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Cost Overruns in Public Construction Projects: The Case of Jordan

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

Cost Overruns in Public Construction Projects: The Case of Jordan

Ghaleb J. Sweis 1, Rateb Sweis 2, Malek Abu Rumman3, Ruba Abu Hussein 4, Samer E. Dahiyat5
1.
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 11942, gsweis@ju.edu.jo
2.
Department of Business Administration, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 11942, r.sweis@ju.edu.jo
3.
Sustainable Development Advisor at Shell International Exploration and Production, Amman, Jordan
4.
School of Business, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, Ruba.abuhussein@hotmail.com
5.
Department of Business Administration, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan 11942

Abstract: Cost is the essential part for any construction project. It is observed that cost overrun is one of the most
frequently occurring issues in construction projects worldwide and it is more severe in developing countries. Like
many other developing countries, construction industry in Jordan is also affected by the cost overrun. To reduce
construction cost overrun, the first step is to identify and analyze the root causes and factors responsible for this
issue. Therefore, this paper aims to identify the factors that have major roles in affecting the projects’ cost so these
factors can be alleviated in the future. Factors affecting cost overruns were identified from literature and ranked
according to their priorities. This study involves a questionnaire survey of 30 engineers working in Jordanian
construction projects and secondary data from the Ministry of Housing and Public Works relating to 57 major public
construction projects. Results of the questionnaire survey showed that the design changes, lack of experience of
project type and location were the main variables affecting cost overrun. While based on the secondary data the
major factors that cause cost overruns were governmental delay, severe weather conditions and design changes.
[Ghaleb J. Sweis, Rateb Sweis, Malek Abu Rumman, Ruba Abu Hussein, Samer E. Dahiyat. Cost Overruns in
Public Construction Projects: The Case of Jordan. J Am Sci 2013;9(7s):134-141]. (ISSN: 1545-1003).
http://www.jofamericanscience.org. 20

Keywords: Cost Overrun, Public Construction Sector, Jordan

1. Introduction The construction sector in Jordan is the spine

Construction activity requires major of the country and plays a major role in providing
investment outlays in most developing countries; employment. As in other developing countries of the
moreover, cost overruns are frequent phenomena and world, Jordan’s public construction sector is facing
are almost associated with nearly all projects in the cost overruns. The responsibility of cost overruns is
construction industry (Kaming et al., 1997; Abd El– distributed over several factors. The aim behind this
Razek et al., 2008; Le Hoai et al., 2008). research is to answer the following question: What are
Cost overruns can be defined as when the the major factors causing cost overruns in the
project objectives have not been achieved within the Jordanian public construction sector?
estimated budget (Dlakwa and Culpin, 1990). A
construction project comprises two distinct phases: the 2. Literature review
preconstruction phase and the construction phase. 2.1 Causes of cost overruns
There is no particular element in any project solely Cost is one of the key drivers for construction
responsible for cost overruns however; the projects and cost overruns are considered as the major
construction phase holds a wider proportion of major concern within this industry. A survey of 104 public
troubles. projects in Singapore indicated that nearly two thirds
The core economic activities of Jordan suffered from cost overruns and more than half were
consist of real estate and tourism. The real estate and delayed (Ke et al., 2013).
construction sector have been one of the most active (George et al., 2012) suggested that the
sectors of the Jordanian economy lately. Construction construction industry’s current cost overruns and
sector accounted for 4.6 % of the Gross Domestic delays would be resolved if effective project
Product (GDP) on average over the period 2002 – management processes were to be implemented.
2011. The sector has achieved an average growth rate Furthermore, (Peter et al., 2010) found that the
of 13.3% over the same period. Residential effective processes such as the selection of an
construction accounts for the bulk of Jordanian appropriate procurement method may decrease cost
construction accounting for an average of 87% of all and time overruns, claims, and disputes.
construction permits during the period 2005–2011 (Al-Tabtabai, 2002) also confirms the
(Department of Statistics, 2012; Attar and Sweis, importance of project management skills to avoid cost
2010). and time overruns. He showed that most of the

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contractors’ organizations are in need of the three groups felt that the major factors that can
professionalism and proper training for their cause excessive groundwater project overruns in
engineers. developing countries are poor contractor management,
(Kaming et al., 1997) identified the prime monthly payment difficulties from agencies, material
variables of cost overruns such as: unpredictable procurement, poor technical performances and
weather, inflationary material cost, inaccurate escalation of material prices according to their degree
materials estimates, complexity of projects, of influence.
contractor’s lack of geographical and project type According to (Frimpong et al., 2003) major
experience, and non-familiarity with local regulations. delay and cost overruns occur during the project
Moreover, (Stephen 1997) found that poor schedules implementation phase; they studied the construction of
cause cost overruns about 70% of the time. ground and examined many factors such as; monthly
Ten factors influencing cost overruns of payment difficulties, material procurement, poor
construction projects have been mentioned by (Morris, contractor management, escalation of material prices
1990). These factors are: inadequate project and poor technical performances.
preparation, planning and implementation, delay in The finding of a study conducted by
construction; supply of raw materials and equipment (Xianhai, 2012) demonstrates that the possibility of
by contractors; change in the scope of the project; poor performance such as cost overruns usually
resources constraint: funds, foreign exchange, power; increases gradually when the supply chain
associated auxiliaries not ready; delays in decisions relationships decreases, also he connected the cost
making by the government, failure of specific overruns with the poor communication, and he
coordinating bodies; wrong/inappropriate choice of recommended that if there are any signs of cost
site; technical incompetence and poor organizational performance problems, it is possible to take corrective
structure; labor unrest; natural calamities and Indo- actions to improve the communications in the project.
Pakistan war; and the lack of experience of technical According to (Koushki et al., 2005), the
consultants, and inadequacy of foreign collaboration amount of cost overruns increases with an increase in
agreements. the total cost of a residential project. However, private
After examining the factors influencing residence owners who spent more time on the pre-
construction cost overruns on high rise projects in planning phase spent more money on the design
Indonesia, (Kaming et al., 1997) found that cost phase; issued less change orders; selected more
overruns occur more frequently, thus, they are experienced contracting companies; and hired a
considered a wider problem than time overruns on supervising engineer to independently supervise the
high-rise construction in Indonesia. The predominant progress of work and ensure the delivery of materials.
factors influencing cost overruns are material cost A major factor contributing to the projects' cost
increases due to inflation, inaccurate materials increase was the insufficiency of money and time
estimating and degree of project complexity. The four allocated to its design phase.
categories arrived at were: variations, measurement of More recently, some of the studies that have
provisional works, contractual claims and fluctuations been conducted in different countries show somewhat
in the cost of labor and materials. similar results to the studies mentioned earlier. Major
On the other hand, in a study that was factors affecting cost overruns in public construction
conducted by (Sweis et al., 2008) concerning the most projects were: materials price fluctuations, lack of
common causes of construction delays in Jordan. experience of contractors, incomplete drawings,
Causes include financial difficulties that the contractor government delays, incompetence, inaccurate
faced, change orders which were initiated by the estimates, improper planning and poor labor
owner, severe weather conditions and changes in productivity (Kasimu, 2012; Tabish, 2011; Memon et
government regulations and laws. al., 2012; Le – Hoai et al., 2008; Doloi et al., 2012).
Other studies (Datta, 2002; Mansfield et al., 2.2 Cost overruns in Jordan
1994; NAP, 2003) identified cost overruns to be a In the study of the problem of construction
result of factors such as unexpected problems in delays in Jordan, conducted by (Al-Momani, 2000),
supply of raw materials, delay in land acquisition, causes of delay in construction of public projects were
illegal encroachment on land or internal problems in related to designers, user changes, weather, site
government organizations. conditions, late deliveries, economic conditions and
(Frimpongs et al., 2003) studied 26 factors increase in quantity.
that cause cost overruns in construction of ground In a similar study conducted by (Abdalla and
water projects in Ghana. They distributed 55 Battaineh 2002) concerning the construction projects
questionnaires to owners, 40 to contractors and 30 to with traditional contracts from the contractors and
consultants. The overall ranking results indicate that consultants perspective, it was found that the

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

following factors are among the most important Frequency Index (F.I.) = (b × n) /4N
factors causing the project delays and cost overruns: Index range is [0, 1]
1. The agreement among contractors and Severity Index (S.I) = (I.I) × (F.I)
consultants about owner interference with Index range is [0, 1]
project work a = constant that represents a weight assigned
2. Inadequate contractor experience to the importance scale (ranges from 4 for very
3. Financing and payments significant to 0 for not significant).
4. Labor productivity b = constant that represents a weight assigned
5. Slow decision making to the frequency scale (ranges from 4 for extremely
6. Improper planning frequent to 0 for not at all frequent).
7. Subcontractors n = the frequency of each response.
Project cost overruns in Jordan constitute a N = the total number of responses.
major issue in the construction management field. The top nine factors were analyzed using the
Besides, lack of current research in this field is the Principal Component and Factor Analysis (PCFA)
major reason behind conducting this research. In this technique to arrive at the main factors contributing to
paper, factors influencing cost overruns in the quality. The objective of PCA is to explain the
Jordanian public construction sector will be identified variance of the observed data through a few linear
and ranked by professionals in the field. combinations of the original data. Even though there
3. Methodology are Q variables, x1, x2, ….xQ, much of the data's
The major causes of cost overruns in the variations can often be accounted for by a small
building project were identified through literature number of variables – principal components, or linear
review. These factors were tabulated in a relations of the original data, Z1, Z2, …….ZQ, that
questionnaire form. The factors that cause cost are uncorrelated.
overruns in building project are classified into: Factor analysis is similar to PCA. It aims to
Material cost increase by inflation, Fuel cost increase, describe a set of Q variables x1, x2 ….xQ in terms of
Design changes, inaccurate quantity takeoff, Lack of a smaller number of factors and to highlight the
experience in project location and type as well as local relationship between these variables. However, while
regulations, Unpredictable weather conditions and PCA is based simply on linear data combinations, FA
Equipment shortage. is based on a rather special model (Vermunt and
Two types of data were collected, secondary Magidson 2005). Contrary to PCA, the Factor
data from the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, Analysis (FA) model assumes that the data is based on
and primary data. The secondary data was collected the underlying factors of the model and that the data
from 57 public construction projects. A final variance can be decomposed into that accounted for
evaluation report of each project was studied. A by common unique factors (Nicoletti et al., 2000).
spread sheet was created to summarize the data and
conduct further descriptive analysis. 4. Data Analysis and Discussion
The primary data was collected by 4.1 Questionnaire
distributing questionnaires to 30 randomly–selected The importance of factors causing cost
engineers at the Ministry of Public Works and overruns was measured using a perceptual measure on
Housing and the Association of Construction a five - point likert scale to ensure consistency and the
Contractors. The respondents had different levels of ease of data computation. The perceptual measures are
work experience. Principle Component and Factor in the form of attitude statements about the importance
Analysis (PCFA) was conducted on the data collected of the factors with (0= not significant, 1 = somewhat
from the questionnaire. insignificant, 2 = neutral, 3= somewhat significant and
The cost overrun variables were analyzed and 4 = very significant) and with attitude statements
ranked by calculating the Importance Index, the about the frequency of the factors with ( 0 = not at all
frequency Index, and the Severity Index formula (the frequent, 1 = slightly frequent, 2 = moderately
product of Importance Index and Frequency Index). frequent, 3 = very frequent, 4 = extremely frequent).
This methodology has been used before by (Abd El- 4.2 Ranking of factors
Razek et al., 2008) and (Le-Hoai et al., 2008) to rank The cost overruns factors were ranked
factors of cost overruns through calculating the according to their Severity Index. Results are
weighted indexes of the importance and frequency of summarized in table 1. The higher the severity index,
cost overrun factors. the greater the factor's contribution to cost overruns.
Importance Index (I.I) = (a × n) /4N
Index range is [0, 1]

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

Table 1. Ranks of cost overruns factors (I, Index; R, Rank)

Importance Frequency Severity
I R I R I R
Material cost increase by inflation 0.63 1 0.62 1 0.39 1
Fuel cost increase 0.61 3 0.58 2 0.35 2
Design changes 0.63 1 0.51 3 0.32 3
Inaccurate quantity takeoff 0.60 4 0.48 5 0.29 4
Lack of experience in project location 0.57 5 0.50 4 0.28 5
Lack of experience in project type 0.53 7 0.43 6 0.23 6
Lack of experience in local regulations 0.54 6 0.41 7 0.22 7
Unpredictable weather conditions 0.52 8 0.33 8 0.17 8
Equipment shortage 0.47 9 0.24 9 0.11 9

4.3 Principle Component and Factor Analysis (PCFA)

PCFA is a reduction technique used to classify and reduce the number of variables. It was applied on the
top nine factors according to index ranking. A test for the suitability of data has been conducted before starting the
analysis. The test is based on Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling. A KMO value > 0.5 indicates that the
sample is suitable for the analysis. The KMO value for cost overrun sample data was 0.717. Both values indicate
that the sample is suited for analysis. Table 2 shows some descriptive statistics of the sample.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of cost overrun variables

Mean Std. Deviation Analysis N Missing N
Unpredictable weather conditions 2.683 1.1853 30 0
Material cost increase by inflation 3.500 1.0422 30 0
Inaccurate quantity takeoff 3.167 1.0613 30 0
Lack of experience in local regulations 2.900 1.0205 30 0
Lack of experience in project location 2.853 1.760 30 0
Lack of experience in project type 2.933 .9890 30 0
Fuel cost increase 3.367 1.4559 30 0
Design changes 3.283 1.0642 30 0
Equipment shortage 2.417 1.0674 30 0

According to (Kaming et al., 1997), the total and the extracted factors as shown in Table 3. Factor
number of common factors that can be extracted is loading of less than 0.5 is ignored.
equal to or less than the total number of variables
involved. However, the important factors are those Table 3. Factor loading of cost overrun variables
whose Eigen values are greater than 1, because an Component
Eigen value is a measure of how a standard variable Cost overrun variables
CF1 CF2
contributes to the principal components. A factor Unpredictable weather conditions .647
with Eigen value of less than 1 is considered less Material cost increase by inflation .764
important than an observed variable and therefore can Inaccurate quantity takeoff .853
be ignored. Since the objective of this research is to Lack of experience in local
reduce the number of original variables to a smaller .501
regulations
set of uncorrelated variables, Varimax rotation was Lack of experience in project
used; due to being the most commonly used rotation. .873
location
It minimizes the complexity of components by Lack of experience in project type .894
making the large loadings larger and small loadings Fuel cost increase .718
smaller. Of course, there are other rotational models Design changes .918
such as QUARTIMAX and EQUAMAX that could
Equipment shortage .555
produce similar results. There is also the oblique
rotational model. The oblique model is a more
As shown in table 3, two factors were
flexible model in which the factor axis will not
extracted.
necessarily be orthogonal. Two factors of cost
overruns were extracted. Factor loading is the  Design changes (CF1)
correlation coefficient between the original variables

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

 Lack of experience of project type and

location (CF2)

4.4 Secondary Data Design

Different types of projects were analyzed in Changes, 18%
Financial
our sample (Educational, General, Health – related, Governmenta Issues, 1%
Residential, Municipality, Sports and Youth). (Figure l Delay, 32%
1) shows the distribution of public projects
comprising the sample. Weather
Conditions,
23%
Sports and
Youth, 16% Unforeseen
Educational, Site Labor
40% Conditions, Shortage,
7% 12%
Materials
Shortage, 7%
Municipality,
14%

Figure 3. Top cost overrun factors documented in

Residential, actual data sample
2%
Health, 4% General,
24% The average cost overrun for each sector
was calculated and a comparison between the
different sectors of the study was conducted. The top
sector contributing for cost overrun is municipality
with a percentage of 30% of the total cost overruns,
Figure 1. Project type percentages in data sample
followed by Educational sector with 26% of cost
overruns among. (Figure 4) shows cost overruns by
The data revealed that only 35% of projects
sector.
were on budget, as shown in (Figure 2).
Sports and
Youth, 3%

Projects
without
cost
overruns, Educational,
35% 26%
Municipality,
30%
Projects
with cost
overruns, General, 14%
65%

Residential,
21%
Figure 2. The cost overruns percentages of the Health, 6%
projects
The cost overruns factors documented in the
final project report were summarized. (Figure 3)
represents the percentage of each factor to the total Figure 4. Percentage of cost overrun contribution for
cost overruns in the study’s sample and shows that different public sectors
the top factor of cost overruns in public construction
was governmental delay 32% (mainly slow decision This study uses two sources of data: primary
making on the part of the owner/government), and secondary. Primary data is gathered through a
followed by severe weather conditions 23%, and 18% questionnaire survey distributed to a sample of 30
for design changes. These three factors account for engineers working in Jordanian public construction
73% of cost overruns. projects. Secondary data was collected by accessing
available information from the Ministry of Housing

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

and Public Works relating to 57 major public Design changes, Inaccurate quantity takeoff, Lack of
construction projects. The results of the two types of experience in project location, Lack of experience in
data were analyzed for the purpose of identifying the project type, Lack of experience in local regulations,
major factors that cause cost overruns in the public Unpredictable weather conditions and Equipment
construction projects in Jordan. Primary and shortage.
secondary data are significant inputs for any study; These cost overruns factors were examined
however, the results of these two types of data may and ranked according to perceptions of 30 engineers
include some differences like in our case; the results working in the Jordanian public construction sector.
of the primary data showed that the major cost Consequently the design changes, lack of experience
overruns factors were ranked as follows: of project type and location were extracted after
1. The design changes treating the nine factors using PCFA analysis.
2. Lack of experience of project type Different types of public construction
3. Location projects were analyzed and it was found that 65% of
On the other hand, the result of the them were not finished on budget. The major factors
secondary data showed that the major factors that that cause the cost overruns were governmental
cause the cost overruns were ranked as follows: delay, followed by severe weather conditions and
1. Governmental delay design changes. These three factors account for 73%
2. The severe weather conditions of cost overrun causes.
3. Design changes. The findings presented in this study can be
These three factors account for 73% of cost used by the contractors, governments and owners of
overrun causes. the construction projects in developing countries and
If the results of the primary and secondary any investors who intend to do business in these
data are compared, the following will be noted: countries. Taking these factors into consideration will
1. According to the results acquired from the help to avert the cost overruns of the projects.
primary data, design changes was ranked These cost overrun factors can be alleviated
first. Also, the same factor is considered by taking some actions from the major project
third most important factor affecting cost stakeholders; the government should think of
overruns in the secondary data set improving their procedures and creating special
representing actual public projects. regulations to avoid delays in large public
2. Severe weather conditions was ranked construction projects. The contractors should be
second according to the viewpoint of aware of the materials and have time schedules for
respondents. Nevertheless, it was not listed material delivery in order to avoid any shortage.
among the factors resulting from the primary Contractors are also recommended to have qualified
data. and experienced technical staff with suitable
3. Using the primary data, lack of experience experience of the project type and should monitor the
was ranked as the second factor but it was cash flow and payments to avoid any problems in the
not among the factors defined after financial aspects.
analyzing the secondary data. Nevertheless, The owners are recommended to revise the
while governmental delay was not design documents of the projects to minimize the
considered a cost overrun factor in the change orders during the implementation; moreover,
primary data, it was ranked as the first factor the owner should choose the qualified contractor and
when analyzing the secondary data. not the lowest price offer.
The differences between primary and In addition to the benefits above, researchers
secondary data results are partially due to the fact that can also use these findings in studying the overruns
both data sets were acquired at different times. The factors of different types of projects in similar
different methods of collection or different developing countries as well as conducting
circumstances surrounding the collection may also comparisons between the severities of each factor on
have affected the results. the developing countries’ projects and similar
projects in the developed countries.
5. Conclusions and Recommendations Furthermore, in comparison to other similar
The major objective of this study was to studies conducted in Asian and developing countries,
identify factors influencing cost overruns in the results of this paper showed agreement with
Jordanian public construction sector. Through a Inadequate early planning (Faridi, 2006), financial
careful literature review, several factors affecting cost constraints (Koushki, 2005), poor contract
overruns in building projects are classified into: management (Frimpong, 2003) and client's cash flow
Material cost increase by inflation, Fuel cost increase, problems ( Aibinu, 2006).

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 Journal of American Science 2013;9(7s) http://www.jofamericanscience.org

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