A Blended Learning Approach To Interacti PDF
A Blended Learning Approach To Interacti PDF
A Blended Learning Approach To Interacti PDF
TO INTERACTION IN
VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION
A CASE STUDY OF
AN ONLINE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
MEG LOMM
1
ORIGINALITY STATEMENT
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my
knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by
another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been
accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any
other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made
in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I
have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the
thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product
of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the
project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic
expression is acknowledged.
Signed ……………………………………………..............
Date …………………………………………….................
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to
archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the
University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to
the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as
patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or
books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation.
I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my
thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral
theses only).
I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or
I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has
not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital
copy of my thesis or dissertation.
Signed ……………………………………………...........................
Date ……………………………………………..............................
AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT
I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final
officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has
occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result
of the conversion to digital format.
Signed ……………………………………………...........................
Date ……………………………………………...........................
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to acknowledge my two committed supervisors, Kim Snepvangers and
Penny McKeon, for their continued support and guidance. Kim has guided me in the design and
development of the investigation and the processes involved with case studies in school contexts.
Penny provided conversations about thesis structure and reviewed the document in its draft form.
Both supervisors have inspired and motivated me to continue with this study. They have been
and Sinikka, who supported this program and the development of MOODLE as a learning tool in
the Redlands Visual Arts Department from 2006 onwards. Thank you to the Visual Arts Class of
2008, who engaged in the unit of work that was the subject of this study and who contributed
honestly to online discussions. To the Redlands Westpac artists who also participated in the
program and online discussions, Beth Norling, Lucia Usmiani and Darren Siwies, thank you too for
your commitment to the program and for providing me with rich data sources. A special thank you
should also go to Christopher Daunt-Watney, who awarded me the Redlands Staff Fellowship
I would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the College of Fine Arts Library and
Kensington Library services, both face-to-face and online; and the professional editorial assistance
according to Standards D and E of the Australian Standards for Editing Practice by the Council of
Australian Societies of Editors (2001), as revised by IPEd and approved by the Deans and Directors
3
Finally, my deepest thanks go to Mark, who has for some years now listened, and discussed
and commented on many parts of this study, and taken Caden out so I could write! Both of you
have made sacrifices for me to complete this study. Thank you for your love and support through
4
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
..........................................................................................................................................................
3
LIST
OF
TABLES
..........................................................................................................................................................................
7
LIST
OF
FIGURES
........................................................................................................................................................................
9
ABBREVIATIONS
.....................................................................................................................................................................
10
ABSTRACT
..................................................................................................................................................................................
12
CHAPTER
1
–
INTRODUCTION
...........................................................................................................................................
13
Overview of the Study .............................................................................................................................. 13
Case Study Background ........................................................................................................................... 16
A Social Context for Learning in Visual Arts Education ......................................................................... 17
A Blended Approach to Program Design in the Social Organisation of Instruction .............................. 23
The Problem: Socially Mediated Communication in Visual Arts Education .......................................... 23
The Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 24
The Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 25
Research Question 1 (RQ1) ..................................................................................................................... 25
Research Question 2 (RQ2) ..................................................................................................................... 25
Research Question 3 (RQ3) ..................................................................................................................... 25
The Need for, and Significance of, the Study ........................................................................................... 26
Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................................... 27
Terms Used in the Study .......................................................................................................................... 30
The Structure of the Study ........................................................................................................................ 33
CHAPTER
2:
THE
RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK
AND
LITERATURE
....................................................................................
35
Introduction: Social Constructivism and Technology in Art Education .................................................. 35
SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIVISM:
VYGOTSKY
AND
SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
.........................................................
36
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 36
The Appeal of Vygotsky’s Theories .......................................................................................................... 37
A Brief Digest of Vygotsky’s Work........................................................................................................... 39
THE
SOCIAL
CONTEXT
FOR
LEARNING
..........................................................................................................................
