1. Discuss the factors that led to the unification of Germany and Italy.

Answer: During 19th century, Europe witnessed radical changes in the political
borders of the states in the region. The major driving force of these unifications
and separations was “Nationalism” and rise of “Nation states”. Unification of
Germany and Italy are classic examples of nation states.

Body

There are many factors that led to the unification of Germany and Italy.

Geographical Factors:

 Natural Resources such as coal and Iron was widely available in German
areas, to take benefit of these resources along with Industrialization, a Unified
Germany was required.
 Geographic unity of Italian peninsula was natural factor that played role in
unification of the country.

Renaissance and role of thinkers/Philosophers:

 Most of the initial thinkers and philosophers were from Italy and Germany.
Therefore, awakening of the mass was inevitable.
 J. G. Fichte gave the concept of German idealism, glorifying German people,
language and culture. Similarly, Friedrich Nietzsche gave the slogan of “Live
dangerously”.

Trade and economy:

 The progress of German unification was greatly encouraged by the
Zollverin, a customs union in Central Germany, where internal trade tariffs
were abolished, and a common trade policy with external states was
developed. Similar efforts were taken in Italy also.

Uprisings due Exploitation:

 Earlier, Germany never had German rulers. Pop was the deciding authority
for the affairs of German states.
 Similarly, after the defeat of Napoleon, Italy was exploited by France under
the shield of Treaty of Campo Formio.

Wars and policies of the Napoleon:

 Napoleon abolished the smaller states in the area and established state of
West Phalia in Germany. He took similar steps in Italy too.

Strong leadership:

 “Blood and Iron policy” of Bismarck played an important role in unification

of Germany. Similarly, Italy got the great leaders in the form of Mazzini,
Garibaldi and Cavour.
 Mazzini formed a nationalist group known as “Young Italy” and called for an
end to foreign rule and unification of Italy.
Social and Political Factors:

 Common language and common culture played their role in unification of

both the countries.
 Rise of new ideas and a strong wave of nationalism made the unification of
both the countries possible.

Conclusion

These are some of the many factors that led to unification of Germany and Italy.
Birth of these two new nations started changing the political conditions of
Europe, finally leading to most important event in history of the world that is,
World War I.

2. Compare and contrast the unification of Germany and Italy.

Answer: Nationalism emerged as a major force in Europe in the aftermath of

Vienna system as a result of which there is rise of Germany and Italy as new
powerful nations after their unification process during the mid-19th century
period which changed the geo-political scenario in Europe.

Body

The unification of Germany and Italy as new nations had its genesis in the
common cultural background and linguistic similarity which helped in the process
of building a national identity. The process of unification of Germany and Italy can
be seen from the following points:

                  German Unification                   Italian Unification

1. Efforts of Napoleon in the form of 1. Napoleonic measures of
Rhine federation and propagation of establishing Swiss alpine republic
ideals of french revolution laid the and reforms in accordance with the
basis for future course in 1805. ideals of french revolution
2. Vienna Congress of 1815 tried to triggered growth of awakening.
undone changes done by Napoleon but 2. Vienna Congress restored pre-
were not completely successful. Thus, napoleon conditions but
Napoleon completed the first phase unknowingly strengthened
German unification. Piedmont-Sardinia state which in
3. Burschenschaft and Zollverein were the long run lead the process of
organisations which helped in the Italian unification.
formation of a national identity in 3. Carbonary and Young Italy were
german states. associations in Italian states which
4. The Zollverein was a  Customs helped in the growth of nationalism
Union launched by Prussia in 1818 and and the spirit of fraternity.
it contributed to making Prussia the 4. In Italy, no customs union
most economically progressive German comparable to the Zollverein aided
state.   the movement towards unification.
5. The 1848 revolution failed to bring Only Piedmont implemented some
liberty or unity to Germany, as it had economic reforms that made the
failed in Italy. Only in Prussia did the country the most economically
king grant a constitution, but it was far advanced Italian state.
 from what the liberals had wanted.   5. In 1848, revolts broke out in
6. Bismarck became Minister- every Italian state for the sake of
President of Prussia in 1862. He was far liberty and unity. The Kingdom of
more a strong leader of the autocratic Piedmont-Sardinia also declared
type, masterful, anti-democratic and war on Austria to fight for Italian
scornful of liberals. His “blood and unification. Despite some initial
iron” speech and his unscrupulous successes, the revolutionary
treatment of the Prussian liberals movement failed as revolts were
vividly revealed his nature as a Junker ultimately suppressed by despotic
leader. rulers
7. Unlike Cavour, Bismarck was able to 6. In 1852, Cavour became Prime
achieve German unification without Minister of Piedmont. He
foreign assistance and more with the contributed greatly to the cause of
use of military force. With the helpful Italian unification. He strove to
assistance of his military leaders, modernize Piedmont’s economy
Bismarck had at his disposal a powerful and government once he was in
military machinery. power.  
8. In 1866, he defeated Austin by first 7. Cavour used diplomacy to
isolating her diplomatically from secure the help of France and Great
possible allies, then overwhelming her Britain in the cause of Italian
with superior arms. It enabled the unification through measures like
Bismarck to annex some German states help in Crimean War.
to form a North German 8. With the help of French military
Confederation, and to drive Austrian assistance, Cavour gained
influence out of Germany. Lombardy and then later took
 advantage to gain central Italy and
Naples-Sicily with the help of
Garibaldi.
9. Between 1861 and 1870, Italian
9. Bismarck completed German
unification was completed not so
unification himself by another war
much by Italian efforts as by
against France from 1870-71. The
Prussia’s defeats of Austria (1866)
Prussian victory over France aroused
and France (1871). In the first
strong nationalist sentiments and
instance, Italy allied with Prussia
induced German states to unite in the
and seized Venetia – from Austria.
name of a German empire, under the
In the second case, when French
leadership of Prussia. Thus, Prussian
garrisons at Rome returned home
militarism had unified Germany
to fight Prussia, Italian forces
unaided.
marched into the city despite the
Pope’s opposition. By then, the
Italian unification had finally been
completed.

Conclusion

Italian unification owed much to the leadership of Piedmont and Cavour, and to
French and Prussian military role.  Yet, forces from below were also important,
especially the liberals and nationalists who raffled to Cavour and Garibaldi.  On
the other hand, “unification from above” was clearly the pattern in Germany. It
was achieved mainly by Prussia, her army, her ruling class, and the leader
Bismarck.

3. Explain role of Bismarck in unification of Italy.

The formation of Germany as a nation state was one of the most important
events in the history of the world. Napoleon Bonaparte first sowed the seeds of
nationalism in Germany. But it was the rise of Otto Von Bismarck and his
diplomacy that led to the unification of Germany as a nation state.

Role of Bismarck in state building in Germany:

1. Military reforms: Bismarck initiated many military reforms that allowed

successful wars in later time. In the 1850s, Bismarck wanted to build up
Prussia’s army to be ready if war broke out with the other German states or
Austria. To do this Bismarck collected money for military reforms through
direct taxation. These reforms included:
2. An increase in army conscription from two to three years.
3. The introduction of new battle tactics.
4. The introduction of weapons such as the needle gun.
5. Speeches: Bismarck made numerous speeches in public to rattle the feeling
of nationalism inside the German people. This was done in order to arouse a
sense of nation among people.
6. Isolation of countries: He successfully isolated other countries by making
them look like aggressors. He made following efforts for this:
7. 1st War of Unification (Schleswig-Holstein): The first diplomatic step of
Bismarck was the intervention of the Schleswig-Holstein. These two duchies
were under the Denmark in 1850 by the London Protocol. At this time the
combined army of Austria and Prussia under the leadership of Bismarck
attacked Denmark in 1864. This was the first diplomatic step of Bismarck
against Austria.
8. Elections: To counter Prussia’s growing influence, Austria tried to
strengthen its position in the German Federation. Bismarck thwarted
Austria’s plans by insisting on popular elections to the Diet (the Federation’s
Parliament). Bismarck had successfully ruined Austria’s plans.
9. 2nd War of Unification, 1866 (Austro-Prussian War): Bismarck knew
Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims, Bismarck
declared war against Austria in 1866. This War led to the defeat of the
neighbouring States of Austria like Bavaria, Saxon etc. and then Austria. To
isolate Austria, Bismarck built up alliances with other major powers- Russia,
France and Italy.
10. The Treaty of Prague and formation of Germany: After the Austro-Prussian
War, the ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and Prussia in
1866. According to this treaty Austria was expelled from Germany. After the
treaty of Prague the formation of Germany was started. 
11. With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other
great stumbling block to unification- France. France had watched Prussia’s
growing power with alarm. France was heavily defeated in the Franco-
Prussian War. The circumstances leading to the war caused the southern
 German states to support Prussia. This alliance led to the unification of
Germany.
12. Annexation: The states of Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Nassaa and
Frankfort were annexed to Prussia. The States north to May River were
annexed to Prussia and the North German Confederation was formed.
13. Unification: In the build up to war, the southern confederate German
states voluntarily joined the Prussian-controlled Northern German
Confederation. Germany was now unified.

Unification of Germany was not one single event but a process which occurred in
phases. Bismarck had played a major role in unification and nation building of
Germany through his policies, military reforms, speeches and isolation strategies.

4.  What is nationalism? Why was nationalism on rise during the late 18th and
19th centuries? What were its fallouts? Discuss
A sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing
primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those
of other nations or supranational groups.

Nationalism has a number of near-synonyms, each of which carries its own

distinct meaning. Patriotism is similar insofar as it emphasizes strong feelings for
one’s country, but it does not necessarily imply an attitude of superiority.
Sectionalism resembles nationalism in its suggestion of a geopolitical group
pursuing its self-interest, but the group in question is usually smaller than an
entire nation.
Jingoism closely resembles nationalism in suggesting feelings of cultural
superiority, but unlike nationalism, it always implies military aggressiveness.
Rise of Natioanlism:
French Revolution:
Before the rise of nationalism, people were loyal to the monarch rather than the
country.

The idea of Nationalism came after the French Revolution when Monarchy was
abolished and it became possible for the so called common people to rule. France
had become a sovereign nation, and its people grew in their national loyalty.
Many of them believed that their new system was working well, and they were
ready to move out into the world to bring their discoveries to others.

The idea was spread by Napoleon in other European nations through wars. He
created the Napoleonic Code in 1804 that unified French law, getting rid of
regional variations and making one set of rules for everyone.
Napoleon’s aggression, however, increased the nationalistic impulses in his
enemies and those he conquered. Defeated nations united around their hatred of
Napoleon and his policies. Great Britain, for instance, avoided labor revolts
because its people were busy backing their country’s fight against the French.
Austrians, stung by defeat, collectively fumed about having to give up their
territories.
 Romanticism and National Identity:
Romantic movements in art and culture beginning in the early 19th century led to
the development of various national identities in Europe. The British poet Lord
Byron did much to increase the European public’s perception of nationalist
uprisings.

Unification of Italy and Germany:

During the mid to late 19th century, nationalist “realpolitik” spurred the
unification of two major European nations: Italy and Germany. “Realpolitik” is a
practical approach to political diplomacy based largely on power dynamics
between nations and other material factors. Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour from
the Italian nation-state of Sardinia, is best known for his successful application of
“realpolitik” as a means of convincing leaders of the various Italian nation states
to unify. Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor to King Wilhelm I of Prussia, used
the military might of the Prussian armies to coerce other German states to unify
under one German nation. This is perhaps the most oft-cited example of
“realpolitik” in 19th-century European history.

 
Fallouts of Nationalism:
Nationalism affected Europe during the 19th century by making Europeans feel
superior to other countries and governments, which led to the unification of
both Germany and Italy, with Russia moving towards modernization and with
France moving towards liberalism. This sense of superiority led to a stronger
sense of unity between the peoples of each country and to a desire for increased
military power which then, in turn, led to an alliance system between the
European nations.
This alliance system was particularly helpful during World War II when the
European countries needed to band together to defeat Hitler and the Nazis.
However, before World War II, the European countries would enter into World
War I for their nationalism, imperialism and militarism tendencies.

Nationalism is partly to blame for each of the wars as well because it was the
primary reason why many of the European countries decided to build up their
armies as well as their navy. It also was the reason for the great industrial
movement and development in Europe, as the Europeans wanted to prove their
greatness by inventing the latest tools and gadgets.

The European nations had a balanced power until a Serbian revolutionary killed
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the nephew to the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and
one of the heirs to the Austrian throne. The revolutionary also killed the
Emperor’s wife. From here, the countries were lured in one by one to take
opposing sides and to fight in the First World War. After the end of the First World
War, the countries formed their tight alliances with one another, which would be
used in World War II.

5. Do you think is there any change in idealogy, aspirations, approach between

two groups of nations that fought in world war 1.discuss?
World War 1 was fought between 1914-1918 between two groups of nations,
central powers and allied powers.

Body

The ideologies of both groups of nations were similar to each other

 Militarism: The glorification of one’s military. Also the belief of a nation or

its people to build and maintain a strong military, with the intention to use it
whenever it is felt necessary.

  Germany—Stemming from the invasion of German-speaking people’s lands near

the Rhine River by Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars and the Franco-Prussian
War, Otto von Bismarck made it his goal to keep the unified German State
prepared to defend itself against France. He felt that it was necessary to keep
France isolated and weak at all cost. France—Understanding that Germany was
building a large military, saw it as a necessity to in turn build a large military to
protect themselves against the Germans. Thus, these two nations were building
massive military strength to use against each other. The Germans were also
threatening the British by building a large Navy, making the British feel insecure
about their place amongst the world’s elite navies for the first time in nearly a
hundred years. Thus, the British would have to respond to this growing threat as
well, by building a larger navy. Though these were not the only countries building
and perfecting their arsenal, they were the most significant prior to the outbreak
of WWI. It does not take long for these countries to find a reason to use their
militaries against each other in an attempt to prove who is superior.
 Alliances: An agreement between two or more countries to work together
for the benefit of each country.

The two major alliances that developed prior to WWI were the Triple Entente
(Allies) and the Triple Alliance (Central Powers). The Triple Entente consisted of
Great Britain, France and Russia. This alliance was created in an effort to counter
the Triple Alliance, which consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. At the
beginning of the war, the Triple Alliance will become known as the Central Powers
and will not include Italy. Italy finds that it is in their best interest to wait and see
what unfolds during the war; thus, allowing them to further their growth as a
nation. The Central Powers will eventually consist of Austro-Hungary (1914), the
German Empire (1914), the Ottoman Empire (1914), and the Kingdom of Bulgaria
(1915). The Triple Entente would become known as the Allied Powers and grow
considerably, consisting of the Kingdom of Belgium, Kingdom of Serbia, the
French Third Republic, the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the Kingdom of
Italy, the Empire of Japan, the United States, the Portuguese Republic, the
Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Greece and many others who lent military
and financial aid.

 Nationalism: Extreme pride in one’s nations or state. Often seen by the use

of flags, national anthems, and other signature items.

Germany was extremely proud of the military power that they had become after
the Franco-Prussian War. As a new unified nation after January of 1871, the
Germans felt nearly unstoppable as a world power. The French on the other hand
had been embarrassed by the Germans and found it necessary to regain their
pride. These feelings of resentment led to the massive militarism between these
two nations. Also with the growth of Pan-Slavism or the unification of all Slavic
peoples, protected by Russia, the areas around Serbia became very unstable. The
Serbians were prepared to create their own independent Slavic state supported
by the Russians. This will lead to what we call the “Balkan Powder Keg” or an area
in the Balkans that would only take a minor issue to explode into full on war.

 Imperialism: Domination by one country over another in terms of the

political, economic, or cultural life of the dominated country or region.

Many nations from around the globe were competing for control of colonies in
order to gain land, resources, and influence. Specifically, Germany was attempting
to control lands in Africa, a place that Britain and France were already
established. In 1905 and 1911 Germany was attempting to keep France from
imposing a protectorate on Morocco. As a result, Britain and France became
closer allies in the conflict against Germany. Britain and France quickly found that
keeping Germany out of Africa, the Germans would not be able to build them into
a threatening power.

Conclusion

There were some minor differences between two groups of nations fighting
amongst themselves but overall their ideologies were quite similar which lead to
the Great War and caused large scale destruction.
1. How far did the ideas of enlightenment inspire the American Revolution?
Illustrate. 

Introduction

The American Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen

American colonies in the 17th to 18th century, which led to the American
Revolution, and the creation of the United States of America.

Body

The Renaissance had inaugurated an era of questioning the established beliefs.

Gradually, this questioning covered every aspect of thought and belief. The period
after the 16th century, witnessed an intellectual revolution when all the existing
beliefs based on faith came under heavy attack.

 Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and

demanding freedom & liberty for the people. They placed before the people
idea of a democratic form of governance. They helped in development of
ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militated against colonialism
 Great progress was made in various sciences, which also undermined the
existing beliefs. The new ideas were characterized by rationalism and were
increasingly concerned with secular affairs. Because of the growing emphasis
on reason, the period of the 18th century in European history is called the Age
of reason or the Age of Enlightenment.
 Some of the leaders of the American Revolution were influenced by
Enlightenment ideas which are, freedom of speech, equality, freedom of
press, and religious tolerance. American colonists did not have these rights, in
result; they rebelled against England for independence. In the Declaration of
Independence, Thomas Jefferson wrote about American’s natural rights to
“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ideas came from the
Enlightenment, the ideals led towards the American Revolution soon after.

 John Locke was one of the most important and influential philosophers in
the history of the world. He devoted a lot of his time into writing about
philosophy and political thought. The founding fathers of the American
Revolution drew heavily on his ideals. John Locke argued “The power of any
king or government is derived from people who contract to obey their rules in
exchange for law and security. Individuals have a natural right to hold
property and this can never be taken from them without their own consent. If
a ruler infringes the terms of the contract that empowers him or seizes
property without consent, the people can resist and depose him” (John
Locke).
 These arguments are things that American Colonists wanted to have but
couldn’t under the control of England. Therefore, American Colonists wanted
independence from England.
 Thomas Hobbes is known for his political thought. His main concern in the
world is how individuals can live together with peace and not think of conflict
(Williams).He rejects free will of determinism, in which freedom is treated as
having the ability to do what an individual desires (Oregon State). The
 American Colonists ended up turning to Hobbes work to justify the passage of
the U.S constitution.

Conclusion

Although distinctive features arose in the eighteenth-century American context,

much of the American Enlightenment was continuous with parallel experiences in
British and French society.  Four themes recur in both European and American
Enlightenment texts: modernization, skepticism, reason and liberty. American
Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the
future events, the most prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789.

2. Examine the factors that caused the American revolution. What is the legacy
of this revolution? Discuss.

3. How has American Revolution and it’s constitution influenced Indian

constitution?

4. Both the American and the French Revolution were based on the ideas of
Enlightenment but had different repercussions at home. Do you agree?
Substantiate with the help of suitable reasoning.

Introduction: Enlightenment period of Europe corresponding to 18th century was

an intellectual movement which considered human reasoning will light the way to
human happiness. American Revolution (1775-83) and French revolution of 1789
were influenced by ideas of thinkers from this period.
Body:Various thinkers who influenced with their thoughts

 John Locke asserted the right of people to change government that did not
protect natural rights of life, liberty and property.
 Baron de Montesquieu declared powers should not be concentrated in the
hands of any one individual—separation of powers.
 Jean Jacques Rousseau stated that society should be ruled by the general
will of the people— social contract theory in which he outlined the conditions
for legitimate government.

These ideas influenced both the revolutions in following way

 Emphasis on democratic principles like people’s sovereignty.

Ex: establishment of national assembly to frame constitution. Doing away with

monarch in France.

 Call to maintain democratic values like liberty, equality, justice.

Ex:

1. Britain imposed trade restrictions, taxes like stamp duty which were unfair.
Thus, Americans revolted against exploitative British policy. They asked for
representation in British parliament by raising slogan of no taxation without
representation.
2. In France, certain privileges were enjoyed by nobility, clergy, guilds against
which people protested.
However, both countries faced some of repercussions post revolutions like

 France

1. Faced instability because of clash of interests Feudalism vs Modernity,

Monarchy vs democracy. Conflicting ideologies within national convention like
jacobins, girondist ultimately leading to reign of terror under Jacobian ruler
Robospierre.
2. Country fell under dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

 America

1. Establishment of stable democratic federal government.

2. However, increasing differences between northern and southern states on
issues like slavery culminated into civil war.

Conclusion: These two revolutions influenced by the ideas of enlightenment age

altered the course of history by fracturing the traditional political systems of
monarchy, colonies and feudalism.

4. The American Revolution was essentially an economic conflict between

American capitalism and British Mercantilism. Comment

5. Examine the democratic principles that took a concrete shape post American
independence.

Introduction
American revolution (1765-1783) was the colonial revolt against British
government was seminal and phenomenal incident of the history. It was a source
to fight against monarchical rule and imperial power. As put by Thomas Paine –
democratic ideology was cherished goal and the values post revolution
consolidated them further.

Body

Democratic principles that took concrete shape post American independence

were

1. Establishment of republican polity – American constitution was the first

written constitution of world. It inspired people across globe to struggle for
republican and democratic form of government.
2. Separation of power between different organs i.e. executive, judiciary and
legislature led to proper functioning and working in democracy.
3. Rule of law which removed arbitrariness and authoritative power of
monarch.
4. Principles of liberty, equality emerged from the ideals of American
institution.
5. The bill of rights led to the end of slavery and certain rights limited the
government against the authority of people.
6. Adult franchise was given shape.

However, many democratic principles were lacking too:

 Women, blacks were not given voting rights.

 Racism against blacks, other ethnic people continued.
 Slavery couldn’t abolished for many years.

Conclusion

Thus American constitution had a profound impact on the democratic and

republican history of modern world. French revolution was also influenced by it
and adopted the slogan of liberty, equality and fraternity. Indian constitution is
also influenced by it .This can be seen in many of its fundamental rights.

6. How far did the ideas of enlightenment inspire the American Revolution?
Illustrate. 

Introduction :

The American Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen

American colonies in the 17th to 18th century, which led to the American
Revolution, and the creation of the United States of America.

Body

The Renaissance had inaugurated an era of questioning the established beliefs.

Gradually, this questioning covered every aspect of thought and belief. The period
after the 16th century, witnessed an intellectual revolution when all the existing
beliefs based on faith came under heavy attack.
 Around 1750, many Thinkers were challenging the status-quo and
demanding freedom & liberty for the people. They placed before the people
idea of a democratic form of governance. They helped in development of
ideas of Republicanism and Liberalism that militated against colonialism
 Great progress was made in various sciences, which also undermined the
existing beliefs. The new ideas were characterized by rationalism and were
increasingly concerned with secular affairs. Because of the growing emphasis
on reason, the period of the 18th century in European history is called the Age
of reason or the Age of Enlightenment.
 Some of the leaders of the American Revolution were influenced by
Enlightenment ideas which are, freedom of speech, equality, freedom of
press, and religious tolerance. American colonists did not have these rights, in
result, they rebelled against England for independence. In the Declaration of
Independence, Thomas Jefferson wrote about American’s natural rights to
“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” These ideas came from the
Enlightenment, the ideals led towards the American Revolution soon after.

 John Locke was one of the most important and influential philosophers in
the history of the world. He devoted a lot of his time into writing about
philosophy and political thought. The founding fathers of the American
Revolution drew heavily on his ideals. John Locke argued “The power of any
king or government is derived from people who contract to obey their rules in
exchange for law and security. Individuals have a natural right to hold
property and this can never be taken from them without their own consent. If
a ruler infringes the terms of the contract that empowers him or seizes
 property without consent, the people can resist and depose him” (John
Locke).
 These arguments are things that American Colonists wanted to have but
couldn’t under the control of England. Therefore, American Colonists wanted
independence from England.
 Thomas Hobbes is known for his political thought. His main concern in the
world is how individuals can live together with peace and not think of conflict
(Williams).He rejects free will of determinism, in which freedom is treated as
having the ability to do what an individual desires (Oregon State). The
American Colonists ended up turning to Hobbes work to justify the passage of
the U.S constitution.

Conclusion

Although distinctive features arose in the eighteenth-century American context,

much of the American Enlightenment was continuous with parallel experiences in
British and French society.  Four themes recur in both European and American
Enlightenment texts: modernization, skepticism, reason and liberty. American
Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the
future events, the most prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789.

7. What is mercantilism? Discuss. How did mercantilism give rise to colonialism

in 19th century Europe? Explain. 

Introduction:
The term ‘mercantilism’ was coined by Adam Smith in 1776. The concept of
mercantilism has been called the ideology of the monopoly trading companies by
the Marxists. Maurice Dobb describes it as system of state regulated exploitation
through trade or the economic policy of an age of primitive accumulation. The
term mercantilism usually applied to the policies and measures which the
European states adopted between the 15th & 18th century to acquire wealth and
power.

Body

Mercantilism

 First popularized in Europe during the 1500s, mercantilism was based on

the idea that a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing
exports, in an effort to collect precious metals like gold and silver.
 The mercantilists adopted policies of economic nationalism in many
European states. These policies were not new; they had their roots in the
scattered acts and beliefs of feudal and municipal authorities of the medieval
period. With the expansion of trade and the declining revenues of the feudal
states, with the emergence of centralized monarchies and more luxurious
courts, the emerging states realized the value of trade that brought wealth
and greater revenue for the state. It was believed that the wealth of the
subjects was the wealth of the kings. This led to active government
intervention in economic and political matters and became the central feature
of all mercantilist ideas. However the mercantilist policies and practices could
only be adopted in states that had strong governments and a reasonably well
 developed trade and commerce. It was aimed at strengthening the centralized
state structure by weakening and regulating the semi-independent local
authorities.

Mercantilism gives rise to colonialism in 19th century Europe

 Under mercantilism, nations frequently engaged their military might to

ensure local markets and supply sources were protected, to support the idea
that a nation’s economic health heavily relied on its supply of capital.
Mercantilists also believed that a nation’s economic health could be assessed
by its levels of ownership of precious metals, like gold or silver, which tended
to rise with increased new home construction, increased agricultural output,
and a strong merchant fleet to provide additional markets with goods and raw
materials.
 Under mercantilism, the colonies were supposed to send to the mother
country raw natural resources. Colonies were not supposed to manufacture
any goods; the raw natural resources were supposed to be processed into
manufactured goods only in the mother countries.
 English methods of colonization: England introduced fiscal policies that
discouraged colonists from buying foreign products, while creating incentives
to only buy British goods. For example, the Sugar Act of 1764 raised duties on
foreign refined sugar and molasses imported by the colonies, in an effort to
give British sugar growers in the West Indies a monopoly on the colonial
market. The British wanted a monopoly of trade with India so that there
would be no other English or European merchants or trade companies to
compete with. The Company wanted to sell its goods at high prices and buy
 Indian products at low rate to make maximum profits. After 1800, India began
to absorb textiles from English mills. In 1813, the Charter ended the
Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. It opened East Indian trade to private
enterprise. With the termination of the Napoleonic Wars in 1814-15,
enormous increase of import of British machine made cloths began to India.
During 1800-1850, the colonial objective changed from seizing Indian
commodities to seizing the Indian market. The changed objective no only
made the East India Company’s monopoly over Indian internal commerce and
overseas trade obsolete, but positively required free trade.
 Spain’s methods of colonization: From the late 15th century to the early
19th, Spain controlled a huge overseas territory in the New World, the Asian
archipelago of the Philippines, and territories in Europe, Africa and Oceania. 
Spain attempted to expand the possibilities for trade within the empire, by
allowing commerce between all ports in the empire, and took other measures
to revive economic activity to the benefit of Spain. Spain had an economy
shorn of manufactures, a crown deprived of revenue taxing colonists,
tightening control, and fighting off foreigners.  In the process, Spain gained
revenue. The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula precipitated the
Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1826), resulting in the loss of
its most valuable colonies. In its former colonies in the Americas, Spanish is
the dominant language and Catholicism the main religion, enduring cultural
legacies of the Spanish Empire.
 France’s methods of colonization: 19th Century France controlled its
colonies in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Ivory Coast, Porto-Novo, French Guinea
Mauritania etc.  French firms were authorised to ship to the colonies without
 further restrictions. The trade was thus “free” to all French subjects residing in
a long list of ports, but protected from foreign competition. With the addition
of a few naturalized foreigners, all French-born individuals were considered
French subjects. This policy restricting colonial trade and shipping to French
subjects is traditionally considered as laying the foundation of French 19th
century colonial trade growth.

Conclusion

Mercantilism paves the way for fight between countries in 19th century Europe.
Two world wars fought for capturing markets in colonies.  After the end of World
War II economic nationalism remained the prevalent tendency of most countries
of the world, and most colonies got Independence after end of the war.

8. How far can industrial revolution be held responsible for the imperialistic
ambitions of Europe? Critically examine. 

Introduction:

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in

Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime
between 1820 and 1840. Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending a
country’s rule over foreign nations, often by military force or by gaining political
and economic control of other areas.

Body
Although imperialism began some centuries before Industrial Revolution(IR), IR
lead to ‘new Imperialism’. It was a period of colonial expansion by European
powers, the United Sates, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early
20th centuries. 

After Industrial Revolution more aggressive and extensive form of imperialism

began. The industrial revolution created the need for Europe to take over more
colonies around the world. Now apart from national greatness, measured by
number of colonies, there was an additional push to conquer new territories – 

 Raw materials – because the Industrial Revolution increased the production

capacity of Western states astronomically, there was an enormous hunger for
raw materials to satisfy demands. 
 European power eyed Africa, which was rich in oil, ivory, rubber, wood,
cotton, cocoa beans, copper, gold, iron, cobalt, diamonds, etc.
 The American Civil War created a shortage of cotton supply. This prompted
the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, to turn to Egyptian cotton. 
 Demand for labors – With hundreds of thousands of workers finding
employment in textile mills, there was not enough labor to plow, seed, prune,
and harvest the cotton. The cotton industry needed a new source of raw
material supply and labor. The Western countries looked at western Africa,
India, and China for that.
 Market – The colonies gave the Western powers a ready-made market for
their goods, at the colonized people were left with little to no legal recourse
to produce their own finished products. Asia’s textile markets were vast, and
 winning them was the grand prize for European imperialism. India, in
particular, became a huge market. 
 Capability enhancement – Industrial Revolution, Europeans had an
advantage in the quality of their weapons and military training. The Western
powers used their superior weapons like The Maxim gun and powerful iron
warships to conquer much of the world, especially lands in Africa and Asia. In
1800, Europe controlled 35 percent of the world’s land surface; by 1914, they
controlled 84 percent.
 Advancement in Medicine – allowed Europeans to better survive malaria
and yellow fever. Africa, especially the western regions, was known as the
‘White Man’s Grave’ and years earlier only one in ten men could survive. With
the new medicine to combat malaria, European explorers could venture much
deeper into Africa, and therefore make more accurate maps for future
Europeans arriving on the continent.
 Infrastructure development – like steam-powered trains and ships,
telegraph, opening of Suez Canal gave Europe the power to efficiently
maintain and profit from so many colonies around the world.

However here were other reasons as well for – 

 Decline of the great empires in Asia and Africa.

 Feeling of racial superiority – Because of growing racism, or the belief that
one race was superior to another because they were more technologically
advanced, many Europeans and Americans felt they had the right to dominate
people of other races.
 Philosophical bias – Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in
dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement wrote John
Stuart Mill, the great philosopher of human freedom in On Liberty

Conclusion

Without the innovations of the Industrial Revolution, the Imperialistic powers

would not be able to penetrate deeply in the colonial countries.

9.How did aggressive nationalism and militarisation in Europe create the

platform for WWI? Analyse.  

Introduction:

World War I started on the 28th of July 1914 between two sides – triple alliance
and the triple entente. Though the immediate cause was the assassination of
Austria’s Archduke Ferdinand, the war started mainly because of four aspects:
Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism and Nationalism.

Body

Nationalism in Europe as a reason:

Nationalism was a great cause of World War one because of countries being
greedy and not negotiating. The use of Nationalism gave nations false hope and
made them aggressive to win the war.

 Nationalist groups in Austria-Hungary and Serbia wanted independence.

 o Serbian nationalism: The Serbs wanted to integrate the Balkan areas
populated with Slavs into a single Yugoslavia. But that required secession
of certain areas from the German empire which had Slav people.
o Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of
Austria Hungary but instead be part of Serbia.
 Austria annexed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia which had significant
population of Slavs. As Serbia wanted Bosnia to be a part of Yugoslavia, the
enmity between the two widened.
 Albania was made an independent state with the help of Austria which was
claimed by Serbia. This further embittered its rivalry against Serbia.
 France wanted Alsace Lorraine back from Germany who was lost in 1871
Franco-Prussian war. This was a nationalist pride for France.
 Finally, the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Serbia by the nationalist
terrorist group Black Hand.

Militarization in Europe as a reason:

Militarism rised mutual suspicion and led to to the naval and arms race. The main
event of Militarism causing World War one was the naval rivalry which was made
after 1900.

 Naval race: The new Keiser Wilhelm announced his intention to build a
bigger German navy than Britain. Britain felt very threatened by this.
 Arms race: Threatened by the naval race between Britain and Germany,
major powers on mainland Europe were also building up their armies.
 Russia mobilized its troops as a precautionary measure on German border
due to the rising tensions. This was seen as a sign of military aggression by
Germany which came up with Schlieffen Plan which was the main reason for
Britain to declare war on Germany. 
 Increased military control over civilian government: The German army was
called ‘state within a state’ and controlled almost all the decisions related to
security with civilian government having limited say.
 Rise in military expenditure: which increased drastically after 1910 with
Germany – 73%, Russia – 39% and so on. This in turn increased the tensions
across Europe.
 Army conscription: was adopted by almost all the European countries. This
increased the standing forces, arms procurement etc., which fueled further
militarism.

Conclusion

Thus, Nationalism was a prominent force in early 20th century Europe and a
significant cause of World War I. Adding to it, militarism in Europe increased the
rivalry between nations. It increased the confidence of every country to win war
which led to a large-scale war.

10. The history of democracy derives considerable substance from the American
Revolution. Discuss.

INTRODUCTION
American Revolution or the American war of Independence, was the pioneer in
giving birth to modern “Democratic values” as well as fighting against the
“Imperial culture” and overall spreading the confidence among the suppressed of
fighting for their rights, focusing on the “Inviolability of an Individual” and give
birth to the “Modern way of life”. It is reflected in the adoption of democratic
principles throughout the world, India being the largest democracy as an
example.

BODY

American Revolution was first among the many Revolutions to follow in the
subsequent years like the Russian Revolution, The French Revolution etc, It was
majorly shaped up by the following events-

American Revolution — Philadelphia convention — Democratic government

adopted

        The Constitution of America served as a guiding light to the world. Many new
features were either introduced for the first time or reignited for the countries of
the world such as –

 Sovereignty of people – 
 Elected Government –  e.g France, India etc.
 Rule of Law.
 Fundamental Rights: e.g- many of the Fundamental rights in India
 Equality before law   e.g – Article 14 of the Indian Constitution.
 Independent Judiciary – e.g India
 The Concept of “Free will” (it forms the essence of modern day democracy) 

Besides the Constitution, other features take substance from American

Revolution such as— 

 Fight against ‘Imperialism”-  strengthening of the belief that imperialism is

antithetical, and Imperialism should be ended for democracy to strive.
 The concept of “No taxation without representation” – it was propounded
by the Moderate nationalists in India
 Enactment of Written Constitution –  “Rex is Lex” substitutes “Lex is Rex”
 Fundamental Rights derived from the bill of rights.
 Justice, liberty and equality- propounded by Locke.
 The role of Church was curtailed
 People’s Sovereignty – It was established over the state sovereignty.
 Constitution was made which lays down rules for the state.
 The slogan of – “Give me death or give me liberty”, was a great step
towards liberty and thus liberty breeds in democratic principles.
 The concept of “Republican motherhood” emerged, the foremost duty of
every mother was to instill republican and democratic principles into the child.
 By incorporating proper ‘Checks and Balances”, the
“constitutionalism” democratic principles were sought to be protected.

Even though American Revolution is the pioneer of “Democratic Way of Life” in

the modern World and many countries like France, Russia and even India have
taken queue from its principles in modern times. Eg- Many Fundamental Rights in
Indian Constitution. Yet, some negatives of the democratic principles as
propounded by the American Revolution, makes us doubt whether things were
democratic in true sense, such as-

 Franchise was very limited- on base of property, women were not allowed
to vote
 Slavery continued till its abolition in 1861.
 Rise of slavery and racial discrimination goes against equality
 USA followed the concept of “Men of property” – Capitalism created poor
working conditions for the middle class.
 America expanded to the west and displaced ethnic communities of Red
Indians

CONCLUSION

Hence, although American Revolution had certain negatives, they could be only
because of the democratic principles were in their nascent stage and the value
structure was not completely evolved. Even then, The American War of
Independence formed a great foundation for countries throughout the world in
years to come, especially India.
11. What caused the French Revolution? Also discuss the effects of this
revolution on Europe.

12. Unlike the French revolution, in the Indian case the constitutional moment
was not burdened by an inheritance of absolutism. Explain

13. Throughout history, economic and social inequalities have at times led
peoples to revolt against their governments. Discuss in light of the French
Revolution.

14. What role did thinkers and philosophers play in the awakening of the
conscience of the European society? What were its consequences?  Introduction

 European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically

reoriented during the course of the “long 18th century” (1685-1815) as part of
a movement referred as the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment.
 Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe
questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity
could be improved through rational change.

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Role played by thinkers and philosophers in the awakening of the conscience of

the European society:

 Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included

Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. Other major thinkers and philosophers
 included Beccaria, Diderot, Hume, Kant, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith,
and Voltaire.
 The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic
doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on
experiments and observation.
 The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation
of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by
the authors of the United States Constitution.
 A moral philosopher Francis Hutcheson described the utilitarian and
consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides the greatest
happiness for the greatest numbers.
 John Locke, one of the most influential European thinkers, based his
governance philosophy in social contract theory.
 Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the
government’s authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for
man to live in civil society.

Consequences of new ideas and awakenings

 These philosophers and thinkers produced numerous books, essays,

inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American
and French Revolutions were directly inspired by these ideals.
 Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated
some of these ideals into the Declaration of Independence (1776). Similarly,
 these ideals were also incorporated into the United States’ Constitution
during its framing in 1787.
 It was in consequence of these new philosophies and ideas, that, religious
(and anti-religious) innovation started, as Christians sought to reposition their
faith along rational lines.
 The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the Enlightenment
vision of throwing out the old authorities to remake society along rational
lines, but it devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of its own ideas
and later led to the rise of Napoleon.
 Still, its goal of egalitarianism attracted the admiration of the early feminist
Mary Wollstonecraft. She argued for a society based on reason and that
women as well as men should be treated as rational beings.  
 These ideals inspired many wars of independence and the radical racial
inclusivism in many countries.
 The most influential publication of these philosophers and thinkers was the
Encyclopaedia. It helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe
and beyond.

Conclusion

 Thus the ideas of the philosophers and thinkers in European society were a
direct attack on privileges and feudal rights which protected the upper classes.
 They helped rouse the people from inactivity and instilled in them a desire
to root out social inequalities and set up a government responsive to their
need.
 They played a vital role in focusing the discontent and bringing about the
Revolution.
 They completely changed the course of society towards modernism in all
aspects of life.
 Most of the modern democracies and their constitutions derive their liberal
ideals and civil rights from 18th century European thoughts and ideals.

15. Why was World War I a total war?   

Introduction

First World War also known as the great war occurred between the alliances of
Germany-Ottoman Empire-Austria- Hungary and Britain-France-Russia in 1914 to
1919.

According to American English dictionary – total war is war that is unrestricted in

terms of weapon used, the territory or combatants involved or the objectives
pursued especially the one in which the laws of war are disregarded.

Body

Many great historians acknowledged this war as total war due to the huge
destruction it made like-

1)Economic Destruction:
– It led to huge unemployment and inflation all over the world.

– People in Europe were struggling for bread as the prices rose by 1000%.

– Industries both capital and labour intensive collapsed.

– European countries caught in debt.

– led to great depression 1928 –America got unnecessary advantages (web of

lean).

2)Social Destruction:

– As per an estimate 37 million people died in war both civil and military.

– Sex ratio changed in favour of females as warriors mainly were males.

3)  Political Destruction:

– huge instability occurred all over the world

– friction in the society

4) Environmental Destruction

– huge destruction of forests

– bombs were used which impacted the climate

– divided entire Europe under artificial boundaries for eg new state like Lithuania,
Latvia, Estonia, Poland and Yugoslovakia etc. emerged.

5) Participation – civil societies, labour and economies were all seconded to war
effort

Other effects

1. World war 1 gave fillip to hyper-nationalism which later became cause of

second world war.
2. Inspired national movement in third world country especially India.
3. It gave rise to arm race and naval expansion between Germany, Britain,
Russia and France.

Conclusion

Thus it was truly a total war as destruction scale was heavy and learning from it
any issue of dispute, bilateral or multilateral, should be resolved through talks and
deliberations

16. What was the response of the nationalist leaders towards World War I? Did
their views change during World War II? Elaborate. 

Introduction:

When the First World War broke out, British Government, appealed to the Indian
leaders to join hands with them, although the leaders agreed but they forwarded
their own terms and conditions. When the war was over, British Government did
not fulfil its promises. This led to change the views of nationalist leaders in the
Second World War.

Body

The response of the nationalist leaders towards World War I 

 During the war years, political unrest was growing within India and Leaders
such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant launched the Home Rule
League in 1916 and used India’s war contributions to demand self-
government within the empire.
 Political moderates such as Surendranath Banerjee and Bhupendranath
Basu, pledged their whole-hearted support to the Allies.
 Different political parties and communities such as the All India Muslim
League, Madras Provincial Congress, Hindus of Punjab and the Parsee
community of Bombay supported the Allies and fund-raising was organized,
meetings were held in cities such as Calcutta, Bombay, Lahore and Allahabad.
 Mahatma Gandhi thought that England’s need should not be turned into
our opportunity, and he argued that we should send our men to France and
Mesopotamia.
 Moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their
differences in order to stand as a unified front and argued their enormous
services to the British Empire during the war, demanded a reward and
demonstrated the Indian capacity for self-rule thus the pre-war nationalist
movement had revived.
 Lucknow Pact of 1916, was an alliance between Muslim League and
Congress, which led to some sort of consensus over the issue of devolution of
political power.

Response of Revolutionaries

 The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 gave a new lease of life to the
nationalist movement since Britain’s difficulty was seen as India’s opportunity
by the revolutionaries as well as other nationalists. This opportunity was
seized, in different ways and with varying success, by the Ghadar
revolutionaries based in North America.
 The Ghadarites attempted a violent overthrow of British rule. After the
outbreak of World War 1, Ghadarites conducted revolutionary activities in
central Punjab and organized uprisings. This way the Ghadar party proved to
be the stepping stone for future Indian revolutionary movements.

Nationalist leaders views during World War II

 On 1 September 1939, 2nd World War broke out. The British Government
without consulting the people of India involved the country in the war. The
Congress vehemently opposed it.

As a mark of protest the Congress Ministries resigned in all the seven Provinces
on 12 December 1939
 The Indian National Congress, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Azad, denounced Nazi Germany but
would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent.
 Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-
operate in any way with the government until independence was granted.
 In Singapore, Bose formed the Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army or INA)
to conduct a military campaign for the liberation of India. 

Conclusion

Unfulfilled promises by British in the World War I made Indians not to trust British
anymore, this led to Indian nationalists change their strategies. After World War
II, movement like quit India launched by the Indian leaders eventually culminated
in India’s independence in 1947, Two years after the end of the second world war.

17. In what ways, World War II was different from World War I? Analyse.

Introduction:

World War 1(WWI) also known as The Great War was fought between the Allied
Powers composed of France, Britain, Russia, Japan, Italy, and in the later years,
the U.S.; and the Central Powers composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria, and Turkey (1914-1918).

World War 2(WWII) was fought between the years 1939 and 1945. The two
warring groups were: The Axis powers composed of Germany, Italy, and Japan;
and The Allies composed of the U.S., Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China.
Body:

WWII differed from WWI in the following way:

 Causes: WW I to gain more territory and colonial might. WW II to assert the

different ideologies.
 Method: War was fought in the battle field and trenches during WW I, it
was taken into the cities in WW II and many civilians died. Modern methods of
warfare were used including weapons of mass destruction. And for the first
time Nuclear weapon was used in war.
 Area: WW I covered only Europe but WW II covered a much larger arena
including Europe, Asia, North America and parts of Africa.
 Outcome: Lead to the formation of League of Nations and sowed the seeds
of WW II. WW II lead to the formation of UN and sowed the seed for the cold
war.
 After WW II, the world got divided between two power blocks headed by
USA and other capitalist countries and USSR and other communist countries.
Much more participation of women in WW II than in WW I. WW II indirectly
lead to women empowerment.

Conclusion:

Thus in a way WWII with much larger arena and modern warfare (use of nuclear
bomb) was more devastating than WW1.

18. In what ways, World War II was different from World War I? Analyse.
Introduction:

World War 1(WWI) also known as The Great War was fought between the Allied
Powers composed of France, Britain, Russia, Japan, Italy, and in the later years,
the U.S.; and the Central Powers composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria, and Turkey (1914-1918).

World War 2(WWII) was fought between the years 1939 and 1945. The two
warring groups were: The Axis powers composed of Germany, Italy, and Japan;
and The Allies composed of the U.S., Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and China.

Body:

WWII differed from WWI in the following way:

 Causes: WW I to gain more territory and colonial might. WW II to assert the

different ideologies.
 Method: War was fought in the battle field and trenches during WW I, it
was taken into the cities in WW II and many civilians died. Modern methods of
warfare were used including weapons of mass destruction. And for the first
time Nuclear weapon was used in war.
 Area: WW I covered only Europe but WW II covered a much larger arena
including Europe, Asia, North America and parts of Africa.
 Outcome: Lead to the formation of League of Nations and sowed the seeds
of WW II. WW II lead to the formation of UN and sowed the seed for the cold
war.
 After WW II, the world got divided between two power blocks headed by
USA and other capitalist countries and USSR and other communist countries.
Much more participation of women in WW II than in WW I. WW II indirectly
lead to women empowerment.

Conclusion:

Thus in a way WWII with much larger arena and modern warfare (use of nuclear
bomb) was more devastating than WW1.

19. Discuss the contribution of Indians in the two World Wars

The two world wars fought between 1914-1918 and 1939-1944 were watershed
movement in the 20th century geopolitical history.Indians too were dragged in
the war by the British to fight for them

Body:Contributions of Indians in world wars:

World War 1

1) Role of Indian Army

  Approximately 13 lakh Indian soldiers served in World War I out of which

over 74,000 lost their lives
 Indian Army served in France, Belgium, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli, Sinai
among other locations
 India also supplied various equipment for war along with animals required
for battle
 The Indian Army fought the German Empire on the Western Front and
German East Africa (a German colony in the African Great Lakes region)
 The Western Front became the main theatre of WWI when it was opened
by Germany by invading Luxembourg and Belgium which bordered France

2) Economic contribution of India in world war 1: India gifted as high as 100

million British Pounds (Rs 893 crore) to Britain to fund their war in hope of
dominion status and home rule in return. India also supplied as much as 37 lakh
tonnes of supplies to the British.

World War 2

1)Role of Indian Army

 Approximately 2.5 million Indian soldiers served in World War 2. Over

36,000 Indian soldiers lost their lives, 34,000 were wounded and 67,000 were
taken prisoners of war. Indian soldiers of the British Army earned 17 Victoria
Crosses, the highest military honour under the British.
 Noor Inayat Khan –The well-known Spy was torture and executed by
Germans.
 The Indian soldiers, on the ground, fought courageously in every battle and
built an envious reputation which the Indian Army has carried forward to this
day. Their exploits were seen in East and North Africa, Italy, Burma, and as far
out as Singapore, Malay Peninsula, Guam, and Indo China. The role played by
 Air Force pilots from India are legendary and well documented. Pilots like MS
Pujji and Prithpal Singh’s feats are among many who left their mark. The list of
names and achievements is indeed long.
 In the East, the Indian soldiers, as part of the British Indian Army, fought
against the Japanese and were responsible for ultimately securing South East
Asia that included Singapore, the Malay Peninsula and Burma.

2) Contributions beyond Army  :

 Indian doctors and nurses were deeply involved on the British soil and
other countries. In 1939, the Indian Comforts Fund (ICF) was established at
India House in Aldwych that was run by Indian and British women. Between
1939 and 1945, the ICF supplied over 1.7 million food packets to soldiers and
Asian prisoners of war, besides putting together warm clothes and other
supplies.
 The nation contributed by collecting food and other material to support the
war. Kolkata was the Allies’ Rest and Recreation point, where American and
British soldiers stopped to rest and recuperate before heading back to war .
 India was also home to Italian POWs. As early as 1941, a batch of Italian
POWs, which included four Generals, arrived by ship at Mumbai. Ranchi,
capital of Jharkhand today, had a camp where POWs were housed.

Indians thus contributed substantially in world wars. Their efforts are now
beginning to be more substantially recognised worldwide.
20. Do you think World War I was a result of hyper nationalism? Critically
examine.    

Hyper nationalism means extreme nationalism which believes in superiority of

one’s nation and its culture and of the paramount importance of advancing it.

Body:

First World War or Great War was an international conflict that in 1914–18
embroiled most of the nations of Europe along with Russia, the United States, the
Middle East, and other regions. The war pitted the Central Powers—mainly
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey—against the Allies—mainly France, Great
Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, and, from 1917, the United States. It ended with the
defeat of the Central Powers.

The war broke out in the wake of the assassination of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Hapsburg throne who was assassinated by a
group of Bosnian radical Inter-War Period nationalists on 28th June 1914. The
assassination was not the real cause of the war. It was just the pretext.

Was it a result of hyper-nationalism?

 A new and aggressive nationalism, different from its predecessors, emerged

in Europe at the end of the 19th century. The new nationalism engaged the
fierce us/them group emotions – loyalty inwards, aggression outwards.
Example: The leaders of post-1871 Germany relied on nationalist sentiment to
consolidate the new nation and gain public support. German nationalism was
 also bolstered by German militarism under Kaiser, Wilhelm II. To the Kaiser,
and to many other Germans, Britain was the main obstacle to German
expansion.
 Many Europeans – particularly those in the so-called Great Powers: Britain,
France and Germany – were convinced their nation occupied a position of
cultural, economic and military supremacy. Under such circumstances defeat
of one nation by other would only lead to strong rivalry between the two.
Example: German-France rivalry was because of Franco-Prussian war.
 Inflated confidence in one’s nation assured Europeans that if war did erupt,
their nation would emerge victoriously.

Thus Nationalism was a prominent force in late 19th and early 20th century
Europe and was a significant cause of World War I.

However, it was not the sole cause. The causes of the war may be found in the
politico-economic developments that had been taking place in the international
arena since the Franc-German War (1870).

 There arose economic rivalries: countries were locked in tariff wars and
competition for overseas markets.
 Disputes over colonies: There were collisions in Africa and in Asia between
the European powers for colonies. In its struggle for acquiring colonies,
Germany found Britain as the stumbling block.
 The conflicting alliance system in Europe: Triple alliance between Germany,
Austria-Hungary and Italy. France and Russia entered into an entente (1893).
This entente was aimed at countering the Triple Alliance and also containing
 Britain, against whom both France and Russia had outstanding disputes over
the colonies
 The growing nationalist aspirations in the subject peoples in Europe added
fuel to the fire: The Hapsburg Empire, ruled by the Austrians and the
Hungarians, had been facing growing discontent by the subject peoples.
Italians, Romanian, and the Slavic peoples sought independence and
autonomy from the political domination of Austria-Hungary.

Conclusion:

Thus it was hostile relations between European nations on politico-economic

grounds combined with aggressive nationalism which ultimately led to First World
War.

21. How did World War I change the balance of economic power in the world?
Analyze. 

The world’s great powers assembled in two opposing alliances: The Allies (British
Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central Powers (Germany and
Austria-Hungary). WWI lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. It covers
the economic mobilization of Labor, industry and agriculture. It deals with
economic warfare such as the blockade of Germany, and with some issues closely
related to the economy, such as military issues of transportation.

Reason being The Germans, Austro-Hungarians were seeking to raise her prestige
to new heights with another war in Europe, a throwback to 19th Century thinking,
as they wanted to grab more colonies at large as it was the time of
industrialization, all of the powers were mainly concern about the resources and
raw materials from the less developed part of the world.

Consequences of WWI in economic sphere:

 The fall of Russian empire after October revolution 1917, this resulted in
the formation of USSR.
 Emergence of USA as a super power, it had supplied earlier arms and
ammunition to the European powers, it had maintained that non-interference
policy till Germany attacked the civilian ships in the sea.
 Beginning of the end of European supremacy, as Britain, France and other
power nations in Europe lost their power and they took loans from the
America, this made them to lose their power at the end of the war.
 Japan became a powerful country in Asia, as it has started becoming the
industrialized nation, and it took part at one point of time.
 Germany and Austria has suffered losses and they had to pay reparations.
 Britain and France, they lost their soldiers and they were debt ridden.
 It had impacted on Asian countries as well like India and south East Asian
countries, in many spheres their resources has been diverted for these nations
and war.
 This time period was also called as roaring 20’s of America as their
economy boomed at this stage of the period.

Conclusion:
WWI has resulted in changes in different spheres, as it has consequences in
economy, political, social. That led to the abolition of Monarchy in Germany,
Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Russia, which had resulted in the harsh clauses of
the Treaty of Versailles, finally resulted in the Second World War. Even this led to
the great depression in the 1929, which is a larger consequence of WWI. So we
can say that balance of power post world war was shifted from European
countries to the America and it had played a major role in shaping the world
afterwards.

22. Write a short note on the nature of World War 1 and discuss its impact on
the Women

23. Write a short note on the nature of World War 1 and discuss its impact on
the Women

24. Discuss the factors that led to World War II. In what ways, WWII was
different from WWI? Examine

25. World War played an important role to bring about the Russian Revolution.
Critically comment.

26. Discuss the factors that led to World War II. In what ways, WWII was
different from WWI? Examine

27. Examine the role of World War I in reshaping the geopolitics of present day
Europe. (250 words)
Approach

Mention the consequences of WW I in creation of multiple geopolitical entities.

Europe’s transition from inter war period to the creation of European Union.

Contemporary events giving relevance to WW I.

Introduction

First World War greatly impacted the political landscape of Europe due to the
downfall of three empires and the emergence of new nation states. Later, the
reorganization of internal borders was on the principles of ‘economic viability’
and geo-political interests and not on nationality, ethnicity and self determination
as was promised earlier by the allied powers before concluding the peace treaties.
Hence, it continues to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national
identity and political autonomy.

Body

Consequences of World War 1

The war led to the collapse of three empires, including the Austro-Hungarian,
Ottoman and German empires and emergence of new nation states.

Creation of Turkey after dismemberment of Ottoman Empire.

Separation of Austria-Hungary.

Uniting Slav people under Yugoslavia by merging Serbia and Montenegro.

The Paris Peace Conference created new political boundaries without much
consultationwiththelocalpopulation

Treaty of Sevres resulted in areas populated by Turks being given to Greece which

resulted into conflict in Turkish mainland.

Decline of European supremacy: Economically and militarily, Europe was

surpassed by the United States which emerged as a world power.

Hence, WWI set the stage for changing political map of Europe, which was further
cemented by future events like World War II, peace treaties and emerging
economic necessities.

Later changes

Interwarperiod:

Rise of Nazi Germany under Hitler to avenge the humiliating Treaty of Versailles
further destabilized European polity and culminated to Second World War.

Cold war period: European states remained in a conflict zone band-wagoning USA

against the Communist Russia. This phase was marked by events like division of
Germany and rise and fall of the Berlin wall.

Rise of EU: As a consequence of two great wars, there was a need for large scale
reconstruction which forced nation states to work together and led to the birth of
the European Community in 1957.

Contemporary Relevance
Russian President Vladimir Putin argues that the First World War left many
Russians in the Soviet Republic of Ukraine which justifies Russia’s annexation of
Crimea in 2014.

Conclusion

World War I had not just impacted the European community in its early phase but
the lessons learnt in the war continues to impact the current geopolitical events.
Eg-

Rise of nationalism: Nationalism was a significant cause of World War I. There has

been a rise in the slogans like “Italy First,” “Hungary First” and “America First,
reflecting the rise of nationalism in the present time. It is also followed by a
similar feeling of distrust towards the other countries as observed during the War.

Trade protectionism: During World War I, many of the leading economies took

shelter behind high tariff walls to halt the forces of globalization. Following the
onset of an economic depression in the early 1870s, one industrializing country
after another turned against trade liberalization. Trade wars, colonialism and
closed markets became the name of the geopolitical game. Similar trade
protectionism is observed in the contemporary geopolitics in nations like the U.S,
France and Britain.