CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE

TRANSLATING EXILE.
TWO TRANSLATIONS OF KADER
ABDOLAH’S SPIJKERSCHRIFT
IN THE LIGHT OF CORPUS ANALYSIS

PHILIPPE HUMBLÉ1

1. Introduction
Kader Abdolah’s name might not immediately ring a bell even if a
number of his works have been translated into almost a dozen languages,
including English and Spanish. In the Netherlands, Abdolah has published
six novels, five short story collections and a number of newspaper
columns. During the 2007 Dutch Book Week, The House of the Mosque
was elected the best Dutch book, second only to Harry Mulisch. Even so,
until recently it was not uncommon for Abdolah to see his writing being
criticized because of the odd “immigrant” ring to it. Well-known Dutch
critic Max Pam expressed this mildly as follows:

The truth is that a good editor would improve the work of Kader Abdolah
enormously [...] Stylistically Abdolah has not yet reached the point of
being able to maintain a good level during the whole four hundred pages of
a novel. Every now and then the structure collapses. A good editor would
have introduced more variety in these strings of short sentences. It is true
that those short little clauses are Kader Abdolah’s trademark, but a novel is
not the same as a weekly column in a newspaper. 2(Pam 2000)

1
Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Email: philippe.humble@vub.ac.be
2
“Wel moet gezegd worden dat een goede editor Kader Abdolah's werk geen
kwaad zou doen (…) Stilistisch is Abdolah nog niet zo ver dat hij ook in roman
van bijna vier honderd pagina's op een constant niveau blijft. Af en toe zakt het in.
Een goede editor zou meer variatie hebben aangebracht in de voortdurende
aaneenrijging van korte zinnen. Die korte zinnetjes zijn weliswaar het handelsmerk
400 Chapter Twenty-Five

It is specifically with this “foreign” quality of Abdolah’s writing and

the translation problems it entails that his article discusses.
Kader Abdolah’s case is far from being isolated in a world of
increasing mobility, with people moving from one place to another, very
often against their will. Among the stock of immigrants that have arrived
at the shores of Europe, more and more are demanding to be heard and
publicly express themselves through literature. There is an incipient
immigrant literature in European languages being born, still not
overwhelming but gaining in force, and this literature is being translated.
Its distinctive feature, however, is the fact that it was not written by native
speakers.
Now, how must we evaluate these translations in a minimally objective
way? And why should we evaluate them in any other way than we
evaluate translations in general? The answer is that current immigrant
literature is not only different from vernacular literature, it is also different
from that of the literature of previous generations of immigrants.

2. The Literature of Immigration

Clearly there have always been people migrating from one country to
another and some of them have occasionally written literature. Famous
examples are Conrad, Beckett, Ionesco, Tahar Ben Jelloun, and Nabokov.
However, these writers had little tendency to flaunt their origins, much less
did they want to write in their adopted language in a way that was different
from native authors. Conrad is sometimes said to have written “better”
English than the British themselves. Tahar Ben Jelloun writes in a kind of
French that makes him indistinguishable from native French authors.
Some of the new generation immigrant writers, however, claim to do
exactly the opposite. They cherish their accent. They do not care if their
way of expressing themselves does not conform to the rules of their host
language. They claim their “accent” to be their trademark. Japanese Yone
Noguchi (1902/2007), whose work is now being rediscovered, was a
notable forerunner of this at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Contemporary examples are, in Germany, Japanese Yoko Tawada and
Turkish Emine Sevgi Özdamar. In Holland there is Kader Abdolah. These
are writers who write in their adopted language in a way characteristic of

van Kader Abdolah geworden, maar een roman is nog geen wekelijkse column in
de krant. Toch is Kader Abdolah onafwendbaar op weg een Nederlandse schrijver
te worden. Of hij daar gelukkig mee moet zijn, weet ik niet, maar in ieder geval
zou zijn volgende stap moeten zijn dat hij onze taal niet alleen schrijft, maar ook
leert spreken zonder als een gek te brullen.” Max Pam HP\De Tijd, 12 mei 2000.
 Translating Exile 401

their roots and it is this unique way of expressing themselves that has
become one of their main assets. In their new homelands, the three
aforementioned contemporary authors have become surprisingly popular,
have been repeatedly granted major national awards and their work has
been translated worldwide. How can we evaluate these translations?
The assessment of literary translations is a thorny issue, and in the case
of immigrant literature even more so. Indeed, there is the additional
difficulty that the language used in the original is of a peculiar type since it
is steered from the vantage point of another mother tongue. This trait is in
itself a part of the message. The typical character of immigrant literature
resides in its “translated” flavour, which Von Flotow (2000), translator of
Özdamar, called a ‘Zwittertext’, a kind of crossbreed, hermaphrodite piece
of writing.
In this context it has to be stressed that the translator, unlike the
immigrant, writes in his native language, not in a language he dominates
imperfectly. For most of us, admitting to “not knowing something” is
extremely difficult; this is even more true for a translator, who works with
language on a professional basis and praises correctness. However, an
“accent” is essential for the way the immigrant part of the population
expresses itself. Sociolinguistic research has shown this to be true, starting
with the work of Labov (1972) on the Afro-American idiolect. This is
exactly what happens with, for example, young Moroccans in Holland and
Belgium, among other ethnic groups, who were born in Europe, went to
school in Dutch or in French, and yet have a typical accent in languages
they have spoken since childhood. In this, as in similar cases, it is
indicative of the fact that they have their own identity and do not feel fully
integrated as Europeans. The “accent” of immigrant writers is a
fundamental part of what they write and, if we are not simply interested in
some exotic stories of wandering people, it is essential that this accent be
transmitted in translation. As a consequence, translators, who normally
translate into their native language, have to make a special effort to convey
this flavour, this twisted tongue, this “Zwischensprache” appreciated by
the public. Translators are, of course, natives of their tongue and have no
foreign accent when translating. It is therefore a particular type of
translation coming into play here, and it requires great skill to translate as
if one were not a native speaker and suppress one’s correction instinct.
How can we know if the translation transmits all the features of the
original?
Corpus linguistics, with its array of tools, can provide researchers with
some indication of the direction their research should go. Already in 1998,
Baker showed the potential of this technique in an article that has lost none
402 Chapter Twenty-Five

of its relevance. Corpus linguistics has interesting tools with which to

evaluate the quality of a literary translation, providing valuable clues for a
closer investigation. It is not my intention to pretend that a purely
quantitative examination would suffice. Corpus analysis only gives us
valuable and reliable clues as to what can further be investigated by a
qualitative analysis. In the case of Kader Abdolah, I will discuss the
type/token ratio, the number and size of the clauses, and the keywords. But
first I will draw the context of the author and his translators.

3. Kader Abdolah
Kader Abdolah is an Iranian writer, born in 1954, who has been living
in the Netherlands, where he was granted the status of political refugee,
since 1988. After obtaining a diploma in physics in Iran, he became
involved in resistance movements, first against the Shah then against the
Islamic regime. After having fled to Holland, he started writing literature
in Dutch, learning the language first with the help of children’s books and
afterwards studying literature at university. In 1993 he published his first
book in Dutch, De Adelaars (The Eagles), which won the Dutch Best
Debut Award. Several books followed, of which The House of the Mosque
was the most successful. It sold more than 100,000 copies, which, taking
into account that Dutch has no more than 23 million speakers, is
impressive. The novel was translated into a dozen languages, amongst
which one was Spanish, as was the case with several of his other books.
The book that this piece of research addresses is Spijkerschrift (2000),
literally ‘cuneiform’, published in English under the title My Father’s
Notebook and in Spanish as El Reflejo de las Palabras (The Reflection of
Words) (2006). This novel tells the story of an Iranian writer in exile in
Holland who one day receives by mail a notebook written by his already
deceased father, deaf and dumb, as was the father of Kader Abdolah, and
illiterate. The handwriting is hardly readable, which forces the author to
make up most of his father’s story himself, relying on his memories. In
fact, the notebook is not even written in normal characters. The narrator
refers to his father’s writing as being ‘cuneiform’, like the inscriptions in a
cave near his native village that his father knew well. In fact, the book
cannot even be read properly; the son just tells his own story, the story of
his family and also, inevitably, of Iran in the twentieth century. The book
turns out to be a tribute by the author to his disabled father, describing a
relationship in which a child has to simultaneously play the role of father,
brother and closest friend.
 Translating Exile 403

The message transmitted through the original Dutch book is the story
of an author who writes from a non-Dutch, non-native point of view. The
original, as it happens, is presented to the reader as a translation from an
Iranian, albeit unreadable, original and intends to sound like a translation
from which the translator chooses not to be invisible. The original, strange
as it may seem, is a “foreignising” translation from the beginning (Venuti
1995). This is reflected in the somewhat limited vocabulary and the use of
short and abrupt sentences, generally respecting the unsurprising subject-
verb-object sequence. What we have here is a writer who declares to his
audience: I am an exile, an immigrant, I write imperfectly in a language of
which I have no perfect command, but even as an immigrant I have
succeeded and so I tell a different story.
Critics, as stated previously, have not been unanimously supportive of
the author’s language and some have criticized its exaggerated simplicity,
an almost naive way of writing, which in many ways resembles Tawada’s
and Özdamar’s. As a Dutch critic said: “When Abdolah writes two or three
sentences in a row, he starts all over again on another line. A rather
childish way of writing.”3 Many people are, nonetheless, delighted by this
minimalism and if some deem that the time has come for the author to
grow up, there is no doubt that he has a message to deliver and the way he
does this is part of this message. It is, however, exactly this style
component that seems most under threat in a translation. On the other
hand, however, if Kader Abdolah’s novels are successful in English and in
Spanish, does that mean that his message is being delivered correctly,
regardless of the linguistic vehicle, or is it due to the skill of the translators?

4. Bio-sketch of the Translators

It is not devod of importance to know the translators better since it
might help explain the discrepancies in their translations. The English
translator is Susan Massotti, who translated thirteen books, all from Dutch,
between 1995 and 2011. It is a not very large but consistent repertoire.4 All

3
“Als Abdolah twee, drie zinnen achter elkaar heeft geschreven, begint hij alweer
op de volgende regel. Een kinderlijke manier van schrijven.” Coen Peppelenbos
Leeuwarder Courant, 11 maart 2011.
4
The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank (Jun 12, 2011); Anne Frank's Tales
from the Secret Annex by Anne Frank (Feb 27, 2012); The Diary of Anne Frank:
The Revised Critical Edition by Anne Frank, Arnold J. Pomerans, B. M. Mooyaart-
Doubleday (Mar 25, 2003); Jesus of Nazareth by Paul Verhoeven, Susan Massotty
and Rob Van Scheers (Nov 29, 2011); Lost Paradise: A Novel by Cees Nooteboom
(Dec 31, 2006); All Souls' Day by Nooteboom Cees (Jul 22, 2011); My Father's
404 Chapter Twenty-Five

books are of literature and biography but one. The Spanish translator is
Diego Puls Kuipers and he is not as experienced. I found three books with
his name as a translator, two by Anne Frank and one by Kader Abdolah.5
In what follows I will discuss specific features of corpus linguistics
analysis, such as the type-token relationship and the keywords. Both items
will prove to provide precious information on the way Spijkerschrift was
translated.

5. Type-Token Ratio and Number of Clauses

The type-token ratio is valuable data, if interpreted with caution. The
main argument against its use is that text size directly influences the
results. Since, however, the texts under scrutiny are translations of the
same text, this argument does not apply here. The three texts are obviously
of comparable size. This does not, however, mean that when examined in
detail, language idiosyncrasies do not come into play.
Languages differ in the number of different types of verbs, for
instance, and which of them are compulsory. In Dutch, a regular verb has
six different possible forms and in English five, whereas in Spanish there
are up to 48. On average then, every Dutch verb can be translated into
Spanish in eight different ways, whereas in English the possibilities would
be comparable to Dutch. A translation from Dutch into Spanish would
result in the Spanish version having more types for that single reason.
A second caveat to take into account is the different treatment given in
Dutch to multi-word items. Indeed, in Dutch, multi-words are written as
one word (papegaaiencollectie), whereas in English and in Spanish they
are separated (parrot collection, colección de loros), which increases the
number of tokens.
For both these reasons, translation into Spanish should have a slightly
higher type/token ratio than the original. This would also be the case for

Notebook by Kader Abdolah (Nov 2, 2007); The Search: The Birkenau Boys by
Gerhard Durlacher (Nov 1, 1998); The Kreutzer Sonata: A Novel (Kreutzersonate)
by Margriet De Moor (Jan 17, 2005); Stripes in the Sky: A Wartime Memoir by
Gerhard Durlacher (Jul 1, 1991); Wedding by the Sea by Abdelkader Benali (Mar
2, 2000); The Kreutzer Sonata: A Novel by Margriet De Moor, Susan Massotty and
Jim Meskimen (Jan 17, 2013) - Unabridged; Moon Handbook: A 21St-Century
Travel Guide (Moon Handbooks) by Carl Koppeschaar (Nov 1995).
5
Diario de Anne Frank y Ana Frank en la Casa de Atrás - ¿Quién fue quién?, by
Aukje Vergeest.
 Translating Exile 405

the English translation, although to a lesser degree. Taking into account

these two caveats, the results for the type/token ratio are as follows.

Type/token ratio Standardized

Spijkerschrift 7.99 39.69
My Father’s Notebook 7.05 39.34
El Reflejo de las 12.21 46.24
Palabras
Table 1. Type/token relationship in Spijkerschrift and translations.

It immediately seems obvious that there is a fairly significant

discrepancy between the type/token ratios of the original and its Spanish
translation. In the case of the English translation, on the other hand, a
slight decrease can be observed. So great a difference between the Dutch
original and the Spanish translation indicates a rather greater lexical
richness when compared to the original. The translator has made the
original text more “sophisticated” and more in accordance with a normal
text in Spanish written by a native speaker. As a comparison, I did a
similar measurement on six other Spanish contemporary novels. This was
the result:

Number of Type/token Standardized

words ratio
Vila Matas / Doctor 121, 697 10.26 44.67
Pasavento
Javier Marías / 102, 731 11.53 44.96
Corazón tan Blanco
Lezama Lima / 225, 255 11.73 47.27
Paradiso
Belli / La Mujer 119, 279 12.27 48.11
Habitada
Laforet / Nada 75, 750 13.08 46.78
Delibes / La Sombra 95, 419 14.98 49.46
del Ciprés
El Reflejo de las 82, 491 12.21 46.24
Palabras
Table 2. Type/token relationship in six Spanish novels.

The Spanish translation has a standardized type/token ratio that

matches fairly well the average ratio of other Spanish novels.
406 Chapter Twenty-Five

The English translator, on the other hand, seems to have maintained the
same level of lexical richness (or lack of it), and even reduced it slightly.
A comparison with three traditional English novels and an avant-garde one
gives the following results:

Number of Type/token Standardized

words ratio
Hardy / Tess 149, 846 8.28 44.96
Hardy / The Mayor 120, 890 8.66 45.13
of Casterbridge
Hardy / Far from the 141, 540 8.33 45.48
Madding Crowd
Joyce / Ulysses 274, 587 10.73 49.48
My Father’s 88, 286 7.05 39.34
Notebook
Table 3. Type/token relationship in four English novels.

The type/token ratio of the English translation is significantly lower

than what one would expect from an English novel in general and
obviously more so from an avant-garde novel such as Ulysses. My
Father’s Notebook seems therefore more in accordance with the original
as far as general lexical richness is concerned.

6. Number of Clauses
In addition to computing the type-token ratio, I also analyzed the
number of clauses to complete this analysis. Full stops and question marks
were also analyzed. These are the figures:

Clauses
Spijkerschrift 8,222
My Father’s Notebook 8,295
El Reflejo de las Palabras 7,637
Table 4. Number of clauses in Spijkerschrift and translations.

These numbers are in line with the expectations. Indeed, if one of the
criticisms against Kader Abdolah is that his sentences are too short, it was
to be expected that a translator would feel a tendency to reduce the number
of independent clauses and replace them with subordinate clauses. This is
what the WordSmith numbers seem to indicate. Especially in the case of
 Translating Exile 407

the Spanish translation, there is a significant decrease of no fewer than 585

clauses as compared to the original. The WordSmith numbers would
indicate that the English translator, on the other hand, cut clauses instead
of joining them. However, since WordSmith’s way of counting clauses
only gives us an approximate idea, I also did a manual count, summing up
full stops, exclamation marks and question marks. This yielded different
numbers, which show that even the English translator reduced the number
of clauses.

Full Question Exclamation Grand Difference

stops marks marks total
Spijkerschrift 7,340 947 328 8,615
My Father’s 6,903 979 391 8,273 -342
Notebook
El Reflejo de 6,206 981 459 7,646 -969
las Palabras
Table 5. Punctuation marks I.

These results do not have to be taken entirely at face value since each
language has its syntactic constraints but the differences are still
considerable, especially in the case of the Spanish translation. The
definition given by Wikipedia for ‘punctuation’ could not be more
appropriate for what is intended here: “Punctuation marks delimit the
clauses and paragraphs and establish the syntactic hierarchy of
propositions, obtaining a text structure, order and the prioritisation of ideas
in major and minor, and removing ambiguities” (Wikipedia,
‘Puntuación’).6 This is indeed what happened. When calculating the
number of other punctuation marks – commas, semicolons and colons that,
instead of delimiting the clause, coordinate it – complementary numbers
are obtained that explain the numbers found when the full stops, question
and exclamation marks were counted.

6
“Los signos de puntuación delimitan las frases y los párrafos y establecen la
jerarquía sintáctica de las proposiciones, consiguiendo así estructurar el texto,
ordenar las ideas y jerarquizarlas en principales y secundarias, y eliminar
ambigüedades.”
408 Chapter Twenty-Five

Commas Semicolon Colon Total

Spijkerschrift 4,235 18 366 4,619
My Father’s 4,932 11 182 5,125
Notebook
El Reflejo de 5,025 153 384 5,562
las Palabras
Table 6. Punctuation marks II.

Here, as might be expected, numbers are increasing as we go from the

original to the English and the Spanish translations. This was to be
expected according to the type/token ratio. A greater lexical richness goes
hand in hand with a smaller number of clauses and more subordinate
clauses.
All this indicates that especially the Spanish translator, consciously or
unconsciously, made his text much more structured and more
“sophisticated” than the original. There are more different words and the
sentences are more complex since they are longer.

7. Keywords
When comparing the keywords, more interesting facts emerge. I
compared the wordlists of the three books with reference corpora based on
two Wikipedia encyclopaedias, Dutch and Spanish, and one on the
American Grolier Encyclopaedia. The three reference corpora, apart from
the fact that they are all encyclopaedias, are different in number of words.
I rely, however, on an article by Scott (2009: 86) where he shows that
reference corpora, however different they are in numbers of words or
source texts, tend to yield the same keywords for the same texts.
The table below shows the comparison of frequency of five words that
emerged as keywords in all three books. The actual list of keywords was
almost identical for the first one hundred words, but showed some
interesting variations. I selected the words “ik” [“I”]; two protagonists’
names [Akbar (the father) and Tine (the mother)]; and a verb [gebaarde–
signed/gestured]. This last verb is quite important since Spijkerschrift is
the story of a deaf mute man who can only make himself understood by
making gestures.
 Translating Exile 409

Dutch original English Spanish

translation translation
ik 2553 I 2493 yo 332
Akbar 312 Akbar 361 Akbar 326
Tine 229 Tina 231 Tine 202
vader 379 father 420 padre 358
Gebaarde / 177 / signed / 119 / gesticuló/gesticulé 94
gebaarden 1 gestured 44
Akbar + 691 781 684
vader/father/padre
Table 7. Keywords.

The first feature that catches the eye is the prominent presence of “ik”,
faithfully translated by “I” in the English version. This should not surprise
since the novel is autobiographical and the narrator is an “I”. However, “I”
is not very prominent in the Spanish version, even taking into account the
fact that the omission of the subject pronoun is allowed in Spanish and
very rarely in Dutch and English. The result is that in the Spanish version,
Akbar, the father, ends up taking up more space than in the original.
Interestingly, this is even more the case in the English version, which
mentions the same protagonist, by the name of “father” and Akbar, a total
of 781 times while in the original it is not mentioned more than 691 times
and in the Spanish translation 684. His wife Tine is mentioned 229 times
in the original, 231 in the English translation and only 202 times in
Spanish. Depending on the translation, some characters disappear or
acquire an importance that they did not have in the original.
Another interesting fact is the translation of the verb form
“gebaarde(n)” (to sign / to gesture). The English translator uses two verbs:
“to sign” and “to gesture”. The Spanish translator, in turn, had to make do
with the inelegant “gesticular” and chose to cut it 83 times. His prose is
decidedly more elegant than the original but also the furthest from the
language of an immigrant. As a consequence, the original was reduced to
an interesting story of a son and his father in Iran but is no longer the
manifesto of an immigrant writer.

8. Conclusion
The translation of literature written by immigrants represents a special
challenge to translators. Translators write in their mother tongue whereas
the immigrant writers do not. In many cases they do not even want to
sound like a native writer and translators should probably try to refrain
from a natural tendency to regularise the language. The “unregularised
410 Chapter Twenty-Five

character” of the original is indeed part of the message and should be

transmitted. Sociolinguistic research has shown that an “accent” is a
substantial part of the identity of a person, especially important for
minority groups. This is also the case with Kader Abdolah, and corpus
linguistics tools can be very helpful to pin down what remains of these
identity traits in translation. In the case of Spijkerschrift, an analysis of the
type/token ratio shows that the translators under scrutiny had a tendency to
produce a kind of language that is more in conformity with native prose. In
the case of the Spanish translation, the lexical richness of the translated
text approaches the native norm.
This impression of normalization is reinforced by the clause count,
which also shows that there was a general tendency by the translators to
abide by the norms of the target language. This has been claimed before,
notably in the “universals discussion”, even if the universal character of
these tendencies has often been questioned (Halverson 2003). Clearly one
single study will not decide this matter. However, it stands to reason that
immigrant literature is a likely terrain on which these universals can be
tested and, for that matter, prove more accurate than some might expect.

References
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