40
The Role of Schooling .............................................................................................................................. 40
THE
SOCIAL
ORGANISATION
OF
INSTRUCTION
.........................................................................................................
41
Instruction and Transformation ............................................................................................................... 41
Defining the Concept of the ZPD ............................................................................................................. 42
The ZPD Used to Locate Individual Differences ..................................................................................... 43
The ZPD as a Framework, Scaffold or Leading Activity ......................................................................... 45
The ZPD Interpreted as Assisted Performance and Symbolic Space ...................................................... 51
A Critique of Current Notions of the ZPD ............................................................................................... 55
SOCIALLY
MEDIATED
COMMUNICATION
....................................................................................................................
58
Mediation and Higher Mental Processes ................................................................................................ 58
Art, Cognition and Mediation .................................................................................................................. 60
Mediation in Content and Curriculum ..................................................................................................... 63
The Relevance of Vygostky’s Theoretical Framework............................................................................. 68
CURRENT
LITERATURE:
THE
SOCIAL
CONTEXT,
INSTRUCTION
AND
MEDIATION
.............................................................
69
The Social Context for Learning: A Background to the Changing Role of Schooling in Australia ........ 70
How Does the Shift in the New Economy Impact on Teaching and Learning? ....................................... 71
Social Capital and the Rise of Technology .............................................................................................. 77
Online Learning: Defining the Changing Role of Schooling in Australia............................................... 80
Social Organisation of Instruction: Online Environment, Theory, Interaction, Blended Approaches ... 84
Online Learning Theories ........................................................................................................................ 86
Online Interaction .................................................................................................................................... 89
Definition of a Blended Learning Approach to Instruction ..................................................................... 91
Socially Mediated Communication in Secondary Visual Arts Education ................................................ 94
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER
3
–
THE
RESEARCH
DESIGN
AND
METHODOLOGY
.............................................................................................
99
5
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 99
The Overall Objective of the Study ........................................................................................................ 100
The Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 100
Site Selection .......................................................................................................................................... 101
Ethics ..................................................................................................................................................... 101
The Research Participants ..................................................................................................................... 102
Sample Selection .................................................................................................................................... 103
Bias ........................................................................................................................................................ 105
Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 106
RQ1 Questionnaires and Student Reflections ........................................................................................ 106
Data Analysis: Qualitative and Quantitative Complementary Methods ............................................... 109
Triangulation in This Research Design ................................................................................................. 114
Methodology: Qualitative Research in Technology .............................................................................. 115
The Single Case Study Approach ........................................................................................................... 117
The Case Study Model ........................................................................................................................... 118
Program Context .................................................................................................................................... 120
The Visual Arts Program Design ........................................................................................................... 121
Interaction .............................................................................................................................................. 123
Vygotsky: The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) .......................................................................... 123
Perceptions: The Use of Salmon’s Five-Stage Model ........................................................................... 123
Processes: The Triple P Framework ..................................................................................................... 124
Products ................................................................................................................................................. 125
CHAPTER
4
–
RESULTS
AND
DISCUSSION
....................................................................................................................
126
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 126
RQ1(a) Results ....................................................................................................................................... 126
RQ1(b) Results ....................................................................................................................................... 133
RQ1(c) Results ....................................................................................................................................... 140
RQ2(a) Results ....................................................................................................................................... 150
RQ2(b) Results ....................................................................................................................................... 164
RQ3 Results ............................................................................................................................................ 169
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................. 171
CHAPTER
5
–
CONCLUSIONS
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
.............................................................................................
175
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 175
The Relevance of Theories Used in the Study ........................................................................................ 175
The Application of Theory to Visual Art Education .............................................................................. 176
The Appropriateness of Research Design .............................................................................................. 178
Summary of Research Findings ............................................................................................................. 178
Preliminary Conclusions from the Study ............................................................................................... 181
Recommendations from the Study .......................................................................................................... 183
Concluding Remarks .............................................................................................................................. 185
Suggestions and Implications for Continued Research ......................................................................... 188
APPENDICES
................................................................................................................................................................................
191
Appendix 1: Participant Information Statement and Consent Form ..................................................... 191
Appendix 2: Pre-Online Learning Questionnaire.................................................................................. 194
Appendix 3: Online Feedback Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 195
Appendix 4: The Triple P Framework Model ........................................................................................ 197
Appendix 5: The Conceptual Framework Scaffold ................................................................................ 198
Appendix 6: Art Prizes in Australia Case Study Program ..................................................................... 199
Appendix 7: Online Learning Activities ................................................................................................. 200
Appendix 8: Pre-Online Questionnaire: Responses to Question 10 ...................................................... 203
REFERENCES
...............................................................................................................................................................................
208
6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: How Cole’s Four Features of Apprenticeship Related to the Current Study
Table 5: Outline of the Data Collection Methods and Rationale, and How They Related to the
Research Questions
Table 14: Student Responses Highlighting Positive Interaction with the Online Artist Practitioner
Table 19: Artist’s Responses to Clues about Artwork and Researcher’s Interpretation of Them
7
Table 22: Summary of Responses in Discussion Threads according to Theme Categories
Table 23: Summary of Responses Categorised as ‘Makes Connections and/or Sees Relationships’
Table 25: The Ways that the Students’ Questions Engaged Aspects of the Conceptual Framework
Table 26: Artist’s Input Demonstrating Advice Given to Students in ARTIST Discussion Thread
8
LIST OF FIGURES
9
ABBREVIATIONS
CM Computer-Mediated
FTF Face-to-Face
IQ Intelligence Quotient
IT Information Technology
MCEECDYA Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth
Affairs
10
OvsAS1a, b, c Obelix vs Asterix [sic] Student 1 section a, b, c
11
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to design, implement and evaluate a New South Wales secondary school
blended Visual Arts Program. The online learning activities utilised Salmon’s (2002) Five-Stage
Model for online learning. The investigation explored two related areas: (1) limited reports of
historical and critical evaluations of Visual Arts Education in Australia and worldwide, and (2) the
effect that a blended approach to learning has on student perceptions, online interactions and work
samples. The sample in the current study investigated a class of twelve students, two teachers and
three art practitioners who worked online using MOODLE over a twelve-week period. A further
subsample selection was made to isolate the group with the highest interactivity. Methods of data
instruments were designed and used to analyse pre-online and post-online questionnaires; pre-,
mid-, and post-online reflection forums; teacher, student, and artist interactions; and asynchronous
online dialogue. Data analysis was emergent and initially the pawing method was used to isolate
salient categories, subcategories and themes, before effective instruments were designed. Coding of
responses was developed and direct interpretations made. Triangulation of the data occurred at the
level of data collection, research question design and data instruments created. The results
demonstrated student misconceptions and established the value of online learning experience, but
they also effectively isolated examples of interactions in discussions that encapsulate the theoretical
aspects of this study. There were six preliminary findings. This study has shown that a blended
learning approach to learning in the Visual Arts using an online environment can successfully
engage students in socially mediated interactions with art practitioners and changes student
perceptions about learning. There is evidence to suggest that blending art, technology and authentic
face-to-face and online experiences in the Visual Arts makes meaningful interactions possible.
12
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
The main aim of this study was to investigate the appropriateness of implementing the
developing the study there were two major motivations in researching and developing a secondary
school program that utilised current ICT practices. First, there is limited research reported in the
way that critical and historical areas of the Visual Arts Syllabus,1 (2009) are taken up in the context
of online learning in art education. The use of computer mediation in art education is also limited
(Scott, 1992). Secondly, the researcher, as a practising secondary Visual Arts teacher, believed that
authentic learning experiences, such as those provided by working with actual artworks and the
artist practitioner, provide students with opportunities for deeper engagement. A blended approach
to programming, gives students the opportunity to engage in meaningful interactