The Interpretation of Dreams (German: Die Traumdeutung) is an 1899

book by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in which Freud introduces his

theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and
discusses what would later become the theory of the Oedipus complex.
Freud revised the book at least eight times and, in the third edition,
added an extensive section which treated dream symbolism very
literally, following the influence of Wilhelm Stekel. Freud said of this
work, "Insight such as this falls to one's lot but once in a lifetime."[1]
The book was first published in an edition of 600 copies, which did not
sell out for eight years. The Interpretation of Dreams later gained in
popularity, and seven more editions were published in Freud's lifetime.[2]
Because of the book's length and complexity, Freud also wrote an
abridged version called On Dreams. The original text is widely regarded
as one of Freud's most significant works
What Do Dreams Mean?
Although some people insist that they never dream, research suggests
that everyone dreams during the night even though many have forgotten
their dreams by morning.  In sleep laboratories, people awakened from
REM periods reported 80-100% of the time that they were having
dreams with vivid, colorful, even bizarre images.  In comparison, people
awakened from non-REM sleep may also report dreams, but these
usually contain full, repetitive thoughts rather than colorful images
(Gardner, 1996).
For example, let’s take a dream and see how others might interpret it.  
“I am in an elevator sitting by myself against the wall.  A girl
comes in and I say, “Come sit by me,” and she sits by me.  (I don’t even
know her.)  I LEAN OVER AND TRY TO KILL HER, AND SHE
SAYS, “No, Don’t do that.”  I say, “How come?” and she says
something about her acne, and I say it doesn’t matter and she laughs and
we end up kissing and stuff on the elevator. Then these parents get on,
and the elevator is real shaky, and I think that the elevator will crash or
get stuck (adapted from Cohen, 1979).”
Figuring out what dreams mean is a popular and scholarly activity for
the more than 400 psychologists, physiologists, anthropologists, artists,
“dream workers,” and swamis who meet for the annual Association for
the Study of Dreams.  The focus on this group is to discover meaning in
dreams – no easy task, since there are numerous theories.  For example,
some say that the young man’s dream is expressing his fears of having a
sexual relationship; others say that his dream is expressing his fear of
being in small enclosed spaces while still others think that this dream is
a meaningless jumble of images.  There are six different psychological
theories of dream interpretation.  Evidence supports all of them, so they
can sit side by side at this stage of our knowledge.

1.  Replenish Chemicals and Process Information

Dreams are used to get the brain reorganized after a days’s work of
thinking and dealing with problems.  This makes sense because we
know that brain chemicals are used up during the day.  Notice how hard
it is to study on nights when you have done a lot of mental work during
the day.  To restore the chemicals, we have to cut off the outside world
in order to keep new problems – which would require more work – from
getting in.  The brain, however, cannot remain inactive.  So dreams keep
the brain busy with old material while it is being recharged, so to speak.

2.  To Work Out Unsolved Problems

Dreams are designed to help work out unsolved problems left over from
the day.  You can find evidence for this in something that has happened
to almost every one.  You go to bed with a problem of some sort that
you haven’t been able to solve – maybe a personal problem.  When you
wake up the next morning, there’s the solution, as obvious as can be.
When we are under stress or depressed, we sleep longer, and the amount
of time spent in REM increases.  This fact strongly suggests that we are
working on the things that are worrying us while we dream.  
3.  To Make Sense of Random Stimulation in the Brain (Activation-
Synthesis Theory)
Suppose dreams resulted from the random firing of neurons in our brains
and nothing more.  The idea was proposed by two researchers, J. Alan
Hobson and Robert W.  McCarley (1977), and is called the activation-
synthesis theory.
The activation-synthesis theory of dreams says that dreaming represents
the random and meaningless activity of nerve cells in the brain.
According to this theory, an area in the brain, called the pons, sends
millions of random nerve impulses to the cortex.  In turn, the cortex tries
to make sense of all these random signals by creating the feelings,
imagined movements, perceptions, changing scenes, and meaningless
images that we define as dreams.
Hobson (1988) has somewhat revised the original activation-synthesis
dream theory to acknowledge that dreams have deep personal
significance.  He now believes that the images and feelings that our
cortex imposes on millions of incoming neural signals reflect our past
memories, bodily states (hungry, thirsty), strong hopes and fears, and
our own personal view of the world.  According to this theory, there is
very little need to interpret dreams because they contain little useful
information (Gardner, 1996).
4.  Freud’s Theory of Dream Interpretation
In the preface to his famous book, The Interpretation Of Dreams, Freud
(1900) wrote, “This book contains, even according to my present-day
judgment, the most valuable of all the discoveries it has been my good
fortune to make.  Insight such as this falls to one’s lot but once in a
lifetime.”  Before 1900, psychologists believed that dreams were
meaningless and bizarre images (Gardner, 1995).  However, Freud’s
theory changed all that when he said that dreams were a way (“the royal
road”) to reach our unconscious thoughts and desires.
Freud’s theory of dreams says that we have a “censor” that protects us
from realizing threatening and unconscious desired or wishes, especially
those involving sex and aggression.  To protect us from having
threatening thoughts, the “censor” transforms our secret, guilt-ridden,
and anxiety-provoking desires into harmless symbols that appear in our
dreams and do not disturb out sleep or conscious thoughts.
For example, in his book, Freud (1900) discusses the meaning of
symbols: male sex symbols are long objects, such sticks, umbrellas,
poles, trees, knives, and pencils; female sex symbols are hollow things,
such as caves, jars, bottles, shoes, drawers, and keyholes.  He believed
the therapists’ task was to interpret these symbols and help the client
discover his or her fearful and unconscious desires, needs, and childhood
fears.
Many therapists agree with Freud that dreams can represent past,
present, or future concerns, fears, or worries.  However, many current
therapists and psychoanalysts disagree with Freud’s’ idea that a dream’s
contents are symbols for threatening, unconscious wishes and desires
(Gardner, 1996; Reynes, 1996).

5.  Extensions of Waking Life

The theory that dreams are extensions of walking life means that
our dreams reflect the same thoughts, fears, concerns, problems, and
emotions present when awake.  This theory grew out of therapists’
working with patients’ problems.  Therapist and researcher Rosalind
Cartwright (1988), who is the director of Rush Sleep Disorder Service,
says, “The problem most therapists face is that patients’ dream material
is sparse and incomplete.  People simply don’t remember their dreams
very well.  The therapist’s task is often like trying to reconstruct a 500
page novel from just the last page.  But dreams collected from a single
night in the sleep lab read like chapters in a book.  They illuminate
current concerns and the feeling attached to them.” (p. 36).
For example, Cartwright found that people who suffered severe
traumatic emotional situations have stark nightmares that re-create the
traumatic situation; people who are depressed often wake each morning
feeling worse than when they went to bed and have disturbed dreams
(Cartwright, 1993).  Cartwright believes that patients suffering from
depression or martial problems cope with their problems by repeating
their fears and concerns in their dreams.
Rosalind Cartwright (1993) concludes that dreams are important because
they represent another source or information, have a regular occurrence,
and cannot be easily suppressed.  However, she adds that this still leaves
open the question of meaning and recognizes that therapists cannot
always understand the dreams that patients report.

6.  Entering the Spiritual World

The final theory comes from the Inuit and Eskimo people who have
lived for thousands of years in quiet isolation along the arctic coast of
North America.  The Inuit along with other native or indigenous people,
believe that dreams are ways to enter the spiritual world (Foulks, 1992).
The Inuit people believe that in dreaming, one enters the spiritual world,
where the souls of animals, supernaturals, and departed relatives are
made known.  Through dreams, forces in the spiritual world help a
living person reflect on some present or future event.  
Although the Inuit lived in far different time, place, and culture than did
Sigmund Freud or Western therapists, there are numerous parallels
between their theories of dreams.  For example, the Inuit, Freud, and
Western therapists all believed that past forces, wishes, or concerns
could be revealed to the dreamer; that these wishes, concerns, or desires
could take symbolic forms; and the Inuit shamans, who were thought to
possess spiritual powers, function like Freudian-trained psychoanalysts
or Western-trained therapists, who are sometimes needed to interpret
dream symbols or unravel the meanings of dreams.  Notice, however,
that each dream theory has a unique focus:  Freud says that dreams are
ways to reach the unconscious; modern therapists hold that dreams
represent real problems; and the Inuit believe that dreams are ways to
enter the spiritual world.

The activation-synthesis theory is a neurobiological explanation of

why we dream. The question of why people dream has perplexed
philosophers and scientists for thousands of years, but it is only fairly
recently in history that researchers have been able to take a closer look at
exactly what happens in the body and brain during dreaming. Harvard
psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley first proposed their
theory in 1977, suggesting that dreaming results from the brain's attempt
to make sense of neural activity that takes place during sleep.
A Closer Look at the Activation-Synthesis Theory
The activation-synthesis model suggests that dreams are caused by the
physiological processes of the brain. While people used to believe that
sleeping and dreaming was a passive process, researchers now know that
the brain is anything but quiet during sleep. A wide variety of neural
activity takes place as we slumber. Part of this is because sleep helps the
brain perform a number of activities includingcleaning up the brain and
consolidating memories from the previous day.
How does brain activity during sleep lead to dreaming? According to
Hobson and other researchers, circuits in the brain stem are activated
during REM sleep. Once these circuits are activated, areas of the limbic
system involved in emotions, sensations, and memories, including the
amygdala and hippocampus, become active. The brain synthesizes and
interprets this internal activity and attempts create meaning from these
signals, which results in dreaming.
Hobson also suggested that there are five key characteristics of dreams,
which are illogical content, intense emotions, acceptance of strange
content, strange sensory experiences, and difficulty remembering dream
content.
Reaction to the Theory
The initial publication of their research stirred up considerable
controversy, particularly among Freudian analysts.
Since many dream researchers and therapists invest considerable time
and effort trying to understand the underlying meaning of dreams, the
suggestion that dreams were simply the brain's way of making sense of
activity during sleep did not sit well with many.
Does It Mean That Dreams Are Meaningless?
While the activation-synthesis model of dreaming relies on
physiological processes to explain dreaming, it does not imply that
dreams are meaningless. According to Hobson, "Dreaming may be our
most creative conscious state, one in which the chaotic, spontaneous
recombination of cognitive elements produces novel configurations of
information: new ideas. While many or even most of these ideas may be
nonsensical, if even a few of its fanciful products are truly useful, our
dream time will not have been wasted" (1999).

Cocaine, also known as benzoylmethylecgonine or coke, is a

strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug.[9] It is
commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins. Mental effects
may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness,
or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating,
and large pupils.[8] High doses can result in veryhigh blood
pressure or body temperature.[10] Effects begin within seconds to minutes
of use and last between five and ninety minutes.[8] Cocaine has a small
number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing
bleeding during nasal surgery.[11]
Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain.
After a short period of use, there is a high risk thatdependence will
occur.[9] Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction,
lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, and sudden
cardiac death.[9][12] Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed
with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar which can result in
additional toxicity.[13] Following repeated doses a person may have
decreased ability to feel pleasureand be very physically tired.[9]
Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and
dopamine. This results in greater concentrations of these
three neurotransmitters in the brain.[9] It can easily cross the blood–brain
barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier.[14][15]Cocaine is
made from the leaves of the coca plant which are mostly grown in South
America.[8] In 2013, 419 kilograms were produced legally.[16] It is
estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD
each year. With further processingcrack cocaine can be produced from
cocaine.[9]
After cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently used illegal drug globally.
[17]
 Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year. Use is
highest in North America followed by Europe and South America.
Between one and three percent of people in thedeveloped world use
cocaine at some point in their life.[9] In 2013 cocaine use directly resulted
in 4,300 deaths, up from 2,400 in 1990.[18] The leaves of the coca plant
have been used by Peruvians since ancient times.[13] Cocaine was first
isolated from the leaves in 1860.[9] Since 1961 the international Single
Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make
recreational use of cocaine a crime.[19]

Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA),[note 1] commonly known

as ecstasy (E), is a psychoactive drug used primarily as a recreational
drug. Desired effects of MDMA include increased empathy, euphoria,
and heightened sensations.[10][11][12] When taken by mouth, effects begin
after 30–45 minutes and last 3–6 hours.[6][13] It is also
sometimes snorted or smoked.[12] As of 2016, MDMA has no accepted
medical uses.[3]
Adverse effects of MDMA use include addiction, memory
problems, paranoia, difficulty sleeping, teeth grinding, blurred vision,
sweating, and a rapid heartbeat. Use may also lead to depression and
fatigue. Deaths have been reported due to increased body temperature
and dehydration.[12] MDMA increases the release and slows the
reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine,
and norepinephrine in parts of the brain. It
has stimulant and psychedelic effects.[1][14] The initial increase is
followed by a short-term decrease in the neurotransmitters.[12][13] MDMA
belongs to the substituted
methylenedioxyphenethylamine and substituted amphetamine classes of
drugs.
MDMA was first made in 1912.[12] It was used to
improve psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a
street drug in the 1980s.[12][13][15] MDMA is commonly associated
with dance parties, raves, and electronic dance music.[16] It is often sold
mixed with other substances such as ephedrine, amphetamine,
and methamphetamine.[12] In 2013, between 9 and 28 million people
between the ages of 15 and 65 used ecstasy (0.2% to 0.6% of the world
population). This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who
use cocaine, amphetamines, and opioids, but fewer than for cannabis.
[17]
 In the United States, about 0.9 million people used ecstasy in 2010.[12]
MDMA is generally illegal in most countries. Limited exceptions are
sometimes made for research. Researchers are investigating whether a
few low doses of MDMA may assist in treating severe, treatment-
resistant posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[10][18]More research is
needed to determine if its usefulness outweighs the risk of harm.[10][18]

A hallucinogen is a psychoactive agent which can

cause hallucinations, perceptual anomalies, and other substantial
subjective changes in thoughts, emotion, andconsciousness. The
common types of hallucinogens
are psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants. Although hallucinations
are not an uncommon symptom of amphetamine psychosis,
amphetamines are not considered hallucinogens, as they are not a
primary effect of the drugs themselves. While stimulants do not induce
hallucinations without abuse, the nature of stimulant psychosis is not
unlike delirium.
L. E. Hollister's criteria for establishing that a drug is hallucinogenic are
as follows:[1]
 in proportion to other effects, changes in thought, perception, and
mood should predominate;
 intellectual or memory impairment should be minimal;
 stupor, narcosis, or excessive stimulation should not be an integral
effect;
 autonomic nervous system side effects should be minimal; and
 addictive craving should be absent.

Marijuana refers to the dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds from the
hemp plant,Cannabis sativa. The plant contains the mind-altering
chemical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other related
compounds. Extracts with high amounts of THC can also be made from
the cannabis plant (see "Marijuana Extracts").
Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United
States.1 Its use is widespread among young people. According to a
yearly survey of middle and high school students, rates of marijuana use
have steadied in the past few years after several years of increase.
However, the number of young people who believe marijuana use is
risky is decreasing.2
Legalization of marijuana for medical use or adult recreational use in a
growing number of states may affect these views. Read more about
marijuana as medicine in DrugFacts: Is Marijuana
Medicine? atwww.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana-
medicine.
 Photo by ©Stephen Orsillo/Shutterstock
How do people use marijuana?
People smoke marijuana in hand-rolled cigarettes (joints) or in pipes or
water pipes (bongs). They also smoke it in blunts—emptied cigars that
have been partly or completely refilled with marijuana. To avoid
inhaling smoke, more people are using vaporizers. These devices pull
the active ingredients (including THC) from the marijuana and collect
their vapor in a storage unit. A person then inhales the vapor, not the
smoke.
Users can mix marijuana in food (edibles), such as brownies, cookies, or
candy, or brew it as a tea. A newly popular method of use is smoking or
eating different forms of THC-rich resins (see "Marijuana Extracts").

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), also known as acid, is

a psychedelic drug known for its psychological effects. This may include
altered awareness of the surroundings, perceptions, and feelings as well
as sensations and images that seem real though they are not.[8] It is used
mainly as a recreational drug and for spiritual reasons. LSD is typically
either swallowed or held under the tongue.[8]It is often sold on blotter
paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. LSD injected intravenously takes effect
in approximately 30 minutes.
LSD is not addictive.[8][9] However, adverse psychiatric reactions such
as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions are possible.[10] LSD is in
the ergoline family. LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light,
and chlorine,[11] though it may last for years if it is stored away from
light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is odorless and
clear or white in color.[8] As little as 20–30 micrograms can produce an
effect.[12]
LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in Switzerland in 1938
from ergotamine, a chemical from the fungus, ergot. The laboratory
name for the compound was the acronym for the German "Lyserg-säure-
diäthylamid", followed by a sequential number: LSD-25.[11][13] Hofmann
discovered its psychedelic properties in 1943.[14] LSD was introduced as
a commercial medication under the trade-name Delysid for
various psychiatric uses in 1947.[15] In the 1950s, officials at the
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) thought the drug might be
useful for mind control and chemical warfare; the agency's Project
MKUltra research program gave the drug to young servicemen and
students. The subsequent recreational use by youth culture in
the Western world as part of 1960s counterculture resulted in
its prohibition.[16]