MACRONUTRIENTS: Proteins, fats, carbohydrates

Key facts

 Food provides all the materials (nutrients) and energy that the body needs for growth,
maintenance, repair and to work properly.
 Foods also contain (either natural or added): flavourings, colourings, ezymes, preservatives,
texture
 Diet is the food eaten every day
 Special diets reduce or increase a nutrient or food, e.g. low salt diet, weight loss diet, high fibre
diet.
 A balanced diet means eating right amount of nutrients and a variety of foods for our individual
needs
 Malnutrition means ‘bad’ nutrition (too much or too little of one or more nutrients)

PROTEINS

 Protein molecules are made of amino acids – there are 10 essential amino acids that must come
from food.
 High biological value (HBV) proteins contain all of the essential amino acids.
 Low biological protein (LBV) proteins are missing one or more of the essential amino acids.
 Mixing LBV proteins together supplies all of the essential amino acids; this is called protein
complementing (e.g. baked beans on toast)

Function (job in the Found mainly in these Result of deficiency (not enough)
body) foods Children Adults
 Growth HBV: meat, fish, eggs,  Poor growth  Lose muscle, fat
 Maintenance milk, cheese, soya beans,  Slow healing  Internal organs
 Repair and healing quinoa  Catch infections easily weaken
 Energy LBV: cereals, pulses,  Fluid under skin (oedema)  Dry hair and
beans, some nuts, seeds,  Thin, weak skin
vegetarian alternatives,  Cannot digest food  oedema
e.g. Quorn properly
 Diarrhoea
 Hair thinning

FATS

 Fat is solid at room temperature, Oil is a fat that is liquid at room temperature
 Fat molecules are made up of one part glycerol and three parts fatty acids – a triglyceride
 Saturated fatty acids are full of hydrogen
 Unsaturated fatty acids have one double bond
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double bonds
 Hydrogenation means adding hydrogen to make a liquid oil become a solid fat
 Hydrogenation can make trans fats

Exam tip: You may be asked to state or describe ways someone can reduce their fat intake. A
common mistake is to simply say ‘eat less’ or ‘add less when cooking’; these are basic statements
gaining limited marks.
Try instead to think about: different cooking methods – grilling rather than frying; cutting off
visible fat; the types of fat chosen – lower fat options or leaner cuts of meat.
CARBOHYDRATES

 Carbohydrates are made by plants during photosynthesis

 Carbohydrates provide the main source of energy for the body
 One type, NSP (dietary fibre), helps the body get rid of solid waste
 Complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides are made of long chains of glucose units joined
together in different ways.

The main sources of carbohydrates:

Sugars Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

Monosaccharides: Starch: root vegetables (carrots, parsnips),
 Fructose: fruits, plant juices, honey potatoes, yams, plantains, bananas
 Glucose: vegetables, ripe fruits, sugars used
in cooking
 Galactose: milk
Disaccharides:
 Sucrose: (glucose and fructose): sugar
(granulated, caster, brown); fruits and
vegetables
 Lactose: milk and milk products

Maltose (glucose and glucose): cereals, e.g.

barley, malted biscuits and milk drinks
Lactose (glucose and galactose): milk and milk
products
A deficiency of carbohydrate (not enough) can cause:

 Low blood glucose levels

 Weight loss
 Athletes to ‘hit the wall’

If you eat too much carbohydrate, it provides you with more energy than you will use up in physical
activity. The rest will be stored in adipose tissue. This leads to weight gain.

Check your understanding:

1. Name two high biological value (HBV) proteins. (2 marks)
2. Give four reasons why the body needs protein. (4 marks)
3. Give three reasons why the body needs fat. (3 marks)
4. What is meant by the term ‘invisible fat? (1 mark)
5. State 2 alternative names for sugars. (2 marks)
6. Identify one good source of NSP/ dietary fibre. (1 mark)
 VITAMINS
Water soluble and fat soluble vitamins

 There are two groups of vitamins: water soluble (B group and Vitamin C) and fat soluble (A, D, E
and K)
 Water soluble vitamins are destroyed by heat and light or dissolve in cooking water.
 They are natural substances needed in very small amounts.

Name Function (job in the Found mainly in these Result of deficiency (not
body) foods enough)
Water soluble vitamins
Thiamine  Releases energy from Yeast, yeast extract,  Wet or dry beri-beri
(vitamin B₁) carbohydrates cereals (especially  Muscle wastage
 Body growth wholegrains), cereal
 Helps nervous system products, meat, eggs.
Riboflavin  Releases energy from milk, seeds, nuts and  Dry, cracked skin around
(vitamin B₂) carbohydrates, proteins beans. mouth and nose
and fats  Swollen toungue
 Body growth
Niacin  Releases energy from As above but can be Pellagra (three D’s
(vitamin B₃) carbohydrates made in the body from diarrhoea, dementia,
 Can lower blood fat levels the amino acid trypophan dermatitis)
Pantothenic acid  Releases energy from food A wide range of foods Rare
(vitamin B₅)
Pyridoxine  Helps the body use Wide range of foods Headaches, weakness,
(vitamin B₆) protein, fat and (small amounts in each) aching, anaemia, skin
carbohydrate problems
Folate (vitamin B₉)  Helps body use protein Green leafy vegetables,  Nutrients not absorbed
(folic acid is its man-  Helps make DNA in cells, liver, potatoes, fruits properly in the digestive
especially in the bone (oranges, berries), system (loss of appetite,
made form)
marrow and digestive asparagus, okra, beans, nausea, diarrhoea, mouth
system seeds, wholegrain soreness)
 Helps prevent spinal cord cereals, nuts. Added to  Faulty bone marrow cells
defects in the unborn
some breakfast cereals that cannot deliver
baby
(fortification) oxygen round the body –
this is megaloblastic
anaemia
Cobalamin  Makes a protective Can be stored in the liver  Nerves don’t work
(vitamin B₁₂) coating around nerve cells found in animal foods properly which leads to
 Important for the correct (dairy foods, meat, fish, memory loss, confusion,
production of new cells poultry) NOT found in paralysis
plant foods – could be a  Pernicious anaemia
problem for vegans.
Ascorbic acid  Helps the body absorb Rich sources:  Anaemia (iron not
(vitamin C) iron form food blackcurrants, citrus absorbed)
 Needed for the fruits (oranges, lemons,  Severe deficiency leads
production of collagen, grapefruit, etc.) to scurvy (loose teeth,
which makes connective Important sources: bleeding gums, red spots
tissue that hold s body Brussel sprouts, broccoli, under the skin [ leakage
cells together
beansprouts, potatoes, from blood vessels],
 Antioxidant-protects body
peas, cabbage, green tiredness, weakness,
from harmful chemicals
leafy vegetables (not weight loss, poor wound
 Keeps skin and digestive
 system healthy lettuce) healing)
Name Function (job in the Found mainly in these Result of deficiency (not
body) foods enough)
Fat soluble vitamins
Retinol (vitamin A,  Body growth Dairy foods, milk, butter,  Poor growth
found in animal foods  Healthy skin cheese, egg yolk, oily fish  Frequent infections
 Keeps the mucous (e.g. tuna, herring,  Night blindness leading
membranes in the throat, mackeral, sardines), fish to
the digestive system and liver oils, liver and kidney  Irreversible blindness
the lungs moist and (keratomalacia)
healthy
It is also a problem to eat
 Makes visual purple in the
Beta carotene Margarine (fortified by too much vitamin A
retina (night vision)
(vitamin A found in law), carrots, spinah,  Poisonous to the body
 Antioxidant – protects
plant foods apricots, watercress,  Pregnant women need to
body from harmful
parsley, dark green leafy be careful
chemicals)
vegetables, tomatoes,  Supplements only by
palm fruit medical advice

Cholecalciferol  Helps the body to absorb  Fish liver oils, liver,  Weak bones leading to
(vitamin D) calcium for strong bones oily fish, milk, butter, rickets in children
and teeth cheese, eggs, (osteomalacia in adults)
 Important for making sure margarine (added by  Poor growth
the bones reach peak law)
bone mass (at their  Made in the body by
strongest)
the action of sunlight
(UV light) on the skin
and stored in the
liver
Tocopherol (vitamin  Antioxidant – protects Vegetable oils, lettuce, Rare
E) body from harmful grasses, peanuts, seeds,
chemicals) wheatgerm oil
 Keeps cell membranes
healthy
 Helps protect against
heart disease and cancer
Vitamin K  Helps the blood to clot  Leafy vegetables,  Rare in adults
when the body is injured cheese, liver,  May occur in new-born
asparagus, coffee, babies
bacon, green tea  All babies are given a
 Made by bacteria in dose when born
the intestines

Exam tip: A common exam mistake is to identify the B group vitamins as ‘vitamin B’. there is no such
thing! Stating ‘B group vitamins’ or a specific vitamin, e.g. (thiamine), is correct.

Check your understanding:

1. State three good sources of Vitamin B₁ (thiamine) (3 marks)
2. Describe the main functions of Vitamin C (4 marks)
3. Identify the condition caused by a deficiency of Vitamin A (1 mark)
4. Name two fat soluble vitamins (2 marks)
 Minerals, water and fibre

 Adults need between 1mg and 100mg of minerals per day (calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium,
sodium, chromium, copper, manganese, selenium, sulphur, zinc).
 Adults need less than 1mg of trace elements per day (fluoride, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum,
silicon),

Name Function (job) in the Found mainly in these foods Result of deficiency (not
body enough)
Calcium  Growth  Vitamin D is needed to help the  Bones do not reach peak bone
 Makes strong bones and body absorb calcium from food mass
teeth  Milk and dairy products (yoghurt,  Bones gradually become weaker
 Physical, load-bearing chees) as people get older and are
exercise stimulates the  Wholegrain cereals, seeds, nuts, more likely to break
bones to take up minerals lentils, green leafy vegetables  Bones of pregnant women will
including calcium  Added to some foods to enrich weaken because calcium goes to
 Especially important in them e.g. soya milk, fruit juice, the baby
childhood and adolescence yoghurt  Blood will not clot
 Helps the blood to clot  Added to bread and flour by  Nerves and muscles will not
 Keeps muscles and nerves law work properly – leads to tetany
working properly
Iron  Helps produce haemoglobin  Good sources: red meat, liver, Iron deficiency anaemia
in red blood cells, which kidney, corned beef, cocoa, plain  Tiredness
carry oxygen around the chocolate, curry spices, dried  Weakness
body so energy can be fruit (especially apricots), lentils,  Lack of energy
produced in body cells treacle  Pale complexion
 Especially important for  Some in egg  Pale inner eyelids
adolescent girls and women  Green leafy vegetables – contain  Weak or split fingernails
(menstruation) some iron but not all of it may be
 Pregnant women need extra available to the body
to supply the baby  Often added to breakfast
 Babies have a supply for the cereals (fortified with iron)
first three months of life  Added to bread by law
 Vitamin C is needed to help the
body absorb iron
Sodium  Controls amount of water in  Salt (sodium chloride)  Muscle cramps (happens in hot
the body  Added to many foods – crisps, conditions through sodium loss
 Helps the body use energy salted nuts, ready meals, in sweat, or through sickness or
 Helps control the nerves takeaway foods, instant foods diarrhoea)
and muscles (e.g. soups), stock cubes, cheese, It is also a problem to eat too much
yeast extract, canned fish, sodium:
smoked foods such as bacon  Most people eat too much salt
 Baking powder (sodium  High blood pressure, which puts
bicarbonate) in cakes, biscuits strain on the heart
 Monosodium glutamate, which  Kidney damage, especially in
increases the flavour of babies and young children
takeaway foods and ready meals
 Some bottled mineral waters
have high sodium levels
Fluoride Strengthens enamel of teeth  Sea water fish, tea, naturally Teeth may develop more holes
found in some water supplies (cavities)
 Added to some toothpaste
brands
Iodine Makes thyroid hormones, which  Sea foods  Tiredness
control metabolic rate (rate of  Milk, dairy foods, some plants  Lethargy
chemical reactions in the body) (depending on the levels in the  Goitre (thyroid gland swells up
soil) in the neck
 The importance of water in the diet

 Water is essential for life (the body is approximately 60% water). Adults need to drink up to 2
litres per day - more in a hot climate or if very physically active
 We get it by eating naturally watery foods (fruits, vegetables, milk)
 Water is also added to some foods, e.g. soups, porridge, sauces

Function (job) in the body Result of deficiency (not Result of excess

enough)
 Found in all cells and tissues Hypothalamus in the brain  Water intoxication
 Used for chemical reactions makes us feel thirsty  Blood too diluted
in the body Lack of water results in  Brain swells leading to
 Contained in all body fluids – dehydration: headache, nausea, vomiting,
blood, sweat, mucus, urine,  Headache muscle twitching, convulsions,
joints, saliva, digestive juices  Dark, concentrated urine death
 Removes waste products  Weakness, nausea
from the body – urine and  Overheating, confusion
faeces  Sunken eyes
 Controls body temperature  Changes to blood pressure
(sweating)  Rapid heart beat
 Used for digestion and  Loose, wrinkled skin
absorption of nutrients  A loss of 20% of body water
 Keeps blood concentration will result in death
correct Babies, young children, elderly
 Keeps skin moist people and kidney disease
patients are vulnerable to
dehydration
 The importance of fibre in the diet

 Non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) is known as fibre

 The ideal intake for adults is 30g a day (minimum of 18g)

Function (job) in the body Where do we get it from? Result of deficiency (not enough)
 Helps the body gets Cellulose stems, leaves, leaf  Constipation, meaning the faeces
rid of solid waste stalks, seeds, beans, peas, are hard and difficult to expel
(faeces) lentils, fruits and vegetables from the body
 Ensures intestines are (especially the skins),  This causes discomfort, bloating,
healthy and work well wholegrain (wholemeal) cereals tiredness due to waste products
 Helps reduce the and cereal products such as being held in the body
amount of cholesterol flour, bread, pasta, breakfast  Diverticular disease which causes
in the blood cereals, brown rice (which has pain and discomfort in the
seven times more fibre than intestines. Small pouches develop in
white rice), oat or wheat bran, the intestinal lining, which can
nuts become infected with bacteria
Pectin: fruit such as plums,
apples, blackcurrants

Exam tip: Fibre is not considered a nutrient as it

passes through the body undigested.

Check your understanding:

1. State two good sources of iodine. (2 marks)
2. Describe the function of calcium in the diet. (2 marks)
3. How much water are we advised to drink a day? (1 mark)
4. Give three functions of water in the body. (3 marks)
5. State 2 functions of fibre. (2 marks)
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIET AND HEALTH

KEY TERMS

 Malnutrition means the diet is unbalanced (too much or too little of one or more nutrients) and
the persons health is affected
 Undernutrition means not enough food is eaten to keep healthy
 Overnutrition means eating too much food or too much of one or more nutrients and a lack of
exercise (in the UK and similar countries overnutrition is more common than undernutrition)
 A risk factor id doing or having something that makes you more likely to develop a diet related
health issue or condition

Eating a balanced diet

Having time to relax

Regular physical exercise
Good
Having regular meals health
Having plenty of sleep

Not having too much stress

Having clean drinking water

Factors for good health

Overnutrition can lead to one of several diet related health issues or conditions.
The reasons for this include:

 Changing food habits; eating fewer fruit and vegetables and more processed food; eating between
meals (‘snacking’ and ‘grazing’); eating too much
 Less physical activity due to using cars or buses, sitting at a desk, watching TV, using computers,
living in centrally heated homes, using labour-saving machines to do jobs.

MAJOR DIET-RELATED HEALTH ISSUES AND CONDITIONS

Health issue or Risk factors Key facts

condition
Obesity (too much  Lack of physical exercise  Caused by taking in more energy from food than is
body fat)  Taking in more energy from used – energy is converted and stored as fat
food than the body requires  Many foods are energy-dense (they contain lots of
 Having other obese family fat and sugar) – they are easy to eat without realising
members what they contain
 An increasing problem worldwide
 Obesity leads to: CHD, CVD, high blood pressure,
stroke (blood clot in the brain), arthritis, breathing
problems, depression
Coronary heart  High blood pressure  The heart is a pump to move oxygen-rich blood around
disease (CHD)  Eating fatty, salty and sugary the body
foods  The heart muscle needs its own oxygen-rich blood
 Being overweight or obese supply from blood vessels called coronary arteries
 Smoking  Blocked arteries caused by poor diet prevent the
 Drinking alcohol heart muscle receiving oxygen – this leads to a heart
 Stress attack
 A lack of physical exercise  A high fat diet (especially saturated fats) can lead to
 blood vessel damage
Health issue or condition Risk factors Key facts
Cardiovascular  Same as for CHD  Blood vessels can become blocked anywhere in the
disease (CVD) Also: body-this restricts oxygen supply and damages vital
 Too much fat and cholesterol organs, muscles, nerves, etc.
in the blood
 Having fat around the waist
High blood pressure  Same as for CHD  normal blood pressure reading for a healthy young
(hypertension Also: adult is 120 over 80
 Family history of high blood  high blood pressure is 140 over 90 or above
pressure  no symptoms
 increases risk of developing CHD or CVD
 salt increases blood pressure
 people eat too much salt
Diabetes  high blood pressure  insulin is needed to enable glucose in the blood to enter
 eating fatty, salty and sugary every cell of the body (insulin is like a key to unlock the
foods door0
 being overweight or obese  insulin is made in the pancreas
 a lack of physical exercise  diabetes means that the glucose stays in the
 getting older bloodstream and damages the blood vessels
 symptoms: thirst, frequent urination, tiredness, weight
loss, blurred vision
 Type 1 diabetes - usually diagnosed in children. The
pancreas does not produce insulin, so injections have to
be given every day and a balanced diet needs to be eaten
 Type 2 diabetes – more common and an increasing
number of people are developing it due to bad diets and
eating habits, being overweight and obese. The pancreas
produces some insulin but the body cannot use it
 There is no cure – if untreated diabetes can lead to
serious illness and damage to the eyes (blindness), skin,
blood vessels in hands and feet
 Should follow a balanced diet (eatwell plate)
Osteoporosis  Being overweight or obese  Bones mineralise when young – most minerals are
(porous bones)  A lack of physical exercise added during adolescence
 Getting older  Peak bone mass is when bones are full of minerals (at
 Smoking 30-35 years)
 Not enough calcium in the  The bones then gradually lose minerals (natural ageing
diet process)
 Lots of fizzy drinks  If peak bone mass is not achieved, the person is more
 Family history of osteoporosis likely to develop osteoporosis
 Drinking alcohol  When too many minerals have been lost, bones
become brittle and break easily
 A painful condition, causes spine to curve into a lump
 Younger people develop it due to poor diet, not only
physical activity, too many carbonated drinks
Cancer (growth  Diet  A tumour is a cluster of cells growing in an
disorder of abnormal  Being overweight or obese uncontrolled way
 Getting older  Can occur anywhere in the body
cells)
 Smoking  Carcinogens are substances that can start the
 Drinking alcohol process of cancer
 Exposure to some chemicals  Reducing risk of developing cancer: eat a healthy
balanced diet with lots of fruit and vegetables and
smaller amounts of red and processed meats; limit
alcohol consumption; keep to a healthy weight; do not
smoke
 Exam tip
You should be able to apply the information in this section. For example, a common question is:
Describe four ways to reduce the risk of developing [named diet-related health issue or condition].
In order to answer this question, first think about each of the risk factors for the disease and
then what steps you could take in day-to-day life to reduce these.
For example, one risk factor for diabetes is being overweight. So you could exercise more, which
would help you lose weight by burning more calories, and this could also reduce your blood pressure
and combat the risk factor of being inactive. You could also make links to healthy eating guidelines
such as reducing salt intake, which would also help to reduce blood pressure.

Check your understanding

1. What does the term ‘overnutrition’ mean? (1mark)

2. Name three
ADAPTING diet-related
MEALS health issues or conditions.
AND DIETS (3 marks)
3. State four risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). (4 marks)
The current dietary guidelines

 Eight dietary guidelines that apply to most people aged over 5 years in good health
 Do not apply to very young children, babies, pregnant women or people with special health
conditions.
 The eatwell plate is designed to help you follow the guidelines

Guideline Why does it matter? Other information

1. Base your Most food on your plate should be a Includes; rice, pasta, potatoes (but
meals on starchy starchy plant food to give you energy not just chips), bread (wholemeal is
foods best, oats, millet, cassava, quinoa
2. Eat lots of  To provide the body with a 1 portion is 80g, e.g.
fruit and variety of vitamins, minerals,  1 apple, banana, orange
vegetables trace elements, fibre,  2 plums or similar
antioxidants and other natural  1 slice of melon, pineapple
plant chemicals  3 large tablespoons of
 A minimum of 5 portions daily vegetables/ beans or lentils
recommended  1 glass of fruit juice
3. Eat more fish  Provides a range of vitamins and Oily fish; salmon, trout, mackeral,
minerals and protein tuna, sardines
 White fish is naturally low in fat White fish; cod, haddock, plaice,
 Oily fish contains essential omega lemon sole
3 fatty acids for a healthy heart
 Fresh fish has less salt than
canned, dried or smoked fish
4. Cut down on  Saturated fat is found in: butter,
saturated fat (and cheese, cream, coconut oil, palm
eat less high fat oil, pastries, cakes, biscuits,
foods) chocolate, meat, meat products
 Fat in foods is often ‘invisible’
5. Cut down on  Most people eat too much sugar
sugar  Sugars are often ‘hidden’ in drinks
and other foods
 Chemical names are often used on
labels, e.g. dextrose, glucose
syrup, inverted sugar, hydrolysed
starch – many people do not know
these are sugars
6. Try to eat less  Many people eat too much salt
salt  Salt is used in a lot of processed
foods
7. Drink plenty of  Most people do not drink enough
water water
 Approx. 2 litres a day should be
drunk
 Drink more in hot countries,
during physical activity and when
ill
8. Do not skip  It is important to prepare the
breakfast body for the day’s activity
 Helps you feel alert, able to
concentrate and less likely to eat
snacks
Additional  As important as food intake
guideline: Get  Helps maintain a healthy weight
active and try to  Makes heart, muscles, bones and
be a healthy immune system stronger
weight  Makes you feel good, confident
and alert
 Helps reduce the risk of
developing some diseases, e.g.
 heart disease, cancer

Buying your food

 Read and understand food labels

 Use guidance systems on the labels, e.g. traffic lights
 Make and stick to a shopping list.
 Do not shop when you are hungry

Preparing food

 Try to adapt ingredients in a recipe to:

 Cut down fat, sugar and salt
 Increase fruits and vegetables
 Use alternative ingredients, e.g. wholemeal flour or pasta
 Be aware of how much oil, sugar and salt you use

Exam tip
This topic is covered in many areas of the specification, so do not think of it as a standalone area.
Make sure you are able to apply this knowledge to different groups of people, for example
pregnant women, and are able to adapt meals/ diets to meet healthy eating guidelines.

Adaptation How to do it
Reduce fat  Choose low fat or reduced fat versions of foods, e.g. canned fish,
cheese, yoghurt, low fat spreads, biscuits
 Choose lean meat
 Cut fat off meat
 Grill or oven bake instead of frying
 When stir-frying, add a little water rather than more oil when the pan
becomes dry
 Use alternatives to mayonnaise e.g. low fat crème fraiche
 Reduce the amount of spread or butter on bread
Reduce salt  Use alternative flavours, e.g. herbs, garlic, spices, lemon zest
 Buy reduced salt versions of foods such as crisps, baked beans
 Check labels for sodium content, e.g. in cakes (sodium bicarbonate),
ready meals (monosodium glutamate)
 Eat naturally low salt fruit and vegetables, unsalted nuts
Reduce sugar  Reduce amount in recipes
 Use alternative sweet foods, e.g. carrots, ripe bananas, grapes, beetroot
 Use sweeteners for flavour
Increase fibre and  Use wholegrain (wholemeal) versions of foods
fruit and vegetables  Add oat bran, porridge oats or wheat bran to recipes
 Add dried fruits to recipes
 Eat fruits and vegetables with the skin left on
 Add peas, beans and lentils to recipes
  Add vegetables to meat dishes
 Add seeds to recipes
 Puree vegetables in soups, stews and sauces to ‘disguise’ them

Check your understanding

1. Identify four healthy eating guidelines. (4 marks)
2. How many portions of fruit and vegetables is it recommended that we eat per day? (1 mark)
3. State three ways someone could cut down their sugar intake. (3 marks)
4. What is meant by the term ‘balanced diet’? (1 mark)
5. Give two reasons why eating a balanced diet may be difficult. (2 marks)

RECOMMENDED DAILY AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS

Dietary reference values (DRVs)

 DRVs are the amount of energy and nutrients different people need for growth and good health
 People are grouped according to age, gender (male or female), pregnant or lactating
(breastfeeding) females.
 DRVs only apple to healthy people – energy and nutrient needs change during illness or with a
health condition
 DRVs are only used for guidance – they are based on the needs of an average person
 DRVs are helpful for people planning meals for groups of people, e.g.in schools, hospitals,
residential homes, prisons
 DRV figures for energy and nutrients are meant to be enough for 97% of a group of people
 Food manufacturers show DRVs as guideline daily amounts (GDAs) on food labels
 Energy values are given as kcals/ kJ, and for adults as a percentage (%) of their daily energy
intake Exam tip you are not expected to learn each
 Macronutrient values are given as grams. age group’s DRVs, but you should be aware
 Micronutrients values are given as:
that these values differ for each group and
 milligrams – mg (1/1000g) the reasons for this. For example, a pregnant
 micrograms - µg (1/1000000g) woman needs more protein and energy for
the development and growth of the baby.
Fats and carbohydrates

 adults should get about 35%of their daily energy from fat, 11% from added sugars and 39% from
starches and natural sugars in their food
 adults are also recommended to eat 30g of fibre per day, or at least the very minimum 18g

Protein and energy

Below are extracts from DRV tables for protein and energy showing the variation between people at
different life stages and between genders.
Person Protein DRV Energy DRV (average)

Male, 7-10 years 28.3g 1970 kcal

Female, 7-10 years 28.3g 1740 kcal

Male, 19-50 years 55.5g 2550 kcal

Female, 19-50 years 45g 1940 kcal

During pregnancy Add another 6g Add 200 kcal

Male, over 75 years 53.5g 2100 kcal

Female, over 75 years 46.5g 1810 kcal

There are DRVs for Micronutrients

Person Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium

Male or female, 7-10 years 500µg 30mg 550mg

Male, over 19 years 700µg 40mg 700mg

Female, over 19years 600µg 40mg 700mg

During pregnancy Add 100µg Add 10mg No extra

Check your understanding

1. What does ‘DRV’ stand for? (1 mark)

ENERGY AND FOOD

What is energy?

 Energy is needed by the body to work, move, keep warm, be active.

 Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy needed just to stay alive and keep
everything in the body working
 Energy is used by the body for: movement, producing heat and sound, chemical reactions,
electrical energy (brain and nerves), storage of energy
 Energy production in living cells is called respiration
 Oxygen (from breathing) is needed to release the energy
 When the energy is released, water and carbon dioxide (CO₂) are given off as waste products
(breathed out)
 Factors that affect how much energy you need:
 Your age (more is needed when younger, less when older)
  Your activity levels (physical activities require a lot of energy)
 Your state of health (fighting against infection may increase energy needs as the body may
use up fat stores; pregnant and lactating women need more energy)
 Your gender (usually – but not always – males need more energy than females)

Energy comes from the sun and is trapped by plants, which are then eaten by animals.
How is energy measured?

 Calories (cal) or joules (J)

 1kJ = 1000J
 1 kcal = 1000 cal
 1 kcal = 4.2 J

Sources of energy

 The main source is carbohydrate, which is broken down into glucose in the body. Glucose the
travels to all calls in the body
 Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and the muscles to provide a quick energy source
 Fat supplies energy, but it must be changed to glucose in the body first – this takes longer.
 Energy is stored as fat in adipose tissue
 Protein can provide energy, but the body prefers to use protein for growth and repair
 Different foods have different energy values
 Energy–dense foods contain a lot of energy per gram. They are often high in fat and/or sugar

Exam tip
Source Amount of energy
The topic of energy and food is often
1g pure carbohydrate Provides 15.7kJ/3.75 kcal linked to factors that influence energy
requirements. Make sure you can
1g pure fat Provides 37.8KJ/ 9.0 kcal describe why people’s energy
requirements are different. Think
1g pure protein Provides 16.8kJ/ 4.0 kcal
about meal adaptation, for example
1g pure alcohol Provides 29.4kJ/ 7.0 kcal adapting a meal/ diet for someone
trying to lose weight
Energy requirements

 More physically active people need more energy

 Energy requirements decrease as we get older
 When young, energy is needed to make the body grow and be active.
 Physical activities that use a lot of energy include running, climbing, swimming, digging, lifting
heavy weights, cycling, walking fast or uphill.
 Physical activities that use very little energy (sedentary activities) include sitting in a chair,
watching TV, driving a car, using a computer.

Energy balance

Energy intake over a period of time Effect on body

 Equal to energy used for all body activities Weight stays the same

Less than energy used for all body activities Loses weight

More than energy used for all body activities Gains weight

Weight gain and weight loss do not happen quickly.

Someone trying to lose weight should aim to increase their physical activity, eat less energy-dense
foods and lose 0.5-1kg a week.

Check your understanding

1. Describe three factors that influence an individual’s energy requirement (6 marks)

2. State the units used for measurement of energy. (1 mark)
3. What will happen if someone has a higher energy intake than expenditure? (1 mark)
4. If someone has a higher energy intake than expenditure, what will the effect be on their
health?
MEAT. POULTRY, FISH AND SEAFOOD (1 mark)

Meat and poultry

Meat is the muscle fibres that come from animals and birds (poultry)


 It also includes internal organs such as liver and kidneys (called offal)
 The nutritional value varies according to the age of the animal or bird
and how it is reared (what it was fed on, how much it moved around,
how quickly it grew)
 Cooking meat makes it easier to digest and absorb nutrients.

Main nutrients Buying advice Storage

 HBV protein Meat, poultry or offal  Perishable (goes ‘off’ quickly)
 Fat (mostly saturated), should have:  Remove plastic packing
found under the skin  Moist (not slimy or  Store at 0⁰C-5⁰C
and between muscle wet) texture  Use within 1-2 days
fibres  Firm, slightly  To freeze: wrap meat well to prevent
 Vitamins A (especially springy flesh freezer burn
liver), B groups and D  Good colour  Fast freeze to at least -18⁰C
 Iron, especially in red  Fresh smell  Defrost on a tray in the bottom of
meat and liver It should not be past refrigerator for several hours
 Water (naturally its use by date  Cool cooked meat dishes rapidly and
occurring and some refrigerate or freeze
added)  Reheat leftover meat dishes rapidly only
once to at least 70⁰C

FISH AND SEAFOOD

 Either caught from seas, lakes or rivers, or farmed in large cages

  Eaten whole, cut into fillets or thick slices (steaks, sometimes called darnes)

Type Examples Description

Flat white fish Plaice, sole, halibut Firm white flesh
Round white fish Cod, haddock, monkfish, hoki oil in the liver, not the flesh
Oily fish Anchovies, eel, herring, salmon, tuna Quite dark flesh
Oil in the flesh
Mollusc Mussels, clams, oysters, squid Soft-bodied sea animals
Live inside shells, except squid and
cuttlefish
Crustaceans Lobster, prawns, crab Jointed sea animals
Soft bodies covered by a hard
outer skeleton
Main nutrients in fish

 HBV protein which is easily digested

 Fat (mostly unsaturated oils) found in the flesh and skin of oily fish and the liver of white fish. An
important source of omega 3 & 6 fatty acids
 Vitamins A & D (especially oily fish) and B group
 Calcium; in the bones of fish if eaten
 Fluoride and iodine; especially in sea fish
 Water; naturally occurring and some added

Guidelines for buying good quality fish

Fish Crustaceans Molluscs

Firm slightly springy flesh Firm, springy flesh
Fresh smell Fresh, ‘sweet’ smell Fresh smell
 Moist (not slimy or wet) skin Moist
 Good colour
 Clear, shiny eyes No missing joints or limbs Tightly shut shells
 Not losing lots of scales
 Bright red gills
Not past its use by date

Storage of fish and shellfish

 Perishable (goes ‘off’ quickly)

 Remove plastic packaging
 Store at 0⁰C-5⁰C
 Use within 1 day
 To freeze (must be done on day of purchase):wrap fish well to prevent freezer burn
 If previously frozen, do not refreeze (check with shop)
 Fast freeze to at least -18⁰C
 Defrost on a tray in the bottom of the fridge for a few hours
 Cool cooked fish dishes rapidly and refrigerate or refreeze
 Reheat leftover fish dishes only once to at least 70⁰C
 Check your understanding

1. State three nutrients found in meat. (3 marks)

2. Give one reason why a pregnant woman shouldn’t eat liver. (1 mark)
3. Describe how you would check if a chicken is well cooked. (2 marks)
4. Identify three nutrients found in fish. (3 marks)
5. Give two reasons people are recommended to eat more oily fish. (2 marks)

EGGS, MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

Eggs

 Main types eaten are hen, duck, goose and quail

 Battery eggs come from hens kept in cages
 Free range eggs come from hens that have freedom to
move around outside
 Barn or perchery eggs come from hens kept in large barns
with perches
 Keep in fridge away from strong smelling foods
 If an egg shell is dirty wash your hands after handling it

Nutrients in eggs

 HBV protein in white and yolk; this is easily digested

 Fat is found in the yolk
 Vitamins A, D and E are found in the yolk, and B group
(especially B₂ and B₁₂) in the white and yolk
Exam tip questions about
 Phosphorous, zinc and selenium found in the white, iron in the yolk
eggs often relate to how
 Water, naturally occurring in the white and the yolk
eggs are cooked and the
Milk functions of eggs.

 The main types used are cow’s, goat’s, sheep’s

 Produced by mammals
 Designed to provide a baby mammal with all it needs, therefore milk is very nutritious
 Milk is homogenised (the fat is broken into tiny droplets)
 Milk is very perishable as it has the right conditions for bacteria to grow
 It is heat-treated to destroy harmful bacteria

Heat treatment and storage of milk

 Pasteurisation: milk is heated quickly in a heat exchanger to 72⁰C for 15 seconds. It is then
cooled quickly to 4⁰C. HTST means high temperature, short time pasteurisation. Refrigerate this
milk and use it within a few days
 Ultra Heat Treated (UHT): milk is quickly heated in a heat exchanger to 132⁰C for 1 second.
It is then cooled quickly and packed in special sealed packs. It can be stored at room
temperature, unopened, for several months. Once opened, store this milk in the refrigerator as
for fresh milk.
 Dried milk: milk is dried and stored in packs to be made up with water.
 Canned milk: milk is evaporated (the water is removed) by heat then canned. Condensed milk is
evaporated, has sugar added to it and is then canned.

Types of milk

 Whole milk has no fat removed (it is approx. 3.9% fat). It is usually sold in blue-labelled bottles.
 Semi-skilled milk is 1.5% fat. It is usually sold in green-labelled bottles
 Skimmed milk is 0.1% fat (virtually fat-free). It is usually sold in red-labelled bottles.
 It is also possible to buy milk with approx. 1% fat (may be in purple or orange labelled bottles).
 Other ‘milks’ are available e.g. for people with allergies or vegans): soya, oat, rice, coconut. These
are often enriched with vitamins and minerals.

Min nutrients in milk

 HBV protein; this is easily digested

 Fat; a mixture of saturated and unsaturated depending on what the cow has eaten
 Carbohydrate (lactose)
 Vitamins A and D (more in summer if the cows are outside), B group, very little Vitamin C
 Calcium, phosphorous, sodium, potassium. Very little iron
 Water; milk is about 95% water

Dairy products

Cheese

Type of cheese Examples Additional information

Soft cheese (fresh) Cream cheese, cottage cheese,
mozzarella
Soft cheese (ripened) Camembert, brie, goats cheese
Blue-veined cheese Blue Stilton, Danish blue Edible mould id added, giving a
distinct flavour and blue ‘veins’
Semi-soft cheese Stilton, Wensleyday, Lancashire,
Edam
Hard cheese Cheddar, Gruyere, Double
Glouscester
Very hard cheese Parmesan
Whey cheese Ricotta Made from whey with additional
ingredients such as milk
Processed cheese Cheese slices, cheese spread Made by mixing pieces of cheeses
and colouring
Main nutrients in cheese (varying in quantity according to type of cheese)

 HBV protein; this is easily digested

 Fat; a mixture of saturated and unsaturated depending on what the cow has eaten (hard cheeses
are 33% fat, full fat cream cheese 50%, cottage cheese 4%)
 Vitamins A and D (more in summer if the cows are outside), B group.
 Calcium, phosphorous and sodium
 Water; hard cheeses are 33% water, soft cheeses up to 80%

Buying and storing cheese

 Perishable, especially soft cheeses

 Make sure packaging is not damaged
 Store at 0⁰C-5⁰C in a sealed box to prevent drying.

Cream

 Cream is small droplets of butterfat, suspended in a liquid

 Cream is skimmed off milk at 35⁰C-54⁰C, then cooled to 4⁰C

Type of cream Fat content Examples of use

Double 48% Whipping
Decorating cakes
Adding to soups and sauces
Whipping Single 38% Whipping
Decorating cakes
Single 18% Pouring
Adding to soups and sauces
Soured Up to 20% Dips
Jacket potato
Crème Fraiche Up to 35% Served with desserts
Used in cheesecake
Clotted 55% Served with scones (cream tea) or desserts
Ready ‘whipped’ (with added Depends on Sold in cans; heat treated to increase shelf life
sugar, stabilisers and gases type Decorating cakes and desserts

Type of Description
butter
Unsalted Mild, slightly sweet
(‘sweet’)
Salted Salt is the only
added ingredient
(traditionally as a
preservative, now
for flavour)
 Main nutrients in cream Clarified Used in butter
 HBV protein (small amount only) sauces and for
shallow frying.
 Fat; mostly saturated
Made by slowly
 Vitamins A and D (more in summer if the cows are
melting butter,
outside), small amounts of B group skimming off the
 Some calcium and other minerals with trace elements milk solids to leave
 Water; some naturally occurring only melted fat
Ghee Clarified butter
Storing cream that originated in
India. Has a strong
 Very perishable, cover and store in fridge and use within flavour. Sold in cans
a few days Spreadable Vegetable oils are
 Whipped cream (double and whipping) can be frozen added so that the
butter stays soft in
Butter the fridge

 Made from cream

 Made by ‘churning’ (stirring) cream to make butterfat
droplets stick together and watery buttermilk to separate

Main nutrients in butter

 HBV protein (very small amount)

 Fat; mostly saturated
 Vitamins A and D ( more in summer if cows are outside)
 Some minerals and trace elements, including sodium from added salt.
 Water (very small amount)

Storing butter Exam tip

Remember that all butters
 Can be kept in a covered dish at room temperature (not too warm)
and margarines contain fat,
for spreading
just different types.
 Store in a fridge for other uses
Therefore it is incorrect to
Yoghurt state ‘use a low fat
margarine instead of butter
 Yoghurt is cultured milk (special bacteria have been added)
as a way of reducing fat
 Bacteria produce lactic acid to coagulate (set) the protein in the
intake.
milk and to flavour the yoghurt
 Eaten as natural or flavoured yoghurt

Type of yoghurt Description Flavour

Set Semi-solid as it is set in the pot it is Sold natural or flavoured
bought in
Stirred Varies in thickness; can be poured Sold natural or flavoured
Natural (plain) Smooth, creamy texture Fresh, tangy flavour
Greek (strained) Made from cow’s or sheep’s milk Mild flavour
High fat content
Live The bacteria in this yoghurt are still living
Main nutrients in yoghurt:
 HBV protein; a good source
 Fat; many types are now low-fat but some have cream added
 Carbohydrate; some lactose plus added sucrose and fructose in flavoured yoghurt
 Vitamins A and D (more in summer if the cows are outside), some B group vitamins
 Good source of calcium
 Water; a good source of water

Buying and storing yoghurt:

 Perishable
 Check the use by date
 Make sure the lid has not ‘blown’ (means yeast contamination has caused fermentation of the
sugar in flavoured yoghurts)
 Store in fridge

Check your understanding

1. Circle the nutrients egg is a good source of. (5 marks)

Protein Fluoride Fibre Fat Vitamin A Calcium Iron
2. Identify two fat soluble vitamins found in cow’s milk. (2 marks)
3. State two types of milk someone intolerant to lactose could use instead of cow’s milk. (2 marks)
4. Cream is a perishable food. What is meant by the term ‘perishable food’? (1 mark)
5. Identify two checks you could make when buying yoghurt to check that the product is of an
acceptable quality. (2 marks)

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Key facts

 An important part of the diet – a minimum of five portions a day is recommended

 Uses: can be eaten on their own (many raw with and without skins and seeds); as side dishes or
part of many recipes; in sauces, drinks, soups, stocks; as flavourings; garnishes; to give colour and
texture
 Cooking can destroy vitamins (especially vitamin C). To conserve vitamins, the chosen method
should be for the shortest time in a minimum amount of water until the fruit or vegetable is just
tender. Serve immediately.
 Many can be frozen (not very watery ones, e.g. lettuce, cucumber), cannrd or dried.

Type or fruit Examples

Soft berry fruits Raspberries, strawberries
Currants Blackcurrants
Hard fruits Apples, pears
Stone fruits Plums, apricots
Citrus fruits Oranges, lemons
Exotic fruits Banana, passionfruit, kiwi fruit
Type of vegetables Examples
Roots Carrots, beetroot
Tubers (attached to root) Potatoes, sweet potatoes
Bulbs Onions, leeks
Stems Asparagus, celery
Leaves Cabbage, lettuce
Flower heads Cauliflower, broccoli
Fungi Mushrooms
Legumes (really seeds but used as vegetables) Peas, broad beans, lentils, bean sprouts
Vegetable fruits Tomatoes, peppers
Main nutrients in fruit and vegetables

 LBV protein; in peas, beans, lentils (HBV in soya beans)

 Fat; some in peas, beans and lentils, more in avocados, nuts, sweetcorn
 Carbohydrate; made during photosynthesis in green plants, as sugars, starch, fibre (NSP)
 Vitamin C (a rich source), A (beta carotene), some B group, some E
 Minerals and trace elements; the quantity and range depends on where the plants grow and the
quality of the soil
 Water; a very important source
 Fibre; a very good source
 Also contain other important substances that benefit our health such as antioxidants.

Buying and storing fruits and vegetables

Exam tip
 Avoid bruised, mouldy, damaged, soft or wilted ones
Fruit and vegetable intake is an
 Nutritional value, texture and flavour decrease
important area and is covered in
after harvesting and picking, so use soon after purchase
many topics. Ensure that you can
 Store in a cool, dark place (potatoes go green if left in
link it to other areas like healthy
light and become poisonous to eat). Some, e.g. bananas
eating , reducing the risk of some
and potatoes, go black if they are too cold.
diseases and illnesses and
 Always wash before using and eating
encouraging people to increase
their intake.

Check your understanding

1. Identify two fruits and vegetables that are a good source of beta-carotene. (2 marks)
2. Identify three ways to encourage a toddler to eat more fruit and vegetables. (3 marks)
3. State three things you should consider when buying and storing fruit and vegetables. (3 marks)
CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

Key facts

Cereals are:

 Grains (seeds); mostly from cultivated grasses

 A staple food around the world
 A major source of energy

Most seeds are processed by milling into flour

 Some nutrients are lost during processing

 White flour has 30% of the seed removed, it contains 70% of the grain
 Wholemeal (wholegrain) flour has none of the seed removed, it contains 100% of the grain
 Tougher outer layers (husks) are removed from rice by ‘polishing’; from barley by ‘pearling’; from
oats by ‘hulling’
 Breads are commonly made from cereal flours as a nutritious and filling part of a meal (loaves,
rolls, sandwiches, wraps, tortillas, pitta, naan)
 Unleavened bread is flat, not risen by yeast
 Leavened bread is risen by yeast. Needs strong plain flour with a high gluten content to make the
dough stretch and rise (that flour is also need for choux and puff/ flaky pastry)
 Cakes, other pastries and biscuits need soft plain flour (less gluten)

Nutrients in cereals

Whole seeds are very nutritious because they contain all the nutrients for plant growth:

 LBV protein
 Fat (a small amount)
 Carbohydrate; starch and NSP (wholegrain)
 B group vitamins and vitamin ‘E Bran-most fibre vitamins, minerals
 A variety of trace elements and trace elements, some protein
 Iron and fat

Endosperm-carbohydrate (starch);
Exam tip most protein found here; some vitamins
Bran, endosperm and germ are
the three main parts of all
cereal grains. Make sure you Germ-contains genetic info for the new
can label them on a diagram. plan to grow from seed; most protein,
vitamins and trace elements found here

Cereal Uses Important Contains gluten?

nutrients
Barley  Animal feed Yes
 Beer and whisky
 Bread
 Soups and stews
  Breakfast cereals
 Malt (sweetener in foods, maltose)
Buckwheat  Flour Good source of No
 Pasta calcium
 Eaten like rice
Corn (maize)  Animal feed No
 Corn oil
 High fructose corn syrup (sweetener
for fizzy drinks)
 Cornflour (thickener for sauces)
 Cornmeal (polenta), for breads, cakes,
biscuits, tortillas, muffins, fried
snack foods
 Sweetcorn, corn on the cob
(vegetable)
 popcorn
Millet  Breakfast cereals Good source of No
 porridge iron
Oats  oatmeal Good source of A little
 porridge oats or jumbo oats used for calcium
porridge
 oats or oat bran added to breads,
cakes,
 crumbles, biscuits, oatcakes,
flapjacks, oat crackers
Quinoa Used as an alternative to rice Rich in Protein No
Rice Many varieties; used in many sweet and Very important No
savoury dishes for energy and B
vitamins
Rye  bread Yes
 breakfast cereals
Spelt  bread More protein than Yes but
 pasta wheat different
structure so can
be eaten by
some people
with allergy to
ordinary wheat
Wheat Very important cereal Yes
 all baked products (breads, pastries,
cakes, biscuits, puddings)
 breakfast cereals
 bulgur wheat eaten like rice
 couscous from durum wheat (used for
pasta)
 wheat bran and wheat germ added to
recipes
 wheat products, e.g. semolina, added
 to cakes, biscuits, puddings

Check your understanding

1. Identify four nutrients found in cereals. (4 marks)

2. Name three types of cereal grain. (3 marks)
3. State why a coeliac cannot eat bread made from wheat flour. (1 mark)

SUGARS AND SWEETENERS

Key facts Exam tip

 Sugar is used as a sweetener and a preservative Questions often
 Cane sugar (sucrose) is produced from a very tall grass (tropical countries) focus on ways to
 Beet sugar (sucrose) is produced from a plant root (temperate climate) reduce sugar
 Used in recipes to give colour (caramelisation) and texture (aeration) intake or how to
 Can damage teeth and lead to obesity if eaten in excess identify sugar on
 Most recipes will work if sugar content is reduced food labels
 Sweet alternative foods can be used in recipes. E.g. dried fruits, carrots,
ripe fresh fruits
 Artificial food sweeteners add flavour but no sugar, e.g. saccharin, aspartame (dangerous for
people with PKU/ phenylketonuria), acesulfame K, sucralose

Main nutrients in sugars

 Carbohydrates and natural refined sugars (e.g. sucrose) are 100% carbohydrate
 Minerals and trace elements; some iron and calcium found in brown sugars (molasses); honeys
contain varying amounts
 Some B group vitamins found in honey

Type of sugar Description

Muscovado (molasses) sugar Dark brown, strong flavour, moist
Small fine crystals
Demerara (raw) sugar L:ight brown, slightly moist, contains some molasses
Medium crystals making it crunchy
Light, soft brown sugar Light brown, syrupy flavour
Fine crystals
White granulated sugar Refined no molasses, used for all purposes
Medium crystals
White caster (superfine) sugar Refined (no molasses)
Very small crystals
Icing (confectioners) sugar White (no molasses)
Ground into a fine powder
Type of syrup Description
Maple syrup Made from the sap of the maple tree
Distinctive flavour, sweeter than sugar
Golden syrup Made from cane sugar
Light, golden colour with a distinctive flavour
Black treacle Made from refined molasses
Thick, black, very sticky, with very strong, slightly bitter
flavour
Molasses Varies in colour and thickness
Usually contains minerals and trace elements

Check your understanding

1.State three functions of flour. (3 marks)
2. Identify two ways to reduce the sugar content of a Victoria sponge recipe. (2 marks)

CONVENIENCE, GENETICALLY MODIFIED AND ORGANIC FOODS

Convenience foods

 Definition: food products made by manufacturers and designed to save consumers time and effort
when making meals
Advantages Disadvantages
Designed to make meal planning and preparation Tend to use lots of packaging, therefore cause
easier environmental and sustainability problems
No specific cooking skills needed Often have a high fat, sugar and salt content
Have a long shelf-life which may be ‘hidden in foods
Sold in portion-controlled sizes May contain additives
Useful for people who: Reduce the need for cooking skills resulting in
 Are physically disabled fewer people knowing how to cook.
 Cook only for themselves
 Have limited kitchen facilities
 Work in catering companies

Types of convenience foods

  Meals: complete (ready-to-eat); cook-chill; frozen; bottled; canned; dried; fast foods; take-aways.
 Parts of meals; sauces; soups; salads; vegetables; desserts; meat and fish products; cakes;
pastas.
 Ingredients: Stocks; packet mixes (batters, desserts, biscuits, burgers, breads); pizza bases;
sandwich fillings, whipped cream, sauces.

Exam tip:
Remember to use the knowledge gained during the controlled assessment tasks and your own
experience.
Think of a product such as scones made from scratch, from a packet mix and ready-made. Think
about the advantages and disadvantages of each. Are there any limitations to each method? For
example, could someone with limited cooking skills or space make scones from scratch? Think about
cost, time, facilities available, skills needed, taste, nutritional value and shelf life.

Genetically modified (GM) foods

 Genes control the characteristics of plants and animals

 Genes are made of DNA containing four amino acids in different sequences to form a code of
instructions for each characteristic
 Genetic modification copies a gene for a specific characteristic from a plant or animal and inserts
it into another plant or animal, where it is then reproduced.
 GM foods include soya beans, sweetcorn, sugar, rapeseed, tomatoes, rice.

Advantages of GM foods Disadvantages of GM foods

 Resistance to weed-killing chemicals  Effects on the ecology of the area where they grow
 Increased storage or shelf life  Development of resistant micro-organisms
 Better resistance to insects, fungi and  Development of allergies if DNA from certain plants
bacteria which would harm a crop and animals are put into others
 Faster growing rates  Infertile GM seeds means farmers have to but new
 Less fat seeds from the GM companies every year.
 Better resistance to disease

Organic foods

 Organic plant foods have been grown using farming

methods where plants are grown in well-balanced,
healthy soil without the regular use of pesticides and fertilisers
 Organic animal foods are reared in natural surroundings
without the routine use of medicines (unlike intensive farming
where animals are housed in large number inside production units)
 ‘Organic’ has a legal definition and foods have a
symbol to certify they are organic.
 Organic foods are sold in most supermarkets,
farmers markets, farm shops, box schemes
(delivered to your home or a collection point), and mail order.
 Exam tip

Currently the question of whether organic foods have a better nutritional value than their
non-organic counterparts is highly contested by scientists; some studies suggest it does,
while others suggest it does not. Therefore stating that ‘organic food has more minerals/
vitamins/ nutrients’ is incorrect and will not will not be credited. Stating that ‘some studies
have suggested they have a better nutritional quality..’ would be credited.

Advantages of organic foods Disadvantages of organic foods

 Considered to taste better because they are  Often more expensive than intensively grown
grown naturally in better soils foods
 Considered to be better for health because  Many have to be imported, which has
pesticides are not used implications for travel pollution
 Better for the environment and ecosystems

Check your understanding

1. Describe two advantages and two dis advantages of convenience foods. (8 marks)
2. State two advantages of genetically modified food for consumers and/
or manufacturers. (2 marks)
3. State two reasons for the increased popularity of organic food. (2 marks)
4. What is meant by the term ‘organic food’? (1 mark)

FUNCTIONAL FOODS

Key facts

 Definition: foods eaten as part of a normal diet that contain natural substances to lower the risk
of developing certain diseases and to maintain good health
 Plant foods contain many natural substances (phytochemicals)
Exam tip
that give them their colour, flavour, texture, smell, acidity
Functional foods are
and nutritional value
a limited part of the
 Some phytochemicals are thought to be active in the human
specification. Your
body and very beneficial to health, e.g. as antioxidants
revision should
Many plant foods contain phytochemicals. These are just a few examples: concentrate on
understanding what
 Onions, garlic and shallots
a functional food is
 Broccoli, brussels sprouts and cauliflower
and its role.
 Blueberries and blackcurrants
 Wholegrain cereals

Functional food Suggested health benefits

Whole oats and oat products; foods made from Lower blood cholesterol and reduce the risk of
soya beans; special margarines, e.g. Benecol developing heart disease
Oily fish containing Omega 3 fatty acids Reduces the risk of developing heart disease
Cranberry juice Reduces the risk of developing urinary tract
infections
Garlic Lowers blood cholesterol levels
Tomatoes and tomato products Reduce the risk of developing of developing
some cancers, especially prostate cancer
Dark green leafy vegetables, e.g. spinach Reduce the risk of developing serious eye
illnesses that may lead to blindness
Probiotics, e.g. live yoghurt Beneficial effects on the intestines and immune
system

Check your understanding

1. Give two reasons why functional foods have increased in popularity. (2 marks)
2. State three functional foods and their role or benefit. An example has been provides for you:
Functional food: garlic
Role: lowers blood cholesterol levels (6 marks)
3. What is meant by the term ‘functional food’? (1 mark)

BABIES AND CHILDREN

Nutritional needs of groups

Our need for different nutrients changes throughout our life.

Meal planning should take into account the needs of different people, according to:

 Their age
 Their size
 Their state of health
 Their stage of development
 Their daily physical activities

Babies and children

Babies (birth-12 months)

 Should only have milk (preferably human breast milk)

for the first 4-6 months.
 Human breast milk is specially designed for human babies;
it provides immunity and is easy to digest, but is low in
 iron.
 Babies are born with an iron store to last 3-4 months.
 If formula milk is used it must be to the right concentration
Exam tip
 After 4-6months milk and small amounts of soft foods are given;
Remember that the
this is called weaning
eatwell plate and
 New foods and larger portions should be gradually introduced.
dietary guidelines do
 Foods that are known to cause allergies in some people should be
not apply in full to
gradually introduced after the baby is at least 12 months old
these age groups as
 Meals should be balanced
they do not receive
 Babies do not need added sugar and salt in their food
all the nutrients they
Young pre-school (1-4 years) need, especially
energy
Dietary needs:

 Child is growing rapidly and physically active.

 Needs regular small meals and drinks; cannot eat large amounts of food in one go.
 The eatwell plate guidelines do not apply fully to this age group as a low fat high fibre diet would
not give them enough energy.
 They need protein for growth.
 They need fat for energy and vitamins A, D, E and K for development of brain and nervous system
 They should be given whole milk
 They need carbohydrate for energy, preferably from complex carbohydrates (potatoes, rice,
bread)
 Calcium and Vitamin D are needed for bone and teeth development
 Iron and vitamin C are needed to produce enough energy
 They need B vitamins to produce enough energy and maintain the health of the nervous system
and muscles

Guidance for feeding children of this age:

 Introduce new foods to expand the range eaten

 Sit at table to eat to encourage meal enjoyment; invite friends to share meals
 Give child water to drink, not sweet drinks
 Serve small portions; eat until they are full rather than eating to clear the plate (helps them to
recognise what their body tells them)
 Limit sweets, crisps, biscuits and snacks
 Involve child in the whole process of eating (including shopping, cooking); teach them where foods
come from and how to prepare and cook food
 Make food fun
 Provide choice

School-aged children (5-12 years)

 A good variety and balance of nutrients is needed

 Growth spurts require more good food containing protein and minerals for bone growth
 Encourage children to try new foods
 This is the ideal age to teach them more about food and how to prepare and cook it
 From five years follow the dietary guidelines and eatwell plate
 Many children become inactive and an increasing number become overweight or obese
 They should be discouraged from ‘grazing’ and ‘snacking’ during the day to avoid taking in too much
energy from food which is then turned into fat.

Check your understanding

1. Up to six months babies should only consume milk. What type of milk would be suitable for a
baby of this age? (1 mark)
2. Identify two foods that should not be given to a baby until they are
at least 12 months of age. (2 marks)
3. What is the main function of protein for pre-school children? (1 mark)

TEENAGERS

Key facts

Facts about teenagers Meeting the dietary needs

Body changing from child to adult  Follow eatwell dietary guidelines
 Eat foods containing sufficient energy, protein,
Vitamins A, B group, C and D to enable bones, muscles
and internal organs to grow properly
Growth spurts mean the need for Eat regular and well balanced filling meals
food increases
Tendency to sleep less and pressures Eat regular meals containing energy, iron and vitamin C
of growth and school work can lead to
tiredness and possible anaemia
Skeleton should lay down most  Regularly eat foods containing calcium and vitamin D,
minerals during this age in order to e.g. milk, yoghurt, green leafy vegetables, bread, nuts
reach peak bone mass when older and seeds
 Avoid drinking lots of carbonated (fizzy) drinks because
phosphoric acid in them can affect the rate of bone
mineralisation
 Take regular load bearing exercise ( e.g. running, ball
games) to stimulate bone mineralisation
Most growth occurs during sleep, so Eat breakfast, particularly protein-rich foods (e.g. milk,
nutrients used for this must be egg, yoghurt)
replaced
Breakfast can also aid concentration Eat wholegrain cereals in bread, porridge and some
at school breakfast cereals because they release glucose slowly and
gradually into the bloodstream to help maintain
concentration
Eating processed, fast and snack  Eat regular meals containing a wide variety of fresh
foods provides a lot of salt and foods, especially fruit, vegetables and salads to provide
concentrated energy from sugar and a range of nutrients
fat with few other nutrients.  Limit intake of processed, fast and snack foods
This can lead to weight gain and diet-  Drink plenty of fresh water
related diseases such as heart  Keep physically active
disease and diabetes

Exam tip
The teenage years are a period of rapid change and growth. Be aware of the problems faced by
teenagers trying to eat a healthy diet and be able to explain how these problems can be overcome
at home and at school. For example, teenagers need to drink at least 2 litres of water per day, a
school could help with this by providing free water at breaks and lunch but also ensuring there is
access to water fountains around the school

Teenage girls

Blood losses during menstruation (periods) may make teenage girls become anaemic. They should
regularly eat foods containing iron (e.g. red meat, wholegrain cereals, bread, lentils, dried apricots
and dark green leafy vegetable) and vitamin C (e.g. kiwi fruit, peppers, new potatoes, guavas, dark
green leafy vegetable and bean sprouts). The vitamin C helps the body absorb iron

Teenage boys

Between 15 and 20 years, a significant amount of muscle grows in the arms, legs, chest and abdomen
of teenage boys.

They need to eat sufficient protein (e.g. meat, fish, milk, yoghurt, eggs, beans, lentils and cereal
products), to encourage muscle growth.

Check your understanding

1. Name two nutrients a girl will require more of during her teenage years. (2 marks)
2. State which nutrient should be eaten with iron to help its absorption. (1 mark)
3. Identify one good source of protein for a teenager. (1 mark)
4. Name two sources of calcium suitable for a packed lunch. (2 marks)
ADULTS AND SENIOR CITIZENS

Key facts

Facts about adults Dietary needs

Body growth stops, so diet must maintain Follow current dietary guidelines
health and prevent diet-related diseases
Change in metabolic rate gradually slows Limit the amount of energy-dense foods that are
down eaten
Weight gain may occur due to the Take regular physical exercise to control weight
metabolic rate
Skeleton gradually starts to lose minerals  Regularly eat foods containing calcium and vitamin
D, e.g. milk, yoghurt, green leafy vegetables,
bread, seeds
 Take regular load bearing exercise (e.g. running,
dancing) to maintain bone and muscle strength and
to limit the rate of bone demineralisation
Women continue to menstruate until the  Regularly eat foods containing iron (e.g. red meat,
menopause bread, black treacle, dried apricots, green leafy
vegetables) and vitamin C (e.g. kiwi fruit, new
potatoes, brussels sprouts, dark green leafy
vegetables, bean sprouts)
 Vitamin C helps the body absorb iron

Facts about senior citizens (elderly Dietary needs

people)
Systems in the body slow down, e.g.  Eat plenty of fibre (NSP) to prevent constipation
digestive and circulatory(blood) systems and diverticular disease
 Drink plenty of water to prevent constipation and
help the kidneys to work properly
Absorption of nutrients may not be as  Regularly eat foods containing sufficient iron (e.g.
efficient as before. This can lead to red meat, wholegrain cereals, lentils, some curry
anaemia or to early signs of scurvy (lack spices, dark green leafy vegetables) and vitamin C
of vitamin C) (e.g. citrus fruits, peppers, new potatoes, guavas,
brussels sprouts)
 Bones naturally lose minerals and  Regularly eat foods containing calcium and vitamin
become weakened (osteoporosis) D, e.g. milk, cheese, green leafy vegetables, bones
 Some parts of the body wear out e.g. of canned fish, nuts
joints  Take regular load bearing exercise (e.g. walking,
dancing) to maintain bone and muscle strength,
limit the rate of bone de-mineralisation and
stimulate the bones to take up calcium
Living indoors most of the time may mean  Vitamin D supplements recommended for people
limited exposure to sunlight to make over 65
vitamin D  Expose the skin to regular doses of sunlight
Metabolic rate gradually slows down Limit the amount of energy-dense foods that are
eaten
Weight gain may occur due to the Take regular physical exercise to control weight
metabolic rate
Appetite may get smaller May need small, regular, energy dense meals to
maintain energy intake
Eyesight becomes weaker Eat foods containing antioxidant vitamins A, C and E
to help prevent age related eye conditions
Blood pressure may increase  Limit sodium/ salt intake
 Limit intake of ready meals, which may have a high
sodium/ salt content
Sense of smell and taste may weaken Avoid adding extra salt to compensate-try other
flavours e.g. herbs and spices
Memory loss may occur This may be due to vitamin B₁₂ deficiency - B₁₂ is
found in liver, shellfish, red meat, milk and fortified
breakfast cereals; a B₁₂ supplement may be needed
Possible problems for senior citizens preparing, cooking and eating food
Oral (mouth) – chewing and swallowing problems may be caused by: Exam tip
 Loss of teeth, false teeth or gum disease Questions related
 Effects of stroke or disease; e.g. Parkinson’s disease elderly people tend to
Manual dexterity – problems using the hands may be caused by: focus on problems
 Arthritis, causing painful, swollen fingers associated with healthy
 Frail skin, easily cut or burnt eating and how these
 Stroke or Parkinson’s disease, making holding things difficult problems could be
Social: overcome, or nutritional
 May lose interest in food due to loneliness, isolation, being widowed, differences compared
loss of independence, living in a care home, ill health, depression to other age groups. For
 May not be able to cook for themselves (lack of skills, lack of facilities) example, as we age we
 Difficulty buying and carrying food from the shops (walking difficulties, have a reduced capacity
lack of transport, disability, distance to shops). to absorb nutrients such
Poverty: limited amount to spend on food as iron, which can cause
Effects of medicine: some medicines effect how nutrients are absorbed anaemia. Therefore,
and affect the taste of food elderly people must have
Changes to senses: loss of smell and taste may make appetite smaller enough iron rich foods
Help available for senior citizens in their diet such as red
 Lunch clubs – hot meals provided in social settings for a small price meat, eggs, dark leafy
 Mobility buses – for shopping or outings to clubs green vegetables. They
 Meals on wheels – meals (ready –to-eat or frozen) delivered to their homes must also eat enough
 Food co-operatives - bring food for sale to an area in a van vitamin C to help absorb
 Home helps - people who can help with shopping and cooking the iron.

Check your understanding

1. Give one reason an elderly person may need to take a vitamin D supplement. (1 mark)
2. Elderly people should increase their energy intake. True or False? (1 mark)
3. Describe three reasons why an elderly person may not eat a balanced diet. (3 marks)
4. Identify two nutrients important to maintaining the health of a person’s bones. (2 marks)

PREGNANT WOMEN
Key facts

Facts about pregnancy Dietary needs

Food is needed to maintain the mothers body  Follow the current dietary guidelines
and for the growing foetus (baby), but not  Eat foods containing sufficient energy,
enough food for two adults protein, vitamins A, B group, c, D to maintain
mother’s body and enable the bones, muscles
and internal organs of the baby’s body to
grow properly
 Eat regular, balanced meals
 The skeleton of the baby gradually changes  Regularly eat foods containing calcium and
from cartilage to bone as it mineralises vitamin D (except liver as it contains too
 The baby gets calcium from the mother’s much vitamin A), e.g. milk, yoghurt, green
blood supply leafy vegetables, bread, nuts
 If the mothers diet lacks calcium and  Avoid drinking lots of carbonated (fizzy)
vitamin D the baby will take calcium from the drinks because phosphoric acid in them may
mothers bones, which will weaken them affect the rate of bone mineralisation
 Young pregnant women must have enough  Take regular load bearing exercise (e.g.
calcium to mineralise their own bones as well walking, gentle running, dancing), to stimulate
as the baby’s bone mineralisation
 Avoid alcohol, caffeine and nicotine, which
prevent calcium being taken up in skeleton
 The volume of the mothers blood increases  Regularly eat foods containing iron (e.g. red
by 50% meat, wholegrain cereals, bread, lentils,
 In the last 3 months of pregnancy, the baby dried apricots, molasses) and vitamin C (e.g.
must build up a store of iron to last it citrus fruits, peppers, new potatoes dark
throughout the first 3-4 months after birth green leafy vegetables, brussels sprouts)
 Vitamin C helps the body absorb iron
 Iron supplements may be needed to prevent
anaemia
 The unborn baby can develop disabling  If possible take a folate supplement before
defects in the spine, e.g. spina bifida; becoming pregnant and for the first 12
research shows that if the mother is lacking weeks of pregnancy
in folate (vitamin B9) in her diet, her baby  Eat plenty of foods containing folate (e.g.
may be at greater risk of developing spinal potatoes, fruits, asparagus, okra, beans and
defects seeds, fortified breakfast cereals)
 Pregnancy hormones slow down the muscles  Eat plenty of fibre (NSP) to prevent
in the intestines and this can lead to constipation and diverticular disease
constipation  Drink plenty of water to prevent
constipation and help the kidneys work
properly
 Weight gain should be regular and carefully  Limit the amount of energy-dense foods that
monitored are eaten
 Fat is stored in the pregnant woman’s body  Take regular physical exercise to control
to provide energy for breastfeeding weight

