing—A deceitful man
296. To take into one’s head—To think or to ● I don’t trust him; he is a wolf in sheep’s
believe clothing.
● Somehow he has taken into his head that 312. Wash one’s hands of—To be free from
he is the most intelligent boy. ● I have washed my hands of her affairs.
297. A tool in the hands of—Under the authority 313. Much cry and little wool—Disappointing
of another result
● Pakistan is merely a tool in the hands of ● After five years of studies abroad, he got a
America. small post. It was much cry and little
298. To take the bull by the horns—To face wool.
danger with courage 314. To bring to book—To punish
● Be bold and take the bull by the horns. ● The offender should be brought to book.
299. To take time by the forelock—To do one’s 315. To show a clean pair of heels—To run away
work in time
● The thief showed a clean pair of heels to
● You will never fail if you take time by the the police.
forelock.
316. To add a new feather in one’s cap— T o
300. True to one’s salt—To be faithful to one’s acquire a new honour or distinction
blood or character
● His election to the Parliament has added a
● The Rajputs were always true to their salt. new feather in his cap.
301. To turn the tables—To change the situation 317. To take a leaf out of another man’s book—
completely To imitate another person
● In the last few minutes our captain turned ● He has no originality of thought; he is
the tables in our favour. only taking a leaf out of another man’s
302. Tooth and nail—Contending with all force book.
● We shall oppose this move tooth and nail. 318. Maiden speech—First speech
303. To turn a deaf ear—To pay no attention ● His maiden speech was quite a success.
● My friend turned a deaf ear to my advice. 319. Nine days’ wonder—A short-lived glory
304. Tall talk—Boasting ● The glory of Hitler was a nine days’ won-
● He always indulges in tall talks. der.
305. To turn one’s coat—To change one’s party 320. To sow wild oats—Indulgence in youthful
follies
● He is an opportunist and has so often
● It is the duty of the warden to see that his
turned his coat.
students do not sow wild oats.
306. Under a cloud—Under suspicious condition
321. To pocket an insult—To bear insult
● He is working under a cloud.
● The nationalists had to pocket much in-
307. Under the rose—Secretly sult during their fight for independence.
● He is making love with her under the rose. 322. A red rag to a bull—Something that irritates
308. Under one’s nose—In the presence of ● The fiery slogans against the police proved
● He accepted bribe under the nose of his to be a red rag to a bull.
senior officer. 323. Under the thumb of—Under the authority
309. Wild goose chase—Useless efforts of someone
● His efforts to marry the princess have ● The manager is under the thumb of the
proved a wild goose chase. proprietor.
 IDIOMS | 279

324. To get wind of—To know the secret 335. To make up—To make up the loss
● Somehow the police got the wind of the ● I shall make up your loss.
conspiracy. 336. Run down—Reduced in health
325. To go a wool gathering—To grow lunatic
● He is very much run down these days.
● His wits have gone a wool gathering.
326. Over head and ears—Very deeply 337. A tower of strength—Chief support
● He is in debt over head and ears. ● Pt. Nehru was the tower of strength of the
327. In the air—Spread as a rumour Congress Party.
● This news is very much in the air. 338. Hold the fort—To stand firm on one’s posi-
328. Out of the wood—Out of difficulties tion
● At last he came out of the wood. ● He held the fort against all odds.
329. A royal road—An easy and popular way 339. To go back on—To withdraw
● There is no royal road to success. ● You should not go back on your word.
330. To think lightly—Not to be serious about a
340. Behind the scene—Secretly
thing
● Please don’t think lightly of my scheme. ● He is the governing power behind the
scene.
331. To fight shy of—To be hesitant
● Face the problem boldly and don’t fight 341. Once for all—Finally
shy of the situation. ● My reply is final once for all.
332. In the melting pot—In a confused state 342. On and on—To continue
● The whole affair is in the melting pot. ● He went on and on with his scheme.
333. By and large—On the whole
343. Come true—To prove true
● He is by and large a gentleman.
● His warning has come true.
334. Come across—Meet by chance
● Please give him my message if you come 344. Put an end to—To finish
across him. ● He has put an end to his foolish schemes.
 26 Idiomatic Phrases
Idiomatic Phrases ● He writes articles for the newspapers as a
free lance.
(Noun Phrases) 13. Iron will—(A man of strong will)
1. Cold war—(Intense ideological or tactical ● A good statesman should be a man of iron
struggle) will.
● There should be no cold war between 14. Fair sex—(Woman)
neighbouring countries. ● This is the privilege of the fair sex.
2. Dutch courage—(Temporary boldness 15. A big gun—(An important person)
roused under the effect of liquor) ● He is a big gun.
● His dutch courage will soon pass off.
Adjective Phrases
3. Fair play—(Honest dealings)
● There is no fraud; it is a fair play. 16. With open arms—(Warm welcome)
● My friend received me with open arms.
4. A fancy price—(Very high price)
● His painting will fetch a fancy price. 17. Without reserve—(Freely)
● We accept your terms without reserve.
5. A gala day—(A day of rejoicings)
● His birthday is a gala day for him. 18. Beside himself—(Highly disturbed)
● His heavy loss in business has thrown him
6. The ins and outs—(Complete knowledge)
beside himself.
● Nobody can know the ins and outs of their
19. On the alert—(Cautious)
secret service.
● The border areas should always be kept
7. Red tapism—(Official formalities)
on the alert.
● Many projects are long held up on
20. Out of date—(Out of use or fashion)
account of red tapism.
● Tight trousers have now become out of
8. Sharp practice—(Cunning practice at law)
date.
● No lawyer can get success by resorting to
21. Up-to-date—(Latest; to the present day)
sharp practice.
● He is up-to-date in his knowledge of poli-
9. A wet blanket—(A discouraging person or tical developments.
thing)
22. In high spirits—(Very happy)
● Too much seriousness acts as a wet
● He is in high spirits today because of his
blanket to cheerfulness.
grand success.
10. Hand and glove—(Very intimate)
23. Out of spirits—(Sad and dejected)
● I am hand and glove with my friend.
● He is out of spirits today because of his
11. Forty winks—(A short nap in day–time) failure in the examination.
● I have forty winks every day after lunch. 24. Like wild fire—(Rapidly)
12. A free lance—(An independent journalist or ● The news of his murder spread like wild
politician) fire.
 IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 281

25. Out of gear—(In bad condition) 42. Under the wing—(Under someone’s protec-
● His business has gone out of gear these tion)
days. ● This port is under the wing of America.
26. At sea—(Confused) 43. In hot water—(In a difficult situation)
● I am at sea these days on account of all ● The journalist has fallen in hot water due
these problems coming together. to his wrong reporting of Parliamentary
27. To the letter—(Fully and exactly) proceedings.
● I have carried out his orders to the letter. Adverb Phrases
28. In the dark—(Ignorant, out of knowledge) 44. By degrees—(Slowly)
● Don’t keep your father in the dark. ● He is recovering from his heavy debts by
29. At the first flush—(At the first sight) degrees.
● You cannot appreciate this painting at the 45. At times—(Sometimes)
first flush. ● At times he behaves like a fool.
30. In the ascendant—(Rising state) 46. Once for all—(Finally)
● His stars are in the ascendant these days. ● You must take a decision once for all.
31. In hand—(under control) 47. At random—(Without any system)
● Now the law and order situation is in ● He gave me some suggestions at random
hand. which I could not accept.
32. In the air—(Spread all around) 48. Of late—(Recently)
● The fear of an attack is in the air. ● Of late he has not seen me.
33. Out of the question—(Impossible) 49. At best—(At the most)
● His success in business is out of the ● At best I can introduce you to him.
question.
50. Out and out—(Fully)
34. At a pinch—(In a hard situation)
● He is out and out a gentleman.
● No friend of yours will come to your help
at a pinch. 51. Off and on—(Occasionally)
35. Ill at ease—(Worried) ● Off and on he comes and stays with me.
● He is ill at ease on account of his father’s 52. Now and then—(Sometimes)
illness. ● Now and then he comes here.
36. On his last legs—(At the last stage) 53. Far and wide—(Over a large area)
● His grandfather is on his last legs.
● His fame has spread far and wide.
37. Head or tail—(Any meaning or Sense)
54. Before long—(Very soon)
● We could make no head or tail of his long
● We are shifting to our new house before
speech.
long.
38. With one voice—(Unanimously)
55. At a stretch—(Continuously)
● His proposal was accepted with one voice.
● I can drive my car for six hours at a
39. For good—(For ever) stretch.
● He has left Delhi for good. 56. At the outset—(In the beginning)
40. On the cards—(Going to occur very soon) ● You must work very hard at the outset of
● Now the elections are on the cards. your career.
41. All the rage—(Very popular) 57. At large—(Run away)
● Pop music is all the rage these days. ● The convict is still at large.
282 | L.W.C.E.

58. At length—(in full detail) 73. In accordance with—(In keeping with)

● You should discuss your plan with me at ● I have enclosed all the documents in
length. accordance with the advertisement.
59. Of course—(Certainly) 74. In proportion to—(According to)
● Of course he will never betray you. ● The workers are not paid in proportion to
60. Time and again—(Repeatedly) their work.
● Please don’t come to me for help time and 75. For want of—(For shortage of)
again. ● I could not start my business for want of
61. By and by—(By slow degrees) money.
● By and by he will adjust himself to the 76. In lieu of—(In place of)
climatic conditions of this country. ● You can write an essay in lieu of trans-
62. Few and far between—(Few and at long lation.
distances) 77. At the instance of—(At someone’s sugges-
● In the desert the villages are few and far tion)
between. ● I applied for this post at the instance of
63. First and foremost—(First and most impor- my father.
tant) 78. In spite of—(Even after something)
● Our first and foremost duty is to serve our ● He failed in spite of hard labour.
country. 79. On account of—(Due to)
64. For long—(For a long time) ● I could not go to office on account of
● War cannot go for long. heavy rains.
65. Over and above—(In addition to) 80. In view of—(Owing to)
● Over and above he is very hard-working. ● In view of some disturbances in the city,
the market was kept closed.
66. To and fro—(Backwards and forwards)
81. With a view to—(With the purpose of)
● He was pacing in the room to and fro.
● He has moved to Bombay with a view to
67. Through and through—(Completely) setting up a factory there.
● He is through and through a rogue. 82. In the wake of—(Immediately after)
68. By all means—(In all possible ways) ● The market has been closed in the wake of
● I will certainly help you by all means. some disturbances.
83. In a state of—(In a condition of)
Prepositional Phrases
● He is lying in a state of coma.
69. For the sake of—(In favour of)
84. By virtue of—(Owing to)
● A patriot would die for the sake of his
country. ● He secured first position by virtue of hard
70. In response to—(In compliance to) labour.
● The public contributed liberally in res- 85. In search of—(Looking for)
ponse to an appeal by the Prime Minister. ● He has come here in search of some job.
71. In regard to—(Relating to) 86. On the point of—(At the brink of)
● The students met the Principal in regard to ● His factory is on the point of closure.
many of their problems. 87. In order to—(With the purpose of)
72. In addition to—(over and above) ● He has appealed to the court in order to
● We get gratuity in addition to our pension. get some relief.
 IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 283

88. In the act of—(While engaged in) 105. Cast down—(Disappointed)

● He was caught in the act of cutting the ● He feels much cast down owing to his
road. failure.
89. In the midst of—(Amidst) 106. Cast away—(Throw away)
● He works in the midst of great difficulties. ● He has cast away his old shoes.
90. At the top of—(At the highest point) 107. Come across—(Meet by chance)
● He shouted at the top of his voice. ● I came across my former boss yesterday.
91. In consideration of—(In view of) 108. Come about—(Happen/Take place)
● I pardon you in consideration of your long ● The change came about suddenly.
service. 109. Cry down—(To denounce)
92. By the way—(Incidentally, by any chance) ● Many people are in the habit of crying
● By the way, are you Ram Mohan Roy ? down their friends.
Verbal Phrases 110. Call names—(Abuse)
93. Account for—(Being the cause of) ● He is in the habit of calling names.
● His cunningness accounts for his fall. 111. Deal in—(Engaged in business)
94. Bear out—(Support, to be a witness) ● He deals in silk.
● You will bear me out that I wanted to help 112. Deal with—(Act with)
her. ● How will you deal with the rogues ?
95. Bear with—(Tolerate)
113. Do away with—(Finish/End)
● Please bear with me for some time more.
● He has done away with all bad habits.
96. Break off—(Stop)
114. Fall out—(Quarrel)
● He suddenly broke off in the middle of his
speech. ● These two brothers have fallen out.
97. Break into—(Enter by force) 115. Get out of—(To be free from)
● The thieves broke into my shop last night. ● Try to get out of all your debts.
98. Bring about—(Produce/cause) 116. Get through—(To Pass)
● These measures will bring about pros- ● He will easily get through the examina-
perity in the country. tion.
99. Bring in—(Earn) 117. Get up—(Rise)
● He brings in five thousand rupees a ● He gets up very early in the morning.
month.
118. Give away—(Distribute)
100. Bring out—(Reveal)
● The Principal gave away the prizes.
● The enquiry will bring out many startling
facts. 119. Give up—(Leave out)
101. Bring up—(To rear up) ● I shall give up my claim.
● He has a large family to bring up. 120. Go through—(Check up)
102. Call on—(To meet a person) ● Please go through my essay.
● I shall call on you tomorrow morning. 121. Go in for—(In favour of/Purchase)
103. Call in—(Ask to come) ● I shall go in for a new car.
● Please call in my Secretary. 122. Hold up—(Stop/close down)
104. Carry out—(To act according to) ● The traffic has been held up by the agita-
● I cannot carry out your orders. tors.
 284 | L.W.C.E.

123. Hold over—(Postpone) 140. Set aside—(Turn down)

● Let us hold over this matter for the next ● The court has set aside the orders of the
meeting. Chairman.
124. Knock down—(Thrown down/Run over) 141. Set up—(Establish)
● He was knocked down by a car. ● He has set up a cement factory.
125. Keep up—(Maintain) 142. Set off (out)—(Go on a journey)
● He is creditably keeping up his reputation. ● He set off for America last night.
126. Lay down—(Sacrifice) 143. Strike off—(Reject)
● Many patriots would willingly lay down
● The teacher can strike off your name.
their life for their country.
127. Lay by—(To save for future) 144. Take after—(To look like/Resemble)
● One should always lay by something for ● The girl strikingly takes after her mother.
the rainy day. 145. Tell upon—(To cast had effect)
128. Look after—(Take care of) ● Smoking tells upon everyone’s health.
● A mother looks after her children with 146. Turn up—(Arrive/Appear)
selfless devotion. ● He turned up at the last stroke of the bell.
129. Look forward to—(Hope/Eagerly wait for)
147. Work out—(Calculate)
● We look forward to meeting you very
soon. ● We should first work out the total expen-
diture on this project.
130. Look into—(Examine)
● We shall look into your case very care- 148. Wear out—(Tired/Become old)
fully. ● The shoes of my young son wear out very
131. Make out—(To understand / Infer) soon.
● I could not make out anything from his 149. To see eye to eye—(To agree)
letter. ● I cannot see eye to eye with you on this
132. Pass through—(Facing/Going through) issue.
● India is passing through a difficult stage. 150. To give way—(To yield/To break down)
133. Pull up—(Scold) ● The roof suddenly gave way under the
● The teacher pulled up the naughty boy. heavy rains.
134. Put out—(Extinguish) 151. To bring home—(To explain/Clarify)
● Don’t put out the lamp, please. ● The central idea of the poem was brought
home to the students by the teacher.
135. Put off—(Postpone)
● The meeting has been put off for tomor- 152. To take to heart—(To feel deeply)
row. ● She has taken her insult to heart.
136. Put up with—(Bear/Tolerate) 153. To beggar description—(Beyond descrip-
● It is very difficult to put up with a foolish tion)
friend. ● Cleopatra’s beauty beggard description.
137. Run down—(To be weak) 154. To lose ground—(To be weak)
● He is very much run down owing to his ● Small political parties soon come to lose
long illness. ground.
138. See through—(Discover the secret) 155. To gain ground—(To become strong/Gain-
● I can see through all his designs. ing strength)
139. See off—(Bid Farewell) ● The Republic Party is slowly gaining
● We shall see him off at the airport. ground.
 IDIOMATIC PHRASES | 285

156. To play false—(To cheat) ● There should be a separate fund for the
● One should not play false with friends. wear and tear of machinery.
157. To hold good—(To be applicable) 171. All in all—(Most important)
● This rule does not hold good any longer. ● My uncle is all in all in my family.
158. To come to grief—(To suffer/To be sad) 172. Black and white—(In writing)
● If you don’t mend yourself, you will come ● Let us make an agreement in black and
to grief. white.
159. To make a mark—(To get recognition) 173. Hard and fast—(Definite)
● He has made a mark in the field of pain- ● There can be no hard and fast rule for
ting. good conduct.
174. Slow and steady—(Slow but regular)
Idiomatic Phrases in Pairs
● The slow and steady wins the race.
160. Fits and starts—(Irregularly) 175. Null and void—(out of force)
● He does his work by fits and starts. ● This provision has been declared null and
161. Heart and soul—(Very sincerely) void by the court.
● I am devoted to my work heart and soul. 176. Head and shoulders—(To a high degree/
much above)
162. Intents and purposes—(In every sense / In
reality) ● He is head and shoulders above his
friends in intelligence.
● He is to all intents and purposes my real
boss. 177. Bread and butter—(Daily food)
● There is no provision even for bread and
163. Kith and kin—(Close relations)
butter in his family.
● I am really grateful to my kith and kin.
178. Fair and square—(Fair and honest)
164. Leaps and bounds—(Very rapidly) ● I believe in fair and square dealings.
● His business is developing by leaps and
179. Rhyme and reason—(Some reason/ground)
bounds.
● He is hostile to me without any rhyme or
165. Odds and ends—(All kinds of trivial things) reason.
● He filled his bag with odds and ends and 180. Cats and dogs—(Heavy rain)
ran away.
● It is raining cats and dogs.
166. Part and parcel—(Inseparable part)
181. Rank and file—(Common people)
● Kashmir is part and parcel of India.
● You can never win against the wishes of
167. Rack and ruin—(Complete destruction) rank and file.
● His family has gone to rack and ruin 182. Root and branch—(Completely)
owing to his rackless habits. ● Let us do away with this evil custom root
168. Time and tide—(Time and opportunity) and branch.
● Don’t miss this chance, for time and tide 183. Long and short—(Substance)
wait for nobody. ● Let me know the long and short of the
169. Tooth and nail—(With full force) whole episode.
● Let us fight casteism tooth and nail. 184. Then and there—(Promptly)
170. Wear and tear—(Depreciation) ● He made the payment then and there.
 Distinction between
27 Similar Expressions
Distinction between Similar 11. Shoot a man—(to kill a man by a gun–shot)
Expressions Shoot at a man—(to fire a gun–shot towards
someone)
Some Idiomatic Expressions look alike, but
they are actually not so. There is a great difference 12. To search somebody—(to take search of
someone)
in their meanings. We give below a list of such
To search for somebody—(to be in search of
similar expressions that are in common use :
some person)
1. At no time—(never) 13. Believe a man—(to have faith in what one
In no time—(promptly) says)
2. In an hour—(by the end of one hour) Believe in a man—(to have faith in the
honesty of some person)
Within an hour—(before the end of one
hour) 14. Meet a man—(to meet someones in the nor-
mal course)
3. Work in hand—(the work in which one is
Meet with a man—(to meet someone by
engaged)
chance)
Work on hand—(the remaining part of the
15. The Chairman and Director—(Only one
work)
man who is both the Chairman and Director)
4. Go to sea—(to go to sea in search of a job)
The Chairman and the Director—(Two
Go to the sea—(to go on a [sea] voyage) men–One Chairman, the other Director)
5. Go to school—(to go to school for study) 16. English—(English Language)
Go to the school—(to go to a school for some The English—(English People)
work—not for study) 17. Who is he ?—(Who is that man ?, i.e. What is
6. Go to market—(to go to market to purchase his name ?)
something) What is he ?—(What is he by profession)
Go to the market—(to go to market for plea-
Which is he ?—(Which one is he amongst
sure or some other work)
them ?)
7. Go to office—(to go to office to work there)
18. The eldest son—(the first born)
Go to the office—(to go to office for some
other work) The oldest son—(the eldest of the living
8. Work hard—(to work industriously) sons)
Work hardly—(to work very little) 19. Well—(in good health)
9. Come late—(late in reaching) Well off—(financially sound)
Come lately—(come only a little while ago) 20. Reach by Sunday—(reach upto Sunday)
10. Go direct—(go straight) Reach before Sunday—(reach before Sun-
Go directly—(go just now) day comes)
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS | 287

21. Live on grass—(live by eating grass) 27. Come soon—(come early)

Live in grass—(live under grass) Come quickly—(come by fast means)
22. Take heart—(to collect courage) 28. In respect of—(in view of some quality)
Take to heart—(to feel in the depth of heart) With respect to—(in reference to something)
23. At a loss—(unable to decide what to do) 29. To have business—(regarding some work)
In a loss—(to go in loss) To have a business—(regarding some busi-
24. Look sick—(to appear ill) ness matter)
Look sickly—(to look weak as if sick) 30. Hand in hand—(together)
25. Find easy—(easy to do) Hand to hand—(face to face)
Find easily—(to discover easily) 31. To call—(to summon somebody)
26. Tell briefly—(to tell in brief) To give a call—(to give a general call to
Tell shortly—(to tell soon) people for something)
 28 Proverbs
We give below a list of Popular Proverbs with 12. Might is right.
their meanings within brackets. ● (Physical force wins.)
IMPORTANT PROVERBS 13. Rome was not built in a day.
1. A bad man is better than a bad name. ● (Great projects cannot be completed in a
hurry.)
● (Ill–reputation is worse than ill–deeds.)
14. Distance lends enchantment to the view.
2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
● (Things appear more beautiful from a dis-
● (A small but sure gain is better than a tance.)
doubtful double gain.) 15. An old dog learns no new tricks.
3. A burnt child dreads the fire. ● (Old men cannot learn anything new.)
● (A person who has had a shock once acts 16. Where there is a will there is a way.
very cautiously.) ● (A man of strong will is bound to find a
4. A bad workman quarrels with his tools. way out.)
● (An inefficient man blames others for his 17. Strike while the iron is hot.
inefficiency.) ● (Don’t miss a favourable chance.)
5. A drowning man will catch at a straw.
18. If the sky falls we shall catch larks.
● (Even a small help is good enough in a
● (One should not put impossible condi-
critical position.)
tions for acting.)
6. A figure among cyphers. 19. As you sow, so shall you reap.
● (A man of little acquisitions is held high ● (One gets returns according to one’s
in a company of fools.) deeds.)
7. A guilty conscience needs no accuser. 20. To kill two birds with one stone.
● (A guilty soul accuses itself.) ● (To gain two things by one act.)
8. A prophet is not honoured in his own country. 21. Self-praise is no recommendation.
● (The talents of a man are not often reco- ● (Self–praise has no value.)
gnized by his own people.) 22. While in Rome, do as the Romans do.
9. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. ● (One should adjust oneself to local condi-
● (Incomplete knowledge of anything may tions.)
cause harm.) 23. It is hard to live in Rome and fight with the
Pope.
10. Penny wise and pound foolish.
● (One should not quarrel with one’s own
● (It is foolish to save small things and fellow–workers or with the boss.)
waste huge ones.) 24. He who digs a pit for others falls into it him-
11. Save life save all. self.
● (Life is more important than anything ● (One falls into one’s own trap laid for
else.) others.)
 PROVERBS | 289

25. It is no use crying over spilt milk. 41. Christmas comes once a year.
● (There is no gain weeping over a lost ● (Every day is not a festival.)
opportunity.) 42. Half a loaf is better than no bread.
26. Many hands make the burden light. ● (A little gain is better than no gain.)
● (Collective efforts make a task easy.) 43. All covet, all lose.
27. All that glitters is not gold. ● (Too much greed gains nothing.)
● (All things that are good in appearance 44. All’s well that ends well.
are not always really good.) ● (Final result is the most important thing.)
28. Coming events cast their shadows before. 45. God’s mill grinds slow but sure.
● (Present conditions point to future ● (Moral justice prevails in the end.)
events.) 46. From a bad paymaster get what you can.
29. A good face needs no paint. ● (Accept whatever is offered in a bad
● (Good things/deeds cannot be concealed.) bargain.)
30. Care kills the cat. 47. Birds of the same feather flock together.
● (Worry and tension are highly injurious.) ● (Men of like nature come together.)
31. At length the fox turns monk. 48. Better a tooth out than always aching.
● (Do away with a painful thing, however
● (One trying to look innocent after a long
precious.)
career of crimes.)
49. Even walls have ears.
32. Cut your coat according to your cloth.
● (There are listeners all around.)
● (Limit your expenditure within your
50. Death’s day is doom’s day.
income.)
● (Nothing remains after death.)
33. Do good and forget.
51. Diamond cuts diamond.
● (Forget the favour you have done to
● (A conflict between two equal oppo-
others.)
nents.)
34. Everybody’s business is nobody’s business.
52. Every sable cloud has a silver lining.
● (Collective responsibility is nobody’s res-
● (There is a ray of hope amidst all despon-
ponsibility.)
dency.)
35. An empty mind is a devil’s workshop. 53. Deep rivers move in silent majesty, shallow
● (Evil thoughts dwell in a vacant mind.) brooks are noisy.
36. Everything looks pale to the jaundiced eye. ● (Shallow men are boastful ; men of depth
are sober.)
● (To see everything with a prejudiced
54. Haste makes waste.
mind.)
● (Haste spoils a good thing.)
37. Barking dogs seldom bite.
55. Act in haste, repent at leisure.
● (A boastful person rarely acts.) ● (A hasty action leads to long repentance.)
38. A rolling stone gathers no mass. 56. Kindness is lost upon an ungrateful man.
● (An unsettled life gains nothing.) ● (An ungrateful man does not respond to
39. “Errors like straws over the surface flow, goodness.)
One who is in search of truth must dive 57. Pride goes before a fall.
below.” ● (A proud man always falls.)
● (Errors are easy to detect, while truth is 58. Prevention is better than cure.
difficult to find.) ● (It is better to take preventive measures
40. An empty vessel makes much noise. than to seek remedy when the disease has
● (A shallow man is usually very boastful.) come.)
290 | L.W.C.E.

59. Little grief is loud, great griefs are silent. 75. A nod to the wise and a rod to the foolish.
● (Shallow grief is vocal ; deeper grief is ● (A little suggestion is enough for an inte-
silent.) lligent person, but a fool takes no hint.)
60. To have an old head on young shoulders. 76. A low-born man feels proud of his honours.
● (One more precocious than one’s age.) ● (A man of low–breeding would go off his
61. Those who live in glass houses should not head if he is placed in high position.)
throw stones. 77. Prosperity finds friends; adversity tries them.
● (Those who have their own weakness ● (Many friends come in days of prosperity,
should not blame others.) but the sincerity of friendship is tested
62. To swallow the whole ox and be choked with only in days of adversity.)
the tail. 78. An unhappy man’s cart is sure to tumble.
● (A great sinner pretending to be afraid of ● (Problems multiply in days of adversity.)
small sins.) 79. Adversity is the touchstone of friendship.
63. He gives thrice who gives in a trice. ● (Sincerity of friendship can be tested only
● (Immediate action is the best action.) in days of adversity.)
64. Money makes the mare go. 80. Fortune favours the brave.
● (Money dictates all terms.) ● (He who acts with courage gets success.)
65. Necessity knows no law. 81. The wearer knows where the shoe pinches.
● (All values break down in critical mo- ● (Only the sufferer knows how painful is
ments.) the suffering.)
66. The nearer the church the farther from God. 82. Give an inch and he will take an ell.
● (Just being near the church does not make ● (If you give one a little, he would demand
one holy.) more.)
67. It takes two to make a quarrel. 83. A good name is better than riches.
● (One–sided action serves no purpose.) ● (Reputation is more precious than riches/
68. There is no rose without a thorn. wealth.)
● (Every good thing has some kind of draw- 84. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
back in it.) ● (Too many advisers harm the cause.)
69. Out of the frying pan into the fire. 85. Welcome or not, I am still your guest.
● (Going from a smaller danger to a bigger ● (One cannot be a forced guest.)
one.)
86. You cannot sell the cow and have the milk
70. A lie has no legs. too.
● (Falsehood cannot stand long.) ● (One can not take double advantage.)
71. Hunger is the best sauce. 87. Heads I win, tails you lose.
● (A hungry man finds everything deli-
● (A clever man would like to gain from
cious.)
both sides.)
72. All your geese are swans.
88. Time is a great healer.
● (One likes one’s own things better than
those of others.) ● (All griefs heal up in course of time.)
73. Charity begins at home. 89. It is no use casting pearls before swine.
● (Service must begin from home, and then ● (An underserving man cannot appreciate
extended to others.) good things.)
74. See which way the wind blows. 90. A blind man is no judge of colours.
● (Let us wait and watch what turn the ● (A fool cannot appreciate anything, how-
events take.) ever good it may be.)
 PROVERBS | 291

91. An open door will tempt a saint. 101. An ass is an ass though laiden with gold.
● (It is difficult to resist an easy tempta- ● (A fool remains a fool, however you may
tion.) favour him.)
92. Hope lasts with life. 102. As the crow is, so the eggs shall be.
● (Man lives by hope to the last moment.) ● (As the father, so the children.)
93. I talk of chaff; he hears of cheese. 103. Close sits my shirt, but closer my skin.
● (A confused man has no understanding.) ● (One’s own men are always more helpful
94. Practice makes a man perfect. than strangers.)
● (Practice adds to the efficiency of man.) 104. The cowl does not make a monk.
95. First deserve, then desire. ● (Outer appearance is no test of a man’s
real character.)
● (An undeserving man should not expect
105. His bread is buttered on both sides.
much.)
96. There are men and men. ● (He has all the advantages.)
● (All men are not equal.) 106. Necessity is the mother of invention.
97. Handsome is that handsome does. ● (Necessity finds a way out.)
● (A man is good if his work is good.) 107. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
98. Blood is thicker than water. ● (A sincere friend is one that comes to
● (Family bonds are very strong.) help in times of need.)
108. Face is not the index of the heart.
99. Ill got ill spent.
● (Faces are deceptive.)
● (Money earned by unfair means goes
waste.) 109. Excess of everything is bad.
100. A wise foe is better than a foolish friend. ● (Nothing should be carried to an excess.)
● (A foolish man is more dangerous even if 110. Time and tide wait for nobody.
he is a friend.) ● (Favourable times do not wait long.)
 Expansion :
29 Paragraph-Writing
There are many Maxims, Sayings, Proverbs, easy but their practical application in the conduct
and Quotations in the English language, which of life is very difficult. Anybody can preach, but
appear to be very small but are really packed full very few can practise what they preach. A mere
of meaning. They carry very deep meaning. Each theoretical preaching makes no real impact on the
one of them can be expanded into a full essay or a people. This is why great saints and sages first
long paragraph. They are highly epigrammatic and practised in their own life and conduct what they
aphoristic. They can be explained and expanded to sought to preach. Their life and conduct were
the length of a paragraph. This type of exercise is practical lessons in the highest values of life. Lord
called Expansion or Paragraph writing. This Christ was a living example of human love and
type of exercise gives a very useful training compassion. Mahatma Gandhi was an apostle of
towards the art of composition. truth and non-violence. Thus one practical
We give below a few examples of Expansion example is better than a hundred theoretical pre-
or Paragraph writing. cepts.

(1) Honesty Is The Best Policy (3) Virtue is its own Reward
Virtue is not a commercial commodity which
Honesty is indeed the best policy, provided
can be sold or purchased. Virtue is complete in
we understand and interpret the terms ‘policy’ and
itself; it has no ulterior or external object to gain;
‘honesty’ correctly. Policy here does not mean a
it is its own reward. The practitioner of virtue
certain kind of tact or strategy : it here means
feels a sense of gratification, a kind of happiness
conduct of life. Similary, honesty here does not
and bliss which far transcends the pleasure that
mean merely honest dealings in money matters or
one can derive from material possessions or
business. Honesty is to be interpreted in its widest
practical success in life. The practitioner of virtue
sense, honesty in word, thought and action. Here
does not enjoy prosperity; he may even fail to
honesty is equivalent to truth in its widest and
achieve much success in life, but for all that he
fullest sense. Therefore, the proverb prescribes
does not feel depressed or frustrated. He follows
truthful, noble and conscientious conduct of life in
the principle of selfless and detached ‘Karma’ as
all spheres, private and public. One must follow
preached by Lord Krishna in the Gita. He would
the path of truth, virtue and nobility in all
constantly keep in his mind the doctrine of
situations of life. One should conduct oneself in
disinterested doing of duty : Do thy duty, reward
life in such a way that one may not fight shy in
is not thy concern. Virtue is its own reward.
facing God in the other world. A noble and
virtuous man is God’s best creation, God’s own (4) Handsome is that Handsome Does
image.
Ordinarily a person is considered to be
(2) Example is better than Precept
handsome if he has physical beauty and grace. But
Even a devil can quote scriptures, but only an this is a very superficial and deceptive concept of
angel can follow them. It is easy to preach but beauty. Physical beauty is a very short-lived and
difficult to practise. Theoretical preaching is very transitory phenomenon. No physical thing can
 EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 293

ever last against the ravages of time. So says the sword or the military force are short-lived,
Shakespeare : while those of the pen or the intellect are
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor permanent and universal. The empires conquered
boundless sea, by Alexander, Caesar, Genghiskhan, Tamerlane,
Napoleon have all crumbled into dust and wiped
But sad mortality o’ersways their power, off, but the intellectual and ideological empires
How with this rage shall beauty hold its plea built by great thinkers and writers like Manu,
Whose action is no stronger than a flower ? Plato, Socrates, Shakespeare, Tulsi, Goethe, Karl
Wherein lies, then, permanent human beauty? Marx, Gandhi are permanent possessions and
It lies in one’s good and noble deeds. We live in rocks of shelter and succour to all mankind. The
deeds, not in years. We can immortalize ourselves great truths of life that poets, thinkers, philoso-
by doing good deeds. Physical charm is momen- phers and mystics reveal to mankind inspire,
tary, but the fragrance of good deeds is permanent. animate, elevate and sustain mankind for all time
We shall be admired, honoured and remembered if to come, while the conquests of the sword hardly
we are morally handsome, and not if we are only outlive the conqueror’s short lifespan. The pen is,
physically handsome. It is our good deeds that add therefore, certainly mightier than the sword.
to our personality, that enhance our grace and (7) The World is too much with us
charm, that ennoble us and make us really hand-
some. Wordsworth rightly says that “the world is
too much with us” and “getting and spending we
(5) Knowledge is Power lay waste our lives.” Indeed, man has become too
At the source and root of all power there is materialistic. He is so much engrossed in the
knowledge. Even physical and military power is materialistic pursuits that he has completely
lame without knowledge. It is knowledge that forgotten the higher moral, spiritual and emotional
rules the world. A man of knowledge possesses values. He has become deaf to the “still small
immense power. Behind all modern armaments voice of conscience.” He deceives, cheats, betrays,
and military manoeuvres there is scientific and falls to any low level for the sake of material
knowledge. Nature is an inexhaustible source of gains. He has lost all peace of mind and remains
power. Nature reveals all her sources of power to in constant strain and stress. He has become
a man of knowledge. It is the scientist, the man of morally bankrupt and spiritually degenerated.
knowledge, who can harness the mighty forces of There is no joy in his life, no contentment in his
nature and press them to human service. Also, no heart. If man wants to save himself, he must draw
man can be a good statesman without knowledge. a balance between his material gains and moral
A good statesman should have full knowledge not values.
only of his own country but also of the whole (8) Where ignorance is bliss, it is folly
world, of all international problems and develop- to be wise
ments. And, finally, the highest form of knowle-
dge is the knowledge of the self. Know thyself : The forbidden fruit of knowledge sometimes
this is the key of all spiritual and mystical becomes the cause of great distress and anguish.
experiences. He who has known himself has There are many situations in which lack of
known the universe. Who can, then, be more knowledge or ignorance is a great blessing. It
powerful than a man of knowledge ? Indeed, would be a great folly to probe deep and acquire
knowledge is power. knowledge into such situations. There are many
things and many situations which are beyond the
(6) The Pen is Mightier than the Sword control of man. Any attempt to acquire knowledge
The ‘pen’ in this proverbial sentence sym- about such things and situations would only bring
bolises intellectual power and the ‘sword’ stands sorrow. The future is unknown to us. It is
for physical power. The proposition, then, is shrouded in a thick veil of mystery. But if we
which is superior and stronger between intellect- could know the future, this knowledge would only
ual power and physical power ? Obviously, add to our misery. Children are so happy because
intellectual power is far more potent and lasting they have blessed ignorance : they don’t run after
than physical power. The conquests and gains of knowledge. Solomon says, “He that increaseth
294 | L.W.C.E.

knowledge increaseth sorrow.” Surely then, where (11) Sweet are the uses of adversity
ignorance is bliss, it is folly to be wise.
Normally adversity is a dreaded thing. No-
(9) Peace hath her victories no less body wants to fall in the grip of adversity.
renowned than war Everybody wants to live in joy, peace, plenty and
prosperity. But a closer analysis would reveal that
Ordinarily heroes of war are universally adversity has its own advantages. In the first
praised and honoured. War is recognized as the place, it is a test of man’s courage, patience,
greatest heroic exploit and victory in war as a endurance and valour. It is a test of his faith,
mark of national honour and triumph. But truly confidence and will-power. It is equally a test of
speaking, it is not always so, at least not in the loyalty and sincerity of friends, colleagues,
modern warfare. Wars involve incalculable human and members of the family. It is rightly said :
prosperity finds friends, adversity tries them. One
suffering and destruction. And even then, the
can truly understand and evaluate himself as well
achievements of war are very short lived. One war as others only in periods of adversity. He who can
leads to another war. We fight war to prepare for pass through adversity with a cool and balanced
another war. This vicious series goes on. The only mind will ultimately be successful in the world.
antidote for war is peace. The achievements of He who has not known adversity has not known
peace are far more lasting and renowned than the world.
those of war. Art, culture, philosophy, literature,
trade, commerce and such other beneficial things (12) Man is the architect of his own
flourish only during peace time. The promoters of destiny
peace such as Christ, Buddha, Mahavira, Ashok, It is often believed that man is a toy in the
Gandhi are the real benefactors and saviours of hands of destiny. Our destiny is marked out for us
mankind. They are far more renowned than the at the time of our birth. Man has no role to play in
heroes of war. the determination of his fate or destiny. This is a
very fatalistic and pessimistic approach to life. It
(10) A thing of beauty is a joy for ever persuades man to be passive and inactive and
leave everything in the hands of the powers above.
An object of beauty is a source of perennial This approach is very wrong. The truth is that man
joy. It may be any object of beauty from a tiny is himself the architect of his own destiny. He is
flower to the music of spheres, but it gives joy to the maker of his own fate. It is man’s own efforts,
every human heart. The pretty face of a maiden, his own deeds that determine the course of his life.
the sweet smile of a child, the prismatic colours of A bold man, a man of faith, a man of determina-
the rainbow, the blossoms of spring, the songs of tion, a man of hope and vision would never accept
this philosophy of life. He would certainly mark
birds, the murmuring music of rivers and the
out and determine his own destiny. Napoleon used
sportive glee of the fountain have the power to to say that he carved out his destiny with his
charm every human heart. Equally powerful is the sword.
appeal of a work of art, be it a painting, a work of
sculpture or architecture, a song, a dance perfor- (13) Coming events cast their shadows
mance, or a musical concert. Great works of before
literature—the plays of Shakespeare or Kalidas, Future is always shrouded in a thick veil of
the epics of Homer, Milton or Tulsi, the poetry of mystery. Man cannot know what is going to
Spenser, Keats or Tagore, the stories and novels of happen in future. Yet if we closely understand and
Maupassant, Dickens or Prem Chand are perennial analyse the present, we can form some ideas as to
sources of aesthetic pleasure. Therefore Keats what the future is going to be. There is a logical
rightly says : link between the present and the future. There is
always a kind of background for all future events.
“A thing of beauty is a joy for ever :
We can judge the character and personality of a
Its loveliness increases; it will never pass into man by analysing his childhood. Clouds begin
nothingness.” togather in the sky before it rains. Situations of
 EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 295

distrust, tension and animosity begin to develop He works in a detached spirit without any near or
before a war breaks out. We can anticipate a distant aim in view. He overcomes all temptations,
man’s future success or failure by assessing his desires and weaknesses that flesh is heir to. But
present. This is so because coming events cast there is one thing that the greatest and noblest of
their shadows before. men have not been able to overcome, and that is
the desire to fame. Even the greatest and noblest
(14) Every sable cloud has a silver of men have this weakness. They desire to be
lining recognized for their services and be remembered
Every situation of life has a blending of good for long. History bears testimony to the fact that
and evil. There is nothing absolutely bad as there even the greatest martyrs desired to have fame in
is nothing absolutely good. Even the worst and their life-time and after. It is only the supermen
darkest situation of life has some element of like Christ, Buddha, Mahavira, Gandhi who can
goodness in it. Our sorrows and sufferings purify overcome this temptation.
our soul. Adversity makes us bold, couragious and (17) Discretion is the better part of
adventurous. Our failures pave the way for our valour
success. Fever purges our entire physical system.
And death holds out a promise for a new life. Courage and bravery are admirable qualities.
There is indeed a silver lining behind every sable One who dares nothing, gains nothing. A coward
cloud. What we need to have is a deep insight and can do nothing; he can achieve nothing. But
clear vision to see everything rightly. We should courage and bravery should be exercised with
not be disheartened when adverse situations come. discretion and wisdom. Thoughtless and indiscreet
We should go by faith, by hope, by vision, and display of bravery may do more harm than good.
then we shall find a silver lining behind every There are certain situations in which patience and
sable cloud. forbearance would do better than valour.
Sometimes it may be advisable to keep away from
(15) It is never too late to mend the path of danger or challenge. If a huge flood
Human life is a tale of errors and follies. wave comes rising against you, or if you find
Nobody is infallible. We all commit errors and yourself in the midst of flames, or if you are
mistakes out of ignorance or inexperience. Man confronted unarmed with a wounded tiger, or if
learns by experience, and in the process of you are ambushed by a gang of communal
acquiring experience man often stumbles and falls fanatics, your discretion should prompt you to run
down. An intelligent and aspiring man would away from the spot and save yourself. Discretion
learn from his mistakes and failings. Every should be the watchword of the brave. We should
mistake is a lesson, a living sermon. All errors and remember Milton’s words : “Fools rush in where
mistakes should be corrected. No mistake should angels fear to tread.”
be repeated a second time. It is never too late to (18) The child is father of the man
mend. This is the surest way of getting success
and happiness in life. If we just keep on brooding The personality and character of a man is not
over our mistakes without trying to mend them, a freak of nature. There is always a regular pattern
we shall make our life miserable. No stage is too and consistent growth in the formation of man’s
late to rectify one’s mistakes and come to the right character. The seed of one’s character and
path. personality is laid in one’s infancy. There is then a
consistent growth from infancy to childhood, from
(16) Fame is the last infirmity of the childhood to youth, and from youth to age. As the
noble mind child is today, the man would be tomorrow. What
Milton says in his famous elegy Lycidas : a man is going to be can be well guessed from his
childhood. The child is the man himself on a
“Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth
miniature scale, having all the potentialities of
raise,
future growth. History bears testimony to the fact
That last infirmity of the noble mind.” that all great men showed signs of their greatness
A noble man does his duty and serves man- in their formative years in childhood. The growth
kind without any expectation of reward or gain. and evolution of their personality could well be
296 | L.W.C.E.

discerned from the very beginning of their lives. (21) To travel hopefully is better
Therefore utmost attention should be paid to a than to arrive
child in his formative years. It is this great truth
that Wordsworth enshrines in the famous line : Man lives by hope. Hope is the sustaining
“The child is father of the man.” force. Human life is a long journey from hope to
hope. When one hope breaks, the next hope
(19) If Winter comes, can Spring allures man and prompts him to keep on the
be far behind ? journey. Thus from hope to hope man travels until
There is always a regular cyclic order in the end of the journey comes in death. Further, life
nature. Sunrise and sunset, day and night, winter is a prolonged struggle, a persistent endeavour to
and summer, autumn and spring, growth and achieve some ideal, some cherished goal. The
decay regularly follow each other. So is there a efforts made towards achieving this goal are more
regular cyclic order in human life and fortunes. pleasure-giving than the goal itself. As soon as the
Joy and sorrow, rise and fall, success and failure, goal is achieved, its charm vanishes. The journey
fortune and misfortune, birth and death successi- towards the moon was more thrilling than the
vely follow each other. There cannot be a perma- landing on the moon. As soon as man put his foot
nent winter, as there cannot be a permanent on the surface of the moon, he found it a barren
spring; so in life there cannot be a permanent land of rocks and dust. Immediately the charm
period of misfortunes as there cannot be a perma- was broken. Surely, then, to travel hopefully is
nent period of fortune. So man should have faith better than to arrive.
in the moral order of God. No period of depres- (22) The old order changeth yielding
sion and misfortune, of failure and frustration, of place to the new
sorrow and suffering can ever be a permanent
phase of life. This embodies a philosophy of Change is the law of nature. Everything dead
sterling faith, hope and optimism. This is the or alive, animate or inanimate is changing
message of Shelley, the revolutionary idealist, in continuously. Even the stars, the planets, the earth,
this famous line quoted from his “Ode to the West the oceans and mountains and the uncontrollable
Wind.” forces of nature are constantly changing. In the
living world of men, animals and plants things
(20) Politics is the last refuge of the change even more fast and perceptibly. The old
scoundrel order must change and give place to the new. This
The word “politics” has today become is the process of evolution and progress. Old
synonymous with “treachery” or “opportunism”. It cultures and civilizations, old customs and man-
has degenerated into a foul profession. It has been ners, old systems and institutions, old thoughts
grossly commercialized. Everything is fair in and beliefs have changed and gone and given
politics. Changing the party, crossing the floor, place to the new ones. Ancient kingdoms and
changing the colour of the cap, politicizing the empires have gone. Ancient palaces and monu-
national problems and calamities, raising the ments, forts and castles, temples and churches
governments today and pulling them down
have all gone. The old generation is gradually
tomorrow have become commonplace things in
political life today. The result is that honest and dying out and new generation is coming up. The
noble people try to keep away from politics. The new generation must replace the old one. This is
scoundrels often use politics as an umbrella to the natural process of change, evolution and
protect themselves from the arm of law. But it progress.
would be equally wrong to suggest that all (23) More things are wrought by
politicians are scoundrels. There are many who prayer than the world dreams of
are honest, noble, selfless, honourable and really
dedicated to the service of the motherland. But a When all human efforts fail, man takes to
big majority of them are really bad and they have prayer. And very often prayers bring miraculous
brought infamy to the whole class. results. But the condition is that the prayer should
 EXPANSION : PARAGRAPH-WRITING | 297

be sincere and genuine. It must come from the Exercise

depth of the heart, not merely from the lips.
Expand into a paragraph the central idea
Sincere prayer has a spiritual force in it. What
contained in the following statements :
comes from the soul of man goes to the Divine
spirit. In such a situation things happen so 1. All the world’s a stage.
miraculously that human reasoning fails to explain 2. East is east, west is west.
or analyse them. Many such events are recorded in 3. All that glitters is not gold.
history. It is a well known historical fact that the 4. Rome was not built in a day.
Mughal Emperor Babur saved the life of his 5. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
young prince Jahangir from imminent death by 6. Well begun is half done.
prayer. These are great mysteries beyond the 7. Brevity is the soul of wit.
understanding of man. Therefore it is rightly said 8. To err is human, to forgive divine.
that more things are wrought by prayer than the
9. Birds of a feather flock together.
world dreams of.
10. Art lies in concealing art.
(24) There’s a divinity that shapes 11. Prosperity finds friends, adversity tries
our ends them.
12. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
Man was created in the image of God. God
13. Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
endowed man with great talents and faculties—
14. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual. He gave
15. The proper study of mankind is man.
man full freedom to choose whatever course of
16. Lives of great men all remind us, we can
life he thought fit for himself, to do whatever he make our lives sublime.
liked, to accept or reject whatever his conscience 17. Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of
chose. But God kept to himself, in his own hands, the world.
the ultimate end. The final destiny of man rests 18. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
with God. Man can work; he can make persistent are sweeter.
efforts; he can endeavour to the end, but the final 19. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of
outcome of all his efforts would depend upon the saddest thought.
will of God. God is the Supreme Power without 20. Money is a good servant but a bad master.
whose will and sanction nothing can happen. 21. Fortune favours the brave.
Man’s success or failure, his rise or fall, his 22. United we stand, divided we fall.
happiness or unhappiness, his triumph or defeat 23. They never die who fall in a noble cause.
depend upon God’s will. Surely, it is divinity that 24. What can war but endless wars still breed.
shapes our ends. 25. Where there is sorrow, there is holy ground.
 30 Spellings
Writing of correct spellings is the most Rule 3—If a Suffix is to be added to words end-
difficult part of learning the English Language. A ing in single consonant l, the consonant l
very great difficulty specially arises when a Prefix is doubled. As—
or a Suffix is to be added to a word. Another Control — controlled / controller
equally great difficulty arises in the correct use of
Travel — travelled / traveller
i.e. or ei; an or on ; ea or ia. Many more problems
of the same nature also arise. There are some Signal — signalled
rules governing their correct use, though there are Distil — distilled, distiller
many exceptions to them. We give below the Quarrel — quarrelled
Rules of using correct Prefixes and Suffixes with
illutrations : Rule 4—If a Suffix beginning with a Vowel is to
Rule 1—Words of one syllable ending in single be added to words ending in silent e, the
vowel + single consonant e is dropped. As—
If a Suffix beginning with a Vowel is to Hope — hoping
be added to a word of one syllable Move — moving
ending in a s i n g l e V o w e l + single Live — living
consonant, the last consonant of the Drive — driving
base word is doubled. As—
Like — liking
Sit — sitting
Beg — begging / begged Rule 5—But if a Suffix beginning with a con-
sonant is to be added to words ending in
Run — running silent e, the e is not dropped. As—
Beg — beggar Hope — hopeful
Rob — robbed / robbing Engage — engagement
Pat — patted / patting Procure — procurement
Plot — plotted / plotting Hate — hateful
Knit — knitted Retire — retirement
Rule 2—If a Suffix is to be added to a word of
more than one syllable ending in a single Rule 6—If a Suffix beginning with a, o, u is to be
Vowel + single consonant, the last added to words ending in ce or ge, the
consonant of the base word is doubled, silent e at the end of the base word is not
provided that the last consonant is dropped. This is done for the sake of
stressed. As— retaining the original pronunciation of ce
Submit — submitting / submitted (as s, not k) and ge (as j, not g). As—
Occur — occurring / occurred Notice — noticeable
Permit — permitted Replace — replaceable
Begin — beginning Courage — courageous
Debar — debarred Change — changeable
 SPELLINGS | 299

Rule 7—If a Suffix is to be added to words Note—But these are correct—Efficient, ancient,
ending in y preceded by a consonant, y is sufficient.
changed into i. But if the suffix ing is to Neither, either, their, height.
be added, y is not changed into i. As—
Note—Remember that the Rule regarding the use
Happy — happily of ei or ie is applicable only in the words
Beauty — beautiful pronounced as bee (with e stressed), and
Mercy — merciful not other words as listed under the Note
above.
Duty — dutiful
But : Exercise
Marry — marrying (a) Add ei or ie to the following—
Carry — carrying Conc . . t ; hyg . . ne ; glac . . r ; ach . . ve
; ch . . f ; rel . . f ; perc . . ve ; gr . . ve ;
Try — trying rec . . pt ; retr . . ve ; pr . . st ; s . . ze ;
Ply — plying bel . . f ; dec . . ve ; conc . . t ; n . . gh ;
Note— y . . ld ; br . . f ; n . . ce ; forf . . t ; l . .
ge ; surf . . t ; f . . gn.
(1) If there is a Vowel before the last y in the
base word, the y is not changed. As— (b) Add full to the following—
Pray — prayed Duty, beauty, skill, change, bounty, plenty,
awe, care, grace.
Play — played
(c) Add ed or ing to the following—
(2) The following are the exceptions to this
rule : Commit, put, get, sit, pin, sin, hit, give,
live, move, prove, remove, run, spin, pit,
Beauteous, piteous, bounteous, plenteous, dig, split, can, ride, fly, try, cry, deny, spy.
shyly, shyness, dryness, slyly, slyness.
Ans :
Rule 8—If the Suffix full is to be added to the
words ending in ll, one l both from the (a) Conceit; hygiene; glacier; achieve; chief;
base word and the suffix is dropped. relief; perceive; grieve; receipt; retrieve;
As— priest; seize; belief; deceive; conceit;
neigh; yield; brief; niece; forfeit; liege;
Skill + full = skilful surfeit; feign.
Will + full = wilful (b) Dutiful; beautiful; skilful; changeful;
Notice—Full + fill = fulfil is also correct. bountiful; plentiful; awful; careful;
graceful.
Rule 9—In case of doubt whether ei or ie will be
correct in the spellings of a word, (c) Committed; putting; getting; sitting; pin-
remember that after c is used ei, and after ned; sinned; hitting; giving; living; mov-
other letters is used ie. As— ing; proving; removing; running; spinn-
ing; pitted; digging; splitting; canned;
Conceive, receive, perceive, deceive. riding; flying; trying; crying; denying;
Thief, belief, relief. spying.
 31 Punctuation and Capitals
Punctuation Marks have a great importance in Note—
every language. Punctuation mark make the mean- (a) Full Stop marks may not be used after
ing and sense of the writer clear and precise. every letter in very popular abbrevia-
Wrong punctuation marks can distort the meaning tions. As—
and cause confusion in the mind of the reader. UNESCO, UNO, WHO
Sometimes they can completely change the entire (b) Full Stop marks are not used after Mr &
meaning. Therefore we give below all the impor- Mrs also.
tant punctuation marks and explain how and
(c) 1st, 2nd, 3 rd, 4th, etc. also don’t take
where they are to be used.
Full Stop marks after them.
The following are the important punctuation
marks used in the English Language— (2) Comma ( , )
(1) Full Stop ( . ) It is the smallest pause, and is used in the
(2) Comma ( , ) following conditions—
(3) Colon ( : ) Rule 1—To separate a series of words of the same
part of speech from each other. But the
(4) Semicolon ( ; )
number of such words in the same series
(5) Mark of Interrogation ( ? ) should not be less than three. Before the
(6) Mark of Exclamation ( ! ) last word in the series conjunction ‘and’
(7) Dash ( — ) is added, and before the ‘and’ a comma
may or may not be used. As—
(8) Parentheses brackets ( )
(i) I have seen Bombay, Calcutta, Madras
(9) Inverted commas or Quotation Marks “ ”
and Bangalore.
(10) Hyphen ( - )
(a comma can also be used before ‘and’)
(11) Apostrophe ( ’ )
(ii) There are in this zoo all kinds of birds,
(1) Full Stop ( . ) animals, reptiles, and monkeys.
Rule 1—It is used at the end of every complete (The comma before and can be removed
Assertive or Imperative sentence. It is also.)
not used at the end of Interrogative or Rule 2—To separate pairs of words used in the
Exclamatory sentences. (After these same series. As—
sentences Interrogative or Exclamatory
marks are used.) (i) They sell here books and magazines,
note-books and diaries, greeting cards
Rule 2—A Full Stop is also used after every letter and picture-books.
of an Abbreviation. As—
(ii) High and low, rich and poor, proud and
M.L.A. ; M.P. ; D.S.O. ; S.T. Kukreja humble, all assemble here.
Full stops are also used in such shortened Rule 3—To separate two or more than two
expressions as—etc., e.g., i.e., Ibid., op. Adverb or Adjective phrases coming
cit. after each other. As—
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 301

(i) Then, after waiting for more than an (iii) Let us not, I pray you, part like this.
hour, we saw him coming out. (iv) Your behaviour, in my opinion, is not
(ii) Thereupon, at last, he broke down. courteous.
Rule 4—To separate small co-ordinate clauses in Rule 10—In place of a word left out in a sentence,
a compound sentence. As— specially a verb (left out as understood).
(i) He came, he saw, he conquered. As—
(ii) The weather was pleasant, the wind was (i) He received a medal; I, a prize.
calm, the hills all round were green.
(ii) You went to Calcutta; he, to Bombay.
(iii) Storms may blow and clouds may burst,
but I must go. (iii) He secured first division; you, second.
(No Comma is used when two co–ordi- Rule 11—To separate an Adverbial clause from
nate clauses are connected with a co– the Principal clause. But if the Adverbial
ordinate conjunction) clause comes after the Principal clause,
Rule 5—To mark a Nominative of Address or no comma is used. As—
Vocative Subject. As— (i) If you go to office, please submit my
(i) Ram, what are you doing ? application.
(ii) Milton, thou should’st be living at this (ii) When I was at Kanpur, I met your father.
hour ! (iii) Inform me when you come back.
(iii) What will you do now, my friend ? Rule 12—A comma is placed between the name
Rule 6—To separate a Nominative Absolute. of a person and his Degrees or Titles. If
As— there are several Degrees, a comma is
(i) This done, we shall proceed further. placed after each Degree. As—
(ii) The weather being pleasant, we proposed B.K. Acharya, M.A., Ph.D., D. Litt.
to go on a picnic. Mrs. Sarojini Naidu, Governor of Uttar
(iii) Having reached there, he addressed a Pradesh.
public meeting. Rule 13—A comma is also used between a long
Rule 7—To separate a Noun and its Phrase in Subject and its Verb. As—
Apposition. A comma is placed on both
the sides of such Nouns or Phrases. As— (i) All that he said before he set sail, was
long remembered by all.
(i) Nelson, the great wrestler, has won.
(ii) Milton, the great poet, was blind. (ii) Whatever he spoke from the pulpit on the
Christmas day, turned out to be true.
(iii) Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the
Nation, is worshipped as an apostle. Rule 14—To separate a Noun Clause from the
Rule 8—On both the sides of a phrase that can be Verb of the principal clause, if the Noun
developed into a sentence, and which is clause comes immediately before the
not merely a qualifying phrase. As— Principal Verb. As—
(i) Gandhi, having acquired the degree of (i) Whatever is, is right.
Bar-at-Law, returned to India. (ii) Whoever comes, is welcome.
(ii) Our team, having won the series, retur-
(iii) That he is a rogue, no one could believe.
ned last month.
Rule 9—On both the sides of some typical words, Rule 15—To separate a Direct quotation from
phrases or clauses used within a sentence. the rest of the sentence. As—
As— (i) He said, “I am a sailor.”
(i) He, however, did not return before sun- (ii) “What will you do”, he asked, “if I with-
set. draw my help ?”
(ii) He is, after all, your brother and you (iii) “Go home”, said my father, “and help
must help him. your brother.”
302 | L.W.C.E.

(3) Colon ( : or :— ) (ii) The bell rang; the students assembled for
prayer; the Principal addressed them; the
After Full Stop the next complete pause is day’s work was resumed.
expressed by colon. The colon is written as (: ) or
(:–). It is used in the following cases : (5) Mark of Interrogation ( ? )
Rule 1—Before writing a Quotation. As— Mark of Interrogation is used at the end of an
Bacon says : “Reading maketh a full Interrogative sentence in the Direct Interrogative
man, writing an exact man, speaking a form. As—
ready man.” (i) Are you going home ?
Rule 2—Before drawing a list of some articles or (ii) Do you know him ?
giving examples. As—
(iii) Why do you want to meet him ?
(i) The principal cities of India are : Delhi,
Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Bangalore, But in Indirect Narration the Interrogative
etc. sentence is converted into an Assertive sentence,
(ii) Pencils, pens, rubbers, paper, ink : these and therefore a Full Stop is used in place of Mark
are the articles sold here. of Interrogation.
Rule 3—Before gramatically independent but (i) He asked me whether I was going home.
closely connected sentences. As— (ii) He asked me why I wanted to meet him.
He can never deceive anyone : he is an
absolutely honest man. (6) Mark of Exclamation ( ! )
Mark of Exclamation is used at the end of an
(4) Semicolon ( ; )
Exclamatory sentence, or after an Interjection or
Semicolon is used in the following cases— any word or phrase suggestive of some sudden
Rule 1—Between the clauses of a compound sen- feeling.
tence when these clauses can be conver- (i) Alas ! he is ruined.
ted into complete independent sentences.
(ii) What a terrible sight it was !
(i) He is the strongest candidate; even his
rivals admit this fact. (iii) May you live long !
(ii) This is the best book available here; all (7) Dash ( — )
good students read this book. Dash is used in the following cases—
Rule 2—To separate Co–ordinate clauses in a Rule 1—In case of sudden stoppage or change of
compound sentence when they are con- thought or feeling—
nected by a conjunction, and when
If I were born in those exciting times—
commas have also been used in them.
but what is the use of such broodings ?
As—
Rule 2—To collect scattered or stray thoughts—
(i) He was a brave, respectable person; and
he was loved and admired by all. Houses, cottages, farm-houses, cattle-
sheds, grain-stocks—all were damaged in
(ii) The event was thrilling, exciting and the floods.
momentous; and everyone watched it
with bated breath. (8) Parentheses (brackets)
Rule 3—A Semicolon is also used between the Parenthetic words, phrases and clauses are
co–ordinate clauses of a compound written within brackets. They keep the Paren-
sentence, which are not joined by any
theses separate from the main sentence. The
conjunction and which have their sepa-
rate subjects. As— Parentheses have no grammatical connection with
the main sentence. As—
(i) The train halted; the passengers rushed
forward; the vendors and hawkers had He gained from Heaven (it was all he wished)
their good sale. a friend. (Gray)
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 303

(9) Inverted Commas ( “ —— ” ) The bell is ringing.

Inverted commas are used to mark out the Have you done your work ?
exact words of a speaker or a quotation. Double (2) Every new line of a poem begins with a
Inverted commas are used at the beginning and capital letter.
end of a statement or a quotation using exact My heart leaps up when I behold
words. If there is a quotation within a quotation,
the internal quotation is closed within Single A rainbow in the sky :
Inverted commas, and the whole sentence or So was it when my life began,
quotation within Double Inverted commas. As— So is it now when I am a man.
He said, “I have consulted several literary (3) All Proper Nouns or Adjectives formed
reference books, but I have not been able to by Proper Nouns begin with a capital
understand the correct meaning of ‘Child letter. All Surnames also begin with
is father of the man’.” capital letters. If a name has two or more
(10) Hyphen ( - ) parts, all parts begin with a capital letter.
New Delhi; Bombay; John Keats;
The mark of Hyphen is smaller than the dash,
and it is used to make compound words. As— Sir Walter Raleigh; Dr. R.B. Mazumdar;
Father-in-law; man-of-war; passer-by. INDIAN CULTURE, NEPALI
It is also used to connect the first part of a (4) Every letter of an Abbreviation is capital.
word written at the end of a line, the second part U.N.O. ; U.S.A. ; N.A.T.O. ;
of which is carried over to the beginning of the
next line. As— M.A. ; M.B.B.S.
He said that he was going to rusti- (5) All Nouns and Pronouns used for God
cate the naughty boy. begin with capital letters.
God; Lord; the Almighty;
(11) Apostrophe ( ’ )
God and His moral order;
Rule 1—Apostrophe is used to make a Possessive
God has thousands at His command.
Case. As—
Ram’s house, Mohan’s book, Girls’ School. (6) Pronoun I and Interjection O are always
witten in capital form.
Rule 2—Sometimes some words are shortened by
This is all that I can do for you.
dropping out some letters from their
spellings, and in place of those letters an O ! for a beaker of vintage.
Apostrophe is used. As— Exercise
(i) He didn’t go. (i.e. did not) (1) Punctuate the following sentences—
(ii) I’ve ne’er seen him. (i.e. I have never 1. A student should be sincere devoted indus-
seen him.) trious and well behaved.
Rule 3—To write O’clock &It is 5 O’clock. 2. Sir I can do this easily.
Rule 4—To make Plurals of Letters and Figures. 3. As Caesar loved me I weep for him as he
(i) 2’s , 5’s . was fortunate I rejoice at it as he was
(ii) He has not cut his t’s . valiant I honour him but as he was ambi-
tious I slew him.
(iii) His m’s are not readable.
4. All that I am all that I hope to be I owe to
Use of Capital Letters my uncle.
Capital Letters: Capital Letters are used in 5. Shakespeare the great dramatist was an
the following cases— Englishman.
(1) The first letter of the first word of a 6. A statesman should be cool patient far-
sentence is written with a capital letter. sighted and selfless.
304 | L.W.C.E.

7. Some are born great some achieve great- struggle for tell me now do you sincerely
ness and some have greatness thrust upon desire to be rid of this golden touch
them. (2) On december 13 1939 three british ships
8. Even a fool before he speaks appears wise. ajax exeter and achilles under comman-
9. The student finding his notebooks gutted in der henry harwood fought the german
fire cried I am ruined. battleship admiral graf spee in the atlantic
two of the british ships had 6 inch guns
10. He therefore came down and talked to the
and one had 8 inch guns while the enemy
stranger.
ship had six 11 inch guns.
11. When you come next time please bring my
book. (3) emotion is a state of the mind many
ordinary words like anger fear happiness
12. Alas he has drowned sorrow etc describe different kinds of
13. Who is there let me know who will help emotions one can study human emotions
you in several ways for instance one can
14. The teacher stood in the class and said group different emotions according to
Iwill teach you Milton today. their characteristics most emotions may
15. What a horrible accident it was be grouped into two major groups those
16. I believe moreover that he will not come that produce a feeling of pleasantness in
for I know him so well. the individual and others that produce the
feeling of unpleasantness.
17. The following is the list of books I need
18. He came he stayed with me he dined with (4) Love describes a variety of behaviour like
me and yet he did not appear to be friendly. experience of parent child affection
protective reaction friendship attachment
19. Japan the land of the rising sun is highly between men and women or attachment
industrialized. to places or things or events in other
20. This is Rams house though he does not live words love is an impulse or an instinct
here. and is not learnt through experience
21. The President said My countrymen let us (5) At one end of the road there was a small
celebrate our Republic Day with all gaiety. market from where our maid servant
22. I have visited many countries England brought us a basketful of mangoes
America Canada Japan and China. cashews and of course fish which was the
23. In fact there was nothing for me to do and main diet of the people there at the other
so I sat idle. end there was a factory which used not
manual labour but all kinds of machinery
24. My friends however having finished their
to roast and pack cashews in air tight tins
work came to visit me in the night.
so came an industry in the village.
25. He is a cruel thoughtless and haughty man.
Solution of the Above Passages
Exercise
(1) “You are wiser now than you were then,
(2) Punctuate the following passages, using King Midas !” said the stranger looking
capital letters where necessary— seriously at him. “Your own heart, I per-
(1) You are wiser now than you were then ceive, has not been entirely changed from
king midas said the stranger looking the flesh to gold. Were it so, your case
seriously at him your heart i perceive has would, indeed, be desperate. But you
not been entirely changed from the flesh appear to be still capable of understanding
to gold were it so your case would indeed that the commonest things such as lie
be desperate but you appear to be still within everybody’s grasp are more valu-
capable of understanding that the com- able than the riches which so many
monest things such as lie within every- mortals sigh and struggle for. Tell me
bodys grasp are more valuable than the now, do you sincerely desire to be rid of
riches which so many mortals sigh and this Golden Touch ?”
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS | 305

(2) On December 13, 1939, three British (4) Love describes a variety of behaviour
ships—‘Ajax’, ‘Exeter’ and ‘Achilles’— like experience of parent-child affection,
under Commander Henry Harwood fought protective reaction, friendship, attachment
the German battleship ‘Admiral Graf between men and women, or attachment
Spee’ in the Atlantic. Two of the British to places or things or events. In other
ships had 6-inch guns and one had 8-inch
words, love is an impulse or an instinct,
guns, while the enemy ship had six 11-
inch guns. and is not learnt through experience.
(3) Emotion is a state of the mind. Many (5) At one end of the road there was a small
ordinary words like anger, fear, happi- market from where our maid-servant
ness, sorrow, etc., describe different kinds brought us a basketful of mangoes,
of emotions. One can study human cashews and, of course, fish which was
emotions in several ways. For instance, the main diet of the people there. At the
one can group different emotions accord-
other end, there was a factory which used
ing to their characteristics. Most emotions
may be grouped into two major groups— not manual labour, but all kinds of
those that produce a feeling of pleasant- machinery to roast and pack cashews in
ness in the individual, and others that air-tight tins. So came an industry in the
produce the feeling of unpleasantness. village !
 32 Figures of Speech
Figures of Speech Or
“A figure of speech is a departure from the “A Metaphor is a condensed form of Simile in
ordinary form of expression, or the ordinary which comparison between two different objects
course of ideas, in order to produce a greater is shown without the use of such words as like, as
effect.” (Wren) or so.”
In other words, Figures of Speech make the In other words, Simile and Metaphor are
use of words typically suggestive and artistic, and Figures of the same category. Metaphor is only a
make the style strikingly effective, beautiful and condensed form of Simile. Metaphor does not
ornamental. The Figures of Speech are an essen- need the use of such comparative words as like,
tial part of the poetic style of writing. For poetry as, s o. Therefore, a metaphor can be expanded
they are indispensable. They impart a peculiar into a Simile, and a Simile can be condensed into
brilliance and charm to poetry. The following are a metaphor. As—
the main Figures of Speech used in English. 1. Camel is the ship of the desert.
1. Simile : 2. Gandhiji was the guiding star of the des-
tiny of India.
“In a Simile a comparison is made between
two objects of different kinds which have, how- 3. Shivaji was the lion of the Peshwa dyna-
ever, at least one point in common.” sty.
In this figure two different objects, possessing 4. Life is a tale told by an idiot,
at least one common point between them, are Full of sound and fury ……
brought to comparison. Two similar objects are
(Shakespeare)
not compared under this Figure.
5. Her only son is the lamp of her life.
It should also be remembered that the point of
similarity in Simile is expressed by the words like, 3. Personification :
so, as. For example :
“In Personification inanimate objects and
1. She is as lovely as a rose. abstract notions are spoken of as having life and
2. Rana Pratap was brave like a lion. intelligence.” (Wren)
3. O my love’s like a red, red rose, Under this Figure, inanimate objects are
That’s newly sprung in June. bestowed with human feelings and sensitivities.
(Ben Jonson) As—
4. Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart; 1. There Honour comes a pilgrim grey.
(Gray)
Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like
the sea. (Wordsworth) 2. Death lays his icy hand on kings.
2. Metaphor: 3. A lie has no legs.
“A Metaphor is an implied (or condensed) 4. Opportunity knocks at the door but once.
Simile.” (Wren) 5. Nature bemoaned the death of the bride.
 FIGURES OF SPEECH | 307

4. Hyperbole : 1. His honour rooted in dishonour stood.

“In Hyperbole a statement is made emphatic 2. Thus idly busy rolls their world away.
by over statement.” (Wren) 3. Sweet bitter tears flowed from her eyes.
Under this Figure a statement is exaggerated 4. Aching joys and dizzy raptures filled my
or overstated to an incredible degree. This is done heart.
for the sake of emphasis. As—
5. Let us not dread the kind cruelty of the
1. Rivers of blood flowed on the battlefield. surgeon’s knife.
2. Floods of tears flowed down her cheeks.
3. He can devour mountains of food and 8. Alliteration :
drink rivers of whisky. “Alliteration consists in the repetition of the
4. All the perfumes of Arabia cannot sweeten same sound or syllable at the beginning of two or
this little hand. (Shakespeare) more words.” (Nesfield)
5. Onomatopoeia : This produces a kind of musical effect. As—
1. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! (Gray)
“This is the name given to that artifice of
language by which the sound of words is made to 2. A load of learning lumbering in his
suggest or echo the sense.” (Nesfield) head. (Pope)
3. A reeling road, a rolling road, that ram-
Under this Figure, the sound of words is made
bles round the shire.
to suggest the meaning or sense. As—
1. The snakes are hissing and the bees are (G.K. Chesterton)
buzzing. 4. How high his Honour holds his haughty
2. The murmurous haunt of flies on sum- head !
mer eves. (Keats) 5. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
3. The beetle wheels his droning flight. The furrow followed free.” (Coleridge)
(Gray) 9. Irony :
4. Cannons to the right of them,
“Irony is a mode of speech in which the real
Cannons to the left of them, meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is
Cannons in front of them literally conveyed.” (Wren)
Vollied and thundered. (Tennyson) Under this Figure, the real meaning or sense
6. Apostrophe : of a statement is just the opposite of what is
spoken literally in words. As—
“An Apostrophe is a direct address to the
dead, to the absent or to a personified object or 1. Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
idea.” (Wren) ( For Brutus is an honourable man :
Under this Figure a dead or absent person, or So are they all, all honourable men. )
an abstract idea is addressed to as if physically
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
present before the speaker. As—
(Shakespeare)
1. O death ! where is thy sting ?
2. Yet Brutus says he was ambitious,
2. Milton ! thou should’st be living at this
hour. (Wordsworth) And Brutus is an honourable man.
3. O solitude ! where are thy charms ? (Shakespeare)
7. Oxymoron : 10. Pun :
“Oxymoron is a special form of antithesis “This consists in a play on the various mean-
whereby two contradictory qualities are predicted ings of a word, and is seldom used except as a
at once of the same thing.” (Wren) joke.” (Nesfield)
Under this Figure, two opposite or contra- Under this Figure, humour is sought to be
dictory qualities of the same thing are stated at the produced by play on different meanings of a word.
same time. As— As—
308 | L.W.C.E.

1. Is life worth living ? That depends upon Under this Figure, two opposite or contra-
the liver. dictory ideas are expressed in the same sentence.
2. An ambassador is a man who lies abroad This is meant to give emphasis. As—
for the good of his country. 1. To err is human, to forgive divine.
11. Metonymy : 2. Man proposes, God disposes.
3. God made the country, man made the
“In Metonymy an object is designated by the
town.
name of something which is generally associated
with it.” (Wren) 4. Many are called, but few are chosen.
‘Metonymy’ is a Greek word made of two 14. Transferred Epithet :
words—Meta + Onoma. ‘Meta’ means ‘after’, “In this figure an epithet is transferred from
and ‘Onoma’ means ‘name’. Under this Figure, a its proper word to another that is closely
thing is not called by its own name, but by some associated with it in the sentence.” (Wren)
quality or attribute associated with it. For instance,
‘sword’ may be used for the ‘soldier’, or ‘pen’ Under this Figure, an adjective or an epithet is
for the ‘writer’. As— transferred and applied to an associated object in
place of the object proper. As—
1. The pen (author) is mightier than the
sword (the soldier). 1. He passed a sleepless night.
2. Sceptre and crown (i.e. kings). 2. The ploughman homeward plods his weary
way. (Gray)
Must tumble down ;
3. He received a mortal wound.
And in the dust be equal made
4. I cannot live on dishonourable bread.
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.
(i.e. peasants). Exercise
3. The bar (lawyers) and the bench (judges) Name the Figures of Speech used in the
are complementary to each other. following sentences :
4. He won the laurels (i.e. reward). 1. Life is a dream.
5. Please address the chair (i.e. chairman). 2. Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
12. Synecdoche : 3. The righteous shall flourish as the palm
trees.
“In Synecdoche a part is used to designate the
4. Ye are the salt of the earth.
whole or the whole to designate a part.” (Wren)
5. Suspicions among thoughts are like bats
In other words, a part is used for the whole,
among birds; they fly best by night.
and the whole is used for the part. As—
6. O World ! O Life ! O Time ! On whose last
1. Give us this day our daily bread (i.e.
steps I climb.
food).
7. O Wind ! If winter comes, can spring be far
2. I have many mouths (i.e. persons) to feed.
behind ?
3. England (i.e. the team of England) have
won. 8. The press is the fourth estate.
4. A fleet of twenty sails (i.e. ships) passed 9. Words are like leaves; and where they most
by our coast. abound,
5. The best brains (i.e. scholars) have Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.
assembled here. 10. Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.
13. Antithesis : 11. Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able
to fill it with tears.
“In Antithesis a striking opposition or con-
trast of words or sentiments is made in the same 12. I loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers
sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.” Could not with all their quantity of love
(Wren) Make up the sum.
 FIGURES OF SPEECH | 309

13. If speech is silver, silence is gold. (4) Metaphor;

14. Truth is ever on the scaffold (5) Simile;
Wrong is ever on the throne, (6) Apostrophe;
15. Give every man thy ear, (7) Apostrophe;
But few thy tongue. (8) Metonymy;
16. O death ! where is thy sting ? (9) Simile;
17. O judgment ! thou art fled to brutish beasts. (10) Simile;
18. The House is adjourned. (11) Hyperbole;
19. Youth is full of pleasure, (12) Hyperbole;
Age is full of care. (13) Antithesis;
20. Sweet art the uses of adversity. (14) Antithesis;
21. The cup that cheers but not inebriates. (15) Antithesis (and also Metonymy);
22. He is a cruelly kind guardian. (16) Apostrophe;
23. Our loss is their gain. (17) Apostrophe;
24. He held his haughty head high. (18) Metonymy;
25. With short shrill shrieks the bat flits by. (19) Antithesis;
26. We are loyal to the crown. (20) Oxymoron;
27. Grief sighed and Honour shed tears. (21) Metonymy;
28. Lady, we are your guests tonight. (22) Oxymoron;
29. Run, run, you are brave indeed. (23) Antithesis;
30. Soft, soft, he lies in the church. (24) Alliteration;
Answers (25) Alliteration;
(1) Metaphor ; (26) Metonymy;
(2) Metaphor; (27) Personification;
(3) Simile; (28) Irony; (29) Irony; (30) Pun.
 33 Foreign Words and Phrases
Some foreign words, phrases and expressions 9. Alumni—(old students of a college or Uni-
borrowed from Greek, Latin, French, German and versity)
other European Languages, have come to be ● The annual dinner of the alumni of our
popularly used in English. Some of them have University is held in March every year.
become quite current in the English Language.
They are more particularly used in the fields of 10. Ante meridiem—(a. m.; before noon)
Law, Medicine and Science. Some of the technical ● The train arrives at 7 a. m. (ante meri-
words and phrases have become indispensable. diem)
Otherwise too, their use exhibits the writer’s or 11. A posteriori—(inductive logic, drawing
speaker’s wide knowledge, scholarship and inference from effect to cause)
advanced general awakening. These foreign words
● I have come to a posteriori conclusion
and expressions also add to the beauty, depth and
variety of the style. Therefore, students would do that he is guilty.
well to understand these foreign expressions and 12. A priori—(deductive logic, arguing from
use them correctly and carefully. cause to effect)
1. Ab initio—(From the very beginning) ● He is trying to come to a priori conclu-
● All the proceedings were wrong ab initio. sion in a wrong way.
2. Ad hoc—(specially for some purpose, for the 13. Bean geste—(generosity, magnanimity)
time being) ● World peace depends upon bean geste on
● An ad hoc committee has been constitu- the part of the great powers of the world.
ted to enquire into this matter. 14. Bonafide—(in good faith, genuine character)
3. Ad interim—(in the mean time) ● He is a bonafide student of this college.
● You will soon be promoted but you can 15. Bourgeoisie—(middle class people)
hold this office ad interim.
● The bourgeoisie class suffers most in all
4. Ad infinitum—(to infinity)
social upheavals.
● You can go on dividing ten by three ad
infinitum. 16. Cafe—(Coffee-house)
5. Ad libitum—(at liberty, at pleasure) ● This is the most expensive cafe in the
● We shall sit after dinner and talk about town.
our experiences at libitum. 17. Carte blanche—(full freedom of action)
6. Ad nauseam—(to a disgusting point) ● My son has all powers carte blanche in
● He dragged on his speech at nauseam. so far as our business is concerned.
7. Alma mater—(mother institution, one’s own 18. Chauffeur—(Car-driver)
college or University) ● Our chauffeur knows all the roads and
● I am proud of my alma mater. markets of Bombay.
8. Alter ego—(bosom friend, one’s second self) 19. Cortege—(train of attendants, procession)
● I have absolute faith in him. He is my ● The king always moves out with a splen-
alter ego. did cortege following him.
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES | 311

20. Crescendo—(slowly rising upwards) 34. Functus officio—(out of office, superannua-

● They raised slogans in a crescendo. ted)
21. De facto—(in fact, really speaking) ● My father is functus officio Chairman of
this factory.
● The General Manager is the de facto
Managing Director of the Mills. 35. Genre—(kind)
22. Dei Gratia—(by God’s grace) ● An essay is a distinct genre of prose
literature.
● He was dei gratia saved from drowning.
36. Ibid—(in the same book or chapter)
23. Denouement—(catastrophe, final solution or
ending of a play or a story) ● Write Ibid if you quote from the same
book again.
● The denouement of this story is very
striking. 37. Id est (i.e.)—(that is to say)
24. De profundis—(cry from the depth of sorrow ● He is an itinerant singer, i.e., he goes sing-
in the heart) ing from place to place.
● The last soliloquy of Dr. Faustus is de 38. Il penseroso—(a pensive or melancholy per-
profundis of his heart. son)
25. Divide at impera—(divide and rule) ● A lonely brooding person tends to become
il penseroso.
● The Britishers adopted the policy of
divide at impera during their rule in 39. In extenso—(at full length)
India. ● Explain all the allusions in extenso.
26. Dramatis personae—(list of dramatic 40. Infra dig—(below one’s dignity)
characters in a play) ● A patriot would find it infra dig to beg
● Every Shakespearean play has dramatis for mercy.
personae at the beginning of the play. 41. In memoriam—(in the memory of)
27. En bloc—(in a group, all in a body) ● The Taj was built in memoriam of Queen
● The workers came out en bloc shouting Mumtajmahal.
slogans. 42. Inter alia—(among other things)
28. En masse—(in a large number, all together) ● In awarding scholarships we must consi-
● They have gone on leave en masse. der inter alia the previous record of each
29. El dorado—(a golden city) student.
● India was considered el dorado for centu- 43. Inter se—(between two parties, among them-
selves)
ries.
● We cannot ignore the inter se agreement
30. En route—(on the way)
between the two parties.
● We shall halt at Bombay en route to
44. In toto—(completely)
Poona.
● I agree with you in toto.
31. Ex gratia—(as a mark of grace or mercy)
● An ex gratia payment was made to all 45. Ipso facto—(by that fact itself)
those who were injured in the accident. ● This agreement would ipso facto cancel
32. Ex officio—(by virtue of office) the earlier one.
● The Governor is ex officio Chancellor of 46. Juro divino—(by divine right or law)
the University. ● The medieval kings ruled juro divino.
33. Ex parte—(one-sided) 47. Jus divinum—(Divine Law)
● An ex parte judgment was announced by ● The Bible is the compendium of all jus
the court. divinum.
312 | L.W.C.E.

48. Laissez-faire—(Government policy of free 64. Proletarian—(belonging to the lowest social

trade) order)
● Laissez-faire may lead to unhealthy ● In a democratic country the proletarian
competition. is as important as the aristocrat.
49. Lingua franca—(national language) 65. Quo jure—(on what charge)
● We must take pride in our lingua franca. ● Quo jure have you suspended him ?
50. Literati—(learned men, scholars) 66. Savoir faire—(talent to see the right and just
at once)
● Milton could be appreciated only by the
● He has remarkable savoir faire for his
literati.
age.
51. Literateur—(literary men)
67. Status quo—(the same position)
● Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was not only a ● The court has ordered that status quo be
statesman but also a literateur. maintained.
52. Mademoiselle—(an unmarried girl, a maiden) 68. Sine die—(indefinitely)
● Joan of Arc was a graceful mademoiselle. ● The University has been closed sine die.
53. Mala fide—(in bad faith, not good) 69. Sub judice—(under consideration of the
● The intentions of the opposite party were court)
mala fide. ● We can’t take any action, for the matter is
54. Mon cher—(My dear) sub judice.
● Mon cher son, be sincere to your duty. 70. Summum bonum—(highest good)
● Contentment is the summum bonum of
55. Monsieur—(Mr.)
life.
● Monsieur Louis was a historian.
71. Ultima Thule—(farthest limit, last limit)
56. Nonpareil—(Unparalleled, incomparable) ● Treasure hunt was the ultima Thule of
● Miranda was nonpareil in beauty. their quest.
57. Nota bene—(N. B., note well) 72. Ultra vires—(against law, against authority)
● Nota bene (N.B.) : All questions are com- ● The orders of the Vice-Chancellor have
pulsory. been declared ultra vires by the High
58. Par excellence—(of high excellence, unique) Court.
● His performance was par excellence. 73. Versus—(against)
● The case is between the State Government
59. Parole—(released on leave on one’s own
word, specially applied to prisoners) versus the Central Government.
● The convict has been left on parole. 74. Via media—(middle course)
● There is no via media between hard
60. Post meridiem—(p. m., after noon)
labour and success.
● We have our tea at 4 p. m.
75. Vice versa—(in opposite ways, in reverse
61. Post mortem—(medical examination of the order)
dead body)
● Change these sentences from active to
● The post mortem report reveals that the passive and vice versa.
deceased had been poisoned.
76. Vox populi vox dei—(Voice of the people is
62. Prima facie—(on the first impression, obvi- the voice of God)
ously) ● Never go against public opinion, for vox
● Prima facie there is no case against him. populi vox dei.
63. Pro forma—(in formal way) 77. Viva voce—(oral test)
● He has invited us only pro forma, for we ● The viva voce test is going to be held
have no personal relations. tomorrow.
 The Courtesy Words :
34
“Please”
Please and “Thank
“Please” You
“Thank You”
The most popular courtesy words used in 2. Please leave me alone.
everyday life in the English Language are ‘Please’ 3. Please bring me a glass of water.
and ‘Thank You’. Their proper use would show 4. Please call the peon.
the writer’s or speaker’s sense of courtesy, Rule 3—If the Request is in Interrogative form,
gratitude, culture and refinement. They add to the ‘Please’ is used in the middle of the
pleasure and sweetness of life. They make social sentence. As—
life easy and smooth.
1. Will you please close the door ?
The words of A.G. Gardiner are worth quot-
2. Will you please stop talking ?
ing in this connection : ‘Please’ and ‘Thank You’
are the small change with which we pay our way 3. Are you please willing to help me ?
as social beings. They are the little courtesies by 4. Will you please give me your telephone
which we keep the machine of life oiled and number ?
running smooth.” Rule 4—If a reply is to be given to an Enquiry, a
We give below the rules relating to their Request or a Suggestion, and if the reply
correct use in life. is Affirmative, we use Please ; but if the
Use of ‘Please’ reply is Negative, we should not use
Rule 1—‘Please’ is used at the end of a sentence Please. For a Negative reply we say ‘No,
of request or prayer. As— thanks’, and for the Affirmative reply we
say ‘yes, please.’
1. Help me, please.
2. Would you lend me your pen for a It should also be remembered that in
minute, please. Affirmative reply, we should say ‘Yes,
please’, not ‘Please, yes.’ Similarly in
3. Come here, please.
Negative reply, we should say ‘No,
4. Have your seat, please. thanks’, not ‘Thanks, no.’ As—
In all these sentences ‘Please’ has been
1. Are you going to dine with me tomor-
used at the end of the sentence. This is
the correct way. It is wrong to begin a row?
sentence with ‘Please’. It is wrong to say Yes, please.
“Please help me”, or “Please have your 2. Will you have another cup of tea ?
seat.” Yes, please. (or, No, thanks / thank you.)
Rule 2—If the Request is in the form of an 3. Will your brother need my help ?
Imperative sentence (suggesting order),
‘Please’ is used at the beginning of the Yes, please. (No, thank you.)
sentence. As— 4. Are you staying with me ?
1. Please close the door. Yes, please. (or, No, thanks / thank you.)
314 | L.W.C.E.

Use of ‘Thanks’ 5. How is your father now ? Much better,

………
Rule 1—“Thanks”, “Thank you”, or “Thank
you very much” are used to express 6. ……… pay my respects to your father.
one’s obligation for a favour done to 7. Will you ……… send me the particulars of
oneself. These expressions are also used your son ?
to express obligation when one’s re- 8. We can do without your help ………
quest, proposal, or suggestion is accep-
9. ……… for the honour you have given me.
ted by some person. As—
10. Put the book on the table ………
1. You helped me a lot. Thank you very
much. Hints— (1) please; (2) Please; (3) Thanks /
Thank you; (4) please; (5) thank you;
2. You gave me a very timely advice. Thank
(6) Please; (7) please; (8) Thank you;
you.
(9) Thanks; (10) please.
3. Thanks for giving me your pen.
4. Will you have another cup of tea ? Exercise
Yes, thank you. Reply the following questions in the Affirma-
tive o r the Negative, as indicated, using “Yes”
5. I thank you for accepting my request. or “No”, with either “please” or “thank you”—
6. Thanks for your suggestion. 1. Are you quite well now ?
Rule 2—Whether your reply to a request, pro- (Affirmative reply)
posal, or suggestion is Affirmative or
Negative, ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’ are 2. Do you need any other book ?
used in both cases. For the Affirmative (Negative reply)
reply we should say ‘Yes, thank you’, 3. Does your uncle need my advice ?
and for the Negative ‘No, thank you.’ (Affirmative reply)
We should never say or write ‘Thank
you, yes’ or ‘Thank you, no.’ 4. Is your father still ill ? (Negative reply)
Rule 3—If one does some favour to you, or does 5. Shall I bring tea for you ?
some little act for you even without your (Affirmative reply)
request, you must say ‘Thanks’ or 6. Are you quite comfortable here ?
‘Thank you’. For example— (Affirmative reply)
1. If your pen is left on the table, and your 7. Would you like me to bring your letters
peon brings it to you, you must say from the Post-Office ?
‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’.
(Affirmative reply)
2. If a paper slips down from your table, and
8. Shall I bring more milk for you ?
someone talking to you puts it back, you
must at once say ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank (Negative reply)
you’. 9. Would you need my help now ?
Exercise (Negative reply)
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences 10. Do you still need a house ?
with either “Please” or “Thank you” : (Negative reply)
1. Will you switch off the light ……… ? Hints—(1) Yes, thank you / thanks; (2) No, thank
2. ……… keep off the grass. you; (3) Yes, please; (4) No, thanks; (5)
Yes, thank you; (6) Yes, thank you; (7)
3. ……… for helping me so timely. Yes, thank you; (8) No, thank you ; (9)
4. Could you show me the way ……… ? No, thank you; (10) No, thanks.
 35 Greetings and Salutation
Greetings and Salutations Farewell—‘Farewell’, in the same way, is no
According to English culture Greetings and formal form of salutation. However, it is usually
Salutations are offered in different ways at used informally on parting.
different hours of the day and night. There is no Cheerio or so long—These are the slang
such difference in the modes of salutation in forms of Goodbye. These are used amongst very
Indian culture. But in English culture there are intimate and informal friends on parting.
different ways of offering Greetings and Saluta- Hullo / Hello / Hallo—These expressions are
tions in the morning, noon, evening, and night. used amongst very inti-mate friends and collea-
We discuss them in detail below— gues on meeting. They should not be used in
Good Morning—We say Good Morning in greeting one’s seniors or elderly people, or less
the morning upto noon both on meeting or parting. intimate persons.
Good Afternoon— Good Afternoon is They are also used to draw the attention of
offered both on meeting or parting from mid–day someone, or to express surprise or curiosity. As—
to a little before evening. Hallo, what are you doing there ?
Good Evening—Good Evening is offered Hello, what is that !
from evening to midnight only on meeting, not on Salutations in Letters
parting. (On parting we should say Good Night.)
Good Night—Good Night is offered on the Salutation is a very important part of any
following four occasions— letter, whether the letter is Personal, Official or a
(a) On retiring to bed for the night. Business letter. Different kinds of Salutations are
used in different kinds of letters. We discuss them
(b) On parting from someone in the evening.
in detail below :
(c) On parting from colleagues or work–
mates, at the end of the day’s work, whe- (1) In personal letters, for members of the
ther the hour of parting is late afternoon family, we write—My Dear Father, M y D ear
or early evening. Mother, M y Dear Brother / Sister / Son /
(d) As a greeting, in the evening, to someone Daughter, etc. The expression My dear suggests
we casually meet in the street but do not very deep intimacy, love and affection. Against it,
stop to speak to. Dear (without My) suggests a little less closeness
Good bye—Good bye is used between and affection. Therefore we can use either M y
family–members, friends and personal visitors on dear or only Dear to other relations according to
parting from each other, e.g. as one leaves home our intimacy with them. For example, we can
to go to work, on parting from close friends or write either My dear uncle or Dear uncle, depen-
relations after a visit, on seeing off friends and ding upon our closeness and affection for the
relations going on a journey, etc. uncle concerned.
Good Day—‘Good Day’, really speaking, is (2) The mode of Salutation to our friends and
no proper form of salutation. However, it has associates depends upon the level of our intimacy
come to be used informally on parting from with them. Broadly speaking, there can be the
friends at any hour in day time. following three categories :
316 | L.W.C.E.

(a) My dear Mohan—For very intimate (3) For persons distantly related, or only
friends. officially concerned we should write Dear Sir (for
(b) Dear Mohan—For slightly less intimate men) and Dear Madam (for women).
than under (a) friends. (4) Teachers and officers should be addressed
(c) Dear Mr. Mohan—For very little inti- as Sir or Dear Sir.
mate friends. (5) In pure English culture expressions like
It is not proper to show too much intimacy Honoured Sir or Respected Sir are not correct
with persons senior or superior to you. Therefore addresses. They are only Indianisms that should
they should always be addressed as Dear Mr / be avoided. Respected Father or Respected
Shri. Mother are also Indianisms.
 36 Dates and Time
There is a lot of confusion regarding the Let us now consider how to speak out these
writing and speaking of Dates, Years, and Time dates—
in English. We give below the correct method of Written Spoken
writing and telling them. 25 October the twenty-fifth of October
Dates—Dates can be written in the following October 25 October twenty-five or twenty-fifth
four ways : October 25th October the twenty-fifth
(1) 25 October, 25. 10. 93 Twenty-five, ten, ninety-three.
(2) October 25, Years—There is no difference in the method
(3) October 25th, of writing the years, but there is a difference in
speaking them out. In this connection the follow-
(4) 25. 10. 93 . ing points should be kept in mind—
(a) All these four methods are correct, but pre- (1) The whole centuries upto 1900 should be read/
ference should be given to the First method. spoken as follows :
(b) For dates below ten (i.e., 1 to 9) the second 1600 = Sixteen hundred (not one thousand
method should be avoided as far as possible. six hundred)
1700 = Seventeen hundred (not one thou-
(c) The third method is good for all dates, but it
sand seven hundred)
should be given second preference after the
First method. Similarly, Eighteen hundred, Nineteen hun-
dred, etc.
(d) There can be much confusion in the use (2) But years 2000 or above should be spoken in
of the Fourth method, therefore it should not thousands. As—
be used very frequently. There is a great
2000 = Two thousand (not twenty hundred)
difference in the English system and the
American system in the use of the Fourth 2500 = Two thousand five hundred (not
twenty-five hundred)
method. In the English system the three
numerical figures serially stand for day– (3) If figures from 1 to 9 are to be added after
month–year, and in the American system for hundreds, the word hundred must be read /
month–day–year. This difference in the spoken. As—
English and American systems can lead to 1705 = Seventeen hundred and five (not
serious error in the interpretation of the date, seventeen five)
month, and year. For example, 8. 10. 1995 in 1809 = Eighteen hundred and nine (not
the English system would mean 8 October, eighteen nine)
1995, but in the American system it would 1903 = Nineteen hundred and three (not
mean 10 August, 1995. Thus the same date nineteen three)
would have two connotations. This kind of (4) If figures from 10 and above are to be added
confusion should be avoided by avoiding the after hundreds, the word hundred is not
fourth method of writing the dates. read / spoken
318 | L.W.C.E.

1735 = Seventeen thirty-five (not seventeen (3) Minutes up to thirty are referred to as
hundred thirty-five) ‘past that hour’, and minutes thirty
1853 = Eighteen fifty-three (not eighteen onwards are referred to as ‘to the next
hundred fifty-three) hour’.
1914 = Nineteen fourteen (not nineteen Thus :
hundred and fourteen) 2·15 = Quarter past two
Time—Time is written/spoken in two ways : 3·30 = Half past three
(1) By figures, as—
3·45 = Quarter to four (next hour)
8.35; 9.25; 11.40
(4) With complete hour we use O’clock ; but
This method is popularly used in T i m e–
if the reference is to hours and minutes,
tables and official notices. In this method,
we do not use O’clock. For example, 9
the numerical figure before the Full–stop
O’clock, 4 O’clock, five O’clock, ten
denotes Hours, and the figure after the Full–
O’clock, etc. are correct. But 4.25 O’clock
Stop denotes Minutes. They are read/spoken
or three twenty O’clock are wrong.
as—Eight thirty–five ; Nine twenty–five ;
Eleven forty, etc. (5) The period from 12 O’clock at mid–night
(2) In conversational form : to 12 O’clock at noon is called ‘a.m.’,
while the period from 12 O’clock at noon
(1) In conversational form words past and to to 12 O’clock at mid–night is called ‘p.m.’
are popularly used. ‘Past’ means ‘so
many minutes after a certain hour’, and In conversation, however, a.m. and p.m.
‘to’ means ‘so many minutes before the are not often used. In their place we often
next hour’. In both these expressions use morning, noon, after noon, evening,
minutes are placed before Past or to, and night, etc. For example, we say ten
hour after them. Further, in this method O’clock in the morning, 4·30 in the after
the minutes up to thirty are expressed in noon, six thirty (or half past six) in the
relation to the preceding hour (as so evening, ten forty at night, etc. Twelve at
many minutes p a s t that hour), and midnight is called 12 O’clock at night,
minutes thirty onwards are expressed in and twelve O’clock in the day is called 12
relation to the next hour (as so many at noon.
minutes to that hour, i.e. short of the next Keeping all the above–noted points in mind,
hour). Thus ‘Twelve past one’ means we give below a Table showing : How to write
‘twelve minutes over one O’clock’. In the Time in figures, How to read the Time–figures,
same way, ‘fourteen minutes past eleven’ and how to speak them in conversation :
means ‘fourteen minutes over eleven
O’clock’. Against it, ‘seven minutes to Time in Conversational
How to read
three’ means ‘seven minutes short of three figures Form
O’clock.’ Also, if before ‘past’ or ‘to’ 10·00 Ten O’clock Ten O’clock
five, ten, twenty, or twenty–five minutes 11·05 Eleven five Five minutes past
are to be used, the word ‘minute’ remains eleven
silent or understood ( i.e. it is not
spoken), but with other numbers the word 11·15 Eleven fifteen Quarter past eleven
‘minute’ is read or spoken out. Thus, we 12·30 Twelve thirty Half past twelve
shall say ‘ten past five’ or ‘ten to five’, 2·20 Two twenty Twenty past two
but ‘twelve minutes past five’ or ‘twelve
5·45 Five forty-five Quarter to six
minutes to five’.
(2) ‘Fifteen minutes past’ is called ‘Quarter 10·58 Ten fifty-eight Two minutes to
past’ and ‘Fifteen minutes to’ is called eleven
‘Quarter to’. In the same way, ‘thirty 11·45 Eleven forty-five Quarter to twelve
minutes past’ is called ‘Half past’, and 12·00 Twelve O’clock Twelve O’clock
‘Forty–five minutes to’ is called ‘Quarter (at noon / at night
to’.
 DATES AND TIME | 319

Exercise 1400, 1700, 1808, 1907, 1914, 1939, 2005,

1. How will you read aloud the following 20025
dates ? 3. How will you express in conversation the
August 15, January 5, 12 October, 20 Novem- following points of time ?
ber, March 5th, April 2nd, June 23, July 1,
December 25th. 8·15; 9·05; 11·30; 11·45; 2·30; 4·28; 5·55;
8·0; 10·0; 12·0; 8·30 a. m.; 4·05 p. m.; 12·00
2. How will you read aloud the following
years ? day, 12·00 night; 6 p. m.; 9·30 p. m.
 37 Comprehension
Comprehension is a very important exercise be derived from the central Idea of the Passage.
to acquire proficiency in any language. Compre- Also remember that you can often get some hint
hension means ‘to understand fully’. Under com- about the title from the First or the Last sentence
prehension an unseen passage in Prose or Poetry is of the passage.
given, and certain questions based on the given Also, some words, phrases and expressions in
passage are asked. The answers to these questions the passage are underlined or written in Italics and
would reveal how far the student has been able to you are asked to give their meanings. No student
understand or comprehend the given passage. A would know the meanings of all such words and
question on comprehension is asked in every phrases. But you should not be afraid of such
examination. Therefore every student must have a questions. If you have understood the central idea
good practice in comprehension. of the passage, you can easily explain the under-
No rules can indeed be framed for compre- lined words and phrases by common sense
hension, but certain suggestions can of course be keeping the central idea and the context in mind.
given for the same. First, the given passage should The meanings of the underlined portions should
slowly and carefully be read over at least three be given in your own simple language.
times. Thereafter the central idea of the passage We are giving below 15 passages in Prose and
should be marked out. If you read over the Poetry for practice in comprehension. Some of
passage once again, keeping the central idea in these Passages have been fully solved, and others
mind, you would easily be able to guess the have been left for the student to solve. The
correct meanings of most of the difficult words passages left for the student have been provided
and expressions. After that the given questions with their central ideas and meanings of some
should be carefully studied, comprehended and difficult words and phrases. It is hoped the student
answered. should be able to attempt the comprehension of
While answering the questions on the given such passages without much difficulty with these
passage, it must be kept in mind that the answers Hints given under each passage.
must be derived from the passage itself. No Answer the questions given under each of
answer should be there outside the meaning and the following passages :
thought of the passage. You should not add your
own thought, view or opinion in answering any of 1. (Solved)
the questions. You do not have the right of expres- Never was a time when there was more need
sing your own agreement or disagreement with the for hard thinking than in the present hour. We see
thought of the passage. It should also be remem- on all sides a seething mass of turbulent life. We
bered that your answers must be in full sentences are faced with a situation produced, if we can
—not merely in phrases, expressions, or ‘yes’ or imagine it, by a combination of varied move-
‘No’. ments which the European nations passed through
Sometimes you are required to give the during the last few centuries. The intellectual
Summary or Central Idea of the passage. The renaissance, the industrial revolution, the political
Summary or Central Idea should be about one– struggle for freedom and democracy, and the
third of the given passage. religious reformation, which the Western nations
If you are required to suggest a suitable Title faced individually and at different periods, India
to the given Passage, remember that the title must has to meet simultaneously, each magnified on
 COMPREHENSION | 321

account of the large area and population Ans. 5.

concerned. While great changes are taking place Side — Noun—Come to my right side.
in every walk of life, political and industrial,
cultural and social, there is a good deal of loose Verb—He will side with you.
and muddled thinking. The country seems to be Face — Noun—She came with a smil-
marching forth into the unknown. ing face.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Verb—We have to face many
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above pass- problems.
age.
Struggle — Noun—The struggle is very
Q. 3. Why is there need for hard work in hard.
India today ?
Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases in bold Verb—He has to struggle hard
letters in your own words. for some time more.
Q. 5. Use the following words both as nouns Change — Noun—There is no change in
and verbs : my programme.
side; face; struggle; change; place. Verb—You will have to change
Answers your programme.
Ans. 1. A suitable title to the above passage Place — Noun—The place is neat and
would be : “A Time for Work.” clean.
Ans. 2. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that there is a Verb— Place the chair in the
great need for hard work and constructive thinking room.
in India today. We have to solve a large variety of
political, economic and social problems all at the 2. (Solved)
same time. The problems we face today have
become unusually enormous on account of India’s Youth is the best gift of the gods, says an old
vast area and huge population. The solution of “Upanishad”. Let us rejoice in it while we have
these problems demands hard labour on the part of it. It is the great formative period of our life,
each one of us. brief but powerful. We are then able to face the
world with feelings pure and with ambitions
Ans. 3. India is passing through a phase of
unworldly. The bounds of our friendship, sym-
great many changes today. She has to solve a large
pathy and fellow-feeling are not then set. We can
variety of national problems. She has also to com-
push them as widely as we like until they encom-
pete with Western countries which are advancing
pass all that is worth knowing amongst our
fast. Hence there is a need for hard work in India
fellows. It is good to find a friend in a student
today.
born in a community widely removed from our
Ans. 4. Seething mass of turbulent life— own. To know him and through him to understand
ever increasing and fast changing flux of life. the feelings, hopes and even the prejudices that
Combination of varied movements— make him so dissimilar to us, is often a great
combined force of many and varied changes and experience. In acquiring it we discover the human
movements. elements lying underneath all that on casual
Intellectual renaissance—awakening of new examination seemed so different and unintelli-
thoughts, concepts and ideologies. gible. Through the mists of religious controversies
Magnified ………Concerned—the problems and political antipathies, we discover points of
become enormous on account of the vast area and contact and fellowship, untouched by the infec-
huge population of the country. tion of religious or social prejudices so powerful
Loose and muddled thinking—inconsistent at a later age. Where religion divides, the common
and confused thinking and planning. possession of youth and its generous instincts may
unite, with its miraculous power of rooting itself
Marching forth into the unknown—India deep in the affections of our companions.
advancing towards an unknown and uncertain
future. —Dr. M. R. Jayakar.
322 | L.W.C.E.

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. time, the beginning of a new journey which will
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above test the toughness of your mental and moral
fibre, the efficiency of your university training.
passage.
The new experiences, the new problems and the
Q. 3. Why is youth called the golden period of new situation will demand from you the exercise
one’s life ? of qualities for whose fostering the university
Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases i n bold functions. The future will give the powers and
letters in the above passage. responsibilities to you. The historic role of large
Q. 5. Make verbs from the following words : educated classes, in the building up of a new India
cannot be over-estimated. If a leader is one who
Sympathy; human; infection; deep;
knows where he is going, who has a firm grasp of
pure.
the insights and intuitions which have made our
Answers civilization so enduring, and who can harness
Ans. 1. The proper title to the passage would them to every aspect of life, it is only the
be : “Glory of Youth.” universities that can train men for leadership. The
universities are more than institutions for higher
Ans. 2. Dr. Jayakar says that youth is the learning and professional training; they are called
formative period in one’s life. A man remains upon to educate the younger generation, form its
untouched by social, religious and political biases character and create a new type of intellectual
and prejudices during the period of youth. He can leader. —Dr. Radhakrishnan.
establish better contacts with the people of other
countries and nationalities. Thus while age Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.
divides, youth unites. Youth promates goodwill, Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above
sympathy and cooperation. passage
Ans. 3. Youth is the formative period of one’s Q. 3. What is the role of young students in the
life. It is the period of hopes, enthusiasm and national life ?
energy. One’s career is formed in youth. Therefore Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases i n bold
it is called the golden period. letters in the above passage.
Ans. 4. Formative period …… life—the Q. 5. Use the following words both a s nouns
period in which one’s character and career are and verbs :
formed. End; sense; demand; exercise; grasp;
Are not yet set—are not yet formed or fixed. term; harness.
They encompass all—they include all. Answers
Casual examination—a passing scrutiny or Ans. 1. A suitable title to the above passage
review. would be : “Role of Universities.”
Untouched b y……prejudices—not tainted Ans. 2. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that univer-
or coloured by any kind of prejudice, dislike or ill- sities play a very vital role in the life of the
will. individual and national life. Universities supply a
Ans. 5. Formation of verbs— regular stream of educated and responsible gene-
Sympathy — sympathise ration of young men. The future of India has to be
shaped by such young men. Our universities must
Human — humanise rise and come up to meet this national demand.
Infection — infect Ans. 3. As soon as a student comes out of the
Deep — deepen university he is called upon to play his role in the
Pure — purify national life. He has to play the role of a highly
enlightened, responsible and conscientious citizen.
3. (Solved) Young students must rise to meet the call of the
Graduation is only a milestone in life’s nation.
journey. It does not mark the end of the education Ans. 4. Only a milestone—only one stage in
road. In a very real sense, it is the commencement the journey of life.
 COMPREHENSION | 323

Commencement time : beginning. down the smaller. For we know enough of science
Toughness ……fibre : intellectual and moral to realize that there is no such thing as perfect rest
power. or repose in this visible universe of ours. If,
therefore, material progress does not clash with
For whose fostering : for whose growth. moral progress, it must necessarily advance the
Historic role : important duty. latter. (Mahatma Gandhi)
Insights and intuitions : deep understanding and Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.
moral spirit. Q. 2. Write the summary of the above passage
Who can harness : who can control. in about one-third of its length.
Ans. 5. Q. 3. What is the relationship between real and
End : Noun—This is the end of the economic progress ?
problem. Q. 4. Explain the words and phrases in bold
Verb—The problem ends here. letters in the above passage.
Sense : Noun—There is no sense in Answers
what you say. Ans. 1. Title : “Economic Vs. Real P r o-
Verb—I sense a foul play. gress”.
Demand : Noun—The demand of food- Ans. 2. Gandhiji refers to the relationship
grains is rising. between economic progres and real progress.
Verb—I demand no help from Economic progress means material advancement.
you. Real progress is moral and spiritual progress.
These two are opposed to each other. This
Exercise : Noun—This is a difficult exer-
problem has a wider application and must be
cise.
studied in its wider perspectives.
Verb—He should exercise all
Ans. 3. Gandhiji says that economic progress
his powers.
does not promote real progress. On the contrary
Grasp : Noun—The situation is under economic progress hinders real progress.
my grasp.
Ans. 4. Clash with—opposed to, run counter
Verb—Grasp the opportunity to,
when it comes.
Permanent element is us—our moral and
Train : Noun—The train is late. spiritual faculty.
Verb—The universities must Wider proposition—wider meaning.
train the youth to grow into
This visible universe—the material world
good citizens.
before us.
Harness : Noun—He died in harness.
5.
Verb—We must harness our
natural resources. Our constitution is named democracy,
because it is in the hands not of the few but of the
4. (Solved) many. But our laws secure equal justice for all in
Does economic progress clash with real their private disputes and our public opinion
progress ? By economic progress, I take it, we welcomes and honours talents in every branch
mean material advancement without limit, and by of achievement. And as we give free play to all
real progress we mean moral progress, which in our public life, so we carry the same spirit into
again is the same thing as progress of the our daily relation with one another. We have no
permanent element in us. The subject may black looks or angry words for our neighbour if
therefore be stated thus : Does not moral progress he enjoys himself in his own way and we abstain
increase in the same proportion as material from the little acts of churlishness which, though
progress ? I know that this is a wider proposition they leave no mark, yet cause annoyance to those
than the one before us. But I venture to think that who note them. Open and friendly in our private
we always mean the wider one even when we lay intercourse, in our public acts we keep strictly
324 | L.W.C.E.

within the control of law. We acknowledge the Q. 2. What, according to the author, is the test
restraint of reverence, we are obedient to whom- of a man’s university education in life ?
so-ever is set in authority, and to the laws, more Q. 3. What are the duties and responsibilities of
specially to those which offer protection to the young graduates ?
oppressed and to those unwritten ordinances
whose transgression brings admitted shame. Q. 4. What i s the advice of the author to the
young graduates ?
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage.
Q. 5. Explain the portions in bold letters.
Q. 2. Give the summary of the above passage.
Q. 3. Explain the portions in bold letters in the
Hints
above passage. Idea—A convocation address. Appeal to the
graduates to realize their duties and responsibi-
Q. 4. “Our laws secure equal justice for all.” lities. A vast field of action lies before them. They
This is a social virtue. Find out from the should carry out their duties sincerely and
passage some other social virtues which devotedly.
democracy produces.
The first milestone—the first important
Hints stage.
Idea—Principles of democratic way of life. Arduous journey—hard courbe of life.
The citizen of democracy is free in his personal Making ……… patience—demanding much
and private life, but he is bound by laws in public sacrifice and patience from man.
life. He respects law and authority. Less showy……work—social service which
Secure equal justice—guarantee equality does not have much pomp and show but which is
and justice to all; Tal-ents……achievement— very valuable.
honour the talented man in every field of life and Rule of enlightened conscience—rule of
career; Black ………words—discouragement and upright moral conduct and spiritual values.
jealousy; Little …… churlishness—little acts of Loyalty………convictions—faith in religion
anger and jealousy; Unwritten Ordinances— and other social systems and human values
moral laws; Transgression—disobedience. inherited from the past.
6. 7.
To you who have received your degrees this The basic faith of those who believe in
afternoon will go forth the congratulations and democracy is that the common man has enough
good wishes of every one of us. Do not, however, goodwill and common-sense to govern well, that
forget the significance of this function. Today you given freedom and power, men will educate one
have reached the first milestone of your long and another, will introduce better ways of life and
arduous journey in life, not always pleasant and habits of friendly co-operation, and will in the
very often making large demands upon human long run create a new society which will give the
patience. The responsibilities of public life, poli- best possible opportunity of good life to all. A
tical contests, social injustice and inequities and believer in democracy has faith in human nature,
economic conflicts between competing interests in the goodwill and political ability of the
will claim the attention of some of you. To others common man.
may fall the less showy but more beneficent But uneducated people with no experience of
work of social service. Whatever the sphere of life self-government are quite incapable of suddenly
you may be called upon to play your part in, the making a success of democracy. All history shows
eyes of your university will always be upon you. that stable democracy is a slow growth, that the
You can add to her pride or put her to shame by people must have a long experience of self-
your conduct and action. In the end, in the midst government and responsibility in many walks of
of the conflicts that you will have to face, let the life, only then can they learn those qualities of
rule of enlightened conscience and loyalty to tolerance, of common-sense, of co-operation and
your convictions guide your path. of judgement which are essential in the citizens of
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. a democracy.
 COMPREHENSION | 325

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 2. Give the substance of the above passage
Q. 2. Explain the portions in bold letters in the in one-third of its original length.
above passage. Q. 3. What impression do you form about the
character of Pt. Nehru from the above
Q. 3. Answer briefly the following questions in passage ?
your own words—
Q . 4. Explain the phrases and sentences in
(I) What is the basic faith of those who bold letters above.
believe in democracy ?
Hints
(II) What qualities are essential for the
citizen of a democracy? Idea—Pt. Nehru’s wife Kamla had fallen
seriously ill when he was in prison. Authorities
Hints sent proposals to him that he could be released
Idea—Democracy is built on the faith of from jail if he promised not to take part in politics.
goodness and proficiency in the common man, the Pt. Nehru gave no such assurance. He knew that
common citizen of a democracy must be cons- Kamla herself would not feel happy if he did any
cious of his civic rights and duties. Uneducated such thing.
citizens with no experience of civic life cannot Intermediaries—agents of the authorities
make democracy a success. Informal—verbal.
Basic faith—primary conception, faith at the Pledges—oaths of serving the country.
starting point. Cause—relating to independence.
Self-government—democratic form of gove- Conceit—vanity.
rnment. Predicament—embarrassing position.
Stable democracy—strong and lasting demo- Dilemma—difficult situation
cracy. Undertaking—promise, assurance.
8. 9.
Suggestion came to me through various Freedom has assuredly given us a new status
intermediaries that if I could give an assurance, and new opportunities. But it is also implied that
even an informal assurance, to keep away from we should discard selfishness, laziness and all
politics for the rest of my term, I would be narrowness of outlook. Our freedom suggests
released to attend on Kamla. Politics was far toil and the creation of new values for old ones.
enough from my thoughts just then, and the We should so discipline ourselves as to be able to
politics I had seen during my eleven days outside discharge our new responsibilities satisfactorily. If
had disgusted me, but to give an assurance and there is any one thing that needs to be stressed
to be disloyal t o m y pledges, to the cause, t o more than any other in the new set-up, it is that we
colleagues, t o my self, it was an impossible should put into action our full capacity, each one
condition whatever happened. To do so meant of us, in productive effort—each one of us in his
inflicting a moral injury on the roots of my own sphere, however humble work, unceasing
being, on almost everything I held sacred. I was work, should now be our watch word. Work is
told that Kamla’s condition was becoming worse wealth and service is happiness. Nothing else is.
and worse, and my presence by her side might The greatest crime in India today is idleness. If we
make all the difference between life and death. root out idleness, all our difficulties including
Was my personal conceit and pride greater than even conflicts will gradually disappear. Whether a
my desire to give her this chance ? It might have constable or a high official of the State, whether as
been a terrible predicament for me, but fortunately businessman or industrialist, artisan or farmer or
that dilemma did not face me in that way at least. peasant, each one of us should discharge his
Knowing that Kamla herself would strongly obligation to the state and make a contribution to
disapprove of my giving any undertaking and if the welfare of the country. Honest work is the
I did anything of the kind, it would shock her and sheet-anchor to which we should cling if we want
harm her, I felt morally enlightened. to be saved from danger or difficulty. It is the
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. fundamental law of progress.
326 | L.W.C.E.

Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 3. Explain the portions in bold letters.
Q. 2. Summarise the above passage in about Q. 4. Expand the idea contained in “Hate the
sixty-five words. sin and not the sinner.”
Q. 3. What duties and responsibilities have Hints
been bestowed on us by freedom ? Idea—Here is an explanation of the true spirit
Q. 4. Explain the portions in bold letters. of Ahimsa. Ahimsa prescribes love and respect for
Hints every human being irrespective of his actions. We
should hate the sin but not the sinner. To hate any
Idea—Freedom has bestowed new duties and individual would be to hate the divine spark which
responsibilities on us. We have to work hard with dwells within everyone of us.
all our capacity for the preservation of our
freedom. Work is the basic condition for securing Approbation—approval, admiration.
progress, prosperity and security. Disapprobation—disapproval, condemnation.
New status—new position of trust and res- Precept—moral principle
ponsibility. Tantamount to—equal to
Discard—give up, do away with. Tarred with the same brush—The charac-
Unceasing work—regular habit of working ters of all human beings are painted by the same
hard. brush of God, and hence there is no difference
Root out—eliminate, drive out. between one individual and the other.
Artisan—One engaged in some kind of To slight—to hate and condemn.
handicraft. Those d i v i n e powers—moral and spiritual
Sheet-anchor—sheltering place. powers within every individual.
Cling—attached to. Comprehension (contd)
10. Poetry Passages
Man and his deeds are two distinct things.
Whereas a good deed should call forth appro- 11. (Solved)
bation and a wicked deed, disapprobation, the The world is too much with us; late and soon,
doer of the deet whether good or wicked, always
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers :
deserves respect or pity as the case may be. ‘Hate
the sin and not the sinner’ is a precept which, Little do we see in nature that is ours;
though easy enough to understand, is rarely We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon !
practised, and that is why the poison of hatred This sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
spreads in the world.
The winds that will be howling at all hours
This form of Ahimsa is the basis of search for
And are up-gather’d now like sleeping flowers;
truth. I am realising every day that the search is
vain unless it is founded on Ahimsa as the basis. It For this, for everything, we are out of tune :
is quite proper to resist and attack a system but It moves us not—Great God ! I’d rather be
to resist and attack its author is tantamount to A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn :
resisting and attacking oneself. For we are all
tarred with the same brush, and the children of So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
one and the same creator and as such the divine Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
powers within us are infinite. To slight a single Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
human being is to slight those divine powers and Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
thus to harm not only that being but with him the
whole world. —W. Wordsworth
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above passage. Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Q. 2. Summarise Mahatma Gandhi’s views on Q. 2. Write the substance of the above poem.
Ahimsa as given in the above passage. Q. 3. Why are we drifting away from Nature ?
 COMPREHENSION | 327

Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in But O for the touch of a vanish’d hand,
the above poem. And the sound of a voice that is still !
Answers Break, break, break,
Ans. 1. The title of the poem is : “The World At the foot of thy crags, O sea !
Is Too Much with Us.” But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Ans. 2. The poet criticises the material civili- Will never come back to me.
zation of the industrial age. Man is so engrossed in
economic activities that he can hardly find time to —Lord Tennyson
perceive the beauty of Nature. He sees no beauty Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
in the sea heaving in moon-lit night or in the soft Q. 2. Write the substance of the above poem.
fragrant breezes blowing in the morning. The poet Q. 3 . How d o the fisherman’s boy a n d t h e
wants to love and worship Nature as the abode of sailor’s lad express their joy ?
gods and goddesses and for that he is prepared
even to renounce Christanity and become a Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in
Heathen devotee. the above poem.
Ans. 3. We are drifting away from nature Answers
because we have no time to see her beauty. We are Ans. 1. The suitable title is “Break, Break,
so engrossed in earning and spending money that Break”.
we can hardly find time to appreciate how Ans. 2. Tennyson mourns the death of his
beautiful the different forms of nature are. Our dear friend Hallam. The waves of the ocean
love for material possessions has dried up our love dashing against the shores resemble the beatings
for nature. of the poet’s heart. He cannot, however, express
Ans. 4. The world……us—We are so badly his sad feelings adequately, even as the fisher boy
engrossed in economic and material pursuits. or the sailor lad could express their glee. The ships
A sordid boon—material gains at the cost of go and return but his dear departed friend will
enjoyment of the beauty of nature make a bad never return to him.
bargain. Ans. 3. The fisherman’s boy can freely
Howling at all hours—blowing hard all express his joy by playing with his sister and
through day and might. shouting with glee. The sailor’s lad expresses his
Suckled in a creed outworn—turning in joy by singing freely from his boat. .
devotion to a lost and archaic religious creed now Ans. 4. Thy cold grey stones—The cold and
called Heathenism. grey stony shore of the sea.
Make me less forlorn—having the sense of Their haven……hill—the safe projection of
being less lonely in the company of Heathen gods the hill over the bay under which the ships are
and goddesses in different forms of Nature. anchored;
12. (Solved) A voice that is still—the voice of a dear
friend that has been silenced for ever by death.
Break, break, break,
The touch……hand—The tender touch of
On thy cold gray stones, O Sea !
the hand of a dear friend whom death has snatched
And I would that my tongue could utter away.
The thoughts that arise in me. The tender grace of a day—The tender-
O well for the fisherman’s boy, hearted and graceful friend who has gone for ever.
That he shouts with his sister at play ! 13. (Solved)
O well for the sailor lad, Happy the man, whose wish and care
That he sings in his boat on the bay ! A few paternal acres bound,
And the stately ships go on Content to breathe his native air
To their haven under the hill; In his own ground.
328 | L.W.C.E.

Whose herds with milk, whose fields with Hours……away—who lives peacefully and
bread, contentedly from hour to hour, day to day, and
Whose flocks supply him with attire ; year to year.
Whose trees in summer yield him shade, unlamented……die—Let there be no mour-
ners to mourn his death.
In winter fire.
Blest, who can unconcernedly find 14.
Hours, days, and years slide soft away I lay in sorrow, deep distressed :
In health of body, peace of mind, My grief a proud man heard,
His looks were cold, he gave me gold
Quiet by day,
But not a kindly word.
Sound sleep by night; study and ease
My sorrow passed,—I paid him back
Together mix’d; sweet recreation,
The gold he gave to me.
And innocence, which most does please Then stood erect and spoke my thanks,
With meditation. And blessed his charity.
Thus let me live unseen, unknown; I lay in want, in grief and pain,
Thus unlamented let me die; A poor man passed my way.
Steal from the world, and not a stone He bound my head, he gave me bread,
Tell where I lie. —A Pope He watched me night and day.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem. How shall I pay him back again,
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above poem. For all he did to me ?
Q. 3. What is the last wish of the poet ? Oh, gold is great but greater far
Q. 4. Who, according to the poet, is a happy Is heavenly sympathy.
man ? Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Q. 5. Explain the portions in bold letters in the Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above poem.
above poem. Q. 3. What is more precious than gold and
Answers why ?
Ans. 1. Title “The Quiet Life.” Q. 4. What do you learn from the poem ?
Ans. 2. The poet admires the blessings of Hints
quiet and contented life. Happy is the man who Idea—A word of sympathy is more precious
contentedly lives in his small paternal house, than Gold. Gold can be paid back, but there can be
reaping his fields, milking his cattle and fleecing no compensation for an act or word of real
his sheep. He enjoys peace of mind, purity of sympathy. Human sympathy is priceless.
feelings and joy of life. This is the poet’s ideal of
happy life from which he does not want to deviate Deep distressed—in great pain.
even after death. Stood erect—without any obligation because
Ans. 3. The peot’s last wish is that he should gold had been paid back.
be buried after his death as quietly and uncere- Watched me—nursed and helped me.
moniously as he lived in his life. Heavenly sympathy—human sympathy
Ans. 4. The man who is simple, innocent and which is a heavenly blessing.
contented is happy. Such a man enjoys peace of
mind, good health and sound sleep.
15.
Gird on thy sword, O man, thy strength
Ans. 5. A few……bound—who contentedly
endue,
lives on the small farm left to him by his ances-
tors. In fair desire thy earth-born joy renew.
Flocks supply…………attire—whose sheep Live thou thy life beneath the making sun,
supply enough wool for their warm clothes. Till Beauty, Truth, and Love in thee are one.
 COMPREHENSION | 329

Through thousand ages hath thy childhood Young men and women must gather courage and
run ! hope and fight on their way through all problems
On timeless ruin hath thy glory been; and difficulties. They should never feel depressed
or dejected. One should also cultivate the higher
From the forgotten night of loves foredone,
values of life. One should embody in his life the
Thou risest in the dawn of hopes unseen. highest ideals of Truth, Beauty and Love.
Higher and higher shall thy thoughts aspire, gird on thy sword—keep yourself in readi-
Unto the stars of heaven, and pass away, ness to fight the battle of life with courage and
And earth renew the buds of the desire boldness.
In fleeting blooms of everlasting day. Strength endue—collect all your strength.
Thy work with beauty crown, thy life with The making sun—the fostering sun; every-
love; thing matures and ripens in the sun.
Thy mind with truth uplift to God above !
Timeless ruin—ruins coming down from
For whom all is, from whom was all begun, times immemorial.
In whom all Beauty, Truth, and Love are
Dawn of hope—new beginning of hopes and
one. —Robert Bridges
aspirations.
Q. 1. Give a suitable title to the above poem.
Buds of the desire—flowers of desires and
Q. 2. Give the central idea of the above poem.
ambitions.
Q. 3. What is the poet’s message in the above
poem ? Fleeting blooms—fast vanishing desires and
aspirations.
Q. 4. Explain the expressions in bold letters in
the above poem. Crown—decorate with.
Hints Uplift—raise.
Idea—The poet appeals to the people From whom……begun—everything ensued
always to keep ready for more and more work. from God.
 38 Precis-Writing
Importance of Precis—Precis is important “Be faithful to the original in presenting
not merely for understanding a certain language ideas, as well as the tone or the mood of the
and writing in it. It is equally important in day-to- passage. The aim (of precis-writing) is to absorb
day activities and duties in personal life and mentally the gist of the original passage, and then
official obligations. Today the important states- to re-express the meaning in one’s own way. Then
men, businessmen, and officers are so busy that the passage must, as it were, be distilled in the
they do not have time to study and comprehend alembic of the mind. It is this process which
long write-ups, notings, representations and distinguishes a good precis from one which is
speeches. Therefore their Personal Secretaries poor and mechanical. It involves concentration,
place before them the precis of all such docu- judgment, retention of ideas, wide vocabulary and
ments, which they can easily understand and originality of expression.”
dispose of. Therefore there is always a question on Length of the Precis—The Precis should be
Precis-writing in English in every important about one–third of the given passage. In most
competitive examination. A student must, there- Question–Papers the number of words in the
fore, have good practice in Precis-writing. passage is given at the end, and therefore the
What is Precis ? Precis should contain approximately one–third of
the words in the passage. A margin of ten percent
Precis (pronounced as ‘presee’) is a French more or less is permissible, but for every word
word. Its nearest equivalent in English is Precise, above or below this limit marks are deducted. This
which means ‘to shorten’. In other words, Precis is why in higher competitive examinations a
means to express the central thought of a given graph–paper is provided for writing the Precis, so
passage / document as briefly as possible. There is that the examiner can know the number of words
a difference also between Precis and Summary or used in the Precis at a glance. Therefore this rule
Central Idea. In Summary every remark, observa- regarding the length of the Precis should be
tion or thought has to be summarized irrespective carefully observed.
of whether it is important or not. Even repititions
have to be summarized over again. It is not Title of the Precis—The title of the Precis
obligatory in a Summary even to arrange the must be given, even if it is not asked. The hint for
thoughts systematically. But in Precis thoughts the title can be found in the central idea of the
have to be arranged logically and systematically. passage. In fact, the title is the central idea of the
A Summary can be loose, jerky, repetitive or central idea—the Precis of the Precis. It should
formless, but these short-comings are unpardon- also be remembered that every word of the title
able in a Precis. The Central Idea is also different (except Articles, Prepositions and Conjunctions)
from a Precis in as much as it is very short. should begin with a capital letter.
Precis as a work of art—Precis is a more Use of Third Person—Precis should always
logical, consistent, complete, and artistically be written in the Third Person, even if the
finished work of art. But the Precis–writer has no Original passage is in the First Person or Dialogue
right to express his own view, point or opinion in form.
the Precis. In point of thought he has to stick Things to b e avoided in the Precis—The
faithfully to the original Passage. Therefore a following things should be avoided in writing the
Precis–writer is exhorted thus : Precis :
 PRECIS-WRITING | 331

(a) Your own views and opinions should not It is also necessary that the sentences in the
come in the Precis. Precis should not be disconnected or disjointed.
For this it is necessary that the sentences be
(b) Repititions should not be allowed to connected by proper and appropriate connective
come. words and phrases. The more popular connectives
(c) As far as possible, examples and illustra- are these :
tions should not be used. Thus; therefore; consequently; accordingly;
(d) Quotations and anecdotes should also be thereupon; as a result; because of this; besides;
avoided. moreover; apart from; in addition to; in the end;
finally; under these circumstances; on the con-
(e) The use of Similes, Metaphors and other trary, etc.
literary artifices should be avoided.
With all these aids, the final draft should be
(f) Nothing irrelevant or out–of–context drawn and written out in the Answer-book or on
matter should be allowed to come in. the graph–paper provided for this purpose.
Language—The language of the Precis Finally the Title of the Precis must be given.
should be simple, straight forward, accurate and We give below ten passages for Precis–
precise. This is very necessary because every writing. The first five of them have been solved as
word in the Precis is counted. Every inaccurate, models. Below the remaining five passages their
superfluous or wrong word in the Precis is pena- central ideas and meanings of difficult words have
lised. been given for the help of the student. It should be
remembered that the central idea has been given
How to Write a Precis for help—it is not the Precis of the Passage.
Precis–writing is not an easy task. It requires
long and sustained practice. To begin with, the
given passage should slowly and carefully be read
Model Precis Exercises
over at least two times. It is natural that a student 1. (Solved)
will not be able to understand the meaning of
Make a Precis of the following passage in
every word or phrase in the passage. But this
about one-third of its length and give a suitable
should not discourage him. First of all, the main
title to it :—
topic with which the passage deals should be
located. The main topics can be, for example— Democracy is the most difficult of all forms
Education, Literature, Society, Politics, History, of government and yet it is one to which most
Civic or Social Life, Patriotism, some Scientific nations now aspire. This is because it seems to
Discovery or Invention, etc. Having located the most people to be the form of government which
main topic, attempt should be made to find out the provides the best hope of making a world in which
specific aspect of the main topic with which the privileges, good fortune or the accidents of history
passage deals. Having done so, the passage should will no longer determine the spheres of oppor-
be read over a third time, and this time the main tunity. In this the human spirit will develop best.
ideas in the passage should be underlined. The A successful democratic system requires a number
meanings of difficult words and phrases should be of pre-conditions, most of them difficult in them-
guessed in the light of the specific topic and the selves to establish. It requires the active coopera-
context by common sense. The portions under- tion of the community for the common good. It
lined as above should then be logically arranged requires institutions which can ensure that those
and a rough draft of the Precis should be prepared. who obey the law will not become the victims of
This draft should be revised, corrected and those who do not. It requires a mutual respect and
polished and the number of words in the draft shared pride in the objectives and traditions of the
should be increased or decreased as per the community as a whole. It requires the absence
number of words in the given passage. Repeti- of any form of discrimination based on race,
tions, vague or obscure words, examples and illus- sex, belief or opinion. It requires especially from
trations, use of literary artifices should judiciously those who have power and influence, restraint
be avoided. and patience. (170 Words)
332 | L.W.C.E.

Solution To know one’s own business and to mind

Title : Spirit of Democracy nothing else, that is the way to carry on the work
of life. This sounds like a common saying, yet few
Democracy is the most difficult, yet the most really acknowledge it, even in principle. It is not
sought after form of government. It promises to often that even the first step—that of knowing
provide equal opportunities and privileges to all what one’s business is—is honestly taken; it must
for the best development of human spirit. But for be allowed that with many there are intellectual as
this the pre-condition is that all people are law- well as moral difficulties in the way of this first
abiding, mutually respectful and tolerant, proud of step. The easier method of getting rid of the
their traditions and free from all kinds of pre- intellectual difficulty is for a man to ask himself
judices and discrimination. (58 Words) what is not his business; and many a kindly person
2. (Solved) may be surprised to find that he has been in the
Make a Precis of the following passage in habit of considering it a virtue to waste time,
about one-third of its length and give it a suit- thought, feeling, and other means of interests
able title:— which truly are no business of his at all. He may
have to confess that he has been constantly wast-
Your mental attitude is a great determining
ing sympathy on sorrows and evils which he
influence in your daily life. Begin the day with an
cannot remove or alleviate. Sympathy which does
expectant and energetic mental attitude towards
not mean action of some sort is not much of a
your work and it will elevate and enhance all your
virtue in any man; while in those human beings
activities. The spirit in which you regard the world
who habitually indulge in sympathy for its own
and your fellow-men will be reflected back to you.
sake, it is apt to become a hateful and vicious
When you are in the right mental attitude many
cowardice. (202 Words)
things will seem to conspire and co-operate to
advance your work and interests. Primarily it is
your mental attitude that makes the day happy and Solution
productive, or the contrary. You can demonstrate Title : Know Your Business
the truth of this today by looking only for the best, A man’s first duty is to know his business and
to be intelligently optimistic, and to have con- act honestly and faithfully in his own sphere.
fidence in the eternal supremacy of God. Make Many a good-intentioned person unknowingly
more positive resolutions regarding the things you wastes much of his time, energy and emotional
ought to do and bring every possible reinforce- sensibility in ideological and passive sympathy for
ment to bear upon such resolutions. Assert in many sorts of human sufferings which he can
vigorous tones the thoughts you wish to establish neither remove nor alleviate. This kind of sym-
as unconscious habits of your life, remembering pathy is not only useless but thoughtless and
always that while it is a great thing to conceive a meaningless also. Habitual indulgence in this kind
great idea, it is still greater to put it into execu- of sympathy is imbecile and cowardly.
tion. (180 Words) (73 Words)
Solution 4. (Solved)
Title : Value of Mental Attitude Make a Precis of the following passage in
One’s mental attitude plays a very important about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
role in one’s life and career. One’s attitude must able title :—
be healthy, active and reasonably optimistic. One I take it that the whole object of education is,
must begin the day with a happy, energetic and in the first place, to train the faculties of the young
hopeful resolution with a firm faith in God’s in such a manner as to give their possessors the
moral order and divine justice. This attitude will best chance of being happy and useful in their
change the entire complexion of life and make one generation; and, in the second place, to furnish
more active, assertive and successful. (62 Words) them with the most important portions of that
3. (Solved) immense capitalized experience of the human race
Make a Precis of the following passage in which we call knowledge of various kinds. I am
about one-third of its length and give it a suit- using the term knowledge in its widest possible
able title :— sense; and the question is, what subjects to select
 PRECIS-WRITING | 333

by training and discipline, in which the objet I 5. (Solved)

have just defined may be best attained. Make a Precis of the following passage in
I must call attention further to this fact, that about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
all the subjects of our thoughts—all feelings and able title :—
propositions (leaving aside our sensations as the Some of the things which Science has given
mere materials and occassions of thinking and us have certainly helped to make our lives
feeling), all our mental furniture—may be classi- happier. Science has helped us to get rid of many
fied under one of two heads—as either within the sicknesses of the body. That is a great thing. It is
province of the intellect, something that can be put difficult to be happy if your body is full of pain.
into propositions and affirmed or denied; or as Scientists have made many discoveries which
within the province of feeling, or that which, have helped to make painless, and to remove the
before the name was defined, was called the causes of pain and sickness. By making it possible
aesthetic side of our nature, and which can neither to cure terrible diseases—such as malaria, small-
be proved nor disproved, but only felt and known. pox, plague, pneumonia and tuberculosis—Sci-
According to the classification which I have ence has made longer the life of the average man.
put before you, then, the subjects of all knowledge Science is helping man to produce much more
are divisible into two groups, matters of science food from the earth. By this, it is helping to get rid
and matters of art; for all things with which the of famine and to prevent sickness caused by not
reasoning faculty alone is occupied, come under having enough food to eat. It has also made possi-
the province of science; and in the broadest sense, ble the sending of quick relief to places where
and not in the narrow and technical sense in which there is shortage of food and medicines, with the
we are now accustomed to use the word art, all help of motor-lorries, railway trains, ships and
things feelable, all things which stir our emotions, aeroplanes. That is also very good, and many lives
come under the term of art, in the sense of the are saved in such ways.
subject-matter of the aesthetic faculty. So that we There are also many discoveries of Science
are shut up to this—that the business of education which have definitely brought unhappiness into
is, in the first place, to provide the young with the the world. But that is not because the discoveries
means and the habit of observation; and, secondly are bad, but because men are using them badly.
to supply the subject-matter of knowledge either For example, consider the discovery of gun-
in the shape of science or of art, or both com- powder and of other explosives, each more
bined. (354 Words) powerful than the previous one discovered. In
Solution ancient times men could wound and kill each
other only if they were near enough to strike each
Title : Object of Education other with stones, arrows, spears or swords. Even
Broadly speaking, education aims to achieve in battles, the armies on both sides usually
two objectives—first, to train the student in such a consisted of a few thousand men, so the number
way as to make his life happy and useful, and wounded and killed was not very large. In most
secondly to provide him with knowledge of vari- wars the peasants went on cultivating their fields
ous kinds. The knowledge imparted by education peacefully, even when the armies were fighting a
embodies the immense experience acquired by the few miles away. But the invention of fire-arms
human race through ages. This knowledge, again, and high explosives caused a great change. A
can be classified under two heads—one, relating modern machine-gun, or quick-firing gun, worked
to the intellect or reasonning, the other relating to by a single man, can wound and kill hundreds of
the sphere of feeling. The first belongs to the people in a few minutes. One modern bomb can
category of science and the second to that of arts. kill hundreds of thousands of people immediately
Science deals with the objects that can be if it was dropped on a big city.
rationally explained and objectively proved or The scientists who invented these terrible
disproved. Art deals with matters relating to weapons are not wicked men who enjoy killing.
feelings and emotions. True education combines They are people with kind hearts, but they are
the two categories into one. more clever, and they earn their living by dis-
(122 Words) covering new things. (385 Words)
334 | L.W.C.E.

Solution been set up since independence but no definite

education policy has been evolved. Education has
Title : Blessings and Curses of Science remained the same lifeless, mechanical and
Science is both a blessing and a curse. While useless process which has done more harm than
it has given us many things which have made life good to our growing generations. It has failed to
better and happier, it has also given terrible mould their character.
instruments of destruction. Science has discovered
Vocabulary :
and invented many things to alleviate pain and
cure terrible diseases. These discoveries have Distressing : painful.
enabled man to live a longer and healthier life. Dabbling : playing with.
Science has also helped man in increasing New-fangled : far-fetched.
food production and other necessary things of life Rest at that : remain at the same stage.
and sending them quickly to distant places of
shortage or natural calamities. But, on the other Drive : dashing spirit; the spirit to go
hand, science has also discovered and invented forward.
many things which have been used as instruments Initiative : courage and confidence; spirit
of large-scale destruction of life and property. But to act.
it is not the scientists but we who are responsible Dynamic : active and energetic.
for this misuse of scientific discoveries and inven- Radical : basic and revolutionary.
tions. (129 Words) Lamentably : regrettably.
Precis—Exercises for Practice Conspicuous : lacking, wanting.
(6) Grapple : to fight with.
Make a Precis of the following passage and Bane : curse.
give it a suitable title. The Precis should be (7)
about one-third of the length of the passage :—
Education in our country today has become Make a Precis of the following passage in
entirely meaningless, even harmful. It is distres- about one-third of its length and give it a suit-
sing to find that during all these years of our able title—
Independence we have been merely dabbling in To picture to ourselves something of the
schemes and projects, in new-fangled ideas mostly wider life that unity would open to men, is a very
borrowed from the West; merely setting up attractive speculation. Life will certainly go with a
Commission after Commission at the cost of lakhs stronger pulse; it will breathe a deeper breath,
of rupees, and let the matter rest at that. The drive, because it will have dispelled and conquered a
the initiative, the dynamic vision necessary for hundred infections of the body and mind that now
radical reforms in the sphere of education are reduce it to invalidism and squalor. We have
lamentably conspicuous by their absence. We already laid stress on the vast elimination of
have allowed matters to drift aimlessly, instead of drudgery from human life through the creation of
settling down to grapple with momentous issues. a new race of slaves—the machines. This and the
The result has been disastrous. A lifeless, mecha- disappearance of the war and the smoothing out of
nical system of teaching in overcrowded schools endless restraints and contentions by juster social
and colleges imposed by far from competent and economic arrangements, will lift the burden of
teachers on students whose only interest is to get toilsome work and routine work that has been the
through the examinations, has been the bane of price of human security since the dawn of the first
our education. We have completely forgotten the civilization from the shoulders of our children.
simple yet vital truth that the aim of education is This does not mean that they will cease to work,
first to build up character in the widest sense, and but they will cease to do irksome work under
then to impart knowledge. (172 Words) pressure and will work freely, planning, making,
creating according to their gifts and instincts.
Aids They will fight nature no longer as dull conscripts
Central Idea—Education in our country is of the pick and plough, but for a splendid con-
meaningless. Commission after commission has quest. Only the spiritlessness of our present
 PRECIS-WRITING | 335

depression blinds us to the clear intimations of our suffices that he understands you, and even his
reason that in the course of a few generations quite listening gives strength and renewed cour-
every little country town could become an Athens, age.
every human being could be gentle in breeding Blessed is the man or woman into whose life
and healthy in body and mind, the whole solid has come the beauty and power of such a
earth man’s mine and its uttermost regions his friendship. Prize it well. Do all in your power to
playground. (244 Words) keep such a friendship unbroken. Avoid the break,
Aids for when it comes it cannot be mended and the
Central Idea—World unity will bring many jarring note mars the harmony. It is not alone a
great advantages. Life will become happier and question of forgiveness that may be full and
more secure on account of the elimination of fear complete. It is the hurt in the heart that will not
of war and mental tension. With the introduction readily heal and the confidence that will not fully
of machinery man will be relieved of the drudgery come back. (241 Words)
of monotonous and hard physical labour. The Aids
constant pressure of depression and discontent Central Idea—True friendship is a precious
will be lifted and the whole world will become thing but very rare. Friendship is not the same
man’s own home. thing as a casual acquaintance or a chancemeeting.
Vocabulary : A true friend is one who fully understands and
Speculation : vision; dream. appreciates your strong as well as weak points and
who stands by you through all phases of life
Pulse : zest for life.
whether dark or bright. True friendship should
Invalidism : ailment, disease. never be hurt or broken for thereafter it can never
Squalor : drudgery. be restored to its normal glamour.
Elimination : withdrawal, ending. Vocabulary :
Race of slave : machines will serve as a new China : utensils made of China clay.
generation of slaves. Designated : called; termed.
Contentions : conflicts. Temptations : weaknesses.
Cease : stop.
Suffices : is sufficient.
Instincts : natural inclination.
Prize : value, place high.
Breeding : upbringing.
Mended : repaired.
(8) Jarring : unpleasant.
Make a Precis of the following passage and
give it a suitable title :— (9)
Broken friendship, like china, may be re- Make a Precis of the following passage and
paired, but the break will always show. Friendship suggest a suitable title for it :—
is a precious thing—too precious a treasure to be For better or for worse, we are living in a
carelessy broken or thrown away. The world society which is based physically on Western
handles the word “friend” lightly; its real, true, science and technology. This has inescapable
deeper meaning is forgotten, and the acquaintance consequences for the scientist. Initially he was an
of an hour or the chancecomer is designated by accidental force in the unfolding of human
the term which in itself bears a wealth of meaning. destiny. This he can no longer be. As Neils Bohr
Your friend is the one who appreciates your faults has said, scientists must become conscious of the
as well as your virtues; who understands and fact that they are not merely observers, but also
sympathises with your defeats and victories, your actors on the stage of life. The everyday world is
aims and ideas, your joys and temptations, your crowding upon us; science is only a means to an
hopes and disappointments, as no one else does or end, and not an end in itself. Science is not
can. It is your friend to whom you turn for enough. Chemistry is not enough. Scientists must
counsel, for comfort, for praise; he may not be as live and even chemists must eat. Modern societies
learned as some or as wise as others, but it are preoccupied with efforts to improve their
336 | L.W.C.E.

material conditions and they are doing this under friends on the ground that you are virtuous and
such intense competition that the less efficient will want virtuous company, you are no nearer to true
either fall behind or go to the wall. The means friendship than if you choose them for commercial
which are used depend on the application of reasons. Besides, who are you that you should be
scientific knowledge. Only scientists have the setting a price upon your friendship ? It is enough
necessary training for establishing and using the for any man that he has the divine power of
technologies required to exploit recent major making friends, and he must leave it to that power
discoveries and those likely to arise in the future. to determine who his friends shall be. For, though
It is clear that they will be brought more and more you may choose the virtuous to be your friends,
into technology, and thus into industry, the vehicle they may not choose you; indeed, friendship
by which mankind exploits science for his own cannot grow where there is any calculated choice.
ends. It is certain that modern society will be It comes like sleep, when you are not thinking
forced to deploy its scientists in a manner about it; and you should be grateful, without any
conducive to fulfilling its objectives.Moreover, misgiving, when it comes.
since the scientist is a part of society, he will be So no man who knows what friendship is ever
impelled to respond to the needs of the times and gave up a friend because he turns out to be
assume a wider role. (258 Words) disreputable. His only reason for giving up a
Aids friend is that he has ceased to care for him; and,
Central Idea—Scientists have to play a vital when that happens he should reproach himself for
role in society. They cannot shake off their this moral poverty of affection, not the friend for
obligations and responsibility to mankind. They having proved unworthy. For it is inhuman
cannot remain passive spectators. The scientific presumption to say of any woman, when you have
discoveries and inventions must be applied to the fallen out of love with her, that she is unworthy of
promotion of human welfare. your love. In friendship and in love we are always
humble, because we see that a free gift has been
Vocabulary : given to us : and to lose that humility because we
Inescapable : from which escape is not possi- have lost friendship or love is to take a pride in
ble. what should shame us. (308 Words)
Initially : in the beginning. Aids
Unfolding : opening.
Central Idea—True friendship is not gover-
Crowding : collectively depending.
ned by any personal gain on either side. Friend-
Preoccupied : engaged. ship grows unconsciously and automatically. A
Go to the wall : lost, forgotten. virtuous man seeking to make friendship with
Vehicle : means. another virtuous man is wrong logic. Friendship
Exploits : uses. cannot grow on such calculations. Friendship is a
Ends : objective, purpose. divine gift and it must be accepted as such. It is as
Deploy : use. natural and divine as love.
Conducive : useful, beneficial. Vocabulary :
(10) Commercial
reasons : material gains.
Make a Precis of the following passage and
give it a suitable title :— Divine power : heavenly boon.
Friendship is above reason, for, though you Calculated
find virtues in a friend, he was your friend before choice : choosing a friend through such
you found them. It is a gift that we offer because logic.
we must; to give it as the reward of virtue would Misgiving : doubt or fear.
be to set a price upon it and those who do that Disreputable : dishonourable.
have no friendship to give. If you choose your Reproach : blame.
 39 Paraphrasing
What is Paraphrasing ? agreement or disagreement with the thought of the
The word ‘Paraphrase’ is made of two Greek given passage.
words—Para, which means ‘alongside of’ or In a way, therefore, paraphrase is a kind of
‘parallel to’, and Phrasis, which means ‘wording’ translation, but it is not a translation from one
or ‘stating’. Therefore ‘Paraphrasing’ means exp- language to another, but from one style and dic-
ressing the full meaning of a given poem or a tion to another style and diction in the same
prose passage in simple language parallel to the language.
language of the given extract. Some Hints for Paraphrasing
According to J. C. Nesfield, “Paraphrasing is No definite rules can be framed for paraphras-
rendering of a given extract from one form of ing, but some practical suggestions can, of course,
wording to another.” be given. The following are these suggestions :
Wren and Martin similarly hold that “Para- (1) Read the given poem or prose extract
phrase is restatement of the sense of the passage in slowly and carefully at least two times
other words. It is the reproduction in one’s own and try to understand its central idea.
natural idiom or style of the full sense of a passage (2) Thus, keeping the central idea in mind,
written in another idiom or style.” read the given poem once or twice again
It would be clear from the above noted defi- and try to grasp the meaning line by line.
nitions that in paraphrasing there should be no Also, try to guess the meanings of
change in the idea or thought-content of the given difficult words and phrases in the light of
extract. The change should be only in the langu- the central idea and the context.
age, diction and style. (3) Thereafter, underline the archaic or diffi-
Difference between Paraphrase and cult words and expressions, as well as the
similes, metaphors and other Figures of
Precis Speech, if any. Also underline the literary
Paraphrase and Precis are two different or mythological references and allusions.
exercises. In Precis one is required to give the All these have to be stated in easy and
central thought and main points systematically simple language in the paraphrase.
arranged in about one-third of the given passage. (4) The construction of sentences in poetry is
In paraphrase there is no condition of length nor is different from that in prose. Therefore all
one required to rearrange the thoughts of the poetical constructions and inversions
original extract. One is required only to restate the should be changed into simple normal
thoughts in simple language line by line or prose-order. For example, see the follow-
sentence by sentence in the same order. The ing line written in verse :
paraphrase is, therefore, almost of the same length
“A man severe he was, and stern to view;
as the original passage. Sometimes the paraphrase
I knew him well.” (Goldsmith)
is even longer because the difficult or obscure
words, references or allusions occurring in the Its prose-order would be :
original extract have to be briefly explained and “I knew him well that he was a severe
stated in the paraphrase. But it should be kept in man, with a stern expression.”
mind that there should be no change in the idea or (5) As has been said above, the difficult and
thought-content in the paraphrase. Also, you are archaic words and phrases should be
not allowed to express your own opinion or your changed into simple ones. This does not,
338 | L.W.C.E.

however, mean that every difficult word Life ! we’ve been long together
must necessarily be changed. The inten- Through pleasant and through cloudy
tion of paraphrasing is to simplify and weather.
clarify the meaning and not essentially to ’Tis hard to part when friends are dear
change the words.
Perhaps it will cost a sigh, a tear;
(6) The given poem or passage should be
paraphrased line to line or sentence to Then steal away, give little warning,
sentence. Therefore the paraphrase is Choose thine own time :
almost of the same length as the original. Say not good night ;
Sometimes the paraphrase may even be a but in some brighter clime,
little longer than the given extract, Bid me good morning. (Barbauld)
because difficult words or references
have to be briefly explained in it. Paraphrase
(7) Paraphrase can be done either in the I do not know what life is, but one thing that I
direct or indirect form of speech accord- know for certain is that one day we shall have to
ing to the given extract. part company with each other. I must admit that it
is still a mystery to me as to when and in what
(8) In a poem articles, prepositions, conjunc-
way and at what place, I came to have life. I am
tions, etc. are often left out. They should
fully conscious of the fact that life and I have been
be suitably added in the paraphrase. The
good companions for a long time and remained
Rhetorical, Exclamatory or Interrogative
constant through all favourable and unfavourable
sentences occurring in the poem should
situations. It is very painful to part company with
be converted into simple sentences.
life, specially when there are many dear friends
(9) Neither take away nor add any idea or around. Parting from life would certainly draw a
opinion of your own in the paraphrase. sigh of grief from the heart and a tear from the
Examples eye. Life would certainly part at its own time. Let
(1) life part quietly without a warning, but I only
Lives of great men all remind us earnestly wish that life should not say a permanent
We can make our lives sublime, good night to me, but it should rather greet me
with a good morning in heaven where the departed
And, departing, leave behind us
souls meet.
Foot-prints on the sands of time.
Foot-prints that perhaps another (3)
Sailing o’er life’s solemn main, Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Who never to himself hath said,
Seeing, shall take heart again. “This is my own, may native land ?”
(H.W. Longfellow) Whose heart hath ne’er within him burn’d.
Paraphrase As home his foot steps he hath turn’d
The lives of all great men remind us that we From wandering on a foreign strand ?
can also make our lives noble and sublime. Before If such there breathe, go, mark him well;
leaving this world on death, we can also leave For him no minstrel raptures swell;
some deep impressions of our noble deeds on the High though his titles, proud his name,
shore of time which may encourage and inspire an
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim :
unfortunate fellow traveller who may have failed
in the journey of life and felt forsaken and Despite those titles, power and pelf,
deserted by all in his despair and loneliness. The wretch, concentrated all in self,
(2) Living, shall forfeit fair renown,
Life ! I know not what thou art. And doubly dying, shall go down
But know that, thou and I must part. To the vile dust, from whence he sprung,
And when, or how, or where we met Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung.
I own to me’s a secret yet. (Sir Walter Scott)
 PARAPHRASING | 339

Paraphrase quarrel as far as possible, but once you enter, fight

There cannot be a man who is spiritually so out with all your force so that your opponent may
dead that his heart does not feel a kind of thrill never dare to offend you again. Listen to
when he puts his foot on the shore of his everybody but speak to the selected ones only.
fatherland after a long stay in foreign lands, and Listen to the advice of everybody but act
who does not say with pride that this is his own according to your own judgment. Always wear
dear country. If such an unpatriotic man exists decent dress, but within the capacity of your
anywhere, go and note his career carefully. You purse; your dress should be decent but not too
will find that no poet would sing any song in his guady, for a man is well judged by his dress.
praise, however high his position may be, or, (5)
however dignified his name. He may also be Let me not hurt, by selfish deed
possessing as much wealth as he could desire. But Or thoughtless word, the heart of foe or
in spite of all his high titles, powerful position and friend;
wealth, the miserable man, all absorbed in Nor would I pass, unseeing, worthy need,
himself, will get no fame or recognition in his
lifetime. And he will die a double death : his body Or sin by silence when I should defend.
will return to the dust from where it came and his However meagre be my worldly wealth,
name and memory will be forgotten for ever in Let me give something that shall aid my
oblivion. None will weep for him, none will kind—
honour his memory, and no poet will ever write a A word of courage, or a thought of health,
song in his praise. Dropp’d as I pass for troubled hearts to find.
(4) Let me to-night look back across the span
Give thy thoughts no tongue, ’Twixt dawn and dark, and to my conscience
Nor any unproportion’d thought his act. say—
Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. Because of some good act to beast or man,
The friends thou hast, and their adoption The world is better that I lived today.
tried,
Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel; Paraphrase
But do not dull thy palm with entertainment I would not hurt by any selfish action of mine
Of each new-hatched, unfledged comrade. or even by an unkind word the heart of any
Beware person, whether friend or foe (enemy). Nor would
I pass unconcerned by any person who may be in
Of entrance to a quarrel; but, being in,
genuine need of some help from me. I would also
Bear it, that the opposer may beware of thee.
not hold my tongue when any needy person
Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice:
deserves my defence. I would certainly give
Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy
something or the other to a fellow human being in
judgment.
his hour of need, however poor my own resources
Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy,
may be. If nothing else, I would at least speak a
But not express’d in fancy; rich, not gaudy : word of courage, comfort or good cheer to a man
For the apparel oft proclaims the man. languishing in pain. Every day would I survey my
(Shakespeare) deeds from morning to evening and satisfy my
Paraphrase conscience that I did at least one good act to help
Here is an advice of a father to a son : Never and comfort a man or a beast. Every day of my
speak out your personal thoughts by your tongue, life I must do something to make the world
nor act in haste in compliance to a casual thought. happier.
Be friendly to all but never too intimate. Whatever Exercise
friends you have, judge their sincerity, and once Paraphrase the following poems :
you find them sincere and loyal to you, bind them
to your heart with chains of steel. But do not (1)
waste your money in entertaining every casual or If you are sighing for a lofty work,
time-serving acquaintance. Avoid entering into a If great ambitions dominate your mind,
340 | L.W.C.E.

Just watch yourself and see you do not shirk (3)

The common little ways of being kind. Out of the night that covers me,
If you are dreaming of a future goal, Black as the pit from pole to pole,
When crowned with glory men shall own I thank whatever gods may be
your power, For my unconquerable soul.
Be careful that you let no struggling soul In the fell clutch of circumstance
Go by unaided in the present hour. I have not winced nor cried aloud.
If you would help to make the wrong things
Under the bludgeonings of chance
right,
Begin at home, there lies a lifetime’s toil : My head is bloody, but unbowed.
Weed your own garden fair for all men’s Beyond this place of wrath and tears
sight, Looms but the horror of the shade,
Before you plan to till another’s soil. And yet the menace of the years
Hints Finds, and shall find me, unafraid.
[Here is a poet’s advice to a man who is It matters not how strait the gate,
desirous of doing something good and memorable. How charged with punishments the scroll,
One should never overlook or neglect small acts I am the master of my fate :
of kindness to the humble and needy. One’s own I am the captain of my soul.
family is the most important starting point towards (W. E. Henley)
this goal.
Hints
Meanings—Sighing—Keenly desirous;
shirk—overlook; unaided—without giving help; [This poem is entitled “Invictus” which
weed—clean . means ‘unconquered’. Human soul is unconquered.
It remains steadfast against all strokes of
(2) misfortune and sufferings of life. Even death
Children we are all cannot conquer it.
Of one great Father, in whatever clime Meanings:—Fell clutch—cruel grip.
Nature or chance hath cast the seeds of life—
All tongues, all colours : neither after death bludgeonings of chance—heavy blows of
fate and chance; winced—trembled; shade—
Shall we be sorted into languages
death; menace of the years—Whatever other
And tints, white, black and tawny, Greek and threats the coming years may bring; straight the
Goth, gate—narrow gate of death; scroll—record of
Northmen, and offspring of hot Africa; good and evil deeds maintained in heaven.]
The All-father, He in whom we live and move,
He the indifferent judge of all, regards, (4)
Nations, and hues, and dialects alike; I was not ever thus, nor prayed that thou
According to their works shall they be judged, Shouldst lead me on;
When even-handed justice in the scale I loved to choose and see my path, but now
Their good and evil weighs. (R. Southey) Lead Thou me on,
Hints I loved the garish day, and, spite of fears,
[Here is the poet’s appeal not to make any Pride ruled my will; remember not past years.
difference from man to man on the basis of So long Thy power hath blest me, sure it still
nationality, colour or creed. There is no such Will lead me on,
distinction in the eye of God. God judges us all by O’er moor and fen, o’er crag and torrent, till
our good or evil deeds only.
The night is gone,
Meanings : Clime—Climate; sorted—
classified; tawny—brown; offspring—children; And with morn those angel faces smile,
hues—colours; dialects—languages; even-han- Which I have loved long since, and lost
ded—perfect, impartial.] awhile. (J. H. Newman)
 PARAPHRASING | 341

Hints What wealth the show to me had brought;

[This is an extract from a poem entitled “Lead For oft, when on my couch I lie
Kindly Light”. It is a hymn, a prayer to God to In vacant or in pensive mood,
light his way and lead him on in the difficult They flash upon that inward eye
journey of life. Which is the bliss of solitude;
Meanings—Path—journey of life; And then my heart with pleasure fills,
garish day—glamorous time; moor and And dances with the daffodils.
fen—hard and thorny path in the journey of life; (William Wordsworth)
Crag and torrent—hills and rivers; angel Hints
faces—The loving faces of those dear ones who
[This extract is taken from the poem entitled
died earlier and may be waiting for me in heaven.]
“Daffodils”. Here is a beautiful description of a
(5) vast tract of daffodils dancing in the soft breeze.
Just for a handful of silver he left us, The daffodils filled the poet’s mind and heart with
Just for a riband to stick in his coat— a great treasure of beauty and joy.
Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us, Meanings : Out-did—surpassed;
Lost all the others she lets us devote; glee—cheerfulness; jocund—gay;
They, with the gold to give, doled him out pensive—melancholy;
silver, inward eye—imagination;
So much was theirs who so little allowed; solitude—loneliness.]
How all our copper had gone for his service ! (7)
Rags—were they purple, his heart had been The world is too much with us; late and soon,
proud ! Getting and spending, we lay waste our
We that had loved him so, followed him, powers.
honoured him Little we see in Nature that is ours;
Lived in his mild and magnificent eye, We have given our hearts away, a sordid
Learned his great language, caught his clear boon!
accents, This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon;
Made him our pattern to live and to die ! The winds that will be howling at all hours,
(Robert Browning) And are up-gathered now like sleeping flo-
Hints wers,
For this, for everything, we are out of tune;
[This extract is from a poem entitled “The
It moves us not—Great God ! I’d rather be
Lost Leader.” The Lost Leader is the great poet
Wordsworth. He is called a lost Leader because he A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
had deserted the democratic party and joined the So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Royalists on receiving a pension from the King. Have glimpses that would make me less for-
Meanings— Handful of silver—a small lorn;
pension (in the shape of silver coins); riband— Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
medal; bereft—deprived of; doled him—gave Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn.
him only silver, not gold; copper—hard earned (William Wordsworth)
little money; mild and magnificent eye— Hints
affectionate and dignified care; pattern—model.] [This is an extract from the poem entitled
(6) “The World is too much with us.” In the pursuit of
The waves beside them danced, but they money and material possessions we have ceazed
to appreciate the beauty of Nature. In order to
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee :—
come closer to Nature the poet is ready to
A Poet could not but be gay renounce Christianity and accept Paganism where-
In such a jocund company ! in all forms of nature are worshipped as different
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought gods.
342 | L.W.C.E.

Meanings—Sordid boon—a hard bargain; They are so unacquainted with man,

up-gathered—hushed up Pagan—follower of an Their tameness is shocking to me.
old non-Christian religion; outworn—archaic, (W. Cowper)
dead; less forlorn ; less lonely; Proteus—Sea-
god; Triton—god of woods.] Hints
(8) [This is an extract from the poem entitled
“The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk”. Selkirk was
But the Taj, the tale still telling, left all alone on an uninhabited island. He
Stands in Agra city great, languished to hear any human voice. He feels
White and shining, all excelling awfully frustrated in the dead solitude of the
In its beauty and its state. island. He is completely out of humanity’s reach.
There they lie, the loving hearted Meanings : Monarch—King; survey—see
’Neath its marble side by side, around me; fowl and the brute—birds and
Those in life so long-time parted animals; alarms—troubles and problems of
Death no longer can divide. life; dwell—live; indifference—non-recognition ]
For though pressed from many quarters (10)
True love steadfast still abides, Beside the ungathered rice he lay,
Is not quenched by many waters, His sickle in his hand;
Even death’s relentless tides. His breast was bare, his matted hair
All true love is never failing Was buried in the sand.
Howsoe’er men faithless be,
Again, in the mist and shadow of sleep,
But o’er everything prevailing
He saw his native land.
Lives to all eternity. (Mary Dobson)
Wide through the landscape of his dreams
Hints
The lordly Niger flowed;
[This extract is from Mary Dobson’s poem
Beneath the palm-trees, on the plain
entitled “The Taj Mahal”. The Taj is an
immortal symbol of love. The Moghul Emperor Once more a king he strode;
Shahjahan and his beloved Queen Mumtaj are And heard the tinkling caravans
sleeping in eternal sleep in this tomb. Life had Descend the mountain road.
parted them, but Death has united them for ever. He saw once more his dark-eyed queen
Meanings—All excelling—best of all; stead- Among her children stand :
fast—constant; abides—remains; relentless They clasped his neck, they kissed his cheeks,
tides—Ocean of Eternity.] They held him by the hand—
(9) A tear burst from the sleeper’s lids;
I am monarch of all I survery; And fell into the sands. (H. W. Longfellow)
My right there is none to dispute; Hints
From the centre all round to the sea, [This is an extract from the poem entitled
I am lord of the fowl and the brute. “The Slave’s Dream.” A Negro Chieftain was
O solitude ! where are the charms taken captive as a slave. He was forced to work as
That sages have seen in thy face ? a slave on a farm in America. There he remem-
Better dwell in the midst of alarms, bered his family and his native land and langui-
shed to go back to them. He saw them in a dream
Than reign in this horrible place. and in the joy and excitement of the dream he
I am out of humanity’s reach, passed away.
I must finish my journey alone, Meanings : Ungathered—reaped but not
Never hear the sweet music of speech; collected and bound; matted hair—knotted and
I start at the sound of my own. twined hair; Niger—river; strode—rode on the
The beasts that roam over the plain, horse; Caravans—rows of camels; held him—
My form with indifference see; caught him; clasped—embraced.
 40 Report-Writing
How to Write Reports injured. Rail traffic suspended. Rescue
operations on.
Just as no definite rules can be laid down for
Precis-Writing, Comprehension or Paraphrasing, (7) In official Reporting, an officer has to send
there can be no definite rules for Report-Writing. his Report to a senior officer or to the Gov-
But certain suggestions can, of course, be given ernment. This Report is always impersonal.
for writing impressive Reports. These suggestions The designation of the officer (only desig-
should be carefully followed like Rules. The nation, not name) to whom the Report is
following are these suggestions : being sent should be written at the top. The
officer who is sending the Report should give
(1) Report-Writing is a sort of essay writing, and
his name and designation at the bottom of the
therefore a report must be written in one’s
Report. There is no salutation at the begin-
own language and style effectively and beauti-
ning and no subscription (such as ‘Yours
fully.
Sincerely’, ‘Faithfully’, etc.) at the end of the
(2) Reports must be written Point-wise in diffe- Report. The officer sending the Report must
rent paragraphs. No two major points should put his signature with date at the end of the
be written in the same paragraph. Report.
(3) The central idea of the whole Report must be Examples
written in the first sentence of the Report.
1. Supposing you are a Reporter for The Times
(4) A Report must be factual, based on definite of India. Write a report from Tokyo on the
facts. There is no place for imagination or recent earthquake in Japan.
emotionalism in a Report. One can, however,
give one’s impressions or findings in the last Report
paragraph of the Report. Devastating Earthquake in Japan, 2872
(5) A Report must be written in the third person, killed, thousands missing, thousands of
past tense, unless otherwise directed in the houses collapsed, train tracks and roads
Question-Paper. If one has to give one’s own cracked, all traffic suspended.
impressions in the last paragraph, one can Tokyo, 17 January
write in the Present or Future Tense in the A fierce earthquake occurred in central and
First Person. western Japan this morning. Its intensity on the
(6) If a Report has to be written for a Newspaper, Rector Scale was measured as 8·5. Its centre was
a detailed Descriptive Heading must be given about 200 Kilometers from Tokyo in the Pacific
to it. The heading should be so detailed and Oceans about 20 kilometres deep. The cities of
factual that if a reader reads only the heading, Kove, Ossaca and Quetto were worst affected.
and not the full Report, he should be able to Thousands of houses collapsed within minutes.
understand the central idea of the whole According to an official report 2872 persons have
Report. Therefore there is no harm even if the been killed and about 5000 are missing. Rail
heading becomes a little too long. For tracks and roads have been completely damaged.
example, the heading of the Report on a train- All communication means have been completely
accident can be the following one : disrupted. Rescue parties and medical teams are
Headlong collision between an Express being rushed. The building of the Indian Embassy
Train and a Goods Train near Bombay. at Kove is safe. No Indian has been killed.
Ten passengers killed, dozens others Messages of sympathy on this national calamity
344 | L.W.C.E.

and proposals for aid are coming from many six and twelve years at the confluence of the
countries of the world, including India. Ganga, Yamuna and the invisible river Saraswati.
This earthquake is believed to be the worst Preparations on a very large scale were made for
and most devastating one that has occurred in the maintenance of law and order and for provi-
Japan in this century. It has also disproved Japan’s ding basic amenities to the pilgrims estimated at
claim that it has developed the technology of more than 25 lakhs. The whole Mela area was
building earthquake–proof houses in the country. divided into three broad sectors. The most
No scientific or technical advancement can ever important of them was the proper Mela area. The
stand against the indomitable forces of nature. other two sectors included the city of Allahabad
2. In your capacity as the Governor of Jammu and the Railway Station. Police and security
and Kashmir write a Report to the Home forces in large numbers were mobilized from all
Minister on the damage done to life and over the State and stationed at Allahabad. In
property by the cold wave, fierce snowfall addition to the normal civil and traffic police,
and landslides in the State. sixty-five P.A.C. companies were posted there.
They included Women Police Force, comman-
Report does, dog squads and secret police contingents.
The Home Minister, The first holy bath festivity was held on the
Govt. of India, New Delhi. Makar Sankranti Day (14 January). More than 10
The State of Jammu and Kashmir is facing an lakh pilgrims were expected to take the holy dip
unprecedented rage of cold wave, snowfall and on this day, but contrary to expectations only
landslides. The State is in the grip of incessant about three lakh pilgrims turned up on that day.
rains, hail storms and flood. Practically all the The second holy dip day fell on 30 January, Moni
rivers, lakes and water-falls have frozen into solid Amavasya. On this day also, contrary to expecta-
ice. At many places the temperature has sunk tions, only about four lakh pilgrims took the holy
down to –60° celcius. It is feared to be the worst bath. The third holy bath day fell on Basant
natural calamity of its type of this century. Panchmi, 4 Feb, 1995. On this day about 20 lakh
According to official records about 250 persons pilgrims assembled to take the holy bath. It was
have been killed and 400 stranded or buried in the the day of trial for the administration and the
snow. About 600 vehicles, including 37 buses and police. However the day passed off peacefully. No
39 motorcycles have been half buried and untoward incident of any kind occurred. This
stranded in the snow. The 2·8 kilometer long speaks highly of the foresightedness and compe-
Jawahar Tunnel has been blocked with heavy tence of our administration and the police.
walls of snow at both ends and about 240 people Exercise
have been stranded within it. Rescue operations
have been started. About 133 bodies have been Write short reports in about 150 words
taken out so far. After four days’ ceaseless efforts each on the following topics :
against all indomitable forces of nature all the 240 1. The outbreak of plague in Gujarat.
persons engulfed in the tunnel have been rescued. 2. The recent earthquake that occurred in Maha-
In all about 2600 persons have so far been rescued rashtra.
and saved by our forces. Food material, food 3. An assessment of Literacy Campaign in your
packets and medicines are being air-dropped in District.
the worst affectd areas. 4. The law and order situation in Kashmir.
Central aid is urgently needed. A high-power 5. The law and order situation in your District.
committee to assess the extent of damage and aid 6. Any international game or sports meet that
to the state is most urgently solicited. you have seen.
(Sd. Govrnor) 7. The repeated occurrences of floods in your
3. Prepare a short write-up (report) on Ardh District.
Kumbh Mela held at Allahabad. 8. Assembly elections in your State.
The last Ardh Kumbh Mela of the present 9. Parliamentary elections in your constituency.
century at Allahabad began from 14 January, 10. The Flag Hoisting ceremony on the Republic
1995. This great holy gala festival is held every Day in your University.
 41 Messages
It often happens that you go to meet a person at his residence or in his office but he is not available
there. Or, sometimes you want to talk to a person on the telephone, but he is not available on the phone.
What is to be done in that case ? In that case you can write down the purpose of your visit, mentioning
some important points in brief, on a piece of paper or memo-slip and hand it over to some responsible
person available there, to be delivered to the person you wanted to meet or talk to. This brief written
statement is called a ‘Message’. In case of a telephonic call, you can verbally give your message to the
person available on the phone.
Writing a message briefly and effectively is in itself an art. There are certain rules or practices
which should be followed to make the message effectively brief, beautiful and purposeful. They are the
following :
(1) It is not necessary to write the full address of the writer or the receiver of the Message.
(2) Only the name of the writer and the receiver should be written.
(3) The name of the receiver of the Message should be written at the top, and that of the writer at
the end of the Message.
(4) The date and time of writing the Message must be written at the top.
(5) A brief salutation must be written before writing the Message.
(6) The Message must be brief, but no important point should be left out.
(7) The Message can be written in the Present, Past or the Future tense as the Message may
require.
(8) No matter should be added from your side or any opinion given in the Message.
(9) In order to make the Message brief, short forms of words, phrases and abbreviations can be
used, as haven’t (for have not), U.N. (for the United Nations), U.S. (for United States of
America), Tel. (for Telephone).
(10) If the sense is not distorted, half sentenses can be used, such as ‘no help yet’, ‘returning soon’,
‘money urgently needed,’ ‘not well’.
Format of the Message
Though there is no prescribed format for the Messages, the following format can be used :

Day and Date

Time

Receiver’s Name

Salutation

Message

Writer’s Name & Signature

346 | L.W.C.E.

Model 1
Based on a Telephonic Talk
There is a telephonic talk between Rahul and Nandini. Nandini is just leaving for Delhi, and will
not be able to meet Santosh that day. Therefore she leaves a message for Santosh on the basis of the
following conversation between her and Rahul. Write the message.
Nandini : Hello !
Rahul : Could I speak to Mr. Santosh. I am Rahul at this end.
Nandini : I am sorry, Mr. Rahul. Mr. Santosh is not in the office at the moment.
Rahul : Oh, I have a very urgent message to give to him.
Nandini : Please, Mr. Rahul, give the message to me. I will write a note and leave it on his table
for his immediate attention. Is there anything serious ?
Rahul : Yes, his father has a severe heart-attack. He has been admitted into the I.C.U. unit
Number 2, Safdarganj Hospital, New Delhi. His condition is very serious. Santosh must
immediately reach the Hospital. He must have some money with him. His mother is
already there, but she is all alone.
Nandini : I am just writing a note and leave it on his table. I’ll also try to get him on the phone.
Rahul : Thanks, Miss Nandini.
Message
Very Urgent
Friday, 23rd Dec., 2011
11:30 a.m.
Dear Mr. Santosh,
Your friend Rahul telephoned to inform you that your father has got a severe heart-stroke. He has
been admitted to Safdarganj Hospital, I.C.U. No. 2. You must immediately reach the Hospital. Your
mother is alone there. Arrange to take some money with you.
Nandini.
Model 2
Again Based on a Telephonic Talk
There is a telephonic talk between Sharad and Kamini. Kamini is just ready to go to the Head
Office and is not likely to return before 5 p.m. There is a telephonic call for his colleague Devendra, but
he has not yet come to the office. Kamini receives the call and notes down the message to be conveyed
to Devendra as soon as possible. Therefore she leaves a message to this effect on Devendra’s table for
his immediate attention when he reaches the office.
Kamini : Hello !
Sharad : I am Sharad, wanting to speak to Devendra, please.
Kamini : I am Kamini, his colleague, speaking, Devendra has not yet come to the office. If there
is any message for him, please let me know it. I’ll arrange to pass on the message to him
as soon as possible.
Sharad : Yes, there is an emergency. Devendra’s parents have met with a serious accident. They
were going by their bike to attend some function. Their bike jumped off at a speed-
breaker and they fell down. Both of them have sustained serious fractures. Both of them
have been rushed to the Emergency ward at S.N. Hospital, Agra. He must reach there
immediately. He must inform his brothers also and ask them too to reach there.
Kamini : Yes, Mr. Sharad, I have noted your message. I’ll accordingly write a note to him which
he will receive as soon as he reaches here. Thanks for the care you have taken.
Sharad : Thank you, Madam.
 MESSAGES | 347

Message
For Immediate Attention
Monday, 25 Dec., 2011
10:15 a.m.
Dear Devendra,
There is an emergency call for you. Your friend Sharad has conveyed an emergency message for
you through the phone. Your parents, while going by their bike, have met with an accident. Both of
them have sustained fractures, and they have been rushed to the Emergency Ward, at S. N. Hospital.
You must reach there immediately and inform your brothers too.
Kamini.
Model 3
Based on a Telephonic Talk
Bharat and Bhushan are colleagues in the sales Department of a Company. Bharat is getting ready
to go to the field. Bhushan is likely to come to the office in the afternoon. But before Bharat leaves the
office, he receives a telephonic call for Bhushan. Bharat notes down the contents of the call and
accordingly leaves a written message on Bhushan’s table for his immediate attention.
Bharat : Hello !
Bhushan’s Mother : I believe you are Bharat, speaking from the office. Where is Bhushan ? I am
his mother at this end.
Bharat : Mother, Bhushan will reach here by the afternoon. I am also leaving the office
within fifteen minutes. If there is any message for Bhushan, please let me
know. I’ll leave the message on his table for his immediate attention.
Mother : Yes, Bharat, convey the message to him that his sister with her two children is
reaching New Delhi Station from Bangalore by Shatabdi Express. The train
reaches New Delhi at 6 O’clock in the evening. He must receive her at the
station at platform No. 2. She is in first class A.C. Coach, No. P-6. He should
confirm that the train is running on time. His sister has a heavy luggage and her
two children.
Bharat : Yes, Mother, don’t worry. I’ll leave an urgent message for him at his table. He
will receive it as soon as he reaches here.
Mother : So good of you, Bharat. My blessings !
Message
Urgent Message
Tuesday, 3rd Jan., 2012
11:30 a.m.
Dear Bhushan,
Your mother telephoned to me at 11:30 a.m. She has directed you to receive your sister and her two
children at New Delhi Railway Station at 6 O’clock in the evening at platform No. 2. She is travelling
by Shatabdi Express from Bengaluru. She has boarded first-class A.C. Coach No. P–6. She has heavy
luggage in addition to her two children. You must confirm the arrival time of the train and reach in
time.
Model 4
Based on a Personal Visit
You are Rohitash. You go to meet your uncle to discuss with him your future course of studies. But
your uncle is out of station and will be back by tomorrow morning. Therefore, you leave a message
with your aunt regarding the purpose of your visit. Write your message in detail.
348 | L.W.C.E.

Message
Friday, 4 Dec., 2011
11:30 a.m.
Respected Uncle,
I came to discuss with you my further course of studies. You know, uncle, that I have passed 10 + 2
exam. of the C.B.S.E. Board with Science and Maths and secured 80% marks. Now I have three options
before me to pursue my studies further. First, I can try for my admission to Engineering and
Technological Course. Secondly, I can try for my admission to computer course leading to M.C.A.
Thirdly, I can go in for B.B.A. leading to M.B.A. I am unable to decide. Kindly consider my three
options carefully and give me your valuable advice. I’ll meet you again next week.
Rohitash.

Model 5
Based on a Personal Visit
You are Rashmi. Your marriage comes off next month. You want to make some purchases for that
purpose. For this you want to go to market with your friend named Namita. You go to Namita’s house,
but she is not at home. She has gone to her college. Namita’s mother asks you to leave a message for
Namita, which she would deliver to her when she comes back from the college. Write your message.
Message
Friday, 15 Nov., 2011
1:30 p.m.
Dear Namita,
I came to meet you at your house but you had gone to college. I wanted to meet you with a purpose.
You know that my marriage comes off next month. Therefore, I want to make some purchases with
you. I know you have a very refined and sophisticated taste. Your choice is excellent. I want to
purchase a few saries, a few suits and, of course, some latest items of cosmetics. Your advice and
choices would be of immense value to me. I’ll come on Sunday. Please keep yourself free in the
afternoon on Sunday.
Rashmi.
Exercises for Practice
1. Read the following telephonic conversation and write the relevant Message based on it :
Rajiv Mehrotra : Hello !
Sandeep Mahajan : I am Sandeep Mahajan, representing Messrs Mahajan and Sons. I
wanted to talk to your Managing Director.
Rajiv Mehrotra : Our Managing Director, Mr. Pradeep Kohli, is out of station. Could I be
of any service to you ? I am Rajiv Mehrotra, his Secretary.
Sandeep Mahajan : Thanks a lot. We are wholesale dealers in all brands of Refrigerators.
But we have had no trade dealings with your company. I wanted to talk
to your M.D. in this connection.
Rajeev Mehrotra : Our M.D. will be back tonight and will remain in the office tomorrow all
the time. You can come any time.
Sandeep Mahajan : Kindly fix up my meeting at 2 O’clock tomorrow.
Rajeev Mehrotra : By chance I am also going out today. I shall not be able to meet the
M.D. However, I’ll leave a message for him and you can come
tomorrow at 2 O’clock.
Sandeep Mahajan : Thank you so much for this favour.
 MESSAGES | 349

2. Read the following telephonic conversation between Ramendra and Ashoka. Write a
message based on this conversations.
Ramendra Hello !
:
Ashoka Yes, Ashoka on this side. Can I know who I am talking to ?
:
Ramendra I am Ramendra, Mr. Bajpai’s nephew. I want to talk to uncle Bajpai.
:
Ashoka Mr. Bajpai is not in the office at this moment. He is expected to come back
:
within an hour.
Ramendra : I wanted to tell him that his younger son has developed high temperature. His
wife is getting very nervous. She wants that uncle should reach home
immediately. A doctor has to be called and the child cannot be left alone.
Ashoka : By chance, I have to leave office just now. Therefore I cannot meet Mr. Bajpai.
But I will leave a message to this effect on his table. He will reach home as soon
as he reads the message.
Ramendra : Yes, please do so. Thanks a lot.
3. Read the following telephonic conversation between Sita and Geeta. They plan to go to see
a book-fair. They also want to take Seema with them. Write a relevant message to Seema
to this effect.
Sita : Hello !
Geeta : Yes, Sita. I can recognize you by your voice.
Sita : Do you know, Geeta, a very great Book-Fair is being held these days at the Pragati
Maidan ?
Geeta : Yes, I know. Let us go to see it tomorrow.
Sita : Yes, certainly. It would be fine if Pramila also goes with us.
Geeta : But how can we inform her ? I tried her phone, but it is out of order.
Sita : We can manage to inform her by sending a message to her through our peon.
Geeta : Yes, it is a good idea. Write to her that she should reach your home at 10 in the
morning. I shall also reach your home at the same hour.
Sita : This is agreed.
4. Ramendra has received two appointment letters—One from the Birla Rayons situated in
Arunachal Pradesh, and the other from Volkart Brothers at Mumbai. The Birlas have offered
higher salary but Arunachal Pradesh is risky. The Volkart Brothers offer a slightly lower salary,
but Mumbai is a much better place to live in. Ramendra is in a fix, unable to decide which one
to join. He goes to seek the advice of his uncle, but the uncle is out of station for two days.
Ramendra decides to leave a message to his uncle, stating the causes of his dilemma and
seeking his advice. Draft the message on behalf of Ramendra.
5. You are Mahendra. Your friend Surendra has invited you to join his birth-day party in a nearby
town. You have already sent your acceptance. But at the last moment some unexpected
developments have prevented you from going there. You decide to send him your message,
stating the causes that have held you back and wishing him a very happy birthday and long life.
Draft the Message.
6. You are Mohini. You have already booked a ticket to fly from Delhi to England by Air India. At
the last minute the Air India flight is cancelled owing to some fault in its engine. All the
passengers of Air India are transferred to the British Airways. Therefore, you decide to send a
message to your father regarding this through your driver so that your father may not worry
about you. Draft the Message.
 42 Notices
The writing of Notices effectively and beautifully is an art in itself. The publication, propagation
and circulation of these Notices is an indispensable part of this art. These Notices are circulated for the
information and benefit of individuals, general public, commercial and industrial houses, educational
Institutions, and different Government offices and their staff, and teachers and students. Authentic
information relating to Government notifications, functions, incidents and events, opening ceremonies,
holidays, and games and sports is publicised through them. New commercial and industrial develop-
ments are also brought to public notice through them. Therefore, Notices play a very important role in
our day-to-day life. The Notices are either pasted on the Notice-Boards or published in the Newspapers.

Format of the Notices

There is no definite or prescribed format for Notices. However the following format can be
adopted :

Name of the Institution/Dept./Organization/Office

NOTICE

Date

Descriptive Heading

Full contents of the Notice

Signature
Name
Designation of the Issuing officer & date

Essential Features of Notices :

Authentic Notices must have the following features, otherwise they would have no value or
relevance :
1. Notices must have at the top the name of the Department, Institution or Industrial unit which
publishes or circulates the particular notice. Often they are written on their printed letter pads.
2. Below them the word NOTICE must be written in broad capital letters in the centre.
3. Below it date should be written on the left hand side.
4. Then some beautiful and effective Heading should be written in the centre.
 NOTICES | 351

5. The Notice should be written thereafter. The notice should have all necessary details such as the
purpose of the Notice, important dates, duration of period, timings, venue and other conditions,
if any.
6. In the end, the name of the officer and his designation should be written. The Notice should then
be signed by the issuing officer with date.
Some important points that must be included in some typical types of Notices are give below :
Meetings Events
● Date ● Name/type of Event
● Time ● Date
● Venue ● Time
● Agenda ● Venue
● Members ● Eligibility
● Contact Numbers ● Contact Numbers
● Specific Instructions (if any) ● Specific Instructions (if any)

Tours and Exhibitions Lost and Found

● Name ● Article lost/found
● Occasion and Purpose ● Date
● Venue ● Time (Approximate)
● Dates and Timings ● Place/Area where lost / found
● Means of Transport ● Identification of the article
● Expenditure (estimated) ● Reward (if any)
● Duration ● Contact Numbers
● Contact Numbers
● Specific Instructions (if any)

Call for Strike Change of Name

● Name of Institution/Company/Deptt. (where call for ● Present Name
strike is given) ● Father’s Name
● Personnel going on strike ● New Name
● Date/Duration of strike ● Reason for change
● Reason for going on strike ● Address
● Demands ● Objection (if raised by any)
● Justification
● Promise for remaining non-violent and causing no
damage

Model 1
R. S. T. College, Raigarh
Notice
15-12-2011
Staff Meeting
An important meeting of the staff of the college will be held on December 17, 2011 in the college
Auditorium at 2 p.m. All the members of the Teaching Faculty are requested to attend the meeting. The
following is the agenda of the meeting :
(i) To pass the minutes of the previous meeting.
352 | L.W.C.E.

(ii) To discuss and finalise the detailed programme of the Annual Sports of the college going to be
held in the first week of January, 2012.
(iii) Any other item with the permission of the chair.
R. S. Gaur
(Signature)
Staff Secretary
Model 2
Birla Spinning and Weaving Mills Ltd., Kanpur
Notice
24-10-2011
Grand Farewell to the Retiring Managing Director
As has already been decided by the Executive Committee of the Officers’ Club, a grand farewell
function to give a befitting Send-off to our Managing Director. Hon. R. S. Sodhi, is going to be held on
November 1, 2011 at the Club Premises at 2 p.m. All the members of the Officers’ Club are most
cordially invited to attend and grace the function. The members who want to speak on the occasion are
requested to give their names to the undersigned by the 26th instt. The members are also expected to
bring their own garlands and bouquets to honour the Hon. Guest.
D. C. Pandit
(Signature)
General Manager
Model 3
Modern Public School, New Delhi
Notice
5-9-2011
School Tour to Mumbai
As has already been decided, the School is arranging a tour from Delhi to Mumbai. Tentatively the
Tour will start in the first week of October, 2011. The exact date depends upon the date of Reservation
(both sides) available in the Frontier Mail. The members of the staff and students who are interested in
joining the tour should give their names to the undersigned by the 10th instt. The tour would take about
five to six days and the estimated expenditure would come to about 2500/- per head. This would
include train fare and boarding and lodging in a good hotel. It would be an excellent educational tour to
the financial Capital of the Country. The tourists are advised to take light warm clothes with them. For
any other information the intrested persons can contact the undersigned personally or on his Mobile No.
9837653306.
R. K. Mehrotra
(Signature)
Principal

Model 4
Messrs Ramlal & Sons, Kanpur
Notice
5-1-2012
Handbag Lost. Reward to the Finder
While going from Sari Bazar to Lohamandi by my scooter between 4 and 5 in the evening of
January 4, 2012, I dropped my handbag somewhere on the way. It was a medium-size bag, gray in
 NOTICES | 353

colour, and closed with a chain. The bag contained many of my important letters, some account papers
and a bunch of keys. All these articles are of no use to anyone, but they are very important for me.
Anyone who may have found this bag is requested to inform me on my Mobile Number 9897357205.
The finder will be given a cash-reward of 1,000/-.
Shyam Manohar
(Signature)
Proprietor of the Firm

Model 5
Rajni Agrawal, Indira Nagar, Allahabad
Notice
15-3-2012
Change of Name
Until now my name was Rajni Agrawal, daughter of Shri Padam Chand Agrawal, A-27, Indira
Nagar, Allahabad. But last month I was married into a Jain family. My husband’s name is Mr.
Prabhakar Jain. Hence, according to Hindu Code of conduct and convention, my name has been
changed as Rajni Jain. Accordingly I am getting my name changed in all my educational certificates
and Degrees and also in my Bank Accounts.
This is for general notification so that no one may have any objection or inconvenience on account
of this change in my name.
Rajni Agrawal
(Signature)

Model 6
Workers’ Union
Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving Mills,
Ahmedabad
Notice
15-1-2012
Notice for Indefinite Strike
This one month’s notice is hereby given to the Management of Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving
Mills, Ahmedabad by the Workers’ Union that all the workers of class three and class four will go on an
indefinite strike with effect from the morning of February, 15, 2012, if their long pending grievances
are not removed to their entire satisfaction.
The workers have brought to the notice of the Management their grievances several times over the
period of the last two years, but the Management have taken no steps to remove their grievances. The
main demands of the workers are revision in their wages structure, payment of Annual Bonus, and
better provisions for their safety and welfare.
The Workers’ Union have been compelled to take this extreme step on account of the callous
indifference of the Management towards their genuine demands over such a long period.
Shiv Ram
(Signature)
President of the Workers’ Union
354 | L.W.C.E.

Exercises
1. A Book-Fair is being held at the Pragati Maidan in New Delhi. Your College has decided to
visit the Fair in a group of interested teachers and students. In your capacity as the Principal of
D.A.V. College, Meerut, draft a Notice inviting the names of the teachers and students who are
willing to go to visit the Book-Fair.
2. You are Principal of the Science College, Allahabad. The students and teachers of the Botany
Department propose to go on an expedition to the Himalayas to collect rare plants and herbs.
Draft a Notice inviting the teachers and students who would like to join the expedition.
3. You are General Manager of a large limited Company. The Workers of the Company have
given a notice to go on an indefinite strike to pressurise the Management to accept their
demands. Draft a Notice inviting the senior officers of the Company to a meeting to consider
how to deal with the situation.
4. As the Registrar of a University, draft a Notice inviting Heads of all Departments to decide the
date for the commencement of the examinations and to draw the detailed schedule of dates and
examination centres.
5. The Paediatric doctors of Agra have decided to organize a Free Camp to check up all children
upto the age of ten. All kinds of clinical and pathological tests will be done by experts free of
charge. As the Secretary of the Paediatricians Association, draft a public Notice giving full
details of date, venue, timings and other connected information to make the camp a great
success.
6. Your original name is Ghure Lal. This name is very unaesthetic and has a nauseating
connotation. Therefore, you want to change your name, keeping in mind that your initials
should not change. Draft a public Notice for publication in the Newspapers to announce this
change in your name.
7. You are R. K. Mehrotra. By chance you left your suit-case on the bus-stand and returned home
by an auto-rickshaw. On reaching home, you realized the loss of the suit-case. Now draft a
Notice to be published in the Newspapers, detailing the colour, size and the type of the suit-
case and the main contents in it. Announce that any one who returned your suit-case, or
informed you about it on your telephone would be awarded 5000/- in cash.
8. You are D. C. Rawat. Your small puppy has been missing for the last two days. Draft a Notice
to be published in the Newspapers, giving the details of its colour, breed, pet name, and any
other marks of its identification. Announce a reward of 2000/- to any one who brought back
your puppy or informed you about it on your telephone.
 43 Diary-Writing
Diary-Writing is entirely a personal short Suddenly I woke up with a jerk and came to know
artistic piece of writing. It is not meant to be read that the engine of the bus had suddenly failed. It
by any one else. In the diary-entries the writer was a lonely place with bushes and thorny trees all
records some of his important and unforgettable around. I came down from the bus and was
experiences, events, incidents, unexpected happy terribly frightened and shivering with cold. All the
or sad situations, or his experiences of success or passengers went away by different means or on
failure. They are recorded in one’s diary the same foot. I was left all alone on that pitch dark night.
day in a short and precise form. Since such impor- Suddenly I saw a man coming towards me on his
tant and unforgettable situations or incidents do bicycle. I froze with fear. The man came and got
not happen in our life every day, diary-entries are down from his bicycle by my side. He politely
also not made every day. In course of time, these addressed me as ‘sister’ and said that the place
entries take the form of the author’s autobiography where I was standing was very dangerous. He
to a certain extent. said, “Sister, if you could trust me, I would take
you to my home about two kilometers from there
Some Common Rules of Diary-Entries by my bicycle, and in the morning I would get you
Since Diary-Writing is entirely a personal a bus to Agra.” He appeared to be a cultured,
matter, there are no definite rules or any prescri- polite and refined person. I had no option but to
bed format for writing the same. However, there accept his offer. He took me to his home. It was a
are certain points which every diary-writer must one-room mud - house. After offering me a cup of
keep in mind. These points are the following : tea, he made me sleep in his only room, and
(1) First of all, Day and Date should be written. himself slept in the open verandah outside. At
(2) Below that the time of entry should be day-break, he came to my bed with a cup of tea
written. and woke me up. I saw in his eyes light of
brotherly love and sympathy. He offered me light
(3) Thereafter some meaningful and artistic head-
breakfast very affectionately, and then accom-
ing for the incident or experience should be
panied me to the nearly bus-stop to get a bus to
given.
Agra, I was so overwhelmed by his affection and
(4) Then the incident or experience should be kindness that I could not ask even his name or
recorded briefly but artistically and effecti- address. To me he was an Angel of a Man.
vely.
Preeti Dube.
(5) In the end the writer should put his signature.
Model 2
Model 1 Diary-Entry
Diary-Entry Sunday, 20 Jan., 2012
Wednesday, 15 Jan., 2012 9:00 a.m.
8:30 p.m.
Knocking at the Door at Midnight
Angel of a Man Today I was all alone at home because my
I am a young girl of 19, a student of Rajasthan parents had gone out to attend a marriage. I
University, Jaipur. I was travelling by night-bus studied till 10 O’clock in the night and then bolted
from Jaipur to Agra. I was on a sleeper-berth. all the doors and windows very carefully, and
356 | L.W.C.E.

retired to bed. It was my first chance to sleep all outside. This was the secret of the knocking at the
alone in my home. I felt frightened, but I slept. door. I laughed at my folly.
Around midnight I heard a knocking at the door. I Rashmi Agrawal.
wondered who could have knocked at the door at
that hour of the night. I did not move. Again there Exercises
was a knocking. I could not have the courage to Make Diary-Entries on the following topics—
ask who was knocking. He may be a robber or a
decoit wanting to enter into the house. I thought of 1. How I miss my mother !
calling the police, but I did not have the telephone 2. Faith in God’s justice.
number of the police-station. I also thought of 3. How I escaped being drowned !
calling some relation or friend by the phone, but I
had become so nervous that I forgot all telephone 4. My first day in the College.
numbers. I lay awoke, frozen with fear. The 5. When I topped in the I.A.S. examination.
knocking at the door continued the whole night. I
6. The day I retired from my service.
counted minute by minute until it was morning.
When I heard people walking on the road in front 7. My encounter with a robber.
of my door, I collected all my courage and opened 8. How I was cheated by a friend !
the door. Then I discovered that I had hung a bent
iron bar on the hook of the door, and this bar was 9. When I won a Gold in the Olympics.
beating against the door by the breeze blowing 10. How my luck favoured me !
 44 Telegram
Telegram is a Government means of sending messages from one place to another speedily. In this
system messages are sent from one telegraph office to another telegraph office in a code language. The
receiving telegraph office deciphers the code language into normal language and sends the message to
the addressee through the postman. Since the telegraph office is a Government Department, it has a
prescribed form on which the telegram is sent. The rate of charges is also fixed by the Government. In
the telegram there is a fixed charge for every word in the message as well as in the address of the
addressee. Therefore, messages are sent through the telegram in as few words as possible. In the modern
age mobile phones, S.M.S., Fax, E.mail, etc. have become so popular that telegrams have become
largely outdated. Still thousands of telegrams are sent everyday. Very urgent messages such as Interview
letters, Appointment letters, Intimations of serious ailments, births and deaths are sent by the telegram.

The Format of the Telegram Form

INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH
Name and Address Name
of the Addressee Address

Message :

Senders’ Name :
Sender’s Name and Address
(Not to be telegraphed)

Common Rules of Telegrams :

(1) Every word in the telegram is written in capital letters.
(2) In the message only important words are written, such as names, nouns, main verbs, adjectives,
etc.
(3) Articles, Prepositions, Adverbs, helping Verbs without which the message can be well under-
stood, should be avoided.
(4) Punctuation marks are not often used. In place of Mark of Fullstop (.), the word ‘Stop’ is
written and it is counted as one word.
(5) Numerals are avoided as far as possible. Unavoidable numerals are written in words. Timings
are also written in words, such as ‘8 a.m.’ should be written as ‘EIGHT MORN’.
358 | L.W.C.E.

(6) If there are small squares drawn on the form, only one word should be written in one square.
(7) In the last column the full name and address of the sender should be written. This is not to be
telegraphed, and therefore there are no charges for it.
Model 1
You are Rajni Kant. You are posted as a lecturer in Bombay University, Mumbai. Your parents live
at Varanasi. Your mother has a serious heart-stroke. Her condition is serious. She has been admitted to
Gandhi Memorial Hospital. Your father sends you a telegram to come immediately. Draft the telegram
in the following form supplied by the Post and Telegraph Department.
INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH
Name and Address Name : RAJNIKANT
of the Addressee Address : ENGLISH LECTURER
BOMBAY UNIVERSITY
MUMBAI
Message :
MOTHER HAS HEART STROKE SERIOUS ADMITTED
GANDHI HOSPITAL COME FIRST MEANS

Sender’s Name : HARI SHANKAR

Sender’s Name and Address Shri Hari Shankar Gupta
(Not to be telegraphed) 2/30, Shankar Sadan, M. G. Road
Varanasi

Model 2
You are Rama Shankar, Resident of 2/41, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai. Your brother, Hari Shankar, is
studying in Indira Gandhi University, Pune. He is a student of M.B.A. Final Semester. An interview
letter has come for him. He is required to attend the interview for the post of Marketing Executive by
the Tata Industries, Tata Nagar, Bihar. Draft a telegram, directing your brother to attend the interview
on January 15, 2012 at 11 a.m. in the office of the Managing Director.
INDIAN POST AND TELEGRAPH
Name and Address Name : HARI SHANKAR
of the Addressee Address : MBA FINAL
INDIRA GANDHI UNIVERSITY
PUNE
Message :
YOUR INTERVIEW TATA INDUSTRIES TATA
NAGAR FIFTEEN JANUARY MARKETING EXECUTIVE
ATTEND INTERVIEW ELEVEN MORN MANAGING
DIRECTOR OFFICE

Sender’s Name : RAMA SHANKAR

Sender’s Name and Address Shri Rama Shankar
(Not to be telegraphed) 2/41, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai
 TELEGRAM | 359

Exercises
1. Draft a telegram to be sent by a father to his son that he has qualified in the written examination
for I.A.S. He should come home immediately and prepare for the Interview to be held early next
month.
2. Draft a telegram to be sent by a father to his son, informing him that he has been appointed as
an Engineer in Birla Cotton Mills, Pilani. He has to join within a week. He must come home
immediately.
3. Draft a telegram to be sent by a Junior Engineer to the Chief Engineer, P.W.D., Allahabad,
requesting him to extend his leave by four days because his father is still seriously ill.
4. Draft a telegram to be sent by Prem Shankar Agrawal to his brother Radhey Shyam Agrawal
informing him that their grandmother has expired. He must come by the earliest train available.
5. You are Pramod Mahajan, General Manager, Paliwal Industries Ltd. Gorakhpur. Your Sales
Executive Rahul Jain has gone to Lucknow. Send a telegram to him to attend an urgent meeting
at Kanpur on 15th January, 2012 before returning to the Head Quarters.
6. You are Tara Chand Maheshwari. Your brother Chandra Bhan has been promoted as Marketing
Executive, Tata Industries, Jamshedpur. He is required to report there immediately. Send a
telegram to your brother asking him to proceed to Jamshedpur immediately instead of returning
home.
7. You are Prem Rajdhan, Manager, Human Resources and Recruitment, Reliance Petro Chemi-
cals, Mumbai. You have to call Rajesh Dixit telegraphically for interview on 10th January, 2012
at 10 a.m. in your office for the post of Sales Executive. Draft a telegram for the same.
8. You are Sanjaya Khurana, Managing Director, Hindustan Lamps Limited, Ludhiana. Your
Marketing Executive, Mr. Harish Kumar, is on a tour over Rajasthan. You have called a very
urgent meeting of all the Marketing Executives on the 15th Jaunary, 2012 at 11:30 in your
office. Draft a telegram asking Mr. Harish Kumar to cut short his tour and return to attend the
meeting.
 45 Letter-Writing
Letter-Writing is an art. Therefore as in the cultivation of any other art, the letter-writer has also to
employ all his intellectual and emotional faculties to get perfection in the art of letter-writing. Letters
are the most important means for developing, promoting and strengthening family ties, social
relationships and cordial contacts in industrial, trading and business circles. Letters also reveat the
writer’s cultural level, refinement and command over the language. Therefore it is essential to learn,
practise and acquire perfection in the art of writing letters to be successful in any field of life.
Keeping all these points in view, we are giving below the accepted formats of all kinds of letters
along with some models of all types. There are three main types of letters :
(i) Informal Letters or Personal Letters
(ii) Formal Letters or Official Letters
(iii) Business Letters
The above noted Informat or Personal letters include letters amongst family-members, friends
and relations and letters of personal greetings, good-wishes, congratulations, invitations, sympathies
and condolences, etc.
The Formal letters include administrative, official, and Government letters and applications.
Letters of social importance published in the Newspapers are also formal letters.
The Business letters include all types of letters relating to industry, trade, business, imports,
exports, etc.
All these different types of letters have a set Format and also use some accepted or formal words,
phrases or even sentences. Therefore it is necessary to know the formats and formalities of all types of
letters. This will keep you in the front line of personal and social culture.

(1) Format of Personal Letters

There are eight main parts of the Personal Letter. They are :
(i) The Address of the Sender :
The sender of the letter must write his full Postal address together with his Telephone Number at
the top of the letter on the right hand side. This is necessary to enable the recipient of the letter to reply
to the letter by post or telephone.
(ii) The Date :
The writer must write the date of the letter below the address. The date can be written in the
following three ways :
5-6-2012
5th June, 2012
June 5, 2012
If the writer wishes he can write the day also along with the date in the following way,
Friday, 5th June, 2012.
 LETTER-WRITING | 361

Format of Informal or Personal Letter

(i) The Address of The Sender
(ii) The Date

(iii) The Saluation

(iv) The body of the letter (divided into Paragraphs)

(v) The Subscription

(vi) The Signature
(vii) Enclosures (if any)
(viii) The name and address of the person
to whom the letter is sent.
Note : A new fashion has been started these days to write the Subscription and Signature on the
left-hand side. Perhaps this has been done because this is more convenient to the typist. However,
both ways are correct.

(iii) The Salutation :

The Salutation written on the left-hand side is a very important part of the letter. It shows the
writer’s closeness to the person to whom the letter is written. Different categories of people are offered
salutation in different ways. The more common salutations are these :
● To Father, Mother, Elder Brothers and Sister. Uncles, Aunts and other elderly relations—
My dear Father / Papa / Daddy / Uncle / Brother
Dear Mother / Mummy / Aunt / Sister.
Respected Father / Mother / Uncle / Aunt, etc.
(This is, however, not accepted in Western culture)
● From Father, Mother and other elderly relations to their children or younger ones—
My dear son / daughter
Dear Raju / Renu
My dear daughter / sister Richa
● Between Brothers, Sisters and Friends
My dear brother / sister
My dear brother Saurabh
My dear sister Lahar
My dear Gaurav / My dear friend Gaurav
● To your senior colleagues, teachers or professional friends.
Sir, Dear Sir, Dear Sirs (Remember, we cannot write My Sir, My Dear Sir/Sirs)
(iv) Body of the Letter :
This is the main part of the letter. It contains the matter, message or contents of the letter. It can
have several paragraphs. It has three broad divisions—
● Opening sentence of the letter
362 | L.W.C.E.

● The main matter or contents

● The closing paragraph or sentence
The following can be the common opening sentences of a letter :
● Thanks for your kind and affectionate letter received just now / last week / a couple of days
ago / on the 10th March.
● Many many thanks for your kind letter. I am sorry I could not reply to it earlier, as I was out of
station / owing to very heavy engagements / owing to pressure of studies / work.
● I was so glad/delighted / pleased to receive your letter. I was even more delighted to read its
contents.
● Received your long awaited / eagerly awaited letter only yesterday. You can’t realize what a
relief it gave to me.
● I am sure you will be pleased to read the contents of this letter.
● I have not received any letter from you since long / for a long time. It is really very unkind and
thoughtless of you. Perhaps you don’t know how much I love you and care for you.
● I am sorry for not having replied to your kind letter so long / for such a long time. The delay
was due to overwork / pressure of work / very heavy pressure of studies. But this does not
mean that I love you in any way less / remember you in any was less / care for you in any way
less.
● I beg your pardon for this inordinate delay in replying to your letter. In fact, I was out of
station / I was not quite well / I was overbusy in connection with my sister’s marriage. This
slackness will not occur in future.
The following can be the closing sentences of the letter :
● With sweet remembrances and love.
● With best wishes / With best wishes and love.
● With heartiest love and blessings.
● Wishing your all the best.
● With regards to you and Mummy.
● With warmest personal regards.
● With regards to your parents and love to the younger ones.
● Kindly convey my regards to your parents and love and good wishes to younger brothers and
sisters.
● Hoping to receive an early reply from you / Expecting an early reply.
● Kindly reply by return of post.
● Trusting this finds you in the best of health and happiness.

(v) Subscription :
At the end of the letter, on the right-hand side, subscription is written above the signature of the
writer of the letter. This is also an important part of the letter. Different types of subscriptions are
written for different persons to whom letters are written. The more common forms of subscription are
these :
● In letter to Father, Mother, Brothers, Sisters and other elderly family members—
Yours affectionately,
Affectionately yours,
Your affectionate son / daughter / nephew / niece, etc.
 LETTER-WRITING | 363

(But remember, we cannot write ‘your affectionately’ or ‘affectionately your’. Also we should not
add apostrophes (’s) in ‘Yours’)
● In letters from Father, Mother, Brothers, Sisters and other elderly members of the family to their
children or younger ones—
Yours affectionately,
Affectionately Yours,
Your affectionate father / mother / uncle / aunt, etc.
● In letters between Brothers and Sisters—
Your loving brother,
Your loving sister.
● In letters between friends—
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
Yours very sincerely,
Your loving friend.
● In letters to senior Colleagues, Officers, Businessmen and Professionals—
Yours faithfully,
(vi) Signature :
Below the Subscription the writer should put his signature. The signature should be full and clear.
If the letter is typed, signature must be put below the typed name. If some photocopies of the letter are
to be sent, they should be properly signed.
(vii) Enclosures :
If some Enclosures such as cheques, drafts, certificates, etc. are to be sent with the letter, they
should be properly enclosed, and their list should be given on the left-hand side below the ‘Enclosures’.
(viii) Address of the Recipient :
The name and address of the recipient of the letter should also be written on the left-hand side.
(ix) P. S. :
Sometimes some important point is left out from the main body of the letter. This can be written
very briefly under P.S. (Postscript) on the left-hand side of the letter and signed. But it is not a good
practice and should be avoided as far as possible.
(2) Format of Official Letters
Official letters have eleven main parts :
(i) The Address of the Sender :
If the letter is written on the printed letter-pad, it is not necessary to write the address again.
(ii) The Date :
Below the address, date of the letter should be written in the manner given under Personal letters.
(iii) Designation and Address of the recipient :
The writer must write the Reference Number of his letter, such as—Ref. No. 253/Misc/2011-12.
364 | L.W.C.E.

Format of Formal or Official Letters

(i) The Address of the Sender

(With Telephone No., if any)
(ii) The Date
(iii) Designation and Address of the Recipient
(iv) Reference No.
(v) Subject
(vi) The Saluation
(vii) The Body of the Letter (divided into Paragraphs)
(vii) The Subscription
(ix) The Signature
(With Official Stamp)
(x) Enclosures (if any)
(xi) Copies to be sent, if any
Note : As in Personal and Business Letters, a new trend has been started to write the
Subscription and Signature on the left-hand side. However, both ways are correct.
(v) Subject :
It is a very important point in Official letters, Under it, it is briefly written what is the letter about,
or uner what reference the letter is being written. Here we give some common examples of the Subject.
● Application for the Post of Electrical Engineer.
● Application for the Post of Lecturer in English.
● Regarding non-payment of Quarterly Premium.
● Non-compliance of our letter No. CH/36-145, dated July 5, 2011.
● Your letter of Enquiry, dated Sept. 2, 2011.
● Non-receipt of Marks-sheet/Transfer orders/Budget allocation, etc.
● Complaint regarding frequent failure of power supply.

● Settlement of Telephone Bills.

(vi) Salutation :
In Official letters there is a fixed form of salutation to be written on the left-hand side.
● To a Senior Officer of one’s own or any other Department or to one’s teacher—
Sir,
● To one’s equal or junior colleague—
Dear Sir,
● To the Head of any Department—
Sir,
(vii) Body of the Letter :
This is the most important part of the letter. It may have several paragraphs. The first paragraph
with which a letter begins is very important. Some common sentences with which an official letter can
begin are these :
● Respectfully I beg to submit that ………
 LETTER-WRITING | 365

● I have the honour to submit that ………

● With reference to your advertisement for the post of ……, I beg to offer my candidature for the
same.
● With reference to your advertistement in The Times of India, dated ……… I beg to apply for the
post of ………
(viii) The Subscription :
As in Personal letters, Subscription is written on the right-hand side above the signature. In official
letters or applications, the subscription is always written as:
Yours faithfully,
(ix) The Signature :
The signature below the Subscription must be complete and clear. The designation of the signing
authority must be written below the signature and official stamp must be affixed.
(x) Enclosures :
Enclosures, if any, must be enclosed with the letter, and the list of the Enclosures must be given on
the left-hand side below this head.
(xi) The Copy :
If Copies of the letter are to be sent to some other authorities, their list must be given as under :
Copy to :
(i) The District Magistrate for his information and necessary action.
(ii) The Governor for favour of his information and necessary direction.
(iii) The Vice-Chancellor for favour of immediate action.
(3) Format of Business Letters
The Business Letters also have eleven main parts. They are :
(i) The Address of the Sender :
If the letter is written on the printed Letter-head of the Firm. It is not necessary to write the address
of the sender again. The Telephone and Fax Numbers too, if available, should be written here. If not
already printed, they should all be written at the top on the right-hand side.
(ii) The Date :
The date of the letter must be written on the right-hand side below the address of the sender. The
method of writing the date is the same as explained under Personal letters.
(iii) Name and Address of the receiving Firm :
The name and address of the Firm or its officer concerned should be written on the left-hand side of
the letter. The home address of the officer should not be written.
Note—The Firms which are named after the names of some persons are addressed as Messrs, e.g.
Messrs Rajkishore & Sons, or Messrs Volkart Brothers. But the Firms which are named impersonally
are not addressed as Messrs, e.g. The Glove Travellers.
(iv) Reference Number :
The Reference No. of the letter must also be written, as No. 358/Orders/2010-11.
366 | L.W.C.E.

Format of Business Letters

(i) The Address of the Sender
(with Telephone No., if any)
(ii) The Date
(iii) Designation and Address of the Recipient
(iv) Reference No.

(v) Subject
(vi) The Salutation
(vii) The Matter of the Letter (divided into Paragraphs)

(vii) The Subscription

(ix) The Signature
(x) Enclosures (if any)
(xi) Copies to be sent, if any
Note : As in Personal and Official Letters, a new trend has been started to write the Subscription
and Signature on the left-hand side. However, both ways are correct.

(v) Subject :
It is a very important part of the Business Letter. It states in the minimum possible words the topic,
subject or reference under which the letter is being written. Some such common topics are these :
● Non-payment of outstanding bills.
● Second reminder for immediate payment of pending bills.
● Non-execution/Non-compliance of our order No. 3512/Stab.2012, dated 10.6.2012.
● Your letter of Enquiry, dated 14.3.2012.
● Complaint regarding manufacturing defect in the T.V. supplied by you.
● Settlement of Accounts.
● Non-payment of Quarterly interest.

(vi) Salutation :
Salutation is written on the left-hand side of the letter. The wordings of salutation in Business
letters are fixed. They are :
● For some officer of the Firm
Dear Sir
● For the firm
Dear Sirs
or
Gentlemen.
(vii) Body of the Letter :
This is the main part of the letter. It can have several paragraphs. The first sentence written in the
letter has great importance. Some common and popular sentences with which such letters can begin are
these :
 LETTER-WRITING | 367

● We draw your kind attention to our letter No.……, dated ……, and write to state that ………
● Kindly refer to your letter No………, and dated …………
● This is in response to your circular letter No ………, Dated …………
● This refers to your letter No ………, dated ………
● This is to bring to your kind notice that ………
● We write to invite your attention to …………
(viii) The Subscription :
The subscription is written on the right-hand side above the signature of the sender. In these letters
subscription can be written in one of the following ways :
Yours faithfully,
or
Yours truly,
or
Faithfully yours,
(ix) The Signature :
The letter should be properly and legibly signed. The designation of the signing authority and the
stamp of the Firm must be affixed.
(x) Enclosures :
Enclosures, if any, such as cheques, drafts, R.R. etc. should be properly enclosed with the letter,
and their list must be given under Enclosures on the left-hand side.
(xi) Copy :
If the Copies of the letter are to be sent to some other authorities, they must be listed on the left-
hand side as follows :
Copy to :
(i) The General Manager for his information and necessary action.
(ii) The Secretary for his kind information.

Some Model Letters

Personal Letters
(1) Letter from a son to his father, informing him of his preparations for the final examination
and asking him for some more money.
Room No. 41,
A. N. Jha Hostel
Allahabad University, Allahabad
January 10, 2012

Respected Papa/My dear Father,

I am sorry I could not write to you for such a long time. But there is nothing to worry about
me. I was only busy with my preparations for the final examination. My Practical examinations
finished only yesterday. You will be glad to know that I have done excellently well at the Practi-
cals.
368 | L.W.C.E.

Our classes are going on in full swing these days. I am trying my best to finish my course in all
subjects well before the examinations. I go to consult my teachers as and when I need their help
and guidance. All my teachers are very kind and considerate to me. On the basis of my preparations
I feel confident that I would get a first class. The rest depends on my luck and your blessings.
Papa, I am running short of money these days. I have to settle the account of the Hostel. I have
also to buy a few books which I need very urgently. Would you be kind enough to send me rupees
five hundred more to meet these extra expenses ?
I very much remember Mummy and youndger brother and sister. Kindly convery my regards
to Mummy and love to Preeti and Rajat.
With regards to you,
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) Ramendra
To
Shri P. K. Dubey
3/25, Patel Nagar,
Lucknow

(2) Letter from the father to the son in reply to the above letter.
3/25, Patel Nagar,
Lucknow
January 14, 2012
My dear Ramendra / My dear Son,
Received your letter only yesterday. We are all very glad to learn that you have done so well at
the Practical examinations. Our best wishes and blessings are ever with you. Hard and sincere
labour never goes waste. Luck also favours those who work hard. Keep on working in the same
spirit. You will certainly get a first class.
Your Mummy and Preeti and Rajat also remember you very much, but we didn’t write to your
because we didn’t want to disturb you in your studies. We are all eagerly looking forward to your
coming home after the exams.
As desired, I am enclosing herewith a Bank Draft for rupees five hundred. Don’t hesitate to
write if you need more money.
Your Mummy sends you her blessings, and Preeti and Rajat say ‘Hello’ to you.
With love and blessings,
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) R. K. Dubey
To
Shri Ramendra Dubey,
Room No. 41,
A. N. Jha Hostel,
Allahabad University,
Allahabad
 LETTER-WRITING | 369

(3) Letter of Greeings to a friend on New Year’s Day

25, Saket
Lucknow
January 1, 2012

My dear friend Deepander,

Please accept my warmest greetings and felicitations on the New Year’s Day. May the New
Year bring you all the success, happiness, progress and prosperity you have ever aspired to
achieve! May God fulfil all your wishes, ambitions, dreams and aspirations in the New Year ! May
lock favour you in every walk of life and shower upon you the choicest boons and blessings every
day in the New Year.
With best wishes once again,
Yours sincerely,
(Sd.) Lalit Kumar Saxena

To
Shir Deepander Roy,
2/46, Sarkar Enclave,
Kolkata
(4) Reply to the above letter of greetings
2/46, Sarkar Enclave,
Kolkata
5th January, 2012
My dear Lalit,
I am really very grateful to you for your New Year Greetings. I highly value your sentiments
expressed for me and reciprocate the same to you most sincerely and earnestly. I pray to God to
bless you with every boon and blessing man can ever aspire for. May you and your family progress
and prosper and enjoy the best of health and happiness every day and all days of the New Year !
Kindly remember me to your parents and convey my best regards to them.
Wishing you all the best once again,
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) Deepander Roy
To
Shri Lalit Kumar Saxena
25, Saket,
Lucknow

(5) Letter of Congratulations from one’s elder brother

18, Civil Lines,
Agra
June 5, 2012
My dear Rajesh,
370 | L.W.C.E.

I was extremely delighted to find your Roll Number and name in the list of successful
candidates selected for admission to M. B.B.S. course in Uttar Pradesh. The result was published in
‘The Hindustan Times’ yeserday. I convey to you my heartiest congratulations and blessings for
your brilliant success.
I know your success is well deserved. This success has not come by chance. You laboured
very hard for it. Your sincere and hard labour have been justly rewarded. I just repeat what I have
told you so often that hard labour and sincere efforts never go waste. Remember this for yet more
brilliant success in the career of your life.
Now you have a long and brilliant career before you. Make all efforts sincerely and earnestly
in the pursuit of your studies and even thereafter to shine out with extra-brilliance in the medical
profession.
My best wishes are ever with you.
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) R. K. Dewan
To
Shri Rajesh Kumar Dewan,
25, Kacheri Road,
Aligarh
(6) Reply to the above letter
25, Kacheri Road,
Aligarh
10th June, 2012
My dear brother,
I was so glad to receive your affectionate congratulatory letter. My success is largely due to
your encouragement and help. If you had not given me full financial support so liberally, I would
not have been able to devote myself to my studies without any kind of worry or botheration. I
assure you I shall pursue my studies with the same zeal and zest.
I shall spare no pains to maintain my academic record and to imrpove it further. I shall never
betray your trust and confidence you have reposed in me.
Kindly convey my warmest regards to Bhabhiji and love to Raju and Lovely.
With my warm personal regards,
Yours affectionately,
(Sd.) Rajesh Kumar Dewan
To
Shri R. K. Dewan
18, Civil Lines,
Agra,

(7) Letter of Sympathy

2/42, Civil Lines
Lucknow
June 22, 2012
My dear Ravi,
I was so shocked to learn from your brother this morning that you have sustained a fracture on
the knee-cap of your right leg in a train derailment. I am told that plaster has been applied on the
injured leg. As a result you cannot move out from your bed. This is indeed a great ordeal, specially
 LETTER-WRITING | 371

for an active person like you. I express my heart-felt sympathies for you and I pray to God for your
early recovery. My parents join with me in sending their sympathies to you and wishing your a
very speedy recovery.
My dear friend, have courage and patience to put up with this situation with fortitude. Also
pray to God and have full faith in His justice and mercy, for anything could have happened in a
train accident like this. We must all be thankful to the Almighty for His mercy.
Kindly convery my regards to your parents.
With best wishes,
Yours sincerely,
Ramendra
To
Shri Ravi Shanker Mathur,
37, Swaroop Nagar
Kanpur.
(8) Reply to the above
37, Swaroop Nagar,
Kanpur
June 27, 2012
My dear friend Ramendra,
I heartily thank you for your kind and affectionate letter. Letters of sympathy and good wishes
from my dear friends like you give so much of support and moral courage. By God’s mercy and
good wishes of my friends, my fracture is simple. Doctors hope that I shall recover completely in
about three months.
However, confined to bed as I am, I feel very lonely and helpless. Time seems to creep very
slowly. Whenever you happen to come to this side, please do come to me and stay with me for a
day or two. Your company would give me much consolation and moral support.
Please convey my regards to your parents.
Thanking you once again,
Yours sincerely,
Ravi
To
Shri Ramendra Singh Chauhan,
2/42, Civil Lines,
Lucknow

(9) Letter of Condolences

3/9, H. A. L. Colony,
Bhopal
Nov. 23, 2011
My dear Rakesh,
I was deeply grieved to learn of your revered father’s sudden demise last week. One can easily
realise what an irreparable loss and void the death of one’s father causes in one’s life and family.
But God’s will is supreme, and one has to accept it with courage, fortitude and equanimity. I send
372 | L.W.C.E.

you my beart-felt condolences and pray to God to give you strength enough to bear this great
family tragedy with courage and faith in God. I also pray to God to grant peace to the departed
soul. My parents join with me in sending their condolences to you and your family.
Sharing your grief,
Yours sincerely,
Trimohan
To
Shri Rakesh Kumar Jain
35, Ashok Nagar,
Gwalior
(10) Reply to the above
35, Ashok Nagar,
Gwalior
Nov. 27, 2011
My dear Trimohan,
I received your letter of condolences yesterday. My father’s death was a terrible blow to the
whole family, but there was no way out against God’s will. However, your letter gave me much
comfort and consolation. I must express my gratitude to you and your parents for the same.
Thanking you,
Yours sincerely,
Rakesh
To
Shri Trimohan Verma
3/9, H. A. L. Colony,
Bhopal

(11) Letter of Invitation

2A/5, Shanti Kunj
Dehradun
5th September, 2011
My dear Rajan,
I am glad to inform you that the marriage of my elder brother has been fixed to be held on the
15th of October, 2011. Our formal letter of invitation will reach you in due course of time. But I am
writing this personal letter well in advance so that you may get sufficient time to take leave and
arrange for train reservation. I shall not accept amy excuse; you have got to come. I need not add
that your presence would add so much to my joy and happiness on this auspicious occasion.
I do hope you will give me the pleasure of your company.
With best wishes to you and personal regards to your parents.
Yours affectionately,
Shyam Sunder
To
Shri Rajendra Kumar Saxena
3/21 A, Indra Bhavan,
Chawk, Allahabad
 LETTER-WRITING | 373

(12) Affirmative reply to the above

3/21 A, Indra Bhavan,
Chawk, Allahabad
10th September, 2011
My dear Shyam,
I was so glad to receive your affectionate letter yesterday, I was delighted to learn that you
elder brother is getting married next month. I will certainly make it a point to attend his marriage
ceremony. I am going to apply for leave from my office very soon, and I believe there will be no
difficulty in getting my train reservation. I shall give you the details of my journey after getting my
reservation.
I need not say that I shall be intensely happy to be in your company for a couple of days. I’ll
certainly not miss this happy chance.
Kindly convey my warmest personal regards to your parents, and my heartiest congratulations
to your brother in advance.
Yours affectionately,
Rajan
To
Shri Shyam Sunder Sharma,
2A/5, Shanti Kunj,
Dehradun
(13) Negative reply to the above
35, Alok Nagar
Tilak Road
Kanpur
12th September, 2011
My dear Shyam,
I was so delighted to receive your affectionate letter. It gave me great pleasure to learn that the
marriage of your elder brother takes place on the 15th of October. I am grateful to you for
remembering me and inviting me so affectionately to attend this marriae ceremony. I should have
been extremely happy to attend this marriage and meet you on such a happpy occasion after such a
long time. But, as you know, I am preparing for Indian Administrative Services examination, and
by chance the said exams begin from the 10th of October. In fact, I have a Paper on the 15th
October itself. This prevents me from attending your brother’s marriage and sharing your joy and
happiness. I hope you will realize my difficulty and pardon me for my inability to have the pleasure
of your company. However, as soon as I am free from the exams, I’ll come to you and stay with
you for a couple of days.
Kindly convey my felicitatons, my congratulations, and my best wishes to your brother and his
bride. Also please convey my regards to your parents.
With best wishes,
Yours affectionately,
Rahul
To
Shri Shyam Sunder Sharma
2A/5, Shanti Kunj,
Dehradun
374 | L.W.C.E.

Models of Matrimonial Letters, Invitations, Bio-Data

and Advertisements
(1) Model of Wedding Invitation
Mr. & Mrs. Madan Lal Ashish most cordially solicit the pleasure of your company on
the auspicious occasion of the marriage of their grand-daughter.

Pratibha
(Daughter of Mr. & Mrs. Shyam Lal Ashish)

With

Rajesh
(Son of Mr. & Mrs. Shyam Bihari Nagore)
On the 15 th of December, 2011 at Hotel Avadh, Lucknow, as per programme given below.
Your gracious presence would add immensely to the gaiety and grandeur of the ceremony.
R.S.V.P. With best compliments from :
Kundan Rajvir Ashish, Pranav Ashish,
Preeti & Praphulla Divya Ashish
2/37, Ashok Marg. &
Lucknow The whole Ashish family

PROGRAMME
Monday, December 15, 2011
Reception of Barat …………………… 7 p. m.
Dinner …………………… 8 p. m.
Wedding …………………… 10 p. m.

Tuesday, December 16, 2011

Vida or Doli …………………… 7 a. m.

Vennue
Hotel Avadh, Lucknow
(2) Another Model of Wedding Invitation

Manisha
(Granddaughter of Mr. & Mrs. S. K. Kohli
Daughter of Mr. and Mrs. R. S. Kohli)
Weds
Rajesh
(Grandson of Mr. & Mrs. P. K. Dhawan
Son of Mr. & Mrs. R. K. Dhawan)
 LETTER-WRITING | 375

On November 12, 2011 at Hotel Clarkes, AGRA

You are most cordially invited with your family to grace this happy and auspicious
occasion with your presence. We earnestly seek the favour of your blessings on the young
couple embarking on their life’s journey.
R.S.V.P. With best compliments from :
Sarvesh, Nalini Sushil K. & Savita Kohli
& Rajesh K. & Ragini Kohli
Saurabh
52, M. G. Road,
AGRA
PROGRAMME
Monday, 12 th November, 2011
Receptio of Barat …………………… 7 p. m.
Dinner …………………… 8 p. m.
Wedding …………………… 10 p. m.
Tuesday, 13th November, 2011
Vida …………………… 7 a. m.

Venue
Hotel Clarkes, AGRA
(3) Traditional Model of Wedding Invitation

( OM (

Dated …………
Dear ……………,

We feel immensely glad to write to you that by the grace of God and blessings and good
wishes of our near and dear ones like you, the marriage of our son, Sushant, has been fixed for the
24th of April, 2012 with Kumari Sukanta, daughter of Shrimati and Shriman Jagdambika Prasad of
Jaipur. You are most cordially and earnestly invited and requested to grace this happy and
auspicious occason with your gracious presence along with your family and shower your blessings
on the newly wedded couple. We earnestly feet that your presence would add immensely to the
glamour and gaiety of the cerenmony. We request you most emphatically to make it convenient to
join with us in our joy and happiness.
The detailed programme is given below.
R.S.V.P. Sincerely yours,
Dr. Naresh Pareek Ram Naresh Pareek
Dr. Brijesh Pareek (Mrs.) Shushma Pareek
Mrs. Sudha Pareek
Mrs. Chandra Pareek
2/25, Prashant Nagar,
M. G. Road, AJMER
Tel : 352798
376 | L.W.C.E.

PROGRAMME
Tuesday, 24th April, 2012
Departure of Barat : by bus at 6 a. m. from our residence
Reception of Barat : at 8 p. m. at the Bride’s residence,
25, Subhash Nagar, Ajmer
Wednesday, 25th April, 2012
Vida : …………………………………… 6 a. m.
Thursday, 26 th April, 2012
Dinner : at our residence—5 p. m. onwards
(4) Matrimonial Advertisements : Models
1. Alliance invited for a ver attractive, fair-complexioned, Post-graduate, 25/158 cms. Agrawal girl of
high status family from a well-settled, vegetarian, teetotaller, professional boy from high status
family. Early and decent marriage. Please reply with full bio-data to Box 3587, Hindustan Times,
New Delhi.
2. Compatible match well-settled in Civil/Professional services from highly educated and respectable
family for a very beautiful, fair-complexioned, highly cultured, convent educated, M. A., M.B.A.
girl, 26 / 156 cms., of high status Jain family. Early decent marriage. Please reply to Box 3926.
Times of India, New Delhi.
3. Wanted suitable match from industrialist, business family of high status with decent living for a
slim, sharp-featured, fair-complexioned, charming, convent-educated, 23/164 cms. girl. Only
daughter of an industrialist, status Khatri family. Please correspond to Box 3468-CD. Hindustan
Times, New Delhi.
4. Correspondence invited from U. S. A.-based professional for beautiful, attractive, vegetarian,
computer consultant, U. S. citizen, 25/162 cms. Panjabi girl. Please send full bio-data to Box 3652
CF, Nav Bharat Times, New Delhi.
5. Matrimonial correspondene invited from USA-based professional for a divorcee Khatri girl,
34/158, looking much younger, charming, convent-educated, MS, American citizenship. Early
marriage. Box 1538, Times of India, New Delhi.
6. Alliance invited for beautiful, fair, smart, 30/160 cms. Panjabi girl working in USA on H1 Visa as
an expert in Oriental Fashion Designing, $ 60,000 plus perks, from highly educated and very well
placed boy in U. S. Caste no bar. Early marriage. Box 3518 CA Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
7. Alliance invited from charming, extermely beautiful, slim, smart, positive-thinking girl for well-
settled Punjabi widower, 35/75, handsome, fair-complexioned, having his own multinational
industrial establishment, income in millions. No demands, no bars. Issueless widows, divorcees
also acceptale. Respond to Box 3568 OS, Times of India, New Delhi.
8. Reputed affluent Kayastha family seeks alliance for their only son, handsome, fair complexion, tall,
teetotaller, non-smoker. Girl should be very beautiful, cultured and refined. Girl’s merits only
consideration. No demands. Write to Box 5039 HT, Nav Bharat Times, New Delhi.
9. Renowned industrialist family, Bombay-based, invites correspondence for matrimonial alliance for
their only son, handsome, smart, dashing spirit, own income in seven figures, 30/176 cms. Parents
of equal status of a girl, smart, beautiful, convent-educated may correspond to Box 9735 HP,
Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
10. Beautiful, fair, slim, Doctor, Engineer, M. C. A., M. B. A. match for a Brahmin boy. 28/180, M.
Tech., employed in multinational firm, drawing salary in six figures. No demands. Girl’s merits
only consideration. Write to Box 7389 CA Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
 LETTER-WRITING | 377

Model Proforma for Bio-Data For Matrimonial Purposes

Name : Full name of Boy or Girl
Age and Date of Birth : ……………………………………………………………………
Personality :
Height In Centimeters.
Complexion Very fair / Fair / Wheatish / Dark.
Features For Girls—Beautiful, charming, attractive, graceful, refined,
sophisticated, sharp-featured.
For Boys—Handsom, Fair, Healthy, Impressive.
Culture and Temperament :
Nature For Girls—Gentle and submissive, tolerant and accommoda-
ting, adaptable to new conditions.
For Boys—Free and frank, bold and dashing, tolerant and
accommodating.
Refinement For Girls—Highly refined and cultured, soft spoken, can move
and adjust in high society.
For Boys—Smart and well-dressed, cultured and Polished.
Temperament For both boys and girls—Cool, cheerful, positive-thinking,
composed and peaceful.
Hobbies For Girls—Singing, dancing, knitting, embroidery, painting,
cooking, fashion-designing, interior decoration, car-driving, etc.
For Boys—Games, sports, horse-riding, travelling and sight-
seeing, photography, gardening, etc.
Educational Qualification : Details of education, Degrees, Diplomas, Distinctions, Speciali-
zation, Practical training, etc.
Occupation : Details of occupation/Profession, positions held in the past,
holding at present, and future prospects and aspirations. Present
salary and nature of work. (This is applicable to both boys and
girls in jobs.)
Family Background : Family background
Father :
Mother :
Brothers :
Sisters :
Uncles :
(a) Paternal :
(b) Maternal :
Preferences : Preferences, if any, in the choice of the bride or the bridegroom,
such as Professional or Business, Girl employed or housewife,
Doctor / Engineer / C. A. etc.
Standard of Marriage : Decent; simple but decent; no demands; no dowery; no avoidable
pomp or show.
Address for Correspondence : Full address with Telephone Number
378 | L.W.C.E.

Business Letters
(1) Letter of Enquiry about some Goods
From
The Principal, Dated
Agra College, Agra, th
30 Sept., 2011
No. 357/Games/2011
To
M/s Davico,
Sports Goods Suppliers,
M. G. Road, AGRA
Dear Sirs,
I shall be thankful to you if you could kindly let me know within a fortnight whether you can
supply the following items of games and sports from your ready stock. If so, kindly quote your
rates along with the brands available with you for immediate supply.
1. Cricket Bats, 2 dozen
2. Cricket balls, 6 dozen
3. Hockey sticks, 4 dozen
4. Foot-balls, 2 dozen
5. Volley-balls, 2 dozen
6. Badminton cocks, 6 dozen
If your quotations reach me within a fortnight and if they are approved by our Sports
Committee, I shall place an order with you for immediate supply of the goods.
Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
Principal
(2) Placing an order for Goods
From
The Registrar, Dated
Agra University, Agra March 20, 2012
No. 615/Misc/Lib-2012
To
M/s Doaba Book House,
Ansari Road, New Delhi

Subject — Order for Library Books

Dear Sirs,
The Library Committee of the University has considered and approved at its meeting held on
March 18, 2012 your price list together with the rate of discount as quoted by you. You are now
requested to supply all the books as given in our list within a fortnight and send the Bill to me.
Please see that the supply is in conformity with your terms and conditions and there is no delay
on your part. Please also see that the latest editions of the books are supplied to us.
I assure you of prompt payment of the Bill after its verification by the Librarian of the
University.
Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
Registrar
 LETTER-WRITING | 379

(3) Letter regarding settlement of accounts

From
The Modern Scientific Instruments Company Ltd. Dated
Daryaganj, 15.10.2011
New Delhi
No. 302/Inst./2011
To
The Registrar,
University of Allahabad,
Allahabad
Subject : Settlement of Accounts
Dear Sir,
We supplied some scientific instruments to your University in compliance of your order dated
10. 2. 2011. The total Bill came to 2,63,850, out of which the University has already paid us
1,50,000. The balance of 1,13,850 has been pending for payment for over six months now.
I would request you kindly to take early steps to make the payment of the balance of the Bill
and settle the account finally.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
For
Scientific Instruments
Co. Ltd.
(4) Letter for asking for overdue payment
From
Messrs A. Rahman & Co. Dated
7, Taj Road, 15. 1. 2012
Agra
No. 201/payment/2010-11
To
M/s Abdul Gani & Co.
Rakab Ganj,
Bareilly
Subject : Reminder for overdue payment
Dear Sirs,
I beg to remind you once again that the payment of our Bill dated 1.4.2011 still remains unpaid
in spite of our three reminders. Please note that this is our final reminder. If we do not receive the
payment within a fortnight, we shall be left with no option except taking legal action.
We hope you would kindly make the payment in time and not force us to take legal action
against you.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
Sd. XYZ
For
A. Rahman & Co.
380 | L.W.C.E.

(5) Reply to the above

From
M/s Abdul Gani & Co. Dated
Rakab Ganj, 20.1.2012
Bareilly
No. 281/ACC/2011-12
To
Messrs A. Rahman & Co.
7, Taj Road,
Agra
Dear Sirs,
We are in receipt of your letter dated 15.1.2012. We are sorry that the payment of your Bill has
been delayed. Our firm had fallen into a financial crisis, from which it is now gradually recovering.
We would request you to allow us a month’s time more for the payment of your Bill. We
assure you we shall take all steps to make your payment on priority basis.
Regretting the inconvenience caused to you.
Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
For
M/s Abdul Gani & Co.

(6) Letter of Claim for damages

From
M/s Raj Furniture Pvt. Ltd. Dated
Cannaught Place, 15.4.2012
New Delhi
No. 81/Claim—F/2012
To
The Claims Officer,
Northern Railway,
New Delhi

Subject : Claim for Damages

Dear Sir,
A large consignment of many items of school furniture was booked by us from Haldwani by
Northern Railway. When the consignment reached here and we went to take delivery of the same,
we found a large number of chairs and tables completely broken or damaged. This damage was
evidently caused by mishandling of the same by the coolies while loading and unloading the items.
The responsibility of damages rests squarely with the Railway staff. Their carelessness and
mishandling have damaged furniture worth 15,000.
 LETTER-WRITING | 381

Therefore I lodge herewith my claim for damages worth 15,000. We request you to make an
early enquiry into the matter and pass our claim for 15000 for early payment.
Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,
Sd. X Y Z
For
Raj Furniture Pvt. Ltd.
Applications
Applications for a post can be written in two forms—
(1) Running or narrative form
(2) Tabular form or on the prescribed proforma.
We give below an example of each form :
(1) Application for the Post of a Lecturer
To
The Principal,
St. Lawrence College,
Kolkata
Sir,
With reference to your advertisement No. 3F/Lec/12, dated 5.2.2012, published in The Times
of India for the post of a lecturer in English for your College, I beg to offer my candidature for the
same.
With regard to my educational qualifications, I beg to submit that I passed M. A. in English
from Calcutta University in 1999 and obtained First division. Subsequently I obtained the Degree
of Ph. D. in English in 2002. The topic of my research was ‘Shakespeare’s Historical Plays’. My
examiners spoke highly of my thesis. In my earlier educational career also, I obtained First division
in all examinations from High School to B. A.
Regarding my teaching experience, I would submit that I have been working as a Lecturer in
English in Allahabad University since September 2002 on a temporary basis. Thus I have an
experience of teaching Degree classes for nearly two sessions in a reputed university. It is natural
that I should seek an appointment on a permanent basis as advertised for your College.
I would assure you that if an opportunity is given to me to serve in your College, I would
discharge my duties to my utmost ability and sincerity and spare no efforts to give entire satis-
faction to you and to my students.
Thanking you, Sir,
Dated : 10.5.2012 Yours faithfully,
R. D. Pirohit
2/41, M. G. Road
Patna
Enclosures
1. Photo Copies of all certificates Degrees and Marksheets
2. Copy of experience certifcate
3. Copy of High School certificate for verification of age.
382 | L.W.C.E.

(2) Application for the above post in Tabular Form

To
The Principal,
St. Lawrence College,
Kolkata
Sir,
With reference to your advertisement for the post of a lecturer in English, I beg to apply for the
same. I give hereunder the details of my bio-data for favour of your consideration.
1. Name of the Applicant : R. D. Pirohit
2. Father’s Name : Shir S. K. Pirohit
3. Postal Address : 2/41, M. G. Road, Patna
4. Date of Birth : 30. 8. 1982

5. Educational Qualifications—

Exams. Board / Year of Division Percentage of Marks

Passed University Passing
High School U. P. Board 1996 I 69%
Intermediate U. P. Board 1998 I 67%
B. A. Allahabad 2000 I 63%
University
M. A. (Eng.) Patna University 2002 I 65%
Ph.D. (Eng.) Allahabad 2007 ‘Shakespeare’s Historical Plays’
University
6. Teaching Experience : Taught degree Classes for two sessions in Allahabad Uni-
versity on a Temporary basis.
7. Enclosures : (i) Copies of all certificates, Degrees and Marksheets
(ii) Copy of Teaching experience certificate.
(iii) Copy of High School certificate for verification of age.
8. Address for Correspondence: 2/41, M. G. Road, Patna, Tel : 385793
Dated : 10 . 5. 2009 Yours faithfully,
Signature
R. D. P.
(3) Call for Interview
An Institution or Industrial House or a Government Department or any appointing authority
has to send letters to the applicants calling them for interview. The call for interview may be sent
according to the following format :
 LETTER-WRITING | 383

Name of the Candidate : …………………………………………………

Address : …………………………………………………

Dated : ……………

Dear Sir,

With reference to your application for the post of Junior Engineer, you are required to appear
for an interview before the Interview Board in the Chief Engineer’s Office on Monday, the 12th of
July, 2012 at 10 a. m. Please bring all your certificates and other relevant documents in the original
for verification.

Please note that no T. A. or D. A. will be paid to you for appearing at the interview.

Yours faithfully,
R. C. Dwivedi
For
The Chief Engineer
P. W. D. Kanpur

(4) Joining Report

To Dated : 28 . 7. 2012
The Principal,
D. A. V. College,
Bhopal
Sir,
With reference to your letter of appointment No. Eng/II-2012, dated 25.7.2012, I have the
honour to submit that I have joined my duties as Lecturer in English at your College with effect
from the forenoon of 28.7.2012. This may kindly be entered in the records of the College.
Thanking you, Sir,
Yours faithfully,
R. K. Nigam,
3/5 (1), Nehru Nagar
Bhopal
384 | L.W.C.E.

(5) Application for Casual Leave

To
The Principal,
St. John’s College,
Jaipur,
Sir,
I beg to submit that I have received a telephonic call from my father to meet him today at
Ajmer for an urgent piece of work. Therefore, I am going to meet him and will return from there by
tomorrow evening.
Therefore, I request you kindly to grant me casual leave for two days, i.e., for 5th & 6th of July,
2012 and oblige.
Dated : 5.7.2012 Yours faithfully,
P. K. Dua,
Lecturer in English,
St. John’s College,
Jaipur
(6) Application for Medical Leave
To
The Divisional Manager,
L. I. C. of India,
M. G. Road, Meerut
Sir,
I regret to write that I am laid up with high fever. My family doctor has diagnosed it to be
typhoid fever. He has advised me to take leave for seven days for treatment and rest.
Therefore, I request you kindly to grant me Medical leave for seven days with effect from the
7th June to 13th June, 2012.
The Medical Certificate is enclosed herewith.
Thanking you, Sir,
Dated : 7.6.2012 Yours faithfully,
R. N. Tripathi
Accountant
Encl.
Medical Certificate
 Grammar Rules: Parts of Speech
Words are classed into eight categories according to their uses in a sentence.

1. Noun
Name for a person, animal, thing, place, idea, activity.
John, cat, box, desert, liberty, golf

2. Pronoun
Alternate name for a noun.
he, she, it Amazingly, only eight
parts of speech are
3. Adjective used to classify
Modifies a noun or pronoun. hundreds of thousands
big, good, full of words. The
challenge is that many
4. Verb words can be used for
more than one part of
Expresses action or existence. speech.
went, purred, is
Select yes on the
5. Adverb ballot. (noun)
Modifies a verb, adverb, or adjective. Cast a yes vote.
quickly, loudly, here (adjective)

6. Conjunction He voted yes.

(adverb)
Connects words, phrases, or clauses.
and, or, but Yes! (Interjection)

7. Preposition Additionally, phrases

and clauses can act as
Precedes phrase that acts as a modifier or noun. nouns, adjectives, or
with, for, at adverbs.
8. Interjection
Expresses emotion.
Gosh! Wow! Super!

That’s my Pa!
BrainAid
N PA VAC PI To memorize the 8 parts
Noun-Pronoun-Adjective of speech, imagine that
Verb-Adverb-Conjunction N N’s PA VACuums PIe!
Preposition-Interjection

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 1 of 7

 1. Noun = Name
My noun- My noun- My noun-
name is John. name is cat. name is liberty.

liberty

John cat liberty

Proper noun common noun abstract noun

Compound Noun: Made of two or more words: ice water, notebook, brother-in-law
Appositive: Noun or noun phrase that identifies a nearby noun or pronoun. My son Bill is happy.

2. Pronoun = Pro-Name
Professional or alternate names used by nouns to enhance their careers.
One of my One of my One of my
pro-names is pro-names is pro-names is
he. she. it.

Pro
means
liberty “for.”
Pronoun
he she it means
“for a noun.”
Types of Pronouns
Personal: I, me, mine, my / you, your / he, him, his / she, her / we, our, us / they, them, their / it...
Indefinite (not specific): all, any, anyone, both, each, either, everyone, few, many...
When used to
Interrogative (ask questions): what?, which?, who?, whom?, whose?... show
possession,
Demonstrative (point out): this, that, these, those...
pronouns
Reflexive (reflect back): myself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves... behave like
adjectives and
Relative (link dependent clauses): that, which, who, whoever, whom, whose... are called
determiners.
Antecedent: The noun or noun phrase a pronoun refers to. John made his bed. their car.
Ante means “before.” Cede means “to go.” An antecedent in a sense “goes before” or existed
before the pronoun, although it can occur afterwards in a sentence. It was John’s bed.

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 2 of 7

 3. Adjective Advertises
Advertises details about a noun or pronoun
by telling what kind, which one, how many....
I’m tall!
I behave! I’m total!

liberty

Big John good cat full liberty

Articles (the, a, an) are also adjectives.

Proper Adjectives are Proper Nouns used as adjectives: Boston bank, French fries.

4. Verb = moVement or being

Describes a noun’s movement (action) or being (existence).
I’m going.
Purr! I exist!

liberty

Big John good cat full liberty

went purred is
Phrasal Verbs generally consist of a verb plus a preposition: Turn up the music.

5. Adverb Adds to verb

Adds to the meaning of a verb (or an adjective or another adverb)
by telling what, when, where, why, how....
I’m fast!
Purr! I’ve arrived!
Only an adverb
can modify an
adjective
(very good)
liberty or another
adverb
(very loudly).
Big John good cat full liberty
went quickly purred loudly is here

Adverbial Conjunctives connect independent clauses in a compound sentence:

consequently, hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore...

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 3 of 7

 6. Conjunction Conjoins
Connects words, phrases, or clauses “at the hip” like conjoined twins.

In addition to
conjunctions,
relative pronouns,
and or liberty
adverbial conjunctives,
aare and prepositions are
called connectives.
John and cat or liberty

Coordinating (equal rank items): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so fanboys
Subordinating (dependent clauses): after, although, as, as if, because, before, if,
once, since, so that, than, that, unless, until, when, where, while
Correlative (item pairs): both-and, either-or, neither-nor

7. Preposition Positions
Precedes a phrase that acts as a modifier or noun by indicating
a position in time, location, or manner.

Let’s run.
Purr! It’s about time!

Prepositional
phrases can
liberty be used as
nouns,
adjectives,
Big John went quickly full liberty is here or adverbs.
good cat purred loudly
with his friend for several minutes The noun or
at last
pronoun at
Time: before/after, during, past, until the end of the
phrase is the
Location: above/below, across, along, around, behind, beside, between, object of the
in/out, into, near/far, on/off, over/under, through, up/down, within preposition.
Multipurpose: about, against, as, at, by, of, for, from, to, with, without

8. Interjection Ignites!
Ignites the message with an exclamation of emotion! Interjections
Yes! can stand
Oops! Super! alone or be
part of a
sentence.
Yes! It’s me.
liberty
Oh, is it?

Expletives are interjectory words or expressions. There is no one here! Darn it!

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 4 of 7

 Parts-of-Speech Puzzles
Although there are only eight parts of speech, it can be difficult to classify some words.

Some words are easy to classify: “Is it a person, place, or thing?” (noun); “Does it modify
a noun?” (adjective), etc. But many words are less obvious and can be different parts of
speech depending on how they are used.
What part of
When in doubt, the best option is to consult a speech is the
dictionary, which lists the various parts of speech word “when”?
for a word in the order of most common usage when
along with definitions and examples.
But even a dictionary may not make classifying easy when a word’s
shades of meaning and usage are nearly identical.
For example, looking up “when” in the Random House Webster’s College Dictionary
© 1996 yielded four parts of speech and ten alternate definitions. Here’s a sampling:

Part of Speech First Definition First Example

Adverb at what time or period? When are they to arrive?
Conjunction at what time to know when to be silent.
Pronoun what time Till when is the store open?
Noun the time of anything the when and the where of an act.

The following table lists a dozen words (in alphabetical order) that can be difficult to classify. The parts
of speech are ranked (1, 2, 3...) in the order they are listed in Webster’s dictionary.

Parts-of-Speech Puzzles Chart

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection
Noun Pron Adj Verb Adv Conj Prep Int
1. how 3 1 2
2. not 1 2
3. now 3 4 1 2
4. than 1 2
5. that 1 2 3 4
6. then 3 2 1
7. what 2 1 3 4 6 5
8. when 4 3 1 2
9. where 4 3 1 2
10. which 1 2
11. who 1
12. why 3 1 2 4

Of the 12 words listed in the Chart:

• Adverbs have the most #1 rankings (7).
• Pronouns have the 2nd most #1 rankings (4).
• “What” can be six parts of speech!
• “Who” can be only one part of speech.
• Only “than” can be used as a preposition.
• No words can be verbs.

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 5 of 7

 Your Turn!
To Do
Draw a line from the item to the best matching example.

Proper Noun peach

Common Noun glory
Abstract Noun attorney general
Compound Noun Sparky, the dog, barked
Appositive she was happy
Personal Pronoun the ones who were left behind
Relative Pronoun it was the best book
Antecedent an apple
Article Georgia peach
Proper Adjective blow out the candle
Phrasal Verb however, I did not go
Adverbial Conjunctive cats and dogs
Coordinating Conjunction because he left town
Subordinating Conjunction under the bench
Preposition Oh my!
Interjection Georgia
Following the example, mark parts of speech above each word of the sentences that follow.
Consult your dictionary as needed.

Int Pron Verb Adj Adj Conj Adj Noun Adv Prep Adj Noun
Wow! He kicked the red and white ball high into the air.

Sally slowly digested her food.

Mike rudely chewed and talked with his mouth open.

Hey! Do you think we can get some service at this restaurant?

Finally! They had been waiting forever for good food and drink.

What! Why did you not ask when the kids who went into that house returned?

Why? How was I to know more about where they were then than I do now?
[ Answers follow ]

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 6 of 7

 Answers

Proper Noun peach

Common Noun glory
Abstract Noun attorney general
Compound Noun Sparky, the dog, barked
Appositive she was happy
Personal Pronoun the ones who were left behind
Relative Pronoun it was the best book
Antecedent an apple
Article Georgia peach
Proper Adjective blow out the candle
Phrasal Verb however, I did not go
Adverbial Conjunctive cats and dogs
Coordinating Conjunction because he left town
Subordinating Conjunction under the bench
Preposition Oh my!
Interjection Georgia

Noun Adv Verb Pron Noun

Sally slowly digested her food.

Noun Adv Verb Conj Verb Prep Pro Noun Adj

Mike rudely chewed and talked with his mouth open.

Int Verb Pro Verb Pro Verb Verb Adj Noun Prep Adj Noun
Hey! Do you think we can get some service at this restaurant?

s Int Pro Verb Verb Verb Adv Prep Adj Noun Conj Noun
Finally! They had been waiting forever for good food and drink.

Int Adv Verb Pron Adv Verb Conj Adj Noun Pron Verb Prep Adj Noun Verb
What! Why did you not ask when the kids who went into that house returned?

Int Adv Verb PronPrep Verb Adv Prep Adv Pron Verb Adv Conj PronVerb Adv
Why? How was I to know more about where they were then than I do now?

Grammar Rules * MaxLearning.Net © 2008 * Parts of Speech p. 7 of 7

 List of Irregular Verbs
Base form - past simple - past participle
GRK
abide abode abode draw drew drawn
arise arose arisen dream dreamt dreamt
awake awoke awoken drink drank drunk

be was/were been drive drove driven

bear bore born dwell dwelt dwelt
beat beat beaten eat ate eaten
beget begot begotten fall fell fallen
begin began begun feed fed fed
bend bent bent feel felt felt

bereave bereft bereft fight fought fought

beseech besought besought find found found
bespeak bespoke bespoken flee fled fled
bestride bestrode bestrided fly flew flown
bet bet bet forbid forbad(e) forbidden

bid bade/bid bidden/bid forecast forecast forecast

bind bound bound forget forgot forgotten
bite bit bitten forsake forsook forsaken
bleed bled bled freeze froze frozen
blow blew blown get got got
break broke broken give gave given
breed bred bred go went gone

bring brought brought grind ground ground

broadcast broadcast broadcast grow grew grown
build built built hang hung hung
burn burnt burnt have had had
burst burst burst hear heard heard

buy bought bought hide hid hidden

can could hit hit hit
cast cast cast hold held held
catch caught caught hurt hurt hurt
choose chose chosen keep kept kept
cling clung clung kneel knelt knelt

come came come know knew known

cost cost cost lay laid laid

creep crept crept lead led led
cut cut cut lean leant leant
deal dealt dealt leap leapt leapt
dig dug dug learn learnt learnt
do did done leave left left

English exercises and grammar rules at www.e-grammar.org/irregular-verbs/

 List of Irregular Verbs
Base form - past simple - past participle

lend lent lent smell smelt smelt

let let let smite smote smitten
lie lay lain speak spoke spoken
lose lost lost speed sped sped
make made made spend spent spent
mean meant meant spin spun spun
meet met met spit spat spat
pay paid paid split split split
put put put spoil spoilt spoit
read read read spread spread spread
rend rent rent spring sprang sprung
rid rid rid stand stood stood
ride rode ridden steal stole stolen
ring rang rung stick stuck stuck
rise rose risen sting stung stung
run ran run stink stank stunk
say said said strike struck struck
see saw seen string strung strung
seek sought sought strive strove striven
sell sold sold swear swore sworn
send sent sent sweep swept swept
set set set swim swam swum
shake shook shaken swing swung swung
shed shed shed take took taken
shine shone shone teach taught taught
shoot shot shot tear tore torn
show showed shown tell told told
shrink shrank shrunk think thought thought
shrive shrove shriven throw threw thrown
shut shut shut thrust thrust thrust
sing sang sung tread trod trodden
sink sank sunk wake woke woken
sit sat sat wear wore worn
slay slew slain weave wove woven
sleep slept slept weep wept wept
slide slid slid win won won
sling slung slung wind wound wound
slink slunk slunk wring wrung wrung
slit slit slit write wrote written

English exercises and grammar rules at www.e-grammar.org/irregular-verbs/

 bear on + have to do with This information may bear on this
Phrasal Verb Definition Example case.

act up behave or function I think I need to take my car to the mechanic bear up withstand I didn't think he would bear up so well
improperly because it's acting up again. in that situation.

add * up + calculate a sum I added up the receipts and it totaled $135.46. bear up under + withstand How did he bear up under such
extreme pressure.
add up to + equal an amount The total expenses added up to $325.00.
bear with + be patient Please bear with me while I fill out the
add up make sense Her story doesn't add up. I think she is lying. paperwork.

ask * out + invite on a date I can't believe that Joe finally asked me out on a blow in visit unexpectedly (inf.) My cousin blew in unexpectedly with
date! his entire family.

ask * over + invite to one's home Why don't we ask the Johnsons over for dinner? blow over pass without creating a All this negative publicity will blow
problem over in a couple of weeks.
B
blow * up + make explode;destroy using The terrorists blew the bridge up.
back down stop defending your opinion Jane never backs down. She always
explosives
in a debate wins arguments.

blow up explode The bomb blew up before they could

back out not keep (a promise, Sam backed out at the last second.
defuse it.
agreement,deal)

blow up suddenly become very angry When Joan heard the news, she blew
back out of + not keep (a promise, Sam backed out of the agreement at
up and rushed out of the room.
agreement, deal) the last second.

break * down + analyze in detail We need to break this problem down

back * up + give support You need examples to back up your
in order to solve.
opinion.

break down stop working properly The truck broke down in the desert.
back up move backwards, reverse Could you back up a little so I can
open this drawer.
break down become mentally ill She broke down after her husband
died.
bawl * out criticize, reprimand (inf.) She bawled him out for arriving late.

break * in + wear or use something new I need to break these shoes in before I
bear down on + bite The soldier had to bear down on the
until it is comfortable go hiking.
leather strap while the doctor removed
a bullet from the soldier's arm.
break in interrupt While we were discussing the
situation, Terri broke in to give her
bear down on + take strong measures against The U.S.A. is bearing down on drug
opinion.
traffickers.
break in enter a place unlawfully The burglar broke in between experience) difficult, but I brought a new
midnight and 3 AM. appreciation for life away from the
experience.
break in on + interrupt (a conversation) Jane broke in on the conversation and
told us to get back to work. bring * off + succeed at something difficult You robbed the bank! I can't believe
or unexpected you brought that off.
break into + enter a house unlawfully The burglar broke into the house
between midnight and 3 AM. bring * on + cause something I can't believe she got so angry. What
brought that on?
break into + interrupt (a conversation) Jane broke into the conversation and
told us what she knew. bring * out + highlight, stress Your new shirt brings out the color of
your eyes.
break * off + end something Sally broke her engagement to John
off. bring * over + bring to someone's house When you visit me, why don't you
bring over your son.
break out appear violently Violent protests broke out in response
to the military coup. bring * to revive consciousness We used smelling salts to bring her to
after she fainted.
break out + use something extravagant for He broke out the champagne to
celebration celebrate his promotion. bring * up + mention I didn't want to bring up the fact that
she was unemployed.
break out of + escape The murderer broke out of the prison.
bring * up + raise ( a child) Sam was brought up in South
Carolina.
break * up + break into pieces I broke the cracker up into pieces and
put it in the soup.
brush * off + ignore something or someone Mary brushed her ex-boyfriend off at
(inf.) the party.
break * up + disperse (a crowd), stop (a The police broke the demonstration up
fight) before it got out of control.
burn * down + destroy by setting fire to The children burned the house down
while playing with matches.
break up end a relationship Sam and Diane broke up again. What
a rocky relationship.
burn down burn until completely gone Two buildings burnt down in the fire.
(building)
bring * about + cause to happen Democracy brought about great
change in the lives of the people.
burn up be hot I am burning up in here - open the
window.
bring * along + bring with When we go to the forest, bring your
wildlife guide along.
burn up consume by fire The papers were burned up in the fire.
bring * around change someone's mind, She doesn't want to go, but we'll
convince someone eventually bring her around. burn * up + destroy by fire He burnt up the files.

bring * away learn or gain (from an My trip across the Sahara was buy * out + buy the shares of a company Pacific Inc. was bought out by a
 or the shares the other person company from Oregon. carry * out + complete and/or accomplish The secret agent carried out his
owns of a business something orders exactly as planned.

buy * up + purchase the entire supply of We bought up all the beer in the store. carry * over + continue on a subsequent day, The meeting carried over into
something page, etc. lunch time.

C
catch on slowly start to understand He caught on after a few minutes.
call for + require (as in a recipe) This recipe calls for milk, not (inf.)
water.
catch up make up for lost time I will never catch up. I am too
call * off + cancel something They called the picnic off because behind in my work.
of the rain.
catch up with + speed up to be at the same I had to run to catch up with the
call * off + order to stop (an invasion, He called off the dogs when he place as a person or thing in others.
guard dogs) saw it was his neighbor. front of you

call on + visit Mark called on Naomi while he catch up on + become up-to-date I need to catch up on world
was in town. events. I haven't seen the news in
ages.
call on + invite someone to speak in a Professor Tanzer called on Tim to
meeting or a classroom answer the question. check back return to see if everything is We will check back tomorrow to
OK make sure the project is finished.
call * up + telephone I called Sam up to see if he wanted
to go to the movies. check by + go to a place to see if We need to check by the office to
everything is OK see if the documents are ready.
calm * down + make someone relax You can calm the baby down by
rocking her gently. check for + try to find They checked for termites before
they bought the house.
care for + nurse someone or something He cared for the bird until its
wing healed. check in enter a hospital, hotel etc. They need to check in before
noon.
care for + like someone or something I don't care for sour cream on my
potato. check into + enter a hospital, hotel etc. They checked into the hotel at
11:00 AM.
carry on + continue (a conversation, a Please, carry on. I didn't mean to
game) interrupt you. check into + investigate, look for (often We are checking into discount
through a service) flights to London.
carry on about + continue in an annoying way He kept carrying on about how
much money he makes. check * off + make a mark next to (an item Check each name off the list.
on a list)
carry on with + continue I want you to carry on with the
project while I am out of town. check on + make sure something is OK Let's check on the baby again
before we go to sleep.
check * out + investigate, take a look at He checked out the new close * down + close a place permanently The corner market closed down
restaurant down the street. because they didn't have many
customers.
check out leave a hotel, hospital It's already eleven. We need to
check out. close down close permanently The bar was closed down because
they served alcohol to minors.
check out of + leave a hotel, hospital We checked out of the hotel before
ten. close in on + approach and threaten The rebels were closing in on the
capital, so the government called
in the army.
check * over + closely examine the condition He checked over the old car to see
of something if it was worth buying.
close * up + close temporarily They are closing the ski resort up
for the summer.
check up on + investigate someone or The police are checking up on the
something bomb threats.
close up close temporarily The ski resort is closing up for the
summer.
check * through send luggage through (to a Your luggage will be checked
destination) through to Paris.
come about occur / happen How did you idea for the book
come about.
check with + ask a person for confirmation He needs to check with his
parents before he goes.
come across + discover by accident They came across some lost
Mayan ruins in the jungle.
cheer * up make someone feel cheerful The party really cheered me up.

come across + initially seem or have the He comes across as rather rude,
cheer up become cheerful Cheer up. Everything will be all
appearance but he isn't.
right.

come along accompany someone If you want, you can come along.
chew * up + chew into small pieces The dog chewed up my shoe.

come along with + accompany Sam came along with us to the

chop * down + fell/cut ( a tree) The lumberjack chopped the tree
beach.
down.

come along progress How's the research paper coming

chop * up + chop/cut into small bits He chopped the meat up into little
along.
pieces.

come along with + progress How are you coming along with
clean * up + tidy Susan cleaned the mess up before
the research paper.
she left.

come away leave a place with a particular I came away from the meeting
clear out leave ( inf.) Everybody clear out! We're closed.
feeling or impression feeling like the presentation was a
success.
clear * up + tidy Susan cleared up the mess before
she left.
come back return What time are you coming back?
come by + get, receive How did you come by that new count * in + include Did you count expenses in?
Mercedes?
count on + depend/rely on You can really count on Sarah.
come by visit a person at their house I'll come by later this afternoon.
count * out + exclude You can count James out. He hates
come down with + become sick with He came down with the flu. playing poker.

come into + inherit He came into a large sum of count * up + add Count the change up and see how
money when his aunt died. much we have.

come off + fall off, break off The handle came off the suitcase cross * out + draw a line through something, Why did you cross my name out
when I picked it up. eliminate on the list?

come out appear I didn't see the car at first. It came cut down decrease the amount of You eat too much fat. You need to
out of nowhere. cut down.

come out reveal you are homosexual Sam finally came out last month. cut down on + decrease the amount of You need to cut down on your fat
intake.
come out turn out, end up The pictures came out great.
cut in interrupt She suddenly cut in and delivered
the news
come out with + produce and distribute a Microsoft is coming out with a
product new video game system next
month. cut in on + interrupt She cut in on the conversation and
delivered the news.
come over visit someone at their house Why don't you come over after
work for dinner. cut * off interrupt someone while they She cut him off before he said
were speaking something he would regret later.
come to regain consciousness Don't worry! She faints all the
time. She always comes to after a cut * off + sever ( with a knife) His finger was accidentally cut off
few minutes. in an industrial accident.

come through do what is needed or expected Terry really came through for us cut * out + remove He cut the bone out of the steak.
in the end.
cut * out stop an action Cut it out! You're bothering me.
come up to + approach; to equal The job offer didn't come up to her
expectations.
cut * up + Cut into small pieces He cut the beef up and put the
pieces in the soup.
come up with + produce or create (an idea, a She came up with a great proposal
plan) for the new advertising campaign. D

die away diminish in intensity The applause died away after 5

come with + include (an accessory) The computer system doesn't minutes.
come with a printer.
die down diminish in intensity The controversy about the president's drop out of + quit an organized activity It's difficult to get a good job if you
affair finally died down. (school) drop out of high school.

die off/out become extinct Whales are in danger of dying off. drop over visit someone casually Drop over any time you feel like
talking.
disagree with + cause to feel sick due to food Spicy food disagrees with me. E
or drink
eat away gradually destroy, erode The heavy rains ate away at the sandstone cliffs.
do away with abolish Some Americans want to do away with
+ the death penalty. eat * up + devour Ken ate the cookies up.

do * over + repeat You made many mistakes, so I want eat in eat inside the home We usually eat in instead of going out for dinner.
you to do the report over.
eat out eat outside the home They eat out once a week.
do without + manage without something I couldn't do without a car in
one wants or needs California. F

face up to + acknowledge something I'll never be able to face up to my

draw * up + create ( a contract) Let's draw an agreement up before we difficult or embarrassing colleagues after getting so drunk last night
go any further with this project. at the work party.

dress * down reprimand severely The mother dressed her son down for fall back on + be able to use in case of Yuki can fall back on her degree in biology
skipping school. emergency if she doesn't succeed in her acting career.

dress down dress casually I am dressing down because we're fall behind go slower than scheduled, Hurry up or you will fall behind!
going to a barbecue by the beach. lag

dress * up + decorate You could dress this house up with fall behind in + go slower than scheduled, Cheryl has missed several days of school
some bright colors lag and now she is falling behind in her
homework.
dress up wear elegant clothes She always dresses up at work.
fall off decrease Interest in the project fell off when they
drive * back + repulse The invaders were driven back by the realized it wouldn't be profitable.
army.
fall out with + have an argument with I had a falling out with my sister last
drop in visit someone unexpectedly Meg dropped in yesterday after dinner. month and we haven't talked to each other
since.

drop in on + visit someone unexpectedly Let's drop in on Julie since we're

driving by her house. fall through fail to happen Unfortunately, my trip to Indonesia fell
through because I couldn't save enough
money.
drop out quit an organized activity Yuri isn't on the team any more. He
dropped out.
feel * up + grope She sued her boss for sexual harassment
after he felt her up.
feel up to + have the energy to do I don't feel up to going out tonight because get ahead of + surpass You need to work overtime in
something I had a long day at work. order to get ahead of schedule.

figure on + expect Where do you figure on living when you get along have a good relationship Do you and your sister get along?
move to the the U.S.A.?
get along with + have a good relationship Giovanna doesn't get along with
figure * out + solve something, I finally figured the joke out. Now I her two brothers.
understand understand why everybody was laughing.
get around + avoid someone or something Some people get around paying
figure * up + calculate I need to figure my expenses up before I taxes by hiring a good
give you an estimate. accountant.

fill * in + complete Don't forget to fill in all the blanks on the get around go many places It's easy to get around town with
application. public transportation.

fill in substitute Who is going to fill in while you're gone? get away escape The bank robbers got away.

fill in for + substitute for Miguel filled in for me at the meeting get away with + do something against the rules My sister gets away with
yesterday because I was sick. or illegal and not get caught or everything!
punished
fill * out + complete (an application) I filled out an application to rent the
apartment last week. get by survive without having the I lost my job, so I am having a
things you need or want hard time getting by this year.
fill out mature, get breasts Now that you're filling out honey, we need
to get you a bra. get by on + survive with minimal It's nearly impossible to get by on
resources making minimum wage.
fill * up + fill to the top Fill the car up with unleaded gas, please.
get by with + manage with You don't need a computer. You
can get by with the typewriter.
find out + discover You will never find out all my secrets!

get down to + get serious about a topic Enough small talk. Let's get
find out discover Vicky's parents are going to be so mad
down to business.
when they find out she got a tattoo.

get in + enter ( a car, a small boat) Get in the front seat. You will
fix * up + repair, renovate, remodel My neighbors are fixing their house up.
have more leg room.

G get in Enter Get in. I will give you a ride to

school
get * across + cause to be understood It's difficult to get humor across
in another language.
get * off + send (a package) I finally got my sister's birthday
present off yesterday.
get ahead make progress I can't get ahead even though I
work two jobs.
get * off remove ( a spider from your Can you get this spider off my get through penetrate The door was jammed, so we
shirt) shirt? couldn't get through.

get off + leave (a bus, plane, train, boat) We need to get off the bus at the get through (with) + finish Have you gotten through with
next stop. your homework yet?

get off Leave It's dangerous to sit on the roof. get through to + make contact It's hard to get through to Janet
Get off! because her telephone line is
always busy.
get off idiomatic phrase - How does Where does he get off saying
he justify saying that?! that?! get * up cause someone to rise (from a Ahmed got Abdul up at 5:30 in
sitting position or a lying the morning by turning the music
position) up really loud.
get * on put on (clothes) You should get your jacket on
because it's going to be cold.
get up rise (from sitting position or a What time did you get up this
bed) morning?
get on enter (a bus, train), mount (a The train is leaving. Quick, get
horse, a bike) on!
give * away + give something without Why did Nancy give all of her
asking for anything in furniture away?
get on + enter (a bus, train), mount ( a Get on my bike and I will give
exchange
horse, a bike) you a ride home.

give * away + betray (a secret) We are having a surprise party

get on Have a good relationship Natasha doesn't get on with her
for Susan next Saturday, so don't
co-workers.
give our surprise away by acting
suspicious.
get on with + Have a good relationship Do you get on with your
neighbors?
give * back + return something you When are you going to give that
borrowed book back to your teacher?
get on with + continue an activity Now that the police have left,
let's get on with the party!
give in stop trying Never give in! You can do it!

get out of + exit (a small boat, car, an I fell into the water when I tried
give off + release (a smell, light) That white flower gives off a
enclosed area) to get out of the canoe.
beautiful smell.

get over + recover (a cold, a disease, an Jennifer still hasn't gotten over
give * out + distribute I earn extra money by giving out
ex-boyfriend/ex-girlfriend) her breakup with Peter.
brochures on the street.

get through + complete We will never get through all of

give out become very tired (inf.) I hope this car doesn't give out in
these boxes by 9:00 PM.
the middle of the desert.

get through + penetrate We need a stronger drill to get

give * up + surrender something The police told the thief to give
through this wall.
his gun up.
give up surrender Never give up learning English! go on continue Please, go on. Don't let me
interrupt you.
go away leave I yelled at the dogs to make them
go away. go on happen This place is a mess! What went
on here last night?
go back return When are you going back to your
house? go on with + continue ( a plan, a I think we should go on with the
conversation) meeting and stop wasting time.
go by + go past, go close to, visit We go by the coffee shop
quickly everyday. go out stop burning ( a fire) The fire went out after three
days.
go back on + not keep (one's word, a Don't trust him. He always goes
promise) back on his promises. go out take part in social activities They love to go out every
(usually at night) Saturday night.
go down decrease The cost of flight tickets is going
down. go over + review Do you usually go over your
notes before class?
go for + try to achieve Our team is going for the gold
medal in the Olympics. go over be well received, succeed That didn't go over well.

go for idiomatic phrase - I am I could go for pepperoni pizza. go through + examine in detail, study I need to have my lawyer go
craving pepperoni pizza. carefully through this contract before I
sign it.
go in for + participate ( inf.) Are you going to go in for soccer
this year at school? go through + endure; experience challenges, She has gone through so much in
difficulties or traumas her life.
go into + discuss in detail I really don't want to go into that
now. go through with + continue or proceed despite I have decided to go through
difficulties or fears with the operation.
go off explode The bomb could go off at any
moment. go with + match (clothing) That shirt doesn't go with those
pants.
go off begin, start (used with signals, The alarm clock went off at 6:00
alarms, warning sounds) AM. go with + accompany a person I am going with Alejandro to the
party.
go off stop (said of a machine) The DVD player goes off
automatically if you are not using go with + have a boyfriend/girlfriend I am going with Yuri.
it.
go without + abstain from something you A person can go without water
go off become angry Maria went off last night after I want or need for three days.
told her about losing her bike.
grow under go out of business The restaurant went under after
 it lost its liquor license. have * over invite guests to your Why don't we have Mr. and Mrs. Jones over
home for dinner tonight.
grow up Mature Your brother needs to grow up
and start thinking about his hear from + receive news from (a Have you heard from Steve lately?
future. letter, an e-mail)

H
hear of + know about Have you heard of chocolate covered ants?
hand * back + return Is the teacher going to hand back our tests something or
today? somebody

hand * down + pronounce formally The president is going to hand his decision hit on + find on accident I hit on the idea while watching the
down on health care tonight. Simpsons show.

hand * down + give as an inheritance When my clothes got too small for me as a hit on + flirt with Jay's friend Marc was trying to hit on my
child, I handed them down to my sister. sister last night.

hand * in + submit I have to hand in an offer by March 12. hold * back + restrain The police held the demonstrators back
while the politicians entered the building.
hand * out + distribute We should hand the concert fliers out at
school. hold back not allow to advance The teacher held Frank back a year, so he
in school couldn't enter fifth grade.
hand * over + relinquish control of Hand your car keys over. You're too drunk
to drive. hold * off + restrain Mr. Johnson held the dog off while we
crossed the yard.
hang around + stay in a place for fun Maria and Salvador usually hang around
( inf.) the beach after school. hold off on + delay We should hold off on making dinner until
your parents arrive.
hang around stay in a place for fun Those guys just hang around all day.
hold on grasp tightly Hold on tight! The roller coaster is about to
take off.
hang * up + suspend (clothes on a You can hang your jacket up in the front
hanger) closet.
hold on tell someone to wait Hold on a minute. I'll get Carol.
on the telephone
hang up put down the Don't hang up. I'm going to change phones.
telephone receiver
hold on to + grasp tightly Make sure you hold on to the hand rail as
you walk down the stairs.
hang out + stay in a place for fun Let's go hang out at the mall tonight.
(inf.)
hold out not give in, continue Stop holding out and tell us where you
to resist found all of these old records.
hang out stay in a place for fun What are you doing? - - I'm just hanging
out.
hold out against + not give in, resist They held out against enemy attack.
have * on + wear Do you have your hiking boots on?
hold * up + delay (a flight, traffic); The accident held traffic up for an hour. climbing on to something

hold * up + rob (a bank, a person) Five men held the bank up yesterday. keep on continue He kept on talking after everybody
with a weapon asked him to stop.

I
keep * out prevent from entering Keep the dog out of the garden; he
iron * eliminate We need to have a meeting this week in order to iron out the keeps digging up the flowers.
out distribution problems.
keep * over cover something with, put I keep a tarp over my bicycle at night
something above to prevent it from getting wet.
jack up + to raise We need to jack up the car before we
change the tire. keep to + continue, persist in (an Everybody said she would never
activity) finish the puzzle, but she kept to it
joke to be humorous Mike is always joking around at work. until it was done.
around
keep up stay on the required schedule You have to keep up if you want to
jump in enter a conversation Feel free to jump in at any moment while work here.
we are talking.
keep * up + continue You are doing a great job! Keep it up.
jump to + make a quick, poorly thought You shouldn't jump to conclusions.
out decision keep up with + stay on schedule with (a I have so much reading that I can't
K person, the workload, keep up with the writing exercises.
homework)
Keep * around have handy, have accessible I always keep a dictionary around to
L
translate new words.
lay away + save for the future Why don't you lay away your
keep at + not give up (an activity), to You should keep at your studies. wedding outfit?
persevere
lay down + establish (laws, rules) Lori lays down the law in her class.
keep * away prevent access to, hold back Keep the kids away from the cookies. English only!

keep * back maintain a safe distance, cause Keep back! The burning building is lay in on + scold or criticize severely My mom really laid in on me when I
to maintain a safe distance about to collapse. got home at 4:00 in the morning last
night.

keep * down not vomit, not throw up, keep If I ate that, I down know if I could
in one's stomach keep it down. lay into + scold or criticize severely I saw Reto's mom lay into him when
he came home late last night.

keep * in keep in a particular place, When I am not using it, I keep my

have something in a specific passport in this drawer. lay * off + suspend someone from a job The company was losing money, so
location (during a slow period) they had to lay off 100 workers.

keep * off prevent from stepping or Keep the cat off the couch. lay * out + arrange Why don't we lay the pieces of the
table out before we put it together.
leave * out + not include, omit Why did your parents leave you out look after + take care of (a child, a house, a When my sister goes on vacation, I
of their vacation plans? pet) look after her dog.

let * down disappoint I felt let down when I didn't receive look back on + to remember nostalgically When I look back on my childhood,
a birthday card from my sister. I often feel angry.

let * down lengthen (pants in sewing) My uncle is a tailor, so he can let look down on + see as inferior She's so conceited. She looks down
your pants down. on everybody else.

let * out release I am happy my brother was let out look for + to seek or search for I'm looking for my keys. Have you
of prison early. seen them?

let * out make bigger (in sewing) I need to let out this skirt because I look forward to + anticipate with pleasure I am looking forward to traveling to
have gained weight. New York next year.

let up weaken in intensity I told her NO a thousand times, but look into + investigate The police are looking into the
she won't let up. murder.

lie down rest, recline I need to lie down before we go out look on observe as a spectator Everybody just looked on as the two
tonight. men fought.

lie down on + rest, recline ( on a couch, bed) I'm going to lie down on the sofa for look out be careful, pay attention, heed Look out, there's a black widow
a while. a certain danger spider on the wall.

lie with + be decided by Whether or not you can go to the look * over + examine, review When I'm camping, I look my shoes
party lies with your father. over before I put them on.

light * up + illuminate Let's get some candles to light this look * up + search for (in a dictionary) I takes time to look up new
room up. vocabulary words.

light up + to smoke Do you have to light up another look * up + locate and visit If you ever travel to California, you
cigarette? I thought you were trying should look me up.
to cut down.
look up to + respect, admire someone He looks up to his father.
live * down + live in a way that a shameful Jose will never live down singing
or embarrassing event is that song at the karaoke bar. M
forgotten
make * out decipher I can't make out your handwriting. What
does this say?
live on + survive from I could live on bread and cheese.
make * out + write a check or other Who should I make this check out to?
live up to + keep a standard It would be hard to live up to her document
parent's expectations. They are so
demanding.
make out succeed He really made out in the stock market last nose around + sneak around I hate it when my mother noses around
year. my room.

O
make out progress How is your son making out in his new job?
occur to + pop into one's mind, It didn't occur to us that we had left the iron
come to one's mind on.
make out kiss passionately I saw Benno and Isabelle making out in the
movie theater last night!
open up share feelings I'm glad that John feels comfortable enough
around me to open up.
make out with + kiss someone Did you make out with Sally?
passionately
out to + verb try to She is out to get revenge now that her
husband left her for another woman.
make * over do again The teacher made me do my homework over.
P
make * up + invent ( a story) Don't believe anything she says. She always
pan out be successful, turn out well The trip to Vegas didn't pan out.
makes things up.

pass away die After battling cancer for several years,

make * up + complete what was Fortunately, my professor let me make up the
he finally passed away at the age of
missed exam I missed yesterday.
87.

make * up + put on cosmetics I takes me 10 minutes to make my face up.

pass * off + try to convince someone that He tried to pass the fake watch off as a
something is real real Rolex.
make up reconcile You two have been friends for so long that I
think you should make up.
pass * on + transmit Please pass this message on to your
co-workers.
make up for + compensate for Allen made up for being late by getting me
flowers.
pass on + not accept (an invitation to eat Jennifer passed on the invitation to
or do something) join us for dinner.
mix * up + confuse I sometimes mix the verb tenses up.
pass on die I am afraid Professor Johnson has
mix * up + blend We need to mix up these different kinds of passed on.
nuts before we put them in a bowl.
pass * out + distribute We need to pass out these flyers for
mix * up + make lively (a party) Let's mix up this party with a little disco the concert tomorrow.
music.

pass out become unconscious He passed out because the room was
too hot.
name * after + name a child using another I was named after my grandfather.
family member's name
pass * up + not take advantage (of an I can't believe she passed up the
opportunity) opportunity to study in Rome.
nod off fall asleep The movie was so boring that I nodded
off before it was finished.
pay * back + repay If I loan you money, will you pay me
back.
pay * off + complete payment on a debt It took me ten years to pay off my pull in park (a vehicle) Mark pulled in too quickly and
credit card debt. crashed into the wall.

pay * off + to bribe Don't try to pay the police officer off if pull out depart (a vehicle) Our train pulls out at 8:00, so don't be
you get pulled over for speeding. late.

pick on + to tease, bully She keeps picking on me! Make her pull through barely survive I didn't think she was going to make
stop. it, but she pulled through in the end.

pick * out + choose Diane picked out a lovely dress for the put * across + communicate (an idea or I thought Ms. Smith put her ideas
dance. suggestion) clearly so that it is across rather clearly in the meeting.
understood
pick * up + to lift an object with the hands Keep your back straight when you lift
the TV up. put * away + return to the proper place of I told you kids to put your toys away.
storage
pick * up + come and get someone in a car What time are you going to pick me
up. put * down + insult, say bad things about She always puts down people who
don't share her opinions.
pick * up + learn something without effort It's possible to pick up enough English
in two weeks to get by on your trip to put in + officially submit a request (in He put in for a transfer to the division
Los Angeles. the armed forces or public in Los Angeles.
services)
pick * up + try to initiate a relationship with Some weird guy tried to pick Patricia
someone (often in a bar) up at the bar. put * off + postpone Don't put off your work - do it now!

pick up grow, increase (inf.) Business is really picking up this put * on + wear Make sure you put on a sweater
quarter. before you go outside.

play * down make less important (inf.) The President played down his affair put * on + deceive I didn't believe a thing he said. I think
+ with the intern. he was putting me on.

play * up highlight something (inf.) She played up her part in the new put * out + extinguish (a fire) Don't use water to put out a grease
movie, but it was actually a very small fire.
role.
put * out + inconvenience someone I don't want to put you out, but could
play up to + flatter someone for your She has been playing up to the boss you pick me up at the airport.
personal advantage because she wants a promotion.
put out + spend (usually used with I can't put out that much money each
point * out + indicate I'd like to point out that figures in unreasonably large sums of month.
column two might be outdated. money)

pull down earn He pulls down about $300,000 a year. put * up have a guest stay in your house Can you put me up while I'm in town.
for a short time
put up with tolerate Sandy will not put up with smoking in run into + meet unexpectedly I ran into my English teacher at the
+ her house. movies last night. She's so nice!

Q
run * off + make leave The new government is trying to run
quiet * down + be quiet, or cause The neighbors told us to quiet down last night or the drug traffickers off.
to be quiet they would call the police.

R run * off reproduce (photocopies) Would you mind running off 10 copies
of this document for me?
read up on + research a topic for a reason I need to read up on the company
before I go on the job interview.
run off leave quickly Why did you run off after the party?

ring * up telephone Jack rung me up last night at 3:00 in the run off waste water You shouldn't swim where the sewage
morning.
runs off into the ocean.

rule * out + eliminate I wouldn't rule out the possibility of

run out of + not have any more of We ran out of milk this morning, so we
moving to another country if I get a
something need to go to the store.
good job offer.
S
run across + find or meet unexpectedly I ran across some old photos while I
save * up + accumulate (money) I hope I will be able to save up
was cleaning my house.
enough money to go to school.

run against + compete in an election Gore ran against Bush in the 2000
see about + arrange or consider something My dad said he was going to see
elections in the U.S.A.
about buying me a car.

run away leave home permanently The child ran away because her parents
see * off say good-bye to someone at the Did you see your sister off at the
before you are a legal adult beat her.
beginning of their trip (at the train station?
airport, train station)
run away from + escape from The child ran away from its parents.
see to + make sure something happens, I'll see to it that Mr. Ramirez gets
run * down trace Have you run down those phone arrange your message.
numbers I asked for last week?
see * through finish something despite Are you going to be able to see your
run * down criticize My boss runs everyone down. difficulties studies through now that you have a
baby?
run * down hit with a car My dog was run down by a bus.
sell * out tell on someone My partner in crime sold me out for
a reduced jail sentence.
run down loose power, be very tired You need to wind your watch so it
doesn't run down.
set * up arrange a relationship My mom set me up with her friend's
son.
run for + campaign for a government Gore is running for president of the
position U.S.A.
set * up falsely incriminate a person I don't think he killed those men.
Somebody set him up.
set up + arrange (an appointment, a I set up an appointment with my stand for + represent SCUBA stands for "self contained
meeting,etc.) doctor at 3:30 this afternoon. underwater breathing apparatus."

settle on + make a decision after a period of I settled on the job at the oil stand for + tolerate I won't stand for people criticizing
time company. me.

settle up pay one's debts We need to settle up before you stand out be very noticeable Soledad is so beautiful! She really
move. stands out in a crowd.

show * off + show to everybody with a lot of He always shows off his new things. stand * up not arrive to a date or an I arranged to meet Joe at the library
pride appointment (inf.) at 8:00, but he stood me up. I hope
he has a good excuse.
show off boast, draw attention to oneself Young boys show off in order to
impress girls. stand up for + defend (something one believes Every individual must stand up for
in) what they believe in.
show * up make someone seem inferior He's always trying to show up his
co-workers in order to get ahead. stand up to + defend oneself against someone I think you should stand up to your
or something older brother and tell him to stop
pushing you around.
show up arrive without previous notice I hadn't seen my cousin for years,
and all of a sudden, he showed up at
my workplace yesterday! stay over spend the night at a person's It takes you so long to take the bus
house home, so why don't you just stay
over?
shut * off stop from functioning If you don't pay your electric bill,
your power is going to get shut off.
stick it to + severely criticize a person (inf.) My boss really stuck it to me when I
arrived late to work for the third
shut * up make quiet Would someone shut him up! He's
time this week.
talking so loudly that we're going to
get in trouble.
stick to + persevere, keep trying Even though English is a hard
language to master, you must stick
slow * down + make move more slowly Because Mary's level in English is
to it!
lower than the rest of the students,
she slows the class down.
stick up for + defend oneself or opinions Joseph joined the army because he
believes he must stick up for his
slow * up + make move more slowly Because Mary's level in English is
country.
lower than the rest of the students,
she slows the class up. T

take after + resemble a parent or relative I take after my father. Who do you
spell * out + to explain something in a He's so stupid that you have to spell
take after?
detailed way so that the meaning everything our for him.
is clearly understood
take * away + remove, seize or capture The soldiers took the captives away.
stand by wait I need you to stand by and answer
the phone when my broker calls. take * back + retract something you said I demand that you take back what
 you said. Vice-president will take over.

take * back + return an item to a store The dress my grandmother bought take * out + accompany a person on a I can't meet you tonight because I am
for me didn't fit, so I took it back and date (for dinner, the movies) taking Fernanda out to dinner.
exchanged it for a pair of pants.
take * up + begin a new hobby Have you taken up any new hobbies
take * down + write down what is said Would you mind taking down my since you moved here?
messages while I am on vacation?
take * up + discuss (at a later date) We should take this issue up in the
take * down + remove (from a high place) The city government made the shop meeting tomorrow.
take down their bright, neon sign.
take * up + shorten a garment when This dress is too long, I am going to
take * for consider, view as Do you take me for an idiot? sewing take it up.

take * in + learning Are you taking in all of these phrasal take up + occupy space This couch takes up too much space
verbs? in the living room.

take * in + deceive a person He was taken in by the con artist. talk back respond in an impolite way Don't talk back!
to an adult
take * in + make smaller when sewing I lost weight, so I need to take some
of my skirts to the tailor to have them talk back to + respond in an impolite way Children should not talk back to their
taken in. to an adult parents.

take * off when a plane or rocket My stomach felt funny when the talk * over + discuss I hope my parents talk their
leaves the ground plane took off. relationship problems over before
they get divorced.
take * off + remove In many cultures, it is appropriate to
take off your shoes when entering a tear * down + destroy The county decided to tear down the
house. dilapidated school and build a new
one.
take * off + leave work or school for a I was sick last week, so I took a few
period of time days off of work. tear * up + tear or rip into small pieces I always tear up my personal papers
before I throw them out.
take off leave We took off after dinner.
tell * off + criticize a person severely, Carolina told me off when she found
reprimand (inf.) out I was gossiping about her date
take on + accept (responsibilities, She has taken on too much
with Martin.
work) responsibility in this project.

tell on + report a crime to the police Every time I did something wrong
take * over + take control of Who is going to take over the family
or bad behavior to a parent when I was a child, my sister would
business when Aretha's father dies?
tell on me.

take over take control of If the President is assassinated, the

think * over + consider Think over the offer before you sign
 the contract. turn * around change or reverse direction Turn the car around and go back
home.
think * through + consider carefully You need to think this through
carefully before you make a decision. turn * down + refuse an offer; reject an She turned down the new job in New
application York, because she didn't want to
move.
think * up + create or invent a false story I need to think up an excuse for not
going to her party.
turn * down + lower the volume or I'm studying! Please turn down the
intensity of a TV, radio, or TV.
throw * away + discard Don't throw away those bottles; we
other machine
can recycle them.

turn * in submit You need to turn your essays in next

throw * out + discard I asked him not to throw out the
week.
Sunday newspaper because I wanted
to save an article.
turn in go to bed (inf.) It's getting late. I think it is about time
to turn in.
throw * out + remove by force from (a Mary threw out her roommate
room, school, a house, etc.) because she stopped paying rent.
turn into + become something different, When she kissed the frog, it turned
transform into a handsome prince.
throw up vomit If you drink too much alcohol, you
might throw up.
turn * off + stop the function of (a stove, Don't forget to turn off the iron before
a water faucet, a car, etc.) you leave the house.
tie * up + tie securely When we dock, make sure you tie the
boat up.
turn on + attack unexpectedly The pit bull suddenly turned on the
small child.
tire * out cause someone to be very Speaking English all day tires me out.
tired
turn * on cause to be excited sexually Scientists have discovered that the
smell of cinnamon turns many people
touch on + talk about for a short time The presidential candidates touched
on.
on the subject of health care during
the debates.
turn * on + start the function of a TV, a Turn on the TV. The baseball game
radio, a machine starts in a few minutes.
touch * up make the final We didn't paint the whole kitchen,
improvements we just touched up the cabinets.
turn * out produce The weavers can turn out two or
three rugs a month.
try * on + put on to make sure a piece Try on the pants before you buy
of clothing fits them.
turn * out switch off a light Turn out the light before you go to
bed.
try * out test Try out this massage chair - it feels
great!
turn out audience members to a Over 100,000 people turned out for
function the concert.
turn * away refuse to deal with or give They turned us away at the border
service because we didn't have visas.
turn out end up being She turned out to be the murderer
 after all. watch out be careful Watch out - there's a rattlesnake!

turn * over give to authorities (said of They turned the wallet over to the watch out for + be careful of Watch out for snakes while you are
evidence or stolen / lost police. hiking in the desert.
property)
wear off disappear after a period of time The affects of the medicine will wear
turn * up + increase the volume or Turn up the TV. I can't hear what off after a few hours.
intensity of a TV, radio, or they're saying.
other machine
wear * out use until something is not If you wear the same shoes everyday,
useable anymore you'll wear them out.
turn up find unexpectedly My keys turned up in the bedroom.

U wear * out cause to be very tired Her three kids wore me out.

use * up use all of something I used up all of the soap, so we need to buy some more.
wind up + finish (inf.) If he doesn't get his act together, he is
V going to wind up in jail.

veer away stay away from, I veer away from the same old summer
wind * up + tighten the spring of a watch or He wound up the toy dog and set it
from + avoid blockbuster films.
similar machine on the floor.
W
wind * up + cause an animal or a child to The kids always get wound up when
wait on + serve, service (a table) Each waitress waits on three different behave wildly Uncle Henry comes over.
tables in the restaurant.

wipe * out + massacre or destroy The tidal wave wiped out the small
wait up not sleep because you are Don't wait up. fishing village.
waiting for something or
someone
wipe * out cause to be very tired After surfing all day, I was
completely wiped out.
wait up for + not sleep because you are Let's wait up for Mary to see how her
waiting for someone or date went.
something work * out + solve I hope you two can work out your
problems.

wake * up + awaken someone The car alarm woke me up at 6:00 in

the morning. work out exercise I work out three times a week at the
fitness center.

wake up awaken Wake up. It's time to get ready for

work. work out be successful I am glad your new catering business
is working out.

wash up clean oneself Make sure you wash up before

dinner. write * down + record Write down the directions so you
don't forget them.

wash * up + clean If we work together, we can wash the

kitchen up in a few minutes. write * out + write down every word or He wrote out the lyrics so I could
letter understand what the singer was
 saying.

write * up + prepare a report He wrote up a business proposal in

order to get a loan.

yak on to continue talking in an annoying He just yakked on and on

way ("on" can be repeated for and on.
emphasis)

yak on about + to continue talking in an annoying She just yakked on and on

way about something ("on" can be about her husband's new
repeated for emphasis) job.

yammer on to talk in an annoying way or They yammered on and on

complain ("on" can be repeated for and on.
emphasis)

yammer on about + to talk in an annoying way about He just yammered on and

something or complain about ("on" on about how horrible the
can be repeated for emphasis) waiter was.
 ENGLISH VERB FORMS
S.No. Base Form Past Form Past Participle Form s / es/ ies ‘ing’ form

1 abash abashed abashed abashes abashing

2 abate abated abated abates abating
3 abide abode abode abides abiding
4 absorb absorbed absorbed absorbs absorbing
5 accept accepted accepted accepts accepting
6 accompany accompanied accompanied accompanies accompanying
7 ache ached ached aches aching
8 achieve achieved achieved achieves achieving
9 acquire acquired acquired acquires acquiring
10 act acted acted acts acting
11 add added added adds adding
12 address addressed addressed addresses addressing
13 adjust adjusted adjusted adjusts adjusting
14 admire admired admired admires admiring
15 admit admitted admitted admits admitting
16 advise advised advised advises advising
17 afford afforded afforded affords affording
18 agree agreed agreed agrees agreeing
19 alight alit alit alights alighting
20 allow allowed allowed allows allowing
21 animate animated animated animates animating
22 announce announced announced announces announcing
23 answer answered answered answers answering
24 apologize apologized apologized apologizes apologizing
25 appear appeared appeared appears appearing
26 applaud applauded applauded applauds applauding
27 apply applied applied applies applying
28 approach approached approached approaches approaching
29 approve approved approved approves approving
30 argue argued argued argues arguing
31 arise arose arisen arises arising
32 arrange arranged arranged arranges arranging
33 arrest arrested arrested arrests arresting
34 ask asked asked asks asking
35 assert asserted asserted asserts asserting
36 assort assorted assorted assorts assorting
37 astonish astonished astonished astonishes astonishing
38 attack attacked attacked attacks attacking
39 attend attended attended attends attending
40 attract attracted attracted attracts attracting
41 audit audited audited audits auditing
42 avoid avoided avoided avoids avoiding
43 awake awoke awoken awakes awaking
44 bang banged banged bangs banging
45 banish banished banished banishes banishing
46 bash bashed bashed bashes bashing
47 bat batted batted bats batting
48 be (am,are) was / were been is being
49 bear bore born bears bearing
50 bear bore borne bears bearing
51 beat beat beaten beats beating
52 beautify beautified beautified beautifies beautifying
53 become became become becomes becoming
54 befall befell befallen befalls befalling
55 beg begged begged begs begging
56 begin began begun begins beginning
57 behave behaved behaved behaves behaving
58 behold beheld beheld beholds beholding
59 believe believed believed believes believing
60 belong belonged belonged belongs belonging
61 bend bent bent bends bending
62 bereave bereft bereft bereaves bereaving
63 beseech besought besought beseeches beseeching
64 bet bet bet bets betting
65 betray betrayed betrayed betrays betraying
66 bid bade bidden bids bidding
67 bid bid bid bids bidding
68 bind bound bound binds binding
69 bite bit bitten bites biting
70 bleed bled bled bleeds bleeding
71 bless blessed blessed blesses blessing
72 blossom blossomed blossomed blossoms blossoming
73 blow blew blown blows blowing
74 blur blurred blurred blurs blurring
75 blush blushed blushed blushes blushing
76 board boarded boarded boards boarding
77 boast boasted boasted boasts boasting
78 boil boiled boiled boils boiling
79 bow bowed bowed bows bowing
80 box boxed boxed boxes boxing
81 bray brayed brayed brays braying
82 break broke broken breaks breaking
83 breathe breathed breathed breathes breathing
84 breed bred bred breeds breeding
85 bring brought brought brings bringing
86 broadcast broadcast broadcast broadcasts broadcasting
87 brush brushed brushed brushes brushing
88 build built built builds building
89 burn burnt burnt burns burning
90 burst burst burst bursts bursting
91 bury buried buried buries burying
92 bust bust bust busts busting
93 buy bought bought buys buying
94 buzz buzzed buzzed buzzes buzzing
 95 calculate calculated calculated calculates calculating
96 call called called calls calling
97 canvass canvassed canvassed canvasses canvassing
98 capture captured captured captures capturing
99 caress caressed caressed caresses caressing
100 carry carried carried carries carrying
101 carve carved carved carves carving
102 cash cashed cashed cashes cashing
103 cast cast cast casts casting
104 catch caught caught catches catching
105 cause caused caused causes causing
106 cease ceased ceased ceases ceasing
107 celebrate celebrated celebrated celebrates celebrating
108 challenge challenged challenged challenges challenging
109 change changed changed changes changing
110 charge charged charged charges charging
111 chase chased chased chases chasing
112 chat chatted chatted chats chatting
113 check checked checked checks checking
114 cheer cheered cheered cheers cheering
115 chew chewed chewed chews chewing
116 chide chid chid/chidden chides chiding
117 chip chipped chipped chips chipping
118 choke choked choked chokes choking
119 choose chose chosen chooses choosing
120 classify classified classified classifies classifying
121 clean cleaned cleaned cleans cleaning
122 cleave clove/cleft cloven/cleft cleaves cleaving
123 click clicked clicked clicks clicking
124 climb climbed climbed climbs climbing
125 cling clung clung clings clinging
126 close closed closed closes closing
127 clothe clad clad clothes clothing
128 clutch clutched clutched clutches clutching
129 collapse collapsed collapsed collapses collapsing
130 collect collected collected collects collecting
131 colour coloured coloured colours colouring
132 come came come comes coming
133 comment commented commented comments commenting
134 compare compared compared compares comparing
135 compel compelled compelled compels compelling
136 compete competed competed competes competing
137 complain complained complained complains complaining
138 complete completed completed completes completing
139 conclude concluded concluded concludes concluding
140 conduct conducted conducted conducts conducting
141 confess confessed confessed confesses confessing
142 confine confined confined confines confining
143 confiscate confiscated confiscated confiscates confiscating
144 confuse confused confused confuses confusing
145 congratulate congratulated congratulated congratulates congratulating
146 connect connected connected connects connecting
147 connote connoted connoted connotes connoting
148 conquer conquered conquered conquers conquering
149 consecrate consecrated consecrated consecrates consecrating
150 consent consented consented consents consenting
151 conserve conserved conserved conserves conserving
152 consider considered considered considers considering
153 consign consigned consigned consigns consigning
154 consist consisted consisted consists consisting
155 console consoled consoled consoles consoling
156 consort consorted consorted consorts consorting
157 conspire conspired conspired conspires conspiring
158 constitute constituted constituted constitutes constituting
159 constrain constrained constrained constrains constraining
160 construct constructed constructed constructs constructing
161 construe construed construed construes construing
162 consult consulted consulted consults consulting
163 contain contained contained contains containing
164 contemn contemned contemned contemns contemning
165 contend contended contended contends contending
166 contest contested contested contests contesting
167 continue continued continued continues continuing
168 contract contracted contracted contracts contracting
169 contradict contradicted contradicted contradicts contradicting
170 contrast contrasted contrasted contrasts contrasting
171 contribute contributed contributed contributes contributing
172 contrive contrived contrived contrives contriving
173 control controlled controlled controls controlling
174 convene convened convened convenes convening
175 converge converged converged converges converging
176 converse conversed conversed converses conversing
177 convert converted converted converts converting
178 convey conveyed conveyed conveys conveying
179 convict convicted convicted convicts convicting
180 convince convinced convinced convinces convincing
181 coo cooed cooed coos cooing
182 cook cooked cooked cooks cooking
183 cool cooled cooled cools cooling
184 co-operate co-operated co-operated co-operates co-operating
185 cope coped cope copes coping
186 copy copied copied copies copying
187 correct corrected corrected corrects correcting
188 correspond corresponded corresponded corresponds corresponding
189 corrode corroded corroded corrodes corroding
190 corrupt corrupted corrupted corrupts corrupting
191 cost cost cost costs costing
192 cough coughed coughed coughs coughing
193 counsel counselled counselled counsels counselling
194 count counted counted counts counting
195 course coursed coursed courses coursing
196 cover covered covered covers covering
197 cower cowered cowered cowers cowering
198 crack cracked cracked cracks cracking
199 crackle crackled crackled crackles crackling
200 crash crashed crashed crashes crashing
201 crave craved craved craves craving
202 create created created creates creating
203 creep crept crept creeps creeping
204 crib cribbed cribbed cribs cribbing
205 cross crossed crossed crosses crossing
206 crowd crowded crowded crowds crowding
207 crush crushed crushed crushes crushing
208 cry cried cried cries crying
209 curb curbed curbed curbs curbing
210 cure cured cured cures curing
211 curve curved curved curves curving
212 cut cut cut cuts cutting
213 cycle cycled cycled cycles cycling
214 damage damaged damaged damages damaging
215 damp damped damped damps damping
216 dance danced danced dances dancing
217 dare dared dared dares daring
218 dash dashed dashed dashes dashing
219 dazzle dazzled dazzled dazzles dazzling
220 deal dealt dealt deals dealing
221 decay decayed decayed decays decaying
222 decide decided decided decides deciding
223 declare declared declared declares declaring
224 decorate decorated decorated decorates decorating
225 decrease decreased decreased decreases decreasing
226 dedicate dedicated dedicated dedicates dedicating
227 delay delayed delayed delays delaying
228 delete deleted deleted deletes deleting
229 deny denied denied denies denying
230 depend depended depended depends depending
231 deprive deprived deprived deprives depriving
232 derive derived derived derives deriving
233 describe described described describes describing
234 desire desired desired desires desiring
235 destroy destroyed destroyed destroys destroying
236 detach detached detached detaches detaching
237 detect detected detected detects detecting
238 determine determined determined determines determining
239 develop developed developed develops developing
240 die died died dies dying
241 differ differed differed differs differing
242 dig dug dug digs digging
243 digest digested digested digests digesting
244 dim dimmed dimmed dims dimming
245 diminish diminished diminished diminishes diminishing
246 dine dined dined dines dining
247 dip dipped dipped dips dipping
248 direct directed directed directs directing
249 disappear disappeared disappeared disappears disappearing
250 discover discovered discovered discovers discovering
251 discuss discussed discussed discusses discussing
252 disobey disobeyed disobeyed disobeys disobeying
253 display displayed displayed displays displaying
254 dispose disposed disposed disposes disposing
255 distribute distributed distributed distributes distributing
256 disturb disturbed disturbed disturbs disturbing
257 disuse disused disused disuses disusing
258 dive dived dived dives diving
259 divide divided divided divides dividing
260 do did done does doing
261 donate donated donated donates donating
262 download downloaded downloaded downloads downloading
263 drag dragged dragged drags dragging
264 draw drew drawn draws drawing
265 dream dreamt dreamt dreams dreaming
266 dress dressed dressed dresses dressing
267 drill drilled drilled drills drilling
268 drink drank drunk drinks drinking
269 drive drove driven drives driving
270 drop dropped dropped drops dropping
271 dry dried dried dries drying
272 dump dumped dumped dumps dumping
273 dwell dwelt dwelt dwells dwelling
274 dye dyed dyed dyes dyeing
275 earn earned earned earns earning
276 eat ate eaten eats eating
277 educate educated educated educates educating
278 empower empowered empowered empowers empowering
279 empty emptied emptied empties emptying
280 encircle encircled encircled encircles encircling
281 encourage encouraged encouraged encourages encouraging
282 encroach encroached encroached encroaches encroaching
283 endanger endangered endangered endangers entangling
284 endorse endorsed endorsed endorses endorsing
285 endure endured endured endures enduring
286 engrave engraved engraved engraves engraving
287 enjoy enjoyed enjoyed enjoys enjoying
288 enlarge enlarged enlarged enlarges enlarging
289 enlighten enlightened enlightened enlightens enlightening
290 enter entered entered enters entering
291 envy envied envied envies envying
292 erase erased erased erases erasing
293 escape escaped escaped escapes escaping
294 evaporate evaporated evaporated evaporates evaporating
295 exchange exchanged exchanged exchanges exchanging
296 exclaim exclaimed exclaimed exclaims exclaiming
297 exclude excluded excluded excludes excluding
298 exist existed existed exists existing
299 expand expanded expanded expands expanding
300 expect expected expected expects expecting
301 explain explained explained explains explaining
302 explore explored explored explores exploring
303 express expressed expressed expresses expressing
304 extend extended extended extends extending
305 eye eyed eyed eyes eyeing
306 face faced faced faces facing
307 fail failed failed fails failing
308 faint fainted fainted faints fainting
309 fall fell fallen falls falling
310 fan fanned fanned fans fanning
311 fancy fancied fancied fancies fancying
312 favour favoured favoured favours favouring
313 fax faxed faxed faxes faxing
314 feed fed fed feeds feeding
315 feel felt felt feels feeling
316 ferry ferried ferried ferries ferrying
317 fetch fetched fetched fetches fetching
318 fight fought fought fights fighting
319 fill filled filled fills filling
320 find found found finds finding
321 finish finished finished finishes finishing
322 fish fished fished fishes fishing
323 fit fit/fitted fit/fitted fits fitting
324 fix fixed fixed fixes fixing
325 fizz fizzed fizzed fizzes fizzing
326 flap flapped flapped flaps flapping
327 flash flashed flashed flashes flashing
328 flee fled fled flees fleeing
329 fling flung flung flings flinging
330 float floated floated floats floating
331 flop flopped flopped flops flopping
332 fly flew flown flies flying
333 fold folded folded folds folding
334 follow followed followed follows following
335 forbid forbade forbidden forbids forbidding
336 force forced forced forces forcing
337 forecast forecast forecast forecasts forecasting
338 foretell foretold foretold foretells foretelling
339 forget forgot forgotten forgets forgetting
340 forgive forgave forgiven forgives forgiving
341 forlese forlore forlorn forlese forlesing
342 form formed formed forms forming
343 forsake forsook forsaken forsakes forsaking
344 found founded founded founds founding
345 frame framed framed frames framing
346 free freed freed frees freeing
347 freeze froze frozen freezes freezing
348 frighten frightened frightened frightens frightening
349 fry fried fried fries frying
350 fulfil fulfilled fulfilled fulfils fulfilling
351 gag gagged gagged gags gagging
352 gain gained gained gains gaining
353 gainsay gainsaid gainsaid gainsays gainsaying
354 gash gashed gashed gashes gashing
355 gaze gazed gazed gazes gazing
356 get got got gets getting
357 give gave given gives giving
358 glance glanced glanced glances glancing
359 glitter glittered glittered glitters glittering
360 glow glowed glowed glows glowing
361 go went gone goes going
362 google googled googled googles googling
363 govern governed governed governs governing
364 grab grabbed grabbed grabs grabbing
365 grade graded graded grades grading
366 grant granted granted grants granting
367 greet greeted greeted greets greeting
368 grind ground ground grinds grinding
369 grip gripped gripped grips gripping
370 grow grew grown grows growing
371 guard guarded guarded guards guarding
372 guess guessed guessed guesses guessing
373 guide guided guided guides guiding
374 handle handled handled handles handling
375 hang hung hung hangs hanging
376 happen happened happened happens happening
377 harm harmed harmed harms harming
378 hatch hatched hatched hatches hatching
379 hate hated hated hates hating
380 have had had has having
381 heal healed healed heals healing
382 hear heard heard hears hearing
383 heave hove hove heaves heaving
384 help helped helped helps helping
385 hew hewed hewn hews hewing
386 hide hid hidden hides hiding
387 hinder hindered hindered hinders hindering
388 hiss hissed hissed hisses hissing
389 hit hit hit hits hitting
390 hoax hoaxed hoaxed hoaxes hoaxing
391 hold held held holds holding
392 hop hopped hopped hops hopping
393 hope hoped hoped hopes hoping
394 horrify horrified horrified horrifies horrifying
395 hug hugged hugged hugs hugging
396 hum hummed hummed hums humming
397 humiliate humiliated humiliated humiliates humiliating
398 hunt hunted hunted hunts hunting
399 hurl hurled hurled hurls hurling
400 hurry hurried hurried hurries hurrying
401 hurt hurt hurt hurts hurting
402 hush hushed hushed hushes hushing
403 hustle hustled hustled hustles hustling
404 hypnotize hypnotized hypnotized hypnotizes hypnotizing
405 idealize idealized idealized idealizes idealizing
406 identify identified identified identifies identifying
407 idolize idolized idolized idolizes idolizing
408 ignite ignited ignited ignites igniting
409 ignore ignored ignored ignores ignoring
410 ill-treat ill-treated ill-treated ill-treats ill-treating
411 illuminate illuminated illuminated illuminates illuminating
412 illumine illumined illumined illumines illumining
413 illustrate illustrated illustrated illustrates illustrating
414 imagine imagined imagined imagines imagining
415 imbibe imbibed imbibed imbibes imbibing
416 imitate imitated imitated imitates imitating
417 immerse immersed immersed immerses immersing
418 immolate immolated immolated immolates immolating
419 immure immured immured immures immuring
420 impair impaired impaired impairs impairing
421 impart imparted imparted imparts imparting
422 impeach impeached impeached impeaches impeaching
423 impede impeded impeded impedes impeding
424 impel impelled impelled impels impelling
425 impend impended impended impends impending
426 imperil imperilled imperilled imperils imperilling
427 impinge impinged impinged impinges impinging
428 implant implanted implanted implants implanting
429 implicate implicated implicated implicates implicating
430 implode imploded imploded implodes imploding
431 implore implored implored implores imploring
432 imply implied implied implies implying
433 import imported imported imports importing
434 impose imposed imposed imposes imposing
435 impress impressed impressed impresses impressing
436 imprint imprinted imprinted imprints imprinting
437 imprison imprisoned imprisoned imprisons imprisoning
438 improve improved improved improves improving
439 inaugurate inaugurated inaugurated inaugurates inaugurating
440 incise incised incised incises incising
441 include included included includes including
442 increase increased increased increases increasing
443 inculcate inculcated inculcated inculcates inculcating
444 indent indented indented indents indenting
445 indicate indicated indicated indicates indicating
446 induce induced induced induces inducing
447 indulge indulged indulged indulges indulging
448 infect infected infected infects infecting
449 infest infested infested infests infesting
450 inflame inflamed inflamed inflames inflaming
451 inflate inflated inflated inflates inflating
452 inflect inflected inflected inflects inflecting
453 inform informed informed informs informing
454 infringe infringed infringed infringes infringing
455 infuse infused infused infuses infusing
456 ingest ingested ingested ingests ingesting
457 inhabit inhabited inhabited inhabits inhabiting
458 inhale inhaled inhaled inhales inhaling
459 inherit inherited inherited inherits inheriting
460 initiate initiated initiated initiates initiating
461 inject injected injected injects injecting
462 injure injured injured injures injuring
463 inlay inlaid inlaid inlays inlaying
464 innovate innovated innovated innovates innovating
465 input input input inputs inputting
466 inquire inquired inquired inquires inquiring
467 inscribe inscribed inscribed inscribes inscribing
468 insert inserted inserted inserts inserting
469 inspect inspected inspected inspects inspecting
470 inspire inspired inspired inspires inspiring
471 install installed installed installs installing
472 insult insulted insulted insults insulting
473 insure insured insured insures insuring
474 integrate integrated integrated integrates integrating
475 introduce introduced introduced introduces introducing
476 invent invented invented invents inventing
477 invite invited invited invites inviting
478 join joined joined joins joining
479 jump jumped jumped jumps jumping
480 justify justified justified justifies justifying
481 keep kept kept keeps keeping
482 kick kicked kicked kicks kicking
483 kid kidded kidded kids kidding
484 kill killed killed kills killing
485 kiss kissed kissed kisses kissing
486 kneel knelt knelt kneels kneeling
487 knit knit knit knits knitting
488 knock knocked knocked knocks knocking
489 know knew known knows knowing
490 lade laded laden lades lading
491 land landed landed lands landing
492 last lasted lasted lasts lasting
493 latch latched latched latches latching
494 laugh laughed laughed laughs laughing
495 lay laid laid lays laying
496 lead led led leads leading
497 leak leaked leaked leaks leaking
498 lean leant leant leans leaning
499 leap leapt leapt leaps leaping
500 learn learnt learnt learns learning
501 leave left left leaves leaving
502 leer leered leered leers leering
503 lend lent lent lends lending
504 let let let lets letting
505 lick licked licked licks licking
506 lie lay lain lies lying
507 lie lied lied lies lying
508 lift lifted lifted lifts lifting
509 light lit lit lights lighting
510 like liked liked likes liking
511 limp limped limped limps limping
512 listen listened listened listens listening
513 live lived lived lives living
514 look looked looked looks looking
515 lose lost lost loses losing
516 love loved loved loves loving
517 magnify magnified magnified magnifies magnifying
518 maintain maintained maintained maintains maintaining
519 make made made makes making
520 manage managed managed manages managing
521 march marched marched marches marching
522 mark marked marked marks marking
523 marry married married marries marrying
524 mash mashed mashed mashes mashing
525 match matched matched matches matching
526 matter mattered mattered matters mattering
527 mean meant meant means meaning
528 measure measured measured measures measuring
529 meet met met meets meeting
530 melt melted melted melts melting
531 merge merged merged merges merging
532 mew mewed mewed mews mewing
533 migrate migrated migrated migrates migrating
534 milk milked milked milks milking
535 mind minded minded minds minding
536 mislead misled misled misleads misleading
537 miss missed missed misses missing
538 mistake mistook mistaken mistakes mistaking
539 misuse misused misused misuses misusing
540 mix mixed mixed mixes mixing
541 moan moaned moaned moans moaning
542 modify modified modified modifies modifying
543 moo mooed mooed moos mooing
544 motivate motivated motivated motivates motivating
545 mould moulded moulded moulds moulding
546 moult moulted moulted moults moulting
547 move moved moved moves moving
548 mow mowed mown mows mowing
549 multiply multiplied multiplied multiplies multiplying
550 murmur murmured murmured murmurs murmuring
551 nail nailed nailed nails nailing
552 nap napped napped naps napping
553 need needed needed needs needing
554 neglect neglected neglected neglects neglecting
555 nip nipped nipped nips nipping
556 nod nodded nodded nods nodding
557 note noted noted notes noting
558 notice noticed noticed notices noticing
559 notify notified notified notifies notifying
560 nourish nourished nourished nourishes nourishing
561 nurse nursed nursed nurses nursing
562 obey obeyed obeyed obeys obeying
563 oblige obliged obliged obliges obliging
564 observe observed observed observes observing
565 obstruct obstructed obstructed obstructs obstructing
566 obtain obtained obtained obtains obtaining
567 occupy occupied occupied occupies occupying
568 occur occurred occurred occurs occurring
569 offer offered offered offers offering
570 offset offset offset offsets offsetting
571 omit omitted omitted omits omitting
572 ooze oozed oozed oozes oozing
573 open opened opened opens opening
574 operate operated operated operates operating
575 opine opined opined opines opining
576 oppress oppressed oppressed oppresses oppressing
577 opt opted opted opts opting
578 optimize optimized optimized optimizes optimizing
579 order ordered ordered orders ordering
580 organize organized organized organizes organizing
581 originate originated originated originates originating
582 output output output outputs outputting
583 overflow overflowed overflowed overflows overflowing
584 overtake overtook overtaken overtakes overtaking
585 owe owed owed owes owing
586 own owned owned owns owning
587 pacify pacified pacified pacifies pacifying
588 paint painted painted paints painting
589 pardon pardoned pardoned pardons pardoning
590 part parted parted parts parting
591 partake partook partaken partakes partaking
592 participate participated participated participates participating
593 pass passed passed passes passing
594 paste pasted pasted pastes pasting
595 pat patted patted pats patting
596 patch patched patched patches patching
597 pause paused paused pauses pausing
598 pay paid paid pays paying
599 peep peeped peeped peeps peeping
600 perish perished perished perishes perishing
601 permit permitted permitted permits permitting
602 persuade persuaded persuaded persuades persuading
603 phone phoned phoned phones phoning
604 place placed placed places placing
605 plan planned planned plans planning
606 play played played plays playing
607 plead pled pled pleads pleading
608 please pleased pleased pleases pleasing
609 plod plodded plodded plods plodding
610 plot plotted plotted plots plotting
611 pluck plucked plucked plucks plucking
612 ply plied plied plies plying
613 point pointed pointed points pointing
614 polish polished polished polishes polishing
615 pollute polluted polluted pollutes polluting
616 ponder pondered pondered ponders pondering
617 pour poured poured pours pouring
618 pout pouted pouted pouts pouting
619 practise practised practised practises practising
620 praise praised praised praises praising
621 pray prayed prayed prays praying
622 preach preached preached preaches preaching
623 prefer preferred preferred prefers preferring
624 prepare prepared prepared prepares preparing
625 prescribe prescribed prescribed prescribes prescribing
626 present presented presented presents presenting
627 preserve preserved preserved preserves preserving
628 preset preset preset presets presetting
629 preside presided presided presides presiding
630 press pressed pressed presses pressing
631 pretend pretended pretended pretends pretending
632 prevent prevented prevented prevents preventing
633 print printed printed prints printing
634 proceed proceeded proceeded proceeds proceeding
635 produce produced produced produces producing
636 progress progressed progressed progresses progressing
637 prohibit prohibited prohibited prohibits prohibiting
638 promise promised promised promises promising
639 propose proposed proposed proposes proposing
640 prosecute prosecuted prosecuted prosecutes prosecuting
641 protect protected protected protects protecting
642 prove proved proved proves proving
643 provide provided provided provides providing
644 pull pulled pulled pulls pulling
645 punish punished punished punishes punishing
646 purify purified purified purifies purifying
647 push pushed pushed pushes pushing
648 put put put puts putting
649 qualify qualified qualified qualifies qualifying
650 quarrel quarrelled quarrelled quarrels quarrelling
651 question questioned questioned questions questioning
652 quit quit quit quits quitting
653 race raced raced races racing
654 rain rained rained rains raining
655 rattle rattled rattled rattles rattling
656 reach reached reached reaches reaching
657 read read read reads reading
658 realize realized realized realizes realizing
659 rebuild rebuilt rebuilt rebuilds rebuilding
660 recall recalled recalled recalls recalling
661 recast recast recast recasts recasting
662 receive received received receives receiving
663 recite recited recited recites reciting
664 recognize recognized recognized recognizes recognizing
665 recollect recollected recollected recollects recollecting
666 recur recurred recurred recurs recurring
667 redo redid redone redoes redoing
668 reduce reduced reduced reduces reducing
669 refer referred referred refers referring
670 reflect reflected reflected reflects reflecting
671 refuse refused refused refuses refusing
672 regard regarded regarded regards regarding
673 regret regretted regretted regrets regretting
674 relate related related relates relating
675 relax relaxed relaxed relaxes relaxing
676 rely relied relied relies relying
677 remain remained remained remains remaining
678 remake remade remade remakes remaking
679 remove removed removed removes removing
680 rend rent rent rends rending
681 renew renewed renewed renews renewing
682 renounce renounced renounced renounces renouncing
683 repair repaired repaired repairs repairing
684 repeat repeated repeated repeats repeating
685 replace replaced replaced replaces replacing
686 reply replied replied replies replying
687 report reported reported reports reporting
688 request requested requested requests requesting
689 resell resold resold resells reselling
690 resemble resembled resembled resembles resembling
691 reset reset reset resets resetting
692 resist resisted resisted resists resisting
693 resolve resolved resolved resolves resolving
694 respect respected respected respects respecting
695 rest rested rested rests resting
696 restrain restrained restrained restrains restraining
697 retain retained retained retains retaining
698 retch retched retched retches retching
699 retire retired retired retires retiring
700 return returned returned returns returning
701 reuse reused reused reuses reusing
702 review reviewed reviewed reviews reviewing
703 rewind rewound rewound rewinds rewinding
704 rid rid rid rids ridding
705 ride rode ridden rides riding
706 ring rang rung rings ringing
707 rise rose risen rises rising
708 roar roared roared roars roaring
709 rob robbed robbed robs robbing
710 roll rolled rolled rolls rolling
711 rot rotted rotted rots rotting
712 rub rubbed rubbed rubs rubbing
713 rule ruled ruled rules ruling
714 run ran run runs running
715 rush rushed rushed rushes rushing
716 sabotage sabotaged sabotaged sabotages sabotaging
717 sack sacked sacked sacks sacking
718 sacrifice sacrificed sacrificed sacrifices sacrificing
719 sadden saddened saddened saddens saddening
720 saddle saddled saddled saddles saddling
721 sag sagged sagged sags sagging
722 sail sailed sailed sails sailing
723 sally sallied sallied sallies sallying
724 salute saluted saluted salutes saluting
725 salvage salvaged salvaged salvages salvaging
726 salve salved salved salves salving
727 sample sampled sampled samples sampling
728 sanctify sanctified sanctified sanctifies sanctifying
729 sanction sanctioned sanctioned sanctions sanctioning
730 sap sapped sapped saps sapping
731 saponify saponified saponified saponifies saponifying
732 sash sashed sashed sashes sashing
733 sashay sashayed sashayed sashays sashaying
734 sass sassed sassed sasses sassing
735 sate sated sated sates sating
736 satiate satiated satiated satiates satiating
737 satirise satirised satirised satirises satirising
738 satisfy satisfied satisfied satisfies satisfying
739 saturate saturated saturated saturates saturating
740 saunter sauntered sauntered saunters sauntering
741 save saved saved saves saving
742 savor savored savored savors savoring
743 savvy savvied savvied savvies savvying
744 saw sawed sawn saws sawing
745 say said said says saying
746 scab scabbed scabbed scabs scabbing
747 scabble scabbled scabbled scabbles scabbling
748 scald scalded scalded scalds scalding
749 scale scaled scaled scales scaling
750 scam scammed scammed scams scamming
751 scan scanned scanned scans scanning
752 scant scanted scanted scants scanting
753 scar scarred scarred scars scarring
754 scare scared scared scares scaring
755 scarify scarified scarified scarifies scarifying
756 scarp scarped scarped scarps scarping
757 scat scatted scatted scats scatting
758 scatter scattered scattered scatters scattering
759 scold scolded scolded scolds scolding
760 scorch scorched scorched scorches scorching
761 scowl scowled scowled scowls scowling
762 scrawl scrawled scrawled scrawls scrawling
763 scream screamed screamed screams screaming
764 screw screwed screwed screws screwing
765 scrub scrubbed scrubbed scrubs scrubbing
766 search searched searched searches searching
767 seat seated seated seats seating
768 secure secured secured secures securing
769 see saw seen sees seeing
770 seek sought sought seeks seeking
771 seem seemed seemed seems seeming
772 seize seized seized seizes seizing
773 select selected selected selects selecting
774 sell sold sold sells selling
775 send sent sent sends sending
776 sentence sentenced sentenced sentences sentencing
777 separate separated separated separates separating
778 set set set sets setting
779 sever severed severed severs severing
780 sew sewed sewn sews sewing
781 shake shook shaken shakes shaking
782 shape shaped shaped shapes shaping
783 share shared shared shares sharing
784 shatter shattered shattered shatters shattering
785 shave shove shaven shaves shaving
786 shear shore shorn shears shearing
787 shed shed shed sheds shedding
788 shine shone shone shines shining
789 shirk shirked shirked shirks shirking
790 shit shit shit shits shitting
791 shiver shivered shivered shivers shivering
792 shock shocked shocked shocks shocking
793 shoe shod shod shoes shoeing
794 shoot shot shot shoots shooting
795 shorten shortened shortened shortens shortening
796 shout shouted shouted shouts shouting
797 show showed shown shows showing
798 shrink shrank shrunk shrinks shrinking
799 shun shunned shunned shuns shunning
800 shut shut shut shuts shutting
801 sight sighted sighted sights sighting
802 signal signalled signalled signals signalling
803 signify signified signified signifies signifying
804 sing sang sung sings singing
805 sink sank sunk sinks sinking
806 sip sipped sipped sips sipping
807 sit sat sat sits sitting
808 ski skied skied skis skiing
809 skid skidded skidded skids skidding
810 slam slammed slammed slams slamming
811 slay slew slain slays slaying
812 sleep slept slept sleeps sleeping
813 slide slid slid/slide slides sliding
814 slim slimmed slimmed slims slimming
815 sling slung slung slings slinging
816 slink slunk slunk slinks slinking
817 slip slipped slipped slips slipping
818 slit slit slit slits slitting
819 smash smashed smashed smashes smashing
820 smell smelt smelt smells smelling
821 smile smiled smiled smiles smiling
822 smite smote smitten smites smiting
823 smooth smoothed smoothed smoothes smoothing
824 smother smothered smothered smothers smothering
825 snap snapped snapped snaps snapping
826 snatch snatched snatched snatches snatching
827 sneak snuck snuck sneaks sneaking
828 sneeze sneezed sneezed sneezes sneezing
829 sniff sniffed sniffed sniffs sniffing
830 soar soared soared soars soaring
831 sob sobbed sobbed sobs sobbing
832 solicit solicited solicited solicits soliciting
833 solve solved solved solves solving
834 soothe soothed soothed soothes soothing
835 sort sorted sorted sorts sorting
836 sow sowed sowed sows sowing
837 sparkle sparkled sparkled sparkles sparkling
838 speak spoke spoken speaks speaking
839 speed sped sped speeds speeding
840 spell spelt spelt spells spelling
841 spend spent spent spends spending
842 spill spilt spilt spills spilling
843 spin span/spun spun spins spinning
844 spit spat/spit spat/spit spits spitting
845 split split split splits splitting
846 spoil spoilt spoilt spoils spoiling
847 spray sprayed sprayed sprays spraying
848 spread spread spread spreads spreading
849 spring sprang sprung springs springing
850 sprout sprouted sprouted sprouts sprouting
851 squeeze squeezed squeezed squeezes squeezing
852 stand stood stood stands standing
853 stare stared stared stares staring
854 start started started starts starting
855 state stated stated states stating
856
857 stay stayed stayed stays staying
858 steal stole stolen steals stealing
859 steep steeped steeped steeps steeping
860 stem stemmed stemmed stems stemming
861 step stepped stepped steps stepping
862 sterilize sterilized sterilized sterilizes sterilizing
863 stick stuck stuck sticks sticking
864 stimulate stimulated stimulated stimulates stimulating
865 sting stung stung stings stinging
866 stink stank stunk stinks stinking
867 stir stirred stirred stirs stirring
868 stitch stitched stitched stitches stitching
869 stoop stooped stooped stoops stooping
870 stop stopped stopped stops stopping
871 store stored stored stores storing
872 strain strained strained strains straining
873 stray strayed strayed strays straying
874 stress stressed stressed stresses stressing
875 stretch stretched stretched stretches stretching
876 strew strewed strewn strews strewing
877 stride strode stridden strides striding
878 strike struck struck/stricken strikes striking
879 string strung strung strings stringing
880 strive strove striven strives striving
881 study studied studied studies studying
882 submit submitted submitted submits submitting
883 subscribe subscribed subscribed subscribes subscribing
884 subtract subtracted subtracted subtracts subtracting
885 succeed succeeded succeeded succeeds succeeding
886 suck sucked sucked sucks sucking
887 suffer suffered suffered suffers suffering
888 suggest suggested suggested suggests suggesting
889 summon summoned summoned summons summoning
890 supply supplied supplied supplies supplying
891 support supported supported supports supporting
892 suppose supposed supposed supposes supposing
893 surge surged surged surges surging
894 surmise surmised surmised surmises surmising
895 surpass surpassed surpassed surpasses surpassing
896 surround surrounded surrounded surrounds surrounding
897 survey surveyed surveyed surveys surveying
898 survive survived survived survives surviving
899 swallow swallowed swallowed swallows swallowing
900 sway swayed swayed sways swaying
901 swear swore sworn swears swearing
902 sweat sweat sweat sweats sweating
903 sweep swept swept sweeps sweeping
904 swell swelled swollen swells swelling
905 swim swam swum swims swimming
906 swing swung swung swings swinging
907 swot swotted swotted swots swotting
908 take took taken takes taking
909 talk talked talked talks talking
910 tap tapped tapped taps tapping
911 taste tasted tasted tastes tasting
912 tax taxed taxed taxes taxing
913 teach taught taught teaches teaching
914 tear tore torn tears tearing
915 tee teed teed tees teeing
916 tell told told tells telling
917 tempt tempted tempted tempts tempting
918 tend tended tended tends tending
919 terminate terminated terminated terminates terminating
920 terrify terrified terrified terrifies terrifying
921 test tested tested tests testing
922 thank thanked thanked thanks thanking
923 think thought thought thinks thinking
924 thrive throve thriven thrives thriving
925 throw threw thrown throws throwing
926 thrust thrust thrust thrusts thrusting
927 thump thumped thumped thumps thumping
928 tie tied tied ties tying
929 tire tired tired tires tiring
930 toss tossed tossed tosses tossing
931 touch touched touched touches touching
932 train trained trained trains training
933 trample trampled trampled tramples trampling
934 transfer transferred transferred transfers transferring
935 transform transformed transformed transforms transforming
936 translate translated translated translates translating
937 trap trapped trapped traps trapping
938 travel travelled travelled travels travelling
939 tread trod trodden treads treading
940 treasure treasured treasured treasures treasuring
941 treat treated treated treats treating
942 tree treed treed trees treeing
943 tremble trembled trembled trembles trembling
944 triumph triumphed triumphed triumphs triumphing
945 trust trusted trusted trusts trusting
946 try tried tried tries trying
947 turn turned turned turns turning
948 type typed typed types typing
949 typeset typeset typeset typesets typesetting
950 understand understood understood understands understanding
951 undo undid undone undoes undoing
952 uproot uprooted uprooted uproots uprooting
953 upset upset upset upsets upsetting
954 urge urged urged urges urging
955 use used used uses using
956 utter uttered uttered utters uttering
957 value valued valued values valuing
958 vanish vanished vanished vanishes vanishing
959 vary varied varied varies varying
960 verify verified verified verifies verifying
961 vex vexed vexed vexes vexing
 962 vie vied vied vies vying
963 view viewed viewed views viewing
964 violate violated violated violates violating
965 vomit vomited vomited vomits vomiting
966 wake woke woken wakes waking
967 walk walked walked walks walking
968 wander wandered wandered wanders wandering
969 want wanted wanted wants wanting
970 warn warned warned warns warning
971 waste wasted wasted wastes wasting
972 watch watched watched watches watching
973 water watered watered waters watering
974 wave waved waved waves waving
975 wax waxed waxed waxes waxing
976 waylay waylaid waylaid waylays waylaying
977 wear wore worn wears wearing
978 weave wove woven weaves weaving
979 wed wed wed weds wedding
980 weep wept wept weeps weeping
981 weigh weighed weighed weighs weighing
982 welcome welcomed welcomed welcomes welcoming
983 wend went went wends wending
984 wet wet wet wets wetting
985 whip whipped whipped whips whipping
986 whisper whispered whispered whispers whispering
987 win won won wins winning
988 wind wound wound winds winding
989 wish wished wished wishes wishing
990 withdraw withdrew withdrawn withdraws withdrawing
991 work worked worked works working
992 worry worried worried worries worrying
993 worship worshipped worshipped worships worshipping
994 wring wrung wrung wrings wringing
995 write wrote written writes writing
996 yawn yawned yawned yawns yawning
997 yell yelled yelled yells yelling
998 yield yielded yielded yields yielding
999 zinc zincked zincked zincs zincking
1000 zoom zoomed zoomed zooms zooming