Russell Mason Thesis
Russell Mason Thesis
Russell Mason Thesis
LEARNERS”
Russell Mason
Dip.Ad.Voc.Ed.
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
2016
Keywords
Keywords .................................................................................................................................. i
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................v
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. vii
Statement of Original Authorship ......................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. ix
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... i
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Context............................................................................................................................3
1.3 Purposes ..........................................................................................................................5
1.4 Significance and scope described ...................................................................................7
1.5 Thesis outline ................................................................................................................10
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................... 13
2.1 Historical background ...................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Summary of search results returned ...................................................................16
2.2 Topic 1: Themes identified in the literature..................................................................19
2.2.1 Definitions of adult learners. ..............................................................................23
2.2.2 Theoretical constructs employed in the studies reviewed ..................................27
2.2.3 Integrating the elements of the theoretical constructs used ................................34
2.2.4 Concepts of success examined ...........................................................................37
2.2.5 Key concepts relating to educational success. ....................................................39
2.2.6 Identified barriers to adult learner success. ........................................................40
2.3 Topic 2: Silences and concerns raised in the literature. ................................................46
2.3.1 Critique of the literature and the need for this research .....................................47
2.4 Summary and implications ...........................................................................................49
2.6.1 Contributions of this literature to the field...........................................................50
2.6.2 Overall strengths and weaknesses of the literature. .............................................51
Chapter 3: Research Design .............................................................................. 54
3.1 Methodology and research design ................................................................................54
3.1.1 Description of descriptive meta-synthesis ..........................................................54
3.1.2 Research design: Research questions .................................................................55
3.1.3 Search methodology and justification for selection ...........................................56
3.1.4 Documenting the search and selection process ..................................................56
3.2 Criteria for considering studies and other materials for inclusion in this descriptive
meta-synthesis ..............................................................................................................56
3.2.1 Types of studies ..................................................................................................57
Figure 1.1. Higher education participation rate for 15-64 year olds – Australia
and mainland states – 2002-2008 Source: DEEWR Higher Education
Statistics Collection. ...................................................................................... v
Figure 1.2. Observed factors supporting strategies for improving success rates
for adult learners in Queensland (original conceptualisation). ................... viii
Figure 1.1. Emerging themes in the literature on adult learning persistence. ............. 3
Figure 1.2. Barriers and supporting influences identified in the review. .................... 8
Figure 2.1. Year of publications cited in literature review. ....................................... 17
Figure 2.2. Articles classified by type of publication. ............................................... 18
Figure 2.3. Summary of the references cited in this paper classified by country
of origin. ....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.4. Summary of identified themes from literature review. ........................... 20
Figure 2.5. Astin’s I-E-O Model. Adapted from (Astin, 1991). ................................ 32
Figure 2.6. Conceptual frameworks for Astin’s I-E-O Model. Reproduced
from (Aihara, 2001). .................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.7. Conceptualising the journey of persistence to success for adult
learners. ........................................................................................................ 35
Figure 2.8. Previous Study Achievements, Personal Circumstances, and
Efficacy explained. ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.1 Initial review of returns for inclusion ....................................................... 62
Figure 3.2. Numbers of Publications Included by Year of Publication. .................... 65
Figure 3.3. Type of Publications Included................................................................. 66
Figure 4.1. Brief description of Environmental and Dispositional Barriers
experienced by adult learners adapted from (Connell, 2008a). ................... 93
Figure 4.2. Conceptualising the Integrated Theory of Persistence to Success for
Adult Learners. ............................................................................................ 98
Figure 5.1. Summary of motivators for return to study adapted from (Braxton
& Hirschy, 2005; Bremer et al., 2011)....................................................... 108
Figure 5.2. Summary of challenges faced at re-engagement adapted from
(Buchler et al., 2006l; Gidley et al., 2010; Longden, 2006). ..................... 109
Figure 5.3. Summary of strategies and interventions available at re-
engagement adapted from (Dayton, 2005; Dewitt, 2003; Frey Johnson,
2011; Longden, 2006). ............................................................................... 110
Figure 5.4. Original concept diagram of interactions from pre-engagement to
enrolment. .................................................................................................. 111
Figure 5.5. Summary of interventions and support strategies during the first
semester...................................................................................................... 114
Table 1.1 Summary of Theorists and conceptualisations included in this review ...... 2
Table 1.2 Summary of contributing theoretical frameworks utilised in the
descriptive meta-synthesis ............................................................................. 6
Table 2.1 A contemporary view of Knowles’ principles of adult learning ............... 15
Table 2.2 Theoretic concepts commonly utilised in this literature review ............... 21
Table 2.3 Summary of contributing theorists ............................................................ 51
Table 3.1 Sample search results ................................................................................ 59
Table 5.1 Summary of constraining and enabling factors presented in chapter
4.................................................................................................................. 104
Abbreviation Definition
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
DEEWR Department of Education Employment and
Workplace Relations
GFC Global Financial Crisis
HE Higher Education
I-E-O Input-Environment-Output
NBN National Broadband Network
NGO Non-Government Organisation
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TQB TAFE Queensland Brisbane
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation
VET Vocational Education and Training
Without whose unwavering support this document would never have been finished.
This personal investment in the research topic has two consequences. Firstly, I
am uniquely positioned to interpret and synthesise the rich volume of international
research available for study. My history, perspective and membership of the studied
population as an adult learner myself enabled me to identify and understand the key
issues emerging from the literature. The second consequence is the challenge to
remain open to the discovery of findings that are not aligned with my extant view of
the adult learner experience. It remained a significant challenge to report the findings
of the research and draw unbiased conclusions in the face of my extensive experience
and anecdotally collected information.
My role as a teacher in TAFE QLD began twenty-seven years ago when I joined
the beginning teacher program at North Point Institute of TAFE in Brisbane. The first
nine years of my career as a vocational education teacher were predominately focused
on Traditional Learners who were recent high school graduates transferring directly
into Certificate IV and Diploma level qualifications that lead to direct employment
opportunities. The following ten years were spent managing or owning a series of
SME businesses with a significant role being the professional development of existing
They are transitioning into managerial roles and as a result many are facing
significant stresses associated with change resistance and self-doubt.
Most have families with broad responsibilities beyond their work and study
requirements.
The funding models available to training providers in the VET sector influence
the delivery of educational programs to these participants. The two major funding
models in this environment are:
On-line self-directed
Recognition of prior
Air travel required
learning included
Driving required
Phone or email
Local delivery
training plan
Face to face
accelerated
workshops
Webcasts
learning
support
Region
Brisbane
Metropolitan
Gold Coast
Sunshine Coast
Toowoomba and
Downs
Nanango and
Kingaroy
Hervey Bay
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Proserpine
Barrier Reef
Islands
Townsville
Mareeba
Cairns
The table above illustrates clearly that participants studying for the same
qualifications will not have the same experience of learning during their educational
engagement. The extent to which these differences impact the outcomes of adult
learners, and what might be possible in terms of support and interventions to maximise
the results across cohorts must be examined in order to provide value and equity for
these learners.
Many studies have been conducted over recent years focusing broadly on these
areas. Much of the literature about adult learners, the barriers they face, their
motivations and expectations from study and their needs for support during study, refer
to a particular type of formal adult education and context that does not reflect the
experiences of this selective population. As a result, care must be taken in the synthesis
Figure 1.1. Higher education participation rate for 15-64 year olds – Australia and mainland states –
2002-2008 Source: DEEWR Higher Education Statistics Collection.
The figure above relies on data produced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
in 2008 and represents the most recent comparative analysis of participation rates for
the populations described. More recent studies and reports still refer to the same data
set as most of the contemporary analysis on participation rates does not compare data
by state (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2013). Much of the recent analysis appears
1
As conservative governments rose to power in both Queensland and federal Australian jurisdictions the methodologies for
achieving these objectives have changed to reflect tighter economic circumstances and other drivers for change. Reform of
VET and HE to achieve increased participation and completion for learners while maximising value for taxpayers remains the
focus at all levels of government in Australia.
This chapter outlines the background (section 1.1) and context (section 1.2) of
the research, and its purposes (section 1.3). Section 1.4 describes the significance and
scope of this research and provides definitions of terms used. Finally, section 1.5
includes an outline of the remaining chapters of the thesis.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Influences contributing to educational success for adult learners have been the
focus of academic studies for decades. However, research regarding the need for a
deeper and more contextualised understanding of those influences has been less
evident. Much of the research included in this review examines the contributing
influences as single phenomena such as the availability of flexible programs, or in a
single context, such as the experiences of adult learners balancing multiple roles in
conflict with the demands of academic studies. Goto and Martin (2009) made a strong
recommendation to examine these influences holistically in order to understand the
dynamics at play and to better support adult learners to achieve their educational goals.
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
transforming individuals and communities, as well as advancing the recovery of
leading economies post the 2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis (Unesco, 2009).
Table 1.1
Summary of Theorists and conceptualisations included in this review
Chapter 1: Introduction 2
1.2 CONTEXT
The influences examined in the themes above included both positive and
negative experiences such as practical support from family, peers and employers as
well as interventions from institutions and coping strategies the adult learners develop
throughout their lives, and the tension between family responsibilities and the demands
of academic study. The findings from the studies reviewed were used to synthesise a
new understanding of the concept of persistence to success for adult learners.
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
that allowed them to successfully undertake their studies in post-compulsory
education. The goal of this descriptive meta-synthesis was to synthesise the findings
of original studies that investigated the experiences of adult learners as they navigated
their educational journeys. This review served as an exploration of both the positive
and negative experiences of the subject population, with the ultimate goal of improving
the understanding and appreciation of how adult learners can be assisted to
successfully complete their studies.
Chapter 1: Introduction 4
together primary research to propose generalisations by critically focusing on the
theories discussed and resolving conflicts in the literature reviewed (Cooper, Hedges,
& Valentine, 2009). The results of such a study goes beyond the narrow focus of
existing research by emphasising the meta-context of the learners’ experiences and
may have practical application in policy development by contributing to addressing
relatively low tertiary attainment levels in Queensland (Qld Department of Education
and Training, 2011). Unresolved issues from the meta-synthesis inform
recommendations for future study, and will define the focus of my future doctoral
thesis.
1.3 PURPOSES
As stated earlier, one outcome from the literature review reported in Chapter 2,
is the need to examine the psychological and social influences impacting adult
learners, rather than looking at this phenomenon from only one disciplinary
perspective. Such a cross-disciplinary approach has yielded a more highly
contextualised understanding of the cumulative effects of these factors. It has pointed
to effective strategies and interventions that will have a positive impact on adult learner
success. Situating the analysis of these influences in the meta-context of the adult
learner’s life revealed that the individual’s persistence and likely educational outcomes
were moderated by a range of experiences and circumstances to shape the adult
learner’s educational outcomes. These moderating circumstances and interventions
are grouped and analysed according to the classifications and theories of several key
authors. The contributing theoretical frameworks that helped form the descriptive
meta-synthesis are outlined here (See Table 1.2). The summary presented here is not
comprehensive, but illuminates some primary thinkers, and their contributions to this
area of investigation. The purpose of utilising them in this review is not to critically
analyse the educational theories in depth, but to briefly describe them and apply their
principles to the investigative methodology of the descriptive meta-synthesis.
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
Table 1.2
Summary of contributing theoretical frameworks utilised in the descriptive meta-synthesis
Chapter 1: Introduction 6
these barriers on adult
learner success
Classification x x x Cross Provides a classifying
tools and structure to group
conceptualisation analyse and compare
s the phenomena
observed
2. What structural and dispositional factors influence adult learners as they re-
These barriers include both situational or structural barriers, that are extrinsic,
and that include time pressures, work and family responsibilities and institutional
barriers such as the availability and flexibility of course offerings. The second cluster
of barriers are dispositional and intrinsic, and that include anxiety, guilt, study issues,
unrealistic expectations and failing to adjust to university life.
Chapter 1: Introduction 7
Situational Barriers Dispositional Barriers
Chapter 1: Introduction 8
An initial review of the globally sourced literature encompassed a range of
methodological approaches and theoretical constructs, which are described and
evaluated in Chapter 2. The Australian materials include Government policies and
initiatives, as well as research investigations relating specifically to the experiences of
adult learners in a local context.
Bandura’s social cognitive theory of human agency (2001) was the theoretical
framework that helped form the focus of the analysis presented here. The theory calls
on researchers to situate the micro view of cognition within a macro view of the
subject’s environment. The key premise of Bandura’s theory that directed this review
was that the values and beliefs of adult learners relating to their studies are embedded
in their self-concept and the environmental, familial and cultural contexts of the
individual participant. Furthermore, adult learner’s educational experiences,
behaviours and outcomes must be examined in the context of this complex interaction.
This approach was applied in the practice of analysing the findings of each individual
study in order to compare themes across papers and determine how the studies were
related. This allowed the creation of new understandings of the phenomena and
synthesise themes emerging from the findings of the combined studies.
The research focused on qualitative studies that discuss the attitudes and
experiences of the participants in the context of their lives and the structural features
of the institutions they attended, which parallels Bandura’s central premise. The
literature review examined the negative experiences that adult learners encountered
and overcame to succeed in their learning, with a holistic focus on the interaction of
these influences in the lives of the adult learners. The environmental contexts
described above, and in Bandura’s theory, refer to the sum of the personal, social,
work, and educational milieus in which the adult learner exists and studies. These
environmental contexts were identified in each study to situate the findings reported,
within the theoretical foundation of the review. Bandura’s theoretical framework was
also used as a lens through which to view articles under consideration for inclusion in
this review. Where Bandura’s principles were applied in the literature in qualitative
case studies, such as those involving semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and
data collected through social media, blogs, and online communications with the
participants, these articles were included. Furthermore, limiting the review to
qualitative studies has provided a manageable volume of data to analyse and report.
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
One final note must be made regarding the decision to eliminate the examination
of gender, race and low SES as barriers to access and educational success in the
synthesis. Notwithstanding, these characteristics are clearly significant in contributing
to the experience of adult learners as they re-engage and persist through their studies
yet will be examined in the analysis and discussion only as they arise in the context of
the broader synthesis. Treating them as major themes would expand the study beyond
the scope proposed for this thesis for the topics themselves could well form the basis
of individual syntheses in the future.
Chapter 2 contains the literature review. This review was conducted to reveal
the broad scope of the research directions explored in the included literature. Themes
included the theoretical constructs that framed the research, and the key and common
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
findings presented in the studies were identified and critically analysed. The literature
review also served to provide background information regarding the range of key
constructs and methodologies used in the included studies. The review identified the
seminal work of Knowles (1970); Bandura (1993); DeVito (2010); Tinto (1975); Kazis
(2007); Kuh (2008); Gotto & Martin (2009) and Kenner & Weinerman (2011) as
significant in describing the factors influencing adult learner success. The chapter
gives a global perspective on the research examining the structural and dispositional
experienced by adult learners in post-compulsory education. The Chapter critically
analyses the findings of the included studies to demonstrate gaps in the literature
reviewed. These identified gaps relate to Knowles’ theory of adult learning, Bandura’s
theory of human agency, and Gotto & Martin’s (2009) exhortation to situate studies in
a meta-contextual view of the adult learner rather than examining the phenomena in
isolation. Further discussion addresses opportunities to generate new knowledge from
synthesising the existing threads into an integrated view of the structural and
dispositional influences experienced by adult learners in their educational journeys.
After conducting the expanded review of the literature, Chapter 4 presents the results
from the descriptive meta-synthesis. Chapter 4 follows a similar structure as Chapter
2 in investigating and critically analysing the key constructs, theories and findings
from the studies. These elements are: adult learners conceptualised; re-engaging in
learning: motivation and self-efficacy; design and delivery of educational content; the
benefits of ‘integration into college life’ in engaging adult learners and improving their
educational outcomes; environmental support factors examined – family, social and
workplace support; identified environmental barriers to success for adult learners and,
juxtaposing individual and institutional concepts of success for adult learners.
Chapter 5 presents the discussion of the research findings. The chapter includes
a discussion of the implications of the synthesis to policy and practice. It concludes
with a section on the limitations of the descriptive meta-synthesis, and
recommendations for future studies to examine the relative strengths of the influences
that hinder or support adult learners during their post-compulsory educational
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
journeys. The topics discussed are: articulating the integrated theory of persistence to
success for adult learners; a meta-contextual view of the adult learner in study; pre-
engagement: self-efficacy, motivators, personal and structural supports [or barriers];
engagement and the first semester; persistence to success beyond the first year of
study; final thoughts and implications for practice and suggestions for further research.
Chapter 2 follows with the presentation of the literature review.
Chapter 1: Introduction 12
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter begins with a historical background (section 2.1) and reviews
literature on the following topics: Themes identified in the literature (section 2.2)
which describes the 7 key themes emerging from the review; Silences and concerns
raised in the literature (section 2.3) which describes the limitations of the studies
identified by the review. Section 4 highlights the implications from the literature and
develops the conceptual framework for the study.
Many studies have been conducted over recent decades focusing broadly on
areas concerning the characteristics of adult learners and the internal or psychological,
structural, and environmental factors they face when re-engaging in post-compulsory
education. Since the seminal work of Knowles in the 1970s, which set the scene for
examining the unique characteristics and needs of adult learners, a significant body of
research has been conducted and is available for scholars and practitioners to use in
the development of educational programs and teaching practice (Knowles, 1970;
Knowles & Bard, 1984; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998; Knowles, Holton Iii, &
Swanson, 2012). More than 80% of the results returned from the search of the
literature were from studies and reports from the year 2003 onwards. Such a volume
of quality work allowed this review to focus primarily on research conducted since
that time with earlier material included where deemed appropriate.
2. They have a larger, more diverse stock of knowledge and experience to draw
from.
5. They have a stronger need to know the reasons for learning something.
The application of these principles to the practice of teaching has broad appeal
in terms of both understanding the differences between adult learners and their younger
counterparts as well as conceptualising a contextualised approach to the design and
delivery of programs that better meet the needs of adult learners. The implications of
Knowles’ principles to the observable characteristics of adult learners are illustrated
in the following table which examines each principle in terms of contemporary
experience and their relationship to teaching practice (See Table 2.1).
The reasons for excluding references returned in this search included redundancy
and narrowness. The reasons for excluding references based on redundancy included
cases where studies appeared to duplicate the focus of several previous studies without
contributing new or challenging insights into how the reported phenome either
contributed to or hindered the adult learners’ persistence to success in their educational
journeys. Studies were also excluded on the basis of the narrowness of the sample
studied. In some studies the findings relating to one specific population studied may
not reasonably be able to be applied to the population identified in the dissertation
topic because the focus of the studies were groups identified as Hispanic, African-
American students, 1st generation Asian immigrants, those with disabilities, and so
forth. Several of the themes emerging in these studies such as pre-existing conditions
of individual learners may impact their attitude to study or the various influences
during initial engagement in study may contribute to persistence, may offer avenues
for further research that are beyond the scope of this review in relation to
understanding cultural norms relating to family responsibility and gender roles and
learner’s participation and success in post-compulsory study. These issues may have
parallels and perhaps hold true in Australia, particularly where learner cohorts include
Indigenous participants or migrants from the same cultures as these studies.
3
3
Peer reviewed journal article
3
Government report
20 Other report
PhD thesis
20 19
18
16
14
12
10
8 6
6
4 2
1
2
0
US EUROPE AUSTRALIA CANADA
Publications Cited
Figure 2.3. Summary of the references cited in this paper classified by country of origin.
Seven themes emerging from the literature were chosen for discussion in this
review. During the initial screening of the articles returned, the main themes of each
study were identified and tabulated to gain an overview of the key concepts being
reported in this snapshot of the existing literature. The themes that occurred most
frequently, or that were common to multiple research papers were identified and form
the focus of this literature review. The seven identified themes or key concepts are
conceptualising adult learners; the narrow focus of theoretical constructs employed in
the reviewed literature resulting in a broad consistency of observations; the
relationship between self-efficacy and adult learner resilience; concepts of success
described from individual, societal and institutional perspectives; the individual
motivations for adults to re-engage in study and their impact on resilience; perceived
barriers to success for adult learners and observed support strategies that assisted adult
learners to succeed. These same themes emerged in the expanded review also. Chapter
four examined these factors in greater detail from the perspective of interaction of the
experiences reported. These include the role of self-efficacy in success; integrating
the principles of andragogy into the design and delivery of programs; the positive
influence of integration into college life on success; environmental support factors
assisting success; environmental barriers to success; the impact of time and timing on
experiences and interventions and the cumulative effect of the adult learner’s
experiences in the meta-context of their life during study.
The findings of the research when viewed together, appear to indicate that the
themes listed in the previous paragraph may combine over time to determine the
educational outcomes for adult learners. No single report has posited such a unified
theory of persistence to success. This hypothesis is indicated by viewing the articles
analysed in the synthesis from a metacontextual perspective, and by placing the key
theorists in a framework that seeks to illustrate the relationships between the findings
of each individual study. This analysis of the individual theoretical constructs and the
relationships that may exist between them was the basis for the framework presented
in the synthesis. The observed relationships are detailed and summarised both in the
narrative and the tables and figures included in the review. The themes identified in
In the literature much attention was given to defining “adult learners”, as distinct
from learners who have moved directly from secondary education to higher
educational pursuits. Each study focused on specific characteristics that differentiate
these adult learners, and in turn, significantly influenced their educational experiences.
These definitions included characteristics such as age, educational achievement and
outside responsibilities, as well as being employed full-time and having family
responsibilities (Connell, 2008; Kazis, 2007; Wyatt, 2011). These characteristics are
important because they differentiate adult learners from traditional full-time students
coming directly from high school (Kazis, 2007). This distinction between the two
categories of learners is the foundation upon which the need for this research is based.
Theorist Conceptualisation
Knowles Knowles (1974) theory of andragogy – 4
characteristics of adult learners that
impact their interactions and engagement
in educational pursuits
Later:
According to Knowles, Holton, and
Swanson (1998), the six principles of
andragogy - Knowles believed individual
learner differences, situational
differences, and goals and purposes of
learning are factors that affect adult
learning
For women - more about achieving balance in their lives, career and
relationships.
The impact these reported drivers had on the ability of learners to re-engage and
persist in their studies towards their goals was examined in the studies cited above and
the findings are reported later in this chapter.
The studies reviewed focused on the unique barriers faced by adult learners as a
result of their position in life, and the internal and external factors influencing their
educational journeys. Some studies such as those by Prevatt et al (2011); Goto &
Martin (2009) and Kazis (2007) described the role of: general academic skills, internal
motivation/confidence, perceived instructor efficacy, external motivation/future career
decidedness, personal adjustment, external motivation, goal setting, motivation, and
self-efficacy in relation to social context in creating perceived barriers to educational
success for adult learners.
Finally, this review discusses the limitations of the included studies and the
recommendations for further research that were outlined in the literature reviewed.
These recommendations have clear application to the following descriptive
metasynthesis, as well as any other future research on improving outcomes for adult
learners that others may pursue. The seven identified themes identified above are
examined individually in the remainder of this chapter. The seven identified themes
are:
5. the individual motivations for adults to re-engage in study and their impact
on resilience;
The definitions of adult learners in the research reviewed here included a range
of characteristics from ‘age’ to ‘educational achievement’ and ‘outside
responsibilities’ (Connell, 2008; Kazis, 2007). The number of years since the research
participants had completed their previous study and current employment status were
also features of the definitions discussed below. Connell (2008) developed a
discussion of what constituted ‘adult learners’. The definition although complex,
sought to capture the diverse roles and influences shaping the experience of this group
of learners: “Adult learners typically have a multitude of roles in addition to that of a
traditional student. They may be employed full-time, have family responsibilities and
be involved in volunteer activities” (Connell, 2008a, p. 8).
Connell also proposed an original third category of learners that she saw
emerging. It was proposed that these learners were falling between traditional college
students and adult learners and shared the characteristics of both. These learners were
named ‘adult cognates’ and their emergence was attributed to changing economic
conditions requiring students to work more hours due to higher educational costs as
well as demographic shifts resulting in students taking responsibility for household
duties for their parents. Connell reported: “…Similar to adult learners, the cognates
were reported as also working with household commitments, single parent issues, and
other responsibilities – they were not merely attending university” (Connell, 2008a, p.
272).
In summary, the study observed that adult learners could be better described in
terms of their varied life experiences rather than the more common view of adult
learners as students who have been: “…out of high school for two years, have
completed at least Grade 10, and are at least 20 years of age...” (Connell, 2008a p.
The broader aspects of Connell’s definition find common threads in the reviewed
literature and are supported in studies by Kenny, Kidd et al. (2011) and Wyatt (2011).
Deggs articulated similar descriptions in his 2001 report, where adult learners were
defined in terms of delayed enrolment due to employment. Other features of adult
learners described by Deggs also aligned with Connell’s view. Two examples were
adult learners having dependents other than a spouse, as well as typically being
financially independent. A significant variation of this theme was the observation that
many adult learners featured in this study had not obtained a standard high school
diploma (Deggs, 2011). This observation is paralleled in many studies that focused on
‘disadvantaged’’ or ‘marginalised’ adult learners where a range of socio-economic
factors were seen to contribute to the difficulties that the participants faced. Kazis and
colleagues took a different view in 2007 by defining adult learners as: “Students over
age twenty-four…” (Kazis, 2007, p. 2).
Findings of this study (Kazis, 2007, p. 2) defining adult learners as over twenty-
four years of age represents a significant departure from other reviewed studies, which
chose to define adult learners as over either twenty or twenty-one years of age. The
notion of using twenty-one as a benchmark may be consistent with cultural views of
adulthood being achieved at that age, but is inconsistent with legal definitions in
Australia and elsewhere as having attained eighteen years of age. The seemingly
arbitrary selection of age twenty-four as the milestone for ‘adulthood’ when describing
learners is perhaps both conservative and practical in that it allows for the other
common characteristics of adult learners to be acquired: “…financially independent,
work part time or full time, have dependents, and must juggle many responsibilities
with school” (Kazis, 2007, p. 2).
Within the vocational education and training (VET) and university sectors,
mature age students are most commonly defined as over 21 years of
age…Mature age students have generally experienced at least one job or
career pathway during the time since leaving secondary school and many have
dependent children and major financial responsibilities (Kenny et al., 2011, p.
107).
2
In the Australian and Queensland context ‘Adult Learners’ are commonly referred to as ‘Mature Age
Students” in both policy and research. Where the narrative relates to local experiences the term
mature age students will be used although generally in this thesis the more common term of adult
learner will be employed.
The findings indicate that when a learning program fails to connect with the adult
learner’s experience or context in life the risk of disengaging from study is
significantly increased. Findings from Schraw and Moshman’s (1995) study failed to
develop this point or attempt to understand how significant this affect might be in the
learner’s resilience or tendency to drop out of study. The opportunity therefore
remains to further investigate the role of making these connections in developing the
adult learner’s resilience.
Findings from DeVito’s (2011) study went beyond the results of Kenner and
Weinerman by recognising the tensions between personal and educational pressures
and how the resulting conflicts might be a barrier to success for adult learners. DeVito
acknowledged in the findings that moderating those personal factors was beyond the
scope of institutions, but that they could contribute to the support of adult learners
through the range and availability of courses offered and the provision of a range of
services that may help to reduce the competition between these obligations. The
services suggested by the study included admission processes, academic and financial
aid availability and advice, registration, and access to the bookstore. The limitation
here is that DeVito (2011) has focused on a single variable – the structural environment
of the college – which influences the learner’s ability to overcome the barriers they
face without examining the other factors contributing to or moderating those barriers.
Bandura's social cognitive theory of human agency (1993) was used by a number
of theorists to interpret the findings of their research (Bremer et al., 2011; Goto &
Martin, 2009; Kirk, Keith, & Edwin, 2009; Vuong, Brown-Welty, & Tracz, 2010).
Bandura expounded the view that psychological factors influence how students
respond to the barriers to educational success:
In these studies, phenomena were examined in terms of the way a person’s self-
efficacy, that is, the concept of one’s ability to succeed based on life-long experience,
moderated the influence of other factors that impacted success or the overcoming of
barriers to success. For example the findings of Goto and Martin (2009) indicated goal
setting, motivation, and self-efficacy must be examined in relation to the social context
of the learner. The study reported that barriers to further education may be
institutional, informational, situational, or psychological, and that self-esteem and
locus of control strongly influence how adults perceive their ability to succeed in their
Goto & Martin’s (2009) approach recognised the effect that experiences of
success and failure during an adult’s life would have in shaping their attitudes and
responses to new educational challenges. This idea of influences having an effect over
time was also utilised and expanded by Tinto in his work, which focused on the
longitudinal effect of factors on the learner’s attitude and resilience in their studies.
Tinto is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
The strength of the research by Goto and Martin (2009) over similar studies by
researchers using Knowles as their starting point comes from their recommendation to
place the educational experiences of the adult learners in the metacontext of their lives
including their families, peer groups and work environments, to understand the
dynamics at play. The work of Goto and Martin has clear advantages over the other
studies reviewed in that their approach acknowledges the need to examine the interplay
of these psychological and structural influences in determining how adult learners
build motivation and self-efficacy and form education-related goals.
Bremer, Hirschy et al. (2004) cited Braxton and colleagues (1997) review of
empirical tests of Tinto's original (1975) model to report that some of Tinto’s proposals
may not transfer into other educational contexts. The main criticism was that Tinto’s
model was based on the experiences of traditional students in 4-year, residential
institutions, and that these findings might not translate to other types of colleges such
as Career and Technical Education (CTE) students, and students seeking academic
majors at 2-year institutions. As a result, Braxton, Hirschy, & McClendon (2004)
proposed a modified model that incorporated the learner’s characteristics upon
entering study as well as the internal and external environments such as the sense of
self of the learner and the broader college environment, in which the study took place
to analyse the decisions taken by adult learners to persist in study. This untested model
is of particular interest in the context of this current study, as the following meta-
synthesis examines each of these factors influencing adult learners pursuing academic
and vocational education studies.
Figure 2.6. Conceptual frameworks for Astin’s I-E-O Model. Reproduced from (Aihara, 2001).
Inputs in this model presented in Figure 2.6, included a wide range of complex
characteristics and experiences from gender, age, race, family situation, secondary
educational achievement, and attendance patterns at college. The learning
environment, which is well defined in the conceptual model, includes all of Astin’s
key factors. This model is particularly relevant to integrated studies as it also
incorporates the ideas from Tinto’s work, which put student integration into the social
One significant criticism of this very informative work is found in the statement
by the author that the application of the model is easily understood and operationalised
in research only when it addresses the observable behaviours of the subject population
and becomes complicated and difficult to operationalise when the cognitive and
emotional aspects of the students are added to the study (Aihara, 2011). This reliance
on quantitative data analysis surely must have left much of the rich experiential
information that would explain why behaviours were manifested unanswered by the
study.
Integrating Tinto and Lepani’s theories might offer some insight into the
complex role that time and timing play in the development of resilience in adult
learners from the point they re-engage in study through to the conclusion of their time
in academy. The timing of experiences and interventions as a focus of study was not
widely represented in the material included in this literature review and remains an
opportunity for further investigation.
Willans and Seary discussed the seven phases in the perspective transformation
process and investigated how those elements, when incorporated into a course of study,
could overcome the adult learners’ perceived barriers to success. The authors
emphasised the importance of integrating opportunities for self-reflection in the
educational process to facilitate this transformational change.
The concepts identified in the pre-existing conditions section of the model are
further explained in the following figures (See Figure 2.8).
This diagram (Figure 2.8) illustrates how the combined influences of previous
study achievements and personal circumstances combine with the adult learner’s self-
efficacy to result in their initial state of resilience at the commencement of study. This
summary of the studies reviewed to this point indicates that this initial state of
A significant gap in the literature reviewed was the scant attention paid to the
definition of success in educational pursuits for adult learners (see for example Kenner
& Weinerman, 2011 and Connell 2008a) where ‘success’ is discussed throughout the
papers in terms of persistence and graduation or completion but never defined from
the perspective of the adult learner populations studied. Contrast this with the research
done by Dyke & Murphy 2006, who examine concepts of success in detail taking both
a personal and broad view of conceptualisations of success including the differences
between Female and Male paradigms of success.). When success was addressed by
the studies it was defined simply in terms of the completion of a program of study and
the attainment of a qualification or credential. This lack of discussion is surprising in
view of the broad application of Knowles’ theory of andragogy throughout the corpus
of literature (Bremer et al., 2011; De Vito, 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). A
fundamental characteristic of adult learners according to Kenner and Weinerman is
that adult learners must find relevance and value in the learning itself in order to be
motivated to persist and succeed in their educational pursuits:
The findings suggest that individual adult learners may have a wide range of
goals and objectives for pursuing further education. The findings further indicate these
goals may include such outcomes as acquiring new skills, accessing promotion or
higher remuneration, compliance for professional accreditation, employment, and self-
actualisation. As a consequence, success for these individual learners will be defined
by their personal goals. The idea that the adult learner’s concept of success will be
defined by their personal goals, and whether these concepts might change over time,
will be examined in detail in the synthesis to follow.
This idea that definitions of success in educational pursuits may vary along
gender lines is very interesting. An aspect that must be considered is that these
findings are from a U.S. study that represents a dominant paradigm from a dominant
cultural population in a developed modern western nation (Dyke & Murphy, 2006). A
question must be asked as to whether this concept can be applied broadly in other
cultures, populations or nationalities. A reasonable concern arising from such a
statement may be that such findings might lead to gender stereotypes. In the study
cited, such a concern is ameliorated by the fact that the researchers identified
themselves as women exploring the topic from a feminist perspective, thus clearly
The point is often made in the literature that institutions are not in a position to
influence what happens at work or in the home for their adult learners. As a result,
discussions around what institutions might be able to do to influence employers and
family members are silenced. There is room for further research on how institutions
can better support students in areas of family responsibility, such as by providing
student counselling, childcare, financial support, and community and family events
that create belonging and connection to the institution, given that institutions engage
with the wider community on many levels, both directly through partnerships and
indirectly through marketing campaigns. It seems reasonable the institutions may be
able to leverage those relationships to advance the cause of supporting adult learners
who in many cases are members of that wider community. This is a weakness, in the
literature and will be examined in the synthesis to follow.
The terms ‘college community’ and’ broader college community’ often arise in
the literature. There must be an argument that the workplace and family are by
extension, important members of this community. Many institutions have programs
that reach out to schools to build awareness of their programs and college life. The
findings indicate that these same examples of advocacy and awareness building might
be employed to involve employers and immediate family members in the college
community to improve outcomes for adult learners.
The previous two sections have examined concepts and definitions of success
for adult learners re-engaging in educational pursuits. In the following section,
findings that identified barriers to success will be examined.
Goto & Martin (2009) examined a similar proposition to investigate how adult
learners experienced their educational journey, focusing on how family and friends
provided support to moderate poor or low self-efficacy and overcome the learner’s
perceived barriers to success. Several researchers also examined these moderating
influences on self-efficacy (intrinsic influences as a result of reflection) and
experienced environmental issues (extrinsic influences, such as the ‘structural’ factors
described above) (Connell, 2008a; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). A consistent picture
emerged from the findings of these studies pointing to the adult’s changing state of
self-efficacy or resilience over time as a result of the interactions of these experiences.
In particular, the study by Goto and Martin added significantly to the argument because
they explicitly articulated the need to examine the educational experiences of the adult
learner in the meta-context of the adult’s broader life and experiences rather than just
the educational context (Goto & Martin, 2009).
No study reviewed here however, had the scope to examine these broader
influences in any detail. The proposition that the learner’s state of self-efficacy may
be positively influenced by interactions and interventions from outside of their
educational context during study might be strengthened by seeking similar
observations in a wider range of studies. The meta-synthesis following was able to
draw on large numbers of primary research that individually examined aspects of the
adults’ lives. Collectively these diverse studies offer a clearer picture of how
educational success for adult learners is impacted by experiences not central to the
educational pursuit itself.
One specific benefit of Kazis’ report is the offer of a range of possible strategies
that government and institutions might implement to support adult learners, potentially
yielding benefits to businesses and the wider community as a direct outcome. The
suggested strategies included the use of technology and on-line delivery; curriculum
and course content that are standardised, flexible scheduling with frequent entry and
exit options, shorter course lengths as well as the use of workplaces as learning places,
and employer financing of employee education costs (Kazis, 2007). The weakness
here is that no evidence is provided to support the efficacy of these strategies, nor any
indication as to which might have the greatest impact or result in the greatest benefit
to any of the stakeholders identified. It seems that more work needs to be done on
mapping strategies to barriers and investigating the experiences of adult learners
involved in such strategies before conclusions can be drawn about what is both
possible and desirable in terms of interventions that should be implemented at the
government or institutional level.
The concept of accountability frames an argument about the need for quality
educational experiences to be made available to adult learners. The studies reviewed
here superficially discuss how ‘quality’ might be defined and measured by institutions
and that these results should be communicated to prospective learners. The findings
suggest that being able to quantify and compare the quality of an institution’s programs
will benefit learners. It is proposed that making this information available to students
prior to enrolment might allow adult learners to make choices about what programs
and institutions best align to their needs and preferences, thus improving their chances
of successfully completing their studies and achieving the educational outcomes adult
learners have identified for themselves. These themes were common to the work by
De Vito (2010) and others citing seminal work by Cross (1981) on the quality of
learning (Angelino et al., 2007; Deggs, 2011). Together, these studies suggest that
What is not clear in these studies is how much of this information is currently
available to prospective students and how it is used by them in forming their
educational choices. An investigation into the effects on adult learner’s success of
using such information may not be possible at present, because it is unclear from this
literature review just how much work is being done on measuring the quality of
program offerings, or to what extent adult learners are seeking this information in
making their enrolment decisions. It is possible that more insight might result from a
meta-synthesis including studies examining a wide range of issues around quality in
education.
This interaction could lead to competing priorities for time and resources as well
as developing a sense that the learner was separating from family and friends who had
not attended college (Bremer et al., 2011; Frey Johnson, 2011). The findings suggest
that family perceptions that the 1st generation learner was placing more importance on
their personal goals than the needs of their family, and that they were in some way
advancing beyond the station of their family, placed stress and some attending guilt on
the learner that might lead to disengaging from study (Bremer et al., 2011). This study
did not examine the extent to which cultural, gender or other factors shape attitudes to
study and work within family groups, or whether these factors may increase in
significance where the cultural issues are ethnic as well – shaping attitudes to study
and work and gender roles/issues. This is a significant area of interest that should be
pursued in greater detail in future studies.
Limitations in the form of suggestions that studies should be tested for reliability
by being replicated in other environments, contexts and cultures; or to use different
approaches and theoretical constructs, was common to all the literature reviewed. The
most significant concern raised was that for the findings of these studies might not be
able to be applied to a broader audience, or to inform a wider practice. This sentiment
was expressed by several writers and recognised that the studies represented here were
each centred in a specific learning environment or focused on a specific cohort of
learners with characteristics formed by their situations. This is both an outcome and a
common criticism of qualitative studies in general.
“…These have important influences on the practices and their effects studied,
so that findings may not be transferred, or completely transferred, to a
different context…” (Trowler & Trowler, 2010)
The fundamental issue remains that focused empirical research seeking to gain
a deeper insight into the phenomena being investigated must narrowly define the
sample population and the factors to be investigated. Efforts to understand a clearly
defined topic in such a focused way result in questions of transferability and the
validity of the findings from these studies.
2.3.1 Critique of the literature and the need for this research
A range of suggestions for further research were proposed in the literature to
more clearly define terms, issues, barriers to success and the methods that adult
learners utilise to overcome those barriers. Key areas for future study are discussed in
this section.
The first suggestion is for clarification of terms and definitions relating to adult
learners. This topic needs critical examination as so many of the proposed
interventions to assist adult learners during study rely on the observed differences
between adult learners and continuing students to define their form. A deeper
understanding of the defining characteristics of ‘adult learners’ will therefore better
predict adult learner barriers and the factors that will help them to develop resilience
and succeed in their educational pursuits
The broad policy directions and objectives of these new governments are in
general consensus with previous parliaments, but the strategies and financial support
offered will have as yet unclear long-term impacts on VET and Higher Education in
Australia. Contemporary Australian policies from government and institutions will be
examined alongside international developments and directions for these educational
sectors to gain a perspective on how adult learners’ experiences will be impacted and
what interventions might reveal themselves as appropriate;
A further potential area of interest arising from the studies is the formulation of
curriculum design and delivery for adult learners that both responds to their needs as
adult learners, and which is offered in modes and times that provide the greatest access
to the programs. For example, integrating workplaces into training sites, and
partnering with employers to meet financial issues could positively impact adult
learners, employers, and the economy (Kazis, 2007). This financial aid and assistance
has provided access to further education for many adult learners who would otherwise
have not had the opportunity to return to study. It presents a clear opportunity to
investigate the influence this support has had in assisting those adult learners to
overcome the barriers to achieving their educational goals. These themes will be
examined in detail in Chapter 4 from the point of view of interventions and policy
decisions taken by governments, institutions and employers, and how they might be
utilised to assist adult learners to re-engage in formal study and develop the resilience
needed to succeed.
In conclusion, areas for future research indicate a need to focus on adult learner
characteristics and perceived barriers to educational success, as well as the strategies
that contribute to their success, in the context of different specific environments. Such
studies would test and perhaps verify previous methodologies and findings and their
application to wider audiences and populations. The final section of this chapter
presents the summary of the literature review.
The remainder of this section will discuss the characteristics of the literature
reviewed under three headings: Contributions of this literature to the field of study;
The research also indicates that industry, governments, policy makers and
educational institutions recognise the benefits in delivering quality post-compulsory
education to this growing population of adult learners re-entering study. Indeed, they
understand the importance of providing an appropriate environment in which those
adult learners are better able to engage, persist and achieve success in their educational
pursuits (DETA, 2011; UNESCO, 2009).
Further, the seminal work of leading researchers has been tested and examined
both in terms of the theoretical constructs employed in studies and the identification
of the factors that emerge as barriers to the achievement of educational success.
Another outcome of this body of research are suggestions for institutions and policy
makers for developing curriculum design, educational support and clear and
transparent communication in a way that supports adult learners to achieve their
individual goals (Bremer et al., 2011; De Vito, 2010; Frey Johnson, 2011; Kenny et
al., 2011; Wolf-Wendel et al., 2009). Several studies present clear requirements for
flexibility in educational offerings as well as practical and financial support from
institutions, family, and employers (Bremer et al., 2011; De Vito, 2010; Kazis, 2007).
These strategies are proposed to help off-set the influence of competing priorities
between study, family and work. A discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the
literature is presented in the next section.
Table 2.3
Summary of contributing theorists
There are two significant weaknesses in the literature. Firstly, there is a clear
preponderance of research from the United States and this suggests that the populations
studied are unique to the demographic characteristics of that country, 19 of the 29
studies analysed in the literature review were from the United States. As a result, many
The literature reviewed here has identified many observable experiences and
interventions that influence adult learners’ abilities to overcome the personal and
structural barriers they face in returning to formal studies after some time establishing
their lives. A significant amount work exists to classify and describe the elements of
these barriers such as identifying the many competing priorities that contribute to the
personal barriers experienced by adult learners during their educational journeys, and
the relationship of these barriers and compensatory strategies to resilience or
persistence for the adult learner. What does not exist in the literature reviewed here is
a systematic, cumulative integration of the observed barriers and strategies to examine
how they combine to influence or perhaps predict adult learner success.
This chapter conforms to the following structure: The chapter begins with a
description of Meta-Synthesis and justification for its selection as a research strategy.
This is followed by the Research questions identified and a discussion of the search
methodology and justification for selection of included items including the criteria for
considering studies and other materials for inclusion in this Meta-Synthesis. Finally I
discuss the data collection and analysis as well as the synthesis to be presented.
9. What structural and dispositional factors influence adult learners as they re-
engage and persist through their post-compulsory educational journeys?
These barriers include a) situational or structural barriers which are extrinsic and
include time pressures, work and family responsibilities, and institutional barriers,
such as the availability and flexibility of course offerings; b) dispositional barriers
which are intrinsic and include anxiety, guilt, study issues, unrealistic expectations and
failing to adjust to university life.
The answers to these questions may contribute to the dialogue surrounding the
increasingly important need on the part of both Governments and employer groups to
maximise the delivered benefits of their financial investments in Technical and Further
3.3 PARTICIPANTS
The study was limited to populations defined as Adult learners as above. The
population included males and females. The populations were engaging in education
or training described as post-compulsory, tertiary, vocational, technical, and include
all modes of delivery: e.g., online, face-to-face, distance learning.
The studies have been limited to Australia, United States of America, Canada,
United Kingdom, Western Europe and South Africa and reported in English
language. Other geographical areas are excluded for diversity in cultural norms,
values and educational delivery models preclude drawing conclusions about the
experiences of adult learners that would be applicable across all national
contexts. Results of this synthesis may indicate the need to include explicit
comparisons between the experiences of Australian learners and those in one or more
other countries for a future synthesis or empirical study.
I selected eleven major electronic databases and search engines for this review:
Eric; EBSCO Host/ASP; Google Scholar; Web of Science; ProQuest; Web Search;
Digital Dissertations; Pro Quest Dissertations; A.C.E.R; and E.R.G.O.
During the literature review phase of this study I learned that each country
featured in the study has its own structure for higher education and specific
terminology for the types of institutions and programs offered in academic and
vocational fields. For example in the United States there are several types and tiers of
institutions offering programs to adult learners such as two-year colleges and
community colleges that offer more vocationally oriented programs and traditional
private colleges and universities where the focus is on academic study. As a result I
have included as many of the terms that I could find that might return information
relevant to the two research questions and the broader context of vocational education
that informed this study.
Table 3.1
Sample search results
Focused searches in the review returned 315 results. Determining the relevance
of returns for inclusion in the Meta-Synthesis was carried out using a transparent
strategy to ensure validity of results and reduce bias in the study. The selection of
primary studies was based on the pre-developed selection criteria described earlier in
this chapter. The screening of literature for eligibility was undertaken in two phases.
For the majority of the source types, an initial round of screening based on titles and
abstracts was carried out, followed by an examination of the full-text of the study to
determine eligibility. Citation checking provided a third method where eligibility was
not readily apparent. Literature referencing seminal authors or methodologies, or
literature cited in other works indicated relevance for inclusion in the Meta-Synthesis.
A clear audit trail documenting all procedural decisions in the strategy was used to
minimise selection bias. A template was used to record the information from each
returned item that was included in the review. Reflexive reviews of those judgments
assisted in maintaining the integrity of the sample studied.
As stated earlier, the question of how many returns represent an adequate size
set for the Meta-Synthesis is a difficult question to answer. The pool of artefacts must
be large enough to indicate high recall but be small enough to produce high precision
and allow the kind of in-depth analysis and integration required by a qualitative study.
As a result of the inherent difficulties in searching and selecting materials for synthesis,
it is possible that some valuable information may not have been included in the review.
In the first instance each item identified for inclusion in the synthesis was
summarised in a table that allowed a quick review of the key points discussed.
Inclusions in this table were metadata, methodology, key points, quotes, cross-
referencing, questions to be clarified and recommendations for further study. In the
second phase of the data collection each artefact was sorted and grouped according to
the key headings emerging from the study such as definitions of adult learners;
theoretical constructs employed; barriers identified; concepts relating to educational
success etc. Finally, the selected studies and other materials were stored electronically
in EndNote allowing easy and reliable access to the items when required. All
electronic records were stored both in my primary computer and backed up in an
external hard drive for security. The group headings employed in
The form of the synthesis presented in the next chapter was informed by these
criteria that emerged from the review process and examples of the tables that were
used to classify and group the studies for analysis are presented here.
Journal Article:
Author/s of article
Year of pub & edition
Article title
Journal title
volume no. Issue no.
Page nos.
URL/database name & date
retrieved/DOI
Key words
Study method
Limitations
Themes/key concepts Notes/quotes/content/page Comments/cross-
no. referencing/questions to be
clarified/terminology
Recommendations for
Further Research
Figure 3.1 Initial review of returns for inclusion
Type of publication
Journal Report Thesis Book Web page Conference
paper
Country of origin
Aus. USA UK SA Canada EUR Asia UNESC
O
Themes identified
Definition of adult learners
Limitations or
Definitions of
educational success
Theoretical
Drivers for
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
Author/s
constructs
concerns
research
success
Table 3.3
EndNote Group Headings
Citations grouped
All references 133
Group References
Theories 22
Seminal theorists 11
Theories applied 35
Conflicts in theories 3
Barriers to adult education 62
Overcoming barriers 29
Government policy 18
Organisational policy and structural 22
matters
Opinions and articles 10
Integrated models 13
Syntheses 16
Research texts 3
the barriers adult learners face when re-engaging and persisting through
their educational journeys;
the efforts institutions can make to improve outcomes for adult learners.
duplication of outcomes;
The total number of sources included in this Synthesis was thus reduced to 133
references. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 summarise the characteristics of the items included.
2008
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
1999
2007
1993
1987
1984
1975
1974
1970
1953
2006
2005
Open coding was used to align the data in the reviewed studies to the identified
themes described in Figure 4.2. Studies, and relevant material contained in them, was
in this way grouped and identified for future reference and synthesis. Axial coding was
used to connect the resulting categories and join the ideas presented in the articles into
related concepts for further development. This process both informed the synthesis
and resulted in the presentation of the material in chapter 4. Finally, selective coding
was used to synthesise the concepts into an integrated theory of persistence to success
for adult learners which is discussed in detail in chapter 5.
3.6 LIMITATIONS
Several areas give cause to regard the outputs of this synthesis with caution.
While the studies incorporated in this synthesis meet the selection criteria I have
described previously, the most significant concern is in the application of these
findings to a broader audience, or to inform a wider practice of improving outcomes
for adult learners. The reality is that the individual studies are rooted in their own
contexts, periods and cultural settings. The extent to which these individual
circumstances have shaped the findings of the studies has been cited by many of the
authors herein as limiting their application in other settings or with other student
populations (Deggs, 2011; Kuh, 2009; Trowler & Trowler, 2010).
Another issue is that focused empirical research that seeks to gain a deeper
insight into the phenomena being investigated must narrowly define the sample
population and the experiences to be investigated. Qualitative studies, by their nature,
must focus on small populations in order to return a manageable data set for analysis.
Although quantitative researchers may seize on these factors to promote their own
forms of research, an alternate strategy is also supported - that of meta-synthesis. The
opportunity is clearly presented to analyse the large body of diverse research into adult
learners to synthesise new theories and insights from the collective data reported in
ways that were not possible in individual studies. The corpus of literature presents
itself not as many individual discreet studies but as one very large and comprehensive
study that covers a wide range of phenomena and variables that have not been analysed
in an integrated way.
This chapter has outlined the search strategy, research questions, and selection
criteria adapted for the Meta-Synthesis. The chapter also provided descriptions of the
types of studies to be included in the synthesis as well as how the studies were grouped
and analysed. The methodological foundations of the Meta-Synthesis were then
discussed along with the outline for reporting the findings of the synthesis.
The chapter described how the research focused on the themes and
methodologies emerging from the literature to produce a qualitative meta-synthesis
that examines the factors supporting adult learners during their post-compulsory
educational journeys. It described how the Meta-synthesis can transform the findings
from multiple studies into new interpretations and concepts surrounding the
phenomenological, grounded theory or ethnographic approached taken (Polit & Beck,
2006). Discussion was presented to demonstrate how Meta-Synthesis can create new
knowledge from a large number of studies that individually may not have carried the
authority to shape the thinking in a particular field by applying validated procedures
to the interpretation of existing empirical research (Glaser & Strauss, 1971);
(Sandelowski et al., 2006). This transformation was achieved by developing new
interpretations of findings rather than just aggregating the sum or frequency of reported
findings in individual studies (Polit & Beck, 2006). Analysis of the findings of the
Meta-Synthesis is discussed in the following chapters.
2. What structural and dispositional factors influence adult learners as they re-
engage and persist through their post-compulsory educational journeys?
These barriers include both situational or structural barriers, that are extrinsic,
and that include time pressures, work and family responsibilities and institutional
barriers such as the availability and flexibility of course offerings. The second cluster
of barriers are dispositional and intrinsic, and that include anxiety, guilt, study issues,
unrealistic expectations and failing to adjust to university life.
This chapter is organised around the findings relating to the research questions
and analyses those findings with the intention of synthesising the individual
observations into an integrated metacontextual view of the adult learner’s experience
during study. The first section of the discussion addresses the first research question
and examines how adult learners are conceptualised in the literature and links these
definitions to the need to examine the unique factors that impact their educational
experiences. Following is the discussion answering the second research question. For
convenience the factors identified in the literature in this section are grouped using
Cross’ (1981) classification of barriers to organise the findings of this synthesis
(Connell, 2008a). The three categories to be used are dispositional, situational and
institutional. All three may be enabling or constraining in their effects and are
therefore identified as either supporting factors or barriers in the narrative.
Dispositional factors are intrinsic to the adult learner and include experiences and
attitudes that influence the individual learner’s resilience such as their motivations,
goal setting abilities, self-efficacy and personal coping strategies. The extrinsic
categories are situational (or structural) and its subset, institutional factors. The
situational category includes time pressures, work and family responsibilities and the
institutional category includes the availability and flexibility of course offerings and
the support interventions offered by institutions. The chapter begins with a descriptive
analysis of how adult learners are conceptualised in the literature reviewed.
The term “Adult” has many legal and cultural definitions in countries around the
world but these are largely procedural or practical in nature and offer little insight into
the experiences of adults while they learn. For the purposes of this synthesis, it is
important to understand how adults differ from other traditional students who typically
are ‘18-to 22-year-old, dependent, full-time students coming right out of high school’
(Kazis, 2007).
An Australian study focusing on the complex roles that adult learners exhibit
proposed that being employed full-time, having family responsibilities and being
involved in volunteer activities, significantly differentiates them from their traditional
counterparts (Connell, 2008). Further it was proposed that the distinctions between
“…Similar to adult learners, the cognates were reported as also working with
household commitments, single parent issues, and other responsibilities – they were
not merely attending university” (Connell, 2008a, p. 272).
Several studies focussed on the time spent between leaving high school and re-
engaging in further study as a defining characteristic of adult learners. Seeing adult
learners as being commonly at least 20 years of age and having some break between
their studies was supported by Connell (2008a) as well as Kenny, Kidd et al. (2011)
and Wyatt (2011). Similarly, Deggs in his 2001 report defined adult learners in terms
of their delayed enrolment due to employment. Other features Deggs discussed
aligned with Connell’s view also. Two examples from the findings include the
acknowledgement that adult learners may have dependents in addition to a partner and
also, adult learners are typically financially independent. A significant variation of
this theme was the observation that many adult learners had not obtained a standard
high school diploma (Deggs, 2011 p 1543).
This observation is consistent with the findings from many studies that focused
on “disadvantaged” or “marginalised” adult learners. It is apparent from the findings
of these studies that many definitions of adult learners will be crafted from the specific
circumstances of the subject populations from each study. However, this does not
reduce the importance of attempting to define the similarities of these learners, or to
be able to apply the broad commonalities identified to future studies in different
contexts. For example multiple roles and responsibilities along with at least one job
were themes explored by both De Vito (2010) and Connell (2008) in their studies. A
This is revealed by the reports of younger students taking on multiple roles apart
from study due to financial and family constraints and older students who may
demonstrate the lack of experience and academic maturity common to traditional
learners. This merging of characteristics is examined in a later section where the
implications for program design and teaching methodologies are discussed.
4. Financially independent;
The results of these studies show that the desire to re-engage in learning is
tempered by a range of identified enabling or constraining factors that adult learners
face as they attempt to integrate and persist through their learning journey. These
factors were described in the literature as: institutional, informational, situational, or
psychological (Goto & Martin, 2009); individual, academic, and social (Tinto, 1987b);
as well as educational expectations, academic motivation, and goal commitment
(Durkheim, 1974; Tinto, 1975). Each author approached their research from a
particular conceptual framework resulting in differing factors being identified. It
The findings from other authors also indicated what they referred to as structural
factors, encompassing issues such as the location of institutions; the availability and
timing of course offerings; enrolment and administrative processes; tutorial support;
financial aid offered and the opportunity to engage in college life through social and
group activities (Angelino et al., 2007; Baum & Milem, 2006; Calcagno, Bailey,
Jenkins, Kienzl, & Leinbach, 2008; De Vito, 2010;). These constraining factors faced
by adult learners and the enabling strategies that helped them overcome them and
persist to succeed in their studies is discussed in detail in the remainder of this chapter.
The remainder of this section will examine the adult learner from a psychological
(dispositional) perspective at the start of their re-engagement into study.
4.3.4 Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a concept expounded in this literature by Bandura and others to
describe the sum of the adult learner’s experiences that forms a belief that they can
succeed in a task or pursuit. In this case the successful completion of a course of study
or qualification. This state of self-efficacy, at the commencement of study, can be re-
enforced or eroded by subsequent experiences during the program (Bandura, 1993;
Goto & Martin, 2009). The following section will examine in detail how Self-Efficacy
is developed and how it influences the adult learner’s resilience upon re-entering study.
One theme emerging from the findings of these studies was the assertion that
any examination of the experiences of adult learners through their educational journeys
must be centred in the metacontext of their lives, including their families, peer groups
and work environments, in order to understand the dynamics at play (Bremer et al.,
2011; Goto & Martin, 2009; Vuong et al., 2010). The authors concluded that research
must consider the interplay of all of the psychological and structural influences in
determining how adult learners build motivation and self-efficacy and form education-
related goals is significant, and justifies descriptive meta-synthesis as the appropriate
methodology for this study as it allows all of these influences in the one study.
Empirical research must be conducted within practical boundaries that include
available resources and time that result in studies being narrowly defined and focusing
on limited parameters such as theories; hypotheses; factors or interventions. It has
simply been beyond the scope of recent research to examine all of the interactions that
influence adult learners in a single study. Such a study would not be possible in terms
of practice and depth of inquiry with appropriate academic rigour. Descriptive Meta-
Synthesis, as a methodology, provides the opportunity to combine the recent research
3
See discussion of Meta-Synthesis in Chapter Three for more on how multiple findings can be
integrated.
The following section begins the discussion of extrinsic factors influencing adult
learners during their educational journeys and includes situational and institutional
categories. As described earlier these factors can be enabling or constraining in their
effects and will be considered as identified barriers to success and the reported
strategies utilised to moderate their effects.
The extrinsic factors described here cover two categories. The first category is
“Institutional” which includes: the design of programs that fail to meet the needs of
adult learners; the degree of adult integration in college life – a factor for adult learner
success and modifying administrative processes to accommodate the needs of adult
learners. The second category is “Situational” which includes: personal and family
factors influencing adult learners and structural factors relating to employment and
employers.
2. They have a larger, more diverse stock of knowledge and experience to draw
from.
5. They have a stronger need to know the reasons for learning something.
Andragogy in practice
The findings of several studies listed below indicate that andragogy in the
classroom manifests itself in content that relates to the individual’s experience and
needs while being flexible in its delivery. The elements of this approach were
described as including the provision of opportunities for adult learners to exercise
autonomy and self-directedness in their choice of programs and the focus of study
within those programs. Facilitating increased autonomy on the part of adult learners
in this way was described as being effective in increasing motivation to participate in
programs and being strengthened by the type of learning activities that teachers use to
construct knowledge. Attention to learning style preferences and the sequence in
which content is introduced was also reported as being utilised to positively influence
the experiences of adult learners in the classroom (Dewitt, 2003; Kiely et al., 2004;
Townsend, 2008). These concepts were also reflected in a study by Peach (2010)
which proposed a curriculum that focused on problem-solving and activity-based
instruction that connected the learning content with authentic work-based issues and
experiences would maximise the success for adult learners (Peach, 2010).
This reported need to make meaningful connections between the knowledge and
experience gained in life and the content of study is a common thread in both adult
learning theory and the findings of these studies. Critical reflection as a practice is
discussed in each of the studies listed above as a strategy that allows adult learners to
connect content with their existing knowledge and experiences and integrate the results
4.4.2 Degree of adult integration in college life – a factor for adult learner
success.
The factors of engagement and integration contrasted
This section should perhaps begin with an examination of two words that appear
together throughout the research on this topic: Engagement and Integration.
Engagement in this context refers to attendance and participation in activities and
communities rather than an examination of intellectual and emotional engagement
which is far more complex and subjective to measure. The terms engagement and
integration appear interchangeable, yet there are functional differences between the
terms that are clarified here. Engagement is an observable behaviour that is
demonstrated by learners participating in activities and groups, and is therefore easily
measureable and is more objective. In contrast, integration is a ‘state or perception of
fit’ or in other words the achievement of a sense of belonging to the college community
and adoption of the community’s values and beliefs, which are, as a result, far more
intangible and difficult to measure (Schlinsog, 2010; Tinto, 1993). This section will
discuss how this integration or alignment of values and sense of belonging can
positively influence educational outcomes for adult learners.
The studies also describe gender and race4 as significant factors or triggers in
manifesting the sense of ‘otherness’ or not belonging. This can hinder integration and
success and ‘affiliation needs’, and as a result, are greater in learners who identify as
belonging to a marginalised demographic in their national or cultural context (Buchler
et al., 2006). The examination of this topic is important for adult learners because the
intervention of time on their educational path often leaves them vulnerable to feelings
of self-doubt and otherness when they regard themselves as part of the cohort of
students they join. It follows that as the strength of the barrier is emphasised in other
non-traditional learner cohorts, so too the enhancement realised by encouraging
integration at every opportunity will likewise be increased for adult learners. The
aspect of integration that is a barrier to success will be examined in detail in a later
section of this chapter. This discussion will focus on the positive impact of
encouraging integration and participation for adult learners.
4
Issues relating to gender and race as well as socio-economic status appear throughout the literature
as factors influencing educational success but are not explicitly examined in this thesis as they deserve
to be studied in their own right. They will be discussed in the section ‘recommendations for future
study’.
Numerous benefits have been ascribed to integration into college life beyond
merely persisting in study long enough to graduate. The range of beneficial outcomes
from integration identified in the research is broad and includes improvements in:
general abilities and critical thinking, practical competence and skills transferability,
cognitive development, self-esteem, psychosocial development, productive racial and
gender identity formation, moral and ethical development, student satisfaction,
improved grades, persistence and accrual of social capital (Trowler & Trowler, 2010).
The research indicates that learners’ perceptions of the benefits experienced change
over time as they become more closely invested in the culture and values of the
institution.
Earlier in this section, I reported that the benefit of integration into college life
is not exclusive in its effect on adult learners, but is rather typical in its effect on all
learners entering or re-entering study in higher education. It was also reported that
adult learners are particularly susceptible when re-engaging in study because the
intervention of time on their educational path often leaves them vulnerable to feelings
of self-doubt and otherness when they regard themselves as part of the cohort of
students they join. This observation that all learners are very vulnerable upon engaging
or re-engaging in study, along with the proposition that experiences and interventions
can influence the achievement of integration, suggests that there is an optimum time -
the first year of study - for effort and resources to be expended in encouraging learners
to broadly and deeply engage in college life and foster their achievement of integration.
Quite simply, the more students are academically and socially involved, the more
likely are they to persist and graduate. This is especially true during the first year of
university study when student membership is so tenuous yet so critical to subsequent
learning and persistence. Involvement during that year serves as the foundation upon
which subsequent affiliations and engagements are built (Tinto, 1993).
Constructs such as social and academic integration are not yet fully
understood in regard to their impact on community college student persistence
(Crisp, 2010, p 43).
Perhaps the key factor identified through this volume of research is the ability of
institutions to establish an educational community that encompasses both academic
and social opportunities for learners to become involved with academics and peers.
This is a significant point as it is a shared responsibility between the institute and the
learner to create this environment. The institution can allocate resources to make
opportunities available to learners, but it is the individual learner that must make
decisions that promote integration with college life by choosing to seek out and join
those activities that foster positive outcomes for them (Astin, 1993; Schlinsog, 2010;
Wolf-Wendel et al., 2009).
This section has investigated the proposition that the situational category of
integrating into the academic and social community at college can help learners to
overcome potentially negative characteristics they bring with them to study, and
develop strategies that will continue to assist them to overcome the barriers they face
in persisting in their educational pursuits. It was reported that the most effective time
to encourage engagement and provide opportunities and interventions for learners is
during the first year of study when all students are most vulnerable. It was described
how the benefits of successfully integrating into college life had benefits far broader
than supporting persistence to success, including improved performance and
development in a range of academic, psychological and social areas. Finally, concerns
on the broader application of findings from studies applying Tinto’s model and internal
inconsistencies of the model, were also addressed.
Just as the educational needs of adults are different to those of younger cohorts
continuing directly from school to higher educational pursuits, so too are their needs
in terms of the administrative processes that support them during their studies. It is
perhaps logical to discuss these issues in a way that reflects the interaction between
the adult learner and the administrative functions of the institution over time and in
chronological order.
These studies report that students who can pick from a wide variety of options
to meet their educational needs require a range of marketing information to help them
navigate through those choices to select the right program. Further, positioning that
The findings indicate two other important types of information are relevant to
adult learners at this decision phase. Arrangements allowing for academic transfer of
credit for previous study and learning gained in the workplace as well as articulation
of courses or cross-sector mobility are seen as important for adult learners. Adults
need to feel that their accumulated experience and earlier study achievements will be
recognised when entering new programs and that they will have the opportunity to
choose their own learning pathway by building a program that meets their individual
training and career needs (Soney, 2003). Finally, the studies show that the information
developed for adult learners must expressly address issues of flexibility in the delivery
of programs such as offering courses that aren’t confined to traditional schedules and
are available in evenings and on weekends as well as utilising a range of technologies
to make course work available to adults in their own time (Soney, 2003).
One key issue reported is that the administrative functions required to manage
programs for traditional students are incompatible with those required for adult
learners because the skillsets for both traditional and adult focused program
administration are specific enough to make gaining the expertise to manage both types
of programs difficult for a single practitioner to master. The challenges created by
these special characteristics may advocate for the separation of administrative
functions for adult programs [and programs engaged in by adult learners] and
traditional programs. Although this situation is exactly the response many institutions
have adopted, it may be that separating the functions in this way could cause problems
as the systems compete for resources and do not see themselves as cooperating to
achieve shared organisational goals.
One study suggests an alternate strategy that would avoid these problems. In it
the findings propose that a system, capitalising on the efficiencies of a centralised
approach whilst concurrently allowing enough flexibility and autonomy to respond to
adult needs would be an optimum solution. Such administrative systems would
comprise integrating both general administrative staff with specific adult program
staff, in conjunction with forming ad hoc relationships with academic staff who can be
called on to provide specific information and advice to adult learners (Jass, 2012).
One study reported a key issue for administrative systems required to maintain
the viability of programs for adult learners is the ability to monitor and respond to
external factors that impact on the demand and design of programs sought by adult
learners (Schuetze & Slowey, 2002). The ability to analyse this environmental
scanning data and apply it to the development and promotion of programs aligned to
adult learner needs is wasted if the internal processes of the organisation cannot
respond accordingly.
“…This is not the world of the traditional academy, where life has an
unhurried, more orderly pace, and where things are slow to change. This is the
busy world of adult education—where the needs of adult students and their
employers can quickly change and where those who market and offer adult
education have to keep their fingers on the pulse of a rapidly changing world.
The previous section has described the many ways in which the extrinsic,
situational factors relating to administrative departments and systems in institutions
can be modified to support adult learners as they enrol and persist through their
educational journeys. The discussion of institutional factors influencing the success
of adult learners is now complete. The descriptive synthesis now moves to the
discussion of findings that are categorised as situational factors including Family,
Social and Workplace factors that influence adult learner success.
A further benefit of this discussion was the framing of these barriers as applying
to adult learners rather than their traditional aged fellow students. In other words
In the preceding section Cross’ (1981) classifications of barriers was utilised for
convenience in summarising the phenomena discussed. Connell (2008) and other
authors reviewed in this thesis used this approach as the starting point for their
examinations also (Connell, 2008a; Deggs, 2011). The three categories identified by
Cross are Situational Barriers, Dispositional Barriers and Institutional Barriers.
Dispositional barriers relate to the psychological barriers experienced by learners and
will not be revisited here as they do not fall into the categories of situational factors
and have been examined in detail in the preceding section. They do appear in the
summary diagrams as some situational strategies have the effects of ameliorating the
influence of those constraining factors. For consistency these classifications will be
Figure 4.1. Brief description of Environmental and Dispositional Barriers experienced by adult
learners adapted from (Connell, 2008a).
Adult learners were shown to be able to utilise multiple support strategies to gain
the flexibility they needed to overcome the barriers experienced during their studies.
The key takeaway from the reported findings here is that these benefits and ability to
overcome difficulties were experienced the entire subject populations studied. The
same benefits were experienced regardless of gender, marital status or ethnic
background. The implications of this conclusion are that finding opportunities to
encourage and foster these relationships and strategies will have measurable and broad
benefits for all adult learners in all educational contexts (Wolf, 2011).
The examination of the relationship between employer support and adult learner
success occurs only as a minor theme in the literature reviewed. The theme arises from
comments by learners describing the benefits of supportive employers to their
persistence and success.
The experiences recounted by the adult learners in these studies indicate that
although the level of support offered by employers is inconsistent and determined by
individual circumstance, any level of support offered by employers will be beneficial
(Dayton, 2005). Further, the way in which the employer approaches or frames the
support they offer is significant in the terms of benefit experienced by the learner. The
findings indicate that employer support parallels every other form of support or
intervention offered to adult learners in that time and timing is a moderating force in
effectiveness. The findings recount that support can be offered prior to study in the
form of encouraging employees to return to study and providing financial support to
access courses. Once re-engaged in study all of the supports listed in the figure above
will contribute to the learner’s sense of stability and ultimate success (Buchler et al.,
2006; Dayton, 2005).
The methodology of meta-synthesis was chosen in this study for its ability to
take large quantities of qualitative primary research and examine them in concert so
that the suggestive findings in them could be corroborated and strengthened to the
point where they could be applied to a much broader field of practice. That is, to take
the rich experiential findings of small studies that are practically impossible to
replicate on a large scale and lend to them the scientific rigour and validity afforded
by a large-scale synthesis. To this end a new original model of the integrated theory
of persistence to success for adult learners was developed in an attempt to incorporate
the continuous interaction and cumulative effect of these factors operating in concert
on the individual adult learner. That model is presented here (See Figure 4.2):
A closer examination of the model in Figure 4.2 demonstrates how the theories
and observations from the descriptive meta-synthesis have been incorporated into this
meta-contextual representation of the adult learners’ experiences during study. This
integrated model represents the overlapping and interactive nature of the situational,
institutional and dispositional factors and interventions that influence the adult
learner’s ability to overcome the barriers they face during their educational journeys.
The outcome for these adult learners may fall on a continuum from disengagement to
successful completion of a course or program depending on the resilience of the
individual learner and their experiences during study. Chapter 4 has revealed broad
consistencies in the findings and conclusions of a large number of studies that have
approached their topics from a wide range of theoretical, demographic and
philosophical attitudes.
The structure of this discussion begins with a summary of how adult learners are
conceptualised in the literature. The characteristics identified as differentiating adult
learners from learners continuing directly from high school into further studies are
presented and discussed in order to provide a framework for analysing and answering
the second research question. The following is a summary of the identified
constraining factors presented in chapter four along with the enabling factors that
improved resilience and persistence for adult learners during their educational journeys.
The narrative then presents a conceptualisation of how those constraining and enabling
factors combine to result in a cumulative state of resilience that is dynamic and
moderated by each new experience during the adult learner’s educational journey.
A more considered analysis resulting from the review conducted in Chapter Four
is also presented here alongside a discussion pertaining to the nature of success. The
notion of what constituted success to the adult learner was a significant focus in one
study included in the literature review but was not discussed in Chapter Two or
Chapter Four as it did not directly address the research questions and was not a specific
focus of the research in other articles. The conceptualisation of the nature of success
must however be central to any discussion of how adult learners persist to success.
Without an understanding of what success means to the stakeholders in this descriptive
meta-synthesis it is difficult to know if the second research question has in fact been
The findings presented in Chapter 4 moved the field of study surrounding adult
learning forward by helping to resolve some of the tensions in the theories of adult
learning resulting from varied and idiosyncratic descriptions of the individual
populations studied by each author. This chapter also included a broader range of
studies from which the conclusions are drawn. The following section describes the
various definitions of adult learners found in the literature.
The term “Adult” has many legal and cultural definitions in countries around the
world but these are largely procedural or practical in nature and offer little insight into
the experiences of adults while they learn. For the purposes of this synthesis, it is
important to understand how adults differ from other traditional students who typically
are ‘18-to 22-year-old, dependent, full-time students coming right out of high school’
(Kazis, 2007). The definitions of adult learners in the research included a range of
characteristics from “age” to “educational achievement” and “outside responsibilities”
(Kazis, R. et al., 2007; Kenny et al., 2011). The number of years since the research
participants had completed their previous study and their current employment status,
were also features of the definitions proposed. Connell, in her thesis adult learner
barriers and strategies in process-based learning within higher education (Connell,
2008), developed a discussion of what constituted “adult learners”. The definition
although complex, sought to capture the diverse roles and influences shaping the
experience of this group of learners by describing some of the features that
distinguished adult learners from school leavers for example:
It was observed from the findings of several studies that adult learners might be
better described in terms of their varied life experiences rather than the more common
Similarly, Deggs in his 2001 report, defined adult learners in terms of their
delayed enrolment due to employment. Other features Deggs discussed aligned with
Connell’s view also. Two examples from the findings include the acknowledgement
that adult learners may have dependents in addition to a partner and also, adult learners
are typically financially independent. A significant variation of this theme was the
observation that many adult learners had not obtained a standard high school diploma
(Deggs, 2011). A contrasting view was suggested by Kazis et al. in their 2007 study
in defining adult learners as:
1. those learners who have had a break between formal study and the return to
study subject to investigation;
2. who have had at least one job or career (even if briefly) prior to re-engaging
in study;
5. may have responsibility for partners, children and other family members.
It is clear from the studies and theories described in this review that a complex
interaction between attitudes, behaviours and influences come together to define a
learner’s state of resilience or persistence at any point in time (Bremer et al., 2011).
How the interactions combine or manifest themselves, and in what relative strengths,
are unanswered in the literature. My conceptual model presented at the end of chapter
4 reflects the evidence that the various constraining and enabling elements combine in
an as-yet undefined and unequal construct with the learner’s state of persistence to
success found in the overlap between all factors in the interaction. Finally, the
construct exists within the influence of time – both in terms of when these interactions
occur, that is at a point in time; and also that the individual’s resilience or persistence
will change over time as the factors interact (Tinto, 1993). In other words, the effects
are dynamic and cumulative, and can result in a constraining or enabling influence on
the learner’s state since the commencement of study.
A wide range of constraining and enabling factors that have an influence on adult
learners during their educational journeys were identified in the research. For
convenience, the factors identified in the literature are grouped using Cross’ (1981)
classification of barriers to organise the findings of this synthesis (Connell, 2008a).
The three categories to be used are dispositional, situational and institutional. All three
may be enabling or constraining in their effects and are therefore identified as either
supporting factors or barriers in the narrative. Dispositional factors are intrinsic to the
adult learner and include experiences and attitudes that influence the individual
learner’s resilience such as their motivations, goal setting abilities, self-efficacy and
personal coping strategies. The extrinsic categories are situational (or structural) and
its subset, institutional factors. The situational category includes time pressures, work
and family responsibilities and the institutional category includes the availability and
Table 5.1
Summary of constraining and enabling factors presented in chapter 4
The preceding table has presented the factors shaping the experiences and
persistence of adult learners during their educational journeys. The factors interact on
a timeline that begins before the learners make the decision to re-engage in study and
continue in a progression until the individual either gain their credential or disengages
from study (De Vito, 2010). This conceptualisation of the process is logical in that it
tracks the experiences of the learner in the sequence that they occur and recognises
that when events occurred had an influence on how strongly the affects were felt.
The outcome for these adult learners may fall on a continuum from
disengagement to successful completion of a course or program depending on the
resilience of the individual learner and their experiences during study (Deggs, 2011).
The next section moves from the observation of the phenomena identified in
chapter 4 to the synthesis of a new theory that goes beyond the simple
conceptualisations described above, and points to the questions that still remain
unanswered in this body of knowledge.
The educational journey for the adult learner approaching re-entry into formal
study begins after a hiatus of sometime and the influence of life’s experiences. Two
main factors impact the adult learner’s predisposition to success at this stage. They
are the accumulated personal experiences of previous / formative education that
fundamentally inform the individual’s attitude to study and likelihood of future success
(Bandura, 1993; Bremer et al., 2011; Kirk et al., 2009) and the motivators to re-engage
in study (Frey Johnson, 2011; Tinto, 1993).
When the opportunity arises for the adult to re-engage in study, they will bring
with them a state of self-efficacy that predisposes them to approach study with an
overall positive or negative view of their prospects. At this stage the adult’s motivators
for study will have a significant effect (Durkheim, 1974; Tinto, 1987b). The
motivators to return to study are many and varied and are summarised in the table
below for convenience.
Increase power
Figure 5.1. Summary of motivators for return to study adapted from (Braxton & Hirschy, 2005;
Bremer et al., 2011).
The motivating forces identified in Figure 5.1 afford the adult learner some
perceived benefit although where the study is mandated by an employer the benefit
may be reduced by the sense that the learner is being forced to participate rather than
choosing to participate (Dayton, 2005; Trowler & Trowler, 2010). Even where the
beginning state of self-efficacy is marginal or low, the benefits and strength of these
identified motivators will provide the adult learner with the determination to proceed
and the resilience to face the initial challenges of re-engagement in study. For example
the motivation for parents to succeed in order to provide for, or improve the lives of
their family and children is particularly powerful. These motivators allow the adult
learners to shape clear goals for their study that are proven to assist in developing and
maintaining resilience – to find the strength to persist in the face of significant
challenges that lead many students to withdraw from study (Kazis, 2007).
The learner now faces the first real challenge in re-engaging in study. The
process of enrolling in a program or course presents many challenges for the adult
learner. The fundamental issue of identifying an appropriate program in a convenient
Figure 5.2. Summary of challenges faced at re-engagement adapted from (Buchler et al., 2006l;
Gidley et al., 2010; Longden, 2006).
The challenges identified in Figure 5.2 are not necessarily unique to the point of
re-engagement. Many of these challenges will continue or re-emerge during the adult
learner’s study. The weight of evidence here indicates that these challenges are
greatest at the beginning of study and the strategies to overcome them are most
effective when applied from this point in time through the first semester of study (Frey
Johnson, 2011; Kelley-Hall, 2010; Tinto, 1993).
Figure 5.3. Summary of strategies and interventions available at re-engagement adapted from
(Dayton, 2005; Dewitt, 2003; Frey Johnson, 2011; Longden, 2006).
Taken in context it can be seen from Figure 5.3 that adult learners with these
strategies available to them are well positioned to overcome the challenges they face
at this critical stage of their re-engagement in study (Wolf, 2011). It is also reported
that institutions, policy makers and key stakeholders should apply their scarce
resources to these interventions if they are to maximise the benefits to their potential
adult learners. The benefit of facilitating the transition to further study for this cohort
has wider applications in practice. The benefits to institutions are reported to include
more enrolments, more graduates, greater funding and fewer requirements for remedial
interventions later in studies (Soney, 2003). The benefits to commerce and the wider
society, of more people participating in further and continuing education are reported
to include greater productivity, increased competitiveness, improved standards of
living, and a society with broader access to opportunity and advancement (Kazis, R.
Two issues from the previous discussion arise here. Firstly, each adult learner
comes to this point with his or her own personal history and position of advantage or
disadvantage that reflects their employment, social and familial circumstances. As a
result, the effective provision of interventions are reported to depend on an accurate
diagnosis of need and a personalised program of support to address that identified need
(Austin & Graber, 2007; Buchler et al., 2006; Dayton, 2005; Saklofske, Austin,
Mastoras, Beaton, & Osborne, 2012). Ideally, all strategies will be available but only
It has been stated by institutions that strategies involving employers and the
families and social networks of students are beyond their scope of influence (Connell,
2008b; Wyatt, 2011). For example how can an institution influence an employer to be
enthusiastic about their employee’s studies and perhaps make flexible work
arrangements available to ease the time pressures felt? (Buchler et al., 2006; Dayton,
2005; Trowler & Trowler, 2010). Or similarly, how can policy makers encourage
family members to embrace the sacrifices that come from adults returning to study and
provide the practical and emotional support that will reduce their feelings of guilt and
the pressures of managing multiple roles (Dennis et al., 2005)? There is certainly no
single remedy to these valid concerns and it is also true that not all stakeholders in this
context will wish to, or be able to provide the support described. The key conclusion
here is that any improvements that can be achieved will be beneficial and that there
are reported examples of positive influence that can be applied widely to improve the
awareness and provision of these supports (Gidley et al., 2010; Goldrick-Rab, 2010).
The adult learner’s expectations about what college life and the requirements of
their courses would be are challenged as the academic rigour and sense of
displacement they experience creates anxiety and self-doubt (Deggs, 2011; Deggs et
al., 2010). The risks at commencement of study are reported to include compromises
in the time spent on separate responsibilities leading to poorer performance standards
and emotional conflict as colleagues and family members question commitment and
demand greater efforts. Relationships can suffer during first weeks of study also and
the attendant feelings of guilt and self-doubt are reported to lead to academic risk and
health issues (Connell, 2008b). This transitional period from prospective student to
active learner has been observed as the most difficult period for adult learners (Kelley-
Hall, 2010; Tinto, 1975). Authors have reported that support strategies and
interventions applied at this critical time will have the greatest effect in reducing
anxiety and building resilience in adult learners. The range of practical and emotional
support factors needed at this time are summarised in the following figure (see Figure
5.5).
Informal study support & social groups Counselling services and advice provided
formed by institution
Help with chores etc. from family and Integration into broader college
friends community and alignment of values
Figure 5.5. Summary of interventions and support strategies during the first semester.
At this point the adult learner has developed coping strategies that will allow
them to successfully overcome any of the identified challenges above that may re-
emerge during the remainder of their studies. It seems likely however those significant
personal events may occur in the lives of adult learners during this time that will have
a significant impact on their continued success. Events such as ill health, the arrival
of children, financial difficulties and breakdown of relationships can been seen as
posing potentially devastating challenges to adult learners during their educational
journeys (Frey Johnson, 2011; Kuh, 2008; Kuh, 2009). The continued availability of
situational and dispositional strategies to assist adult learners during these later stages
of study will afford learners with the best opportunity to persist to success in their
personal journey (Kenny et al., 2011).
What becomes of the adult learner who successfully completes their studies and
how they may positively influence learners who follow them is not covered in the
research examined here and remains as an opportunity for future investigation.
Much of the research included in this section is based in the uniquely American
concept of ‘community colleges’ which hold a distinctive place in the hierarchy of
post-secondary educational institutions as they are publicly funded institutions
responding largely to local needs and providing a democratising ‘open access’ to
vocationally oriented higher education with pathways to traditional four year
universities and colleges. The inclusion of the findings of these studies is justified
because of the strong similarities between the community college model and
equivalent institutions in the U.K., South Africa, and Australia (Gidley et al., 2010).
A significant and persisting concept of success in the studies cited above is the
completion of a program of study and the attainment of a qualification or credential.
Conceptualising success as such an output of study is both easily measured and
significant in any conversation around the achievements of institutions in terms of
student persistence to success 5 . Similar descriptions reported included success
measured by end of year grades and whether students increase (or decrease) their
educational expectations after entering study (Goldrick-Rab, 2010; Saklofske et al.,
2012; Wolf-Wendel et al., 2009).
5
Such conceptualisations are often the basis for quantitative studies investigating success and quality
in educational programs and will not be pursued in this synthesis of qualitative studies.
:…social inclusion asserts and goes beyond both economic equity/access, and
social justice notions of equal rights for all, to maximise the potential of each
human being thus supporting broader cultural transformation… the term
[social inclusion] means the empowerment of individuals to participate as
fully as possible in society'… social inclusion is not just about access and
equity but about 'the moral imperative of working with the complexity of
humanity' and having awareness that 'education is transformative…” (Gidley
et al., 2010 p. 23).
The idea that learning is transformative and that the educational achievements
of individual adult learners will have positive impacts beyond their own personal
experience is not novel or new to the discourse in this synthesis. This encapsulation
of social inclusion as a desirable outcome of continuing education for adults and
society is clearly understood and deserving of all study that will improve the results
for as many adult learners as possible.
These findings have implications both for the opportunities available to adult
learners and the way in which metrics are defined and employed in assessing
educational success for adult learners. Where the requirement for institutions is to
report on the value delivered by programs for the funding received, or the return on
investment for privately funded institutions, programs and services will be offered on
the basis of inputs rather than the outputs described above and the metrics used to
evaluate the programs will perhaps silence the important qualitative definitions of
success herein and focus only on the quantifiable deliverables of course completions
and employment outcomes.
The next section will discuss the recommendations for further research
discovered in the literature.
Specific investigations into the effects of gender and race on the findings of
this thesis
There is the need to conduct research into the study of the constraining and
enabling factors such as time pressures, family responsibilities, financial constraints,
balancing multiple roles and learning/study issues, that influence the persistence to
success of adult learners in an Australian context to determine if the findings from the
overwhelmingly American studies reported here can be applied in a local context.
At several points in this thesis it was identified that issues of gender, race and
SES were observed to impact the experiences of adult learners as they re-engaged and
persisted through their studies. An examination of these influences was beyond the
scope of this meta-synthesis but each one of these factors would serve as a valid topic
for further examination. Insights into how these unique characteristics of adult
learners impacted their resilience and persistence would allow institutions and policy
makers to further refine their interventions and support strategies so that they were
more effective.
Finally the opportunity to use the outcomes of this thesis to assist adult learners
overcome the challenges they face as they re-engage and persist through their
educational journeys is deeply satisfying.
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