Foods to avoid during pregnancy

Pregnant women need to avoid foods that may either cause food poisoning or contain too much of a
nutrient which could harm their growing baby. These are:

 pâtes, soft cheeses, e.g. Brie, Camembert, Chevre (goat’s cheese) – may contain Listeria bacteria
 soft blue cheeses and cheeses made with unpasteurised milk
 raw or lightly cooked meat, especially products made with minced beef (e.g. burgers) – these
should be cooked through to at least 70⁰C in the middle
 liver, liver products and vitamin A supplements (e.g. cod liver oil)
 raw or partly cooked eggs – may contain salmonella bacteria
 some types of fish, e.g. tune, swordfish – may contain mercury, which may affect the baby’s brain
and nervous system
 alcohol and caffeine – may cause baby to be underweight

Exam tip
People often think that a pregnant woman should eat for two during. However, a woman should
only make a small increase in certain macro-nutrients to ensure a balanced diet. Make sure that
you know what these nutrients are and why they should be increased.

Lactation (breastfeeding)

Weight gained during pregnancy will be gradually lost as fat stores are used to produce milk.
Breastfeeding women are advised to:

 eat a balanced diet. Energy needs will increase, but some of this comes from the fat stores built
up in pregnancy
 eat foods containing iron and vitamin C to make up for the blood losses during birth
 eat foods containing calcium and vitamin D to provide for the baby’s growing skeleton and
maintenance of the mother’s skeleton
 eat foods containing protein to enable milk to be made and so help the mothers body recover from
the birth
 drink plenty of fluid to allow milk to be produced
 keep physically active

Check your understanding

1. Give one reason why a woman planning to have a baby should increase
her intake of folate (1 mark)
2. Identify three foods that should be avoided during pregnancy (3 marks)
3. Explain why those three foods (from above) should be avoided during pregnancy (3 marks)

PEOPLE TRYING TO LOSE WEIGHT

Key facts

Being overweight or obese:

 makes people likely to develop

 heart disease
 diabetes
 high blood pressure
 osteoarthritis in the hips and knees
 makes people depressed about their looks
 is a risk factor if a person needs surgery
 leads to breathing problems because of fat on the chest
 causes skin infections because bacteria are trapped under fat folds

People put on weight because

 over a period of time they take in more energy from food than they use in physical exercise
 they change their eating habits, e.g. they eat more energy-dense processed, fast and snack foods
 they eat between meals (snacking and grazing)
 they have a less active (sedentary) job
 they do not take physical exercise and spend a lot of time sitting and being inactive

Losing weight permanently

 takes a long time

 takes motivation, determination and support from friends and family
 requires someone to use more energy in a day than they take in from food so that fat stores in
their body are used up
 requires someone to gradually and permanently change their eating habits

Exam tip
Questions on this topic often cover meal or diet adaptation and healthy eating. Be prepared to
suggest some ideas and reasons for changing a given diet. For example, if someone does not
currently eat breakfast but at 9 a.m. eats a large slice of cake and a milkshake, you could suggest
that they eat a breakfast consisting of poached eggs on seeded bread with a cup of tea in the
morning. The eggs would provide them with protein, which is filling, so is likely to reduce the
chance of snaking later in the day, so may reduce the overall energy/fat intake, which will help
them to lose weight in the long term.

Changing eating habits and behaviour

 Eat fewer energy-dense foods, e.g. crisps, biscuits, cakes, fried foods, pizzas, mayonnaise and
sweet milky drinks such as café latte
 Eat more low energy foods, e.g. fruit salads, wholegrain cereals
 Eat more low fat or low sugar versions of foods, such as cheese, spreads, sweetened drinks,
yoghurts
 Change methods of cooking – grill, steam, bake rather than fry
 Change food portions – try using a smaller plate and resist second helpings
 Increase physical activity, e.g. walking, cycling, running, swimming, climbing stairs, playing a sport

Check your understanding

1. Identify three health or social problems associated with being overweight or obese. (3 marks)
2. Identify four reasons people gain weight. (4 marks)
3. Identify four lifestyle changes someone could make to help them lose weight. (4 marks)

VEGETARIANS

Key facts

A vegetarian diet

 Is based mostly on plant foods

 Does not include foods or food products where an animal, bird or fish has had to be killed

Reasons for following a vegetarian diet

 Do not want to eat flesh from dead animals, birds or fish

 Disagree with raising and killing animals, birds or fish for food (consider it to be cruel, a waste of
land, water, energy food)
 Consider a vegetarian diet to be healthier than a meat-eating diet
 Religious reasons

Types of vegetarians
Exam tip
 Lacto-ovo vegetarian – eat animal products, e.eg eggs (ovo), Have an understanding
milk (lacto), that have not required a bird or animal to be killed of the different types
or suffer physically of vegetarian, including
 Lacto vegetarian – as above but will not eat eggs what they do and do
 Vegans (strict vegetarians) – do not eat any animal food products, not eat. Think about
only eat plants how a vegetarian or
vegan could consume a
balanced diet.

Food labelling helps vegetarians to identify suitable and unsuitable foods using the logos above.

Dietary and nutritional needs

Follow current dietary guidelines.

It is particularly important to include enough iron, vitamin C, protein and vitamin B₁₂.
Iron:

 Iron from plant foods is less easily absorbed by the body

 Plant sources of iron: wholegrain cereals and cereal products, bread (added by law), fortified
breakfast cereals, lentils and beans, dried apricots and figs, nuts, seeds, some curry spices, black
treacle, green leafy vegetables, okra, broccoli, peas, brussels sprouts, cocoa and dark chocolate,
molasses
 If the need for iron is high (e.g. after loss of blood or due to heavy periods), a vegetarian iron
supplement may be needed

Vitamin C helps the body to absorb iron

Protein

 HBV proteins mostly found in animal foods except soya beans and quinoa
 Lacto and lacto-ovo vegetarians gain enough protein from animal products
 A combination of LBV plant proteins should be eaten to provide all essential amino acids (protein
complementing) – this is very important for vegans
 Soya milk and soya products are available, e.g. desserts, yoghurts, drinks, tofu, tempeh, custards
 Quorn is manmade from a mycoprotein. It is made into meat substitute products such as burgers
and sausages. It is unsuitable for vegans as Quorn is grown on egg protein and may contain milk.
 Protein complementing:
o Lentil soup and bread
o Nut, seed and bread roast
o Nut stir fry and egg free pasta
o Vegetable and soya bean curry and brown rice and naan bread
o Hummus and bread

Vitamin B₁₂

 Mainly found in animal foods

 Found in dairy products and eggs – lacto and lacto-ovo vegetarians should ensure they get enough
 Found in yeast extract, soya milk, sunflower margarine and fortified breakfast cereals
 Vegans may need to take a supplement

Check your understanding

1. Give three reasons why someone may choose to follow a vegetarian diet. (3 marks)
2. Identify two sources of protein suitable for a vegetarian. (2 marks)
3. Identify one good food source of vitamin B₁₂ suitable for a vegan. (1 mark)

COELIACS AND DIABETICS

Coeliacs

 Coeliac disease is caused by intolerance to gluten

 Gluten is the protein in wheat, barley and rye and products made from them. Some people are also
sensitive to oats, as the protein in oats is similar to that in gluten.
 The gut damage caused by coeliac disease prevents other nutrients from being absorbed in the
small intestine
 A lifelong condition

Symptoms

 Weight loss (but not in all cases)

 Chronic lack of energy and ongoing tiredness
 Chronic diarrhoea
 Anaemia – due to poor absorption of iron
 Poor growth in children
 Other nutritional deficiencies

Food labelling helps coeliacs to identify suitable and unsuitable foods.

Foods that coeliacs can eat: agar, almonds, amaranth,

Exam tip
buckwheat, carrageen, cassava manioc/tapioca), chestnuts,
corn (maize), linseeds (flax), gram flour*, millet, polenta, Be prepared to be given a recipe
potato flour, peas, beans, lentils, quinoa, rice, sago, and identify what ingredient(s)
sorghum, soya flour*, lentil flour*. Those with an * need make the recipe unsuitable for a
checking for gluten content. coeliac. For example, pancakes
made with wheat flour would not
be suitable; however, you could
substitute the wheat flour for
gluten-free almond flour

Diabetics Exam tip

There are two types of
diabetes Type 1 and Type 2.
Type 1 is insulin dependent
 Diabetes is a health condition where the amount of
glucose in the blood is too high
 Blood glucose is controlled by the hormone insulin
 Insulin is like a key, it ‘unlocks’ body cells to let
glucose in
 Diabetics either don’t produce enough insulin or their
body is unable to use it
 Hypoglycaemia means low blood glucose
 Hyperglycaemia means high blood glucose (damages
blood vessels in the eyes, feet, hands and kidneys, etc.)
 Diabetics are more likely to develop high blood pressure, heart disease, strokes
 No cure, but diabetes can be managed to control symptoms and limit long term damage

Two types of diabetes

Type 1 Type 2
 Insulin dependent (need regular daily  Non-insulin dependent
injections  Body does not produce enough insulin or
 Develops in childhood or early adulthood insulin doesn’t work properly
 Immune system destroys insulin producing  Linked to people being overweight or obese
cells in the pancreas  Treated (and development prevented) by
 Need to eat a balanced diet (eatwell plate) balanced diet (some people have to have
 Need to test blood and or urine for sugar tablets or injections as well), increasing
levels physical exercise, losing weight

There has been a large increase in the numbers of people developing type 2 diabetes, including many
young people.

Symptoms of diabetes

 Weight loss (particularly type 1)

 Lack of energy, tiredness
 Thirst
 Need to urinate more often
 Blurred vision
 Genital itching

Dietary advice for diabetics

 Follow current dietary guidelines

 Limit sugar intake
 Eat complex carbohydrate foods to release glucose slowly into the body, so it does less damage
and the body has time to deal with it
 No need to buy special diabetic foods
 Control intake of fat and salt to help prevent heart disease and high blood pressure
 Increase fruit and vegetables intake to provide antioxidants
 Read food labels to become aware of what different foods contain: look for ‘hidden’ sugars and
chemical names of sugars, e.g. sucrose, dextrose, maltodextrin, glucose syrup.
 Check your understanding

1. Identify one alternative to wheat flour that would be suitable for a coeliac. (1 marks)
2. State two symptoms associated with gluten intolerance. (2 marks)
3. Hypoglycaemia means a low level of blood glucose. True or false? (1 mark)
4. Explain three dietary guidelines that a diabetic (Type 2) could follow to
help to control their diabetes. (3 marks)
5. Give one reason why a diabetic is encouraged to read food labels when
buying food. (1 mark)

FOOD ALLERGIES AND INTOLERANCES

Key facts

 A food allergy means an allergic (bad) reaction to a food or ingredient

 An allergen is a substance in food that causes an allergy
 Allergens make the body produce histamine which causes these symptoms in a few seconds,
minutes or hours
o Skin rashes
o Itchy skin and eyes
o Runny nose
o Swollen lips, eyelids, face
o Wheezing, coughing
o Anaphylactic shock
 Anaphylactic shock is a very sudden and very serious allergic reaction;
o Mouth and throat swells
o Cannot swallow, speak or breathe properly
o Can be fatal
o Must be treated very quickly
 Foods that cause reactions in some people include eggs, peanuts, other nuts, seeds,
strawberries, kiwi fruit, seafood, e.g. prawns and shrimps
(there are others)

Food intolerance

 Sometimes called food sensitivity

 Symptoms
 o Pain and bloating in the abdomen
o Diarrhoea
o Nausea (feeling sick)
o Muscle and joint aches and pains
o General tiredness and weakness
 Hard to diagnose
 An example is lactose intolerance – cannot digest lactose in milk and dairy products. Bacteria in
the gut break it down and cause the symptoms. Avoid all food containing milk, milk products,
lactose and eat lactose-free products.
 Other intolerances – chocolate, cheese, some food additives, wheat gluten (but not always full
coeliac disease)

Managing allergies and intolerances

 Eat a balanced diet

 Avoid known problem foods
 People likely to have anaphylactic shock should carry an epipen to inject into their arm or leg if
they have a reaction. An epipen injects adrenaline into the blood to control the symptoms while
the person goes to hospital for further urgent medical treatment.
 Read food labels carefully
 Well known allergens are always shown on food labels
 Beware of ‘hidden’ names e.g. peanuts are also called ground nuts (e.g. groundnut oil); ‘arachis’ is
the Latin name for peanuts and might be an ingredient in medicines
 Check restaurant menus by asking about ingredients used if eating out
 Tell other people about your allergy so they understand and can help if needed
 Most food companies will provide a list of products containing possible allergic ingredients.

Check your understanding

1. What is meant by the term ‘food allergy’? (1 mark)

2. Identify three foods that people may be allergic to. (3 marks)
3. What is meant by the term ‘food intolerance’? (1 mark)

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Key facts

 CHD is a disease where the coronary arteries (which give the heart oxygen) become blocked
 Risk factors:
o High cholesterol in the blood
o Smoking – makes the blood sticky so more likely to form blockages
o High blood pressure – strains the heart and arteries, may be caused by eating too much salt
o Being overweight or obese
o Lack of exercise – the heart needs to be exercised to keep it well

Cholesterol
Exam tip
 made in the liver from the fats in the foods we eat This is a nutrition exam so you
 eating a lot of saturated fats (in meat, cheese, butter, are not expected to know the
suet, lard and solid vegetable fats) makes more detail of how coronary heart
cholesterol. Sometimes called ‘bad’ cholesterol disease occurs, but you do need
 eating more unsaturated fats (in vegetable, nut to understand the basic risk
and seed oils) makes less cholesterol. factors and how these could be
Sometimes called ‘good’ cholesterol avoided. Remember to make links
to healthy eating and dietary
Dietary advice to prevent CHD
guidelines in your answer.
 Follow current dietary guidelines
 Eat fruit and veg – antioxidants and fibre in them help
prevent damage to arteries by keeping cholesterol low
and preventing other substances from damaging them
 Choose low fat foods
 Limit saturated fat intake
 Grill or bake rather than fry
 Trim fat off foods
 Reduce amount of fat spread on food
 Reduce salt intake –use other flavours, eat fewer salty snacks, ready meals and baked items that
contain baking powder (baking powder contains sodium)

Other advice

 Don’t start smoking: stop smoking if already a smoker

 Take more physical exercise
 Try to lose weight if necessary

Check your understanding

1. Identify three factors that increase the risk of coronary heart disease. (3 marks)
2. Describe three ways to lower the risk of developing coronary heart disease. (3 marks)

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIVERSITY

Key facts

Factors that influence our food choices:

How much food What land is

The climate available to How
is imported
grow food? fertile is
and exported.
the soil?

What food is available?

Temperature How much water is

and sunlight What types How many available?
of shops are people there
there? are?
How food is transported

Food for social occasions Religious rules and traditions

What food is acceptable?

Personal likes and dislikes

Personal beliefs
and values

What food is affordable?

Homemade or readymade? What you can afford to buy

Social and economic diversity

Economic diversity:

 Economic diversity means the different amounts of money that different people live on and can
afford to spend on food.
 Rent, gas, electricity and other bills must be paid. People with a limited income may have to spend
less on food in order to pay for these.
 Cheaper food products are often made with cheaper ingredients, such as sugar, fat and salt.

Saving money on a limited income: Exam tip

 Use cheaper cuts of meat, e.g. shin beef, which may A question asking about eating on
need longer to cook a limited budget may link to a
 Use alternative, cheaper proteins, e.g. peas, beans, specific group of people such as
lentils instead of meat or to make meat go further students, families or the elderly.
 Make your own food rather than buying ready-made Do not panic; the majority of the
– cook a large batch and freeze some facts apply to all groups, for
 Use foods in season, e.g. fruit and vegetables example buy ‘value’ lines or use
 Make use of special offer, and collect money-off vouchers cheaper cuts of meat. Being able
 Use supermarket own brands and value line products to apply the knowledge to
different situations demonstrates
Social diversity: a good level of understanding.
Social diversity means the differences in people’s interests,
opinions, activities, friendship groups, values

Food is important in social diversity as it is used as:

 A gift
 A way of socialising, e.g. going out for a meal, sharing a drink with someone
 A reward
 A way of demonstrating your status, e.g. buying expensive wines or foods

Check your understanding

1. Identify five ways someone living on a limited budget could prepare meals
and meet their dietary guidelines (5 marks)
2. A family of four has a limited budget for food. Design a two-course meal
that is balanced and meets current dietary guidelines, but is cheap to make. (4 marks)

CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

Culture

Culture is:

 Ways of life and behaviour

 What we know and believe
 Customs, habits, laws, morals
 Inheritance and traditions
 Part of normal behaviour, e.g. eating certain foods
 A person’s values, e.g. their perception of good and bad foods, good and bad behaviour

Food culture

Food reinforces bonds between people and is an important part of celebrations

Food culture is how, what, why when and where people choose to eat

How food culture has changed

What has What people used How it has changed Effect of these changes
changed to do
Where food Home grown food and Food comes from large shops Lack of knowledge about food
comes from small shops
How we buy Buy food every day Buy food once or twice a  Fewer small shops
food month  Foods have a long shelf-life
How we Women cooked fresh  Ready meals eaten  Fewer people have cooking
prepare food foods at home  More women at work skills
 Less time for cooking  Many convenience foods
available
 Not just women cooking
What we eat  Traditional meals  Snack, fast and ready  Many energy-dense foods and
 Limited or foods not enough fruit or vegetables
seasonal choices,  Travel has widened food eaten
few food imports experiences  Many foods highly coloured and
 Little packaging  More types of foods flavoured
used available, many imported  Food from other cultures very
 Much packaging used popular
 Many foods eaten out of
season(imported) – comsider
energy use and environmental
damage
Where we eat  Most food eaten Food often eaten outside the  Eating out is a normal part of
at home home or alone in front of the culture
TV  Catering industry very large
 Family meals are less common
When we eat  Mostly at regular  People eat at different  Easy to overeat
set meal times times in one home  Snacking may lead to weight
 Food shops  Food can be purchased at gain
opened six days a any time
week during the
day only
Religion

Most religions have dietary rules or laws, often within traditional celebrations
Religious faith Dietary rules
Buddhism  Mostly vegetarian; some avoid meat and dairy products
 Buddhist monks fast and can only obtain food through donation by believers
Christianity  Fasting is sometimes observed
 Before Easter certain foods are given up for 40 days (Lent)
 Christmas food celebration for the birth of Christ
Hinduism  Do not eat beef or pork
 Avoid foods that cause pain to animals; vegetarianism is encouraged
 Believe food contains energies that are absorbed by people
 Onions, garlic and alcohol may be avoided because they affect spiritualism
 Dairy foods are believed to enhance spiritual purity
 Sometimes fast
Islam  Halal food is lawful, e.g. meat and poultry slaughtered in a ritual called zibah
 Rules set out in the Qur’an
 Haram foods are ‘unlawful’, e.g. pork and pork products (e.g. gelatine), alcohol,
foods with emulsifiers made from animal fats, frozen vegetables with sauce,
some margarines, drinks with caffeine, breads with dried yeast
 Fast for a month during daylight hours during Ramadan. Not allowed liquids
either
 Eid is the festival at the end of Ramadan
Judaism  Kashrut are Jewish food laws
 Kosher foods are allowed – Fish (with scales and fins), animals that chew the
cud and have cloven (split) hooves, e.g. cows, sheep
 Trefah foods are not allowed, e.g. pork, shellfish
 Dairy foods and meat must not be prepared in the same cooking area or using
the same equipment
 No work is allowed on Saturdays; food is prepared and cooked the day before,
e.g. slow cooked stew
 On Yom Kippur (day of Atonement) Jews fast from dusk to dusk
 Feast days include Rosh Hashanah and Passover
Rastafarianism  Eat strictly according to I-tal; food must be natural and clean
 Do not eat pork or fish longer than 30cm
 Eat many fruit and vegetables
 Cook with cocnut oil
 Do not drink alcohol, milk or coffee but drink herbal teas
Sikhism  Many are vegetarian
 On special days foods are eaten in the temple
 Eat together to show they are equal
 Some do not drink alcohol, tea or coffee

Exam tip
Religion and culture are complicated areas of revision. Be aware which religions encourage
vegetarianism and appreciate what food cultures each religion adheres to. For example, Hindus do
not eat beef and pork and avoid food that causes pain to animals, vegetarianism is encouraged.

Check your understanding

1. Explain four changes that have occurred in the last 25 years in relation to the way we buy, prepare
andTRANSFER
THE eat food. OF HEAT TO FOODS (4 marks)
2. Identify two religions where vegetarianism is encouraged. (2 marks)
Key facts
Food is cooked

 To destroy harmful bacterial and prevent food poisoning

 To develop the flavour of foods
 To make food easier to bite, chew, swallow and digest#
 To make foods more appealing and attractive to eat
 To give a variety by using different cooking methods
 To provide hot food
 To destroy natural toxins (poisons) in some foods
 To enable foods to rise, thicken, dissolve, set

The transfer of heat to foods

 Heat is energy
 Foods are made up of atoms joined together as molecules
 Molecules receive energy and vibrate and move quickly
 Heat is produced – the quicker the movement the more heat
 Conduction means heat passed through solid materials, e.g. metals, food
 Convection means passed through liquid or gas
 Radiation means heat passed through space 9NOT THOUGH SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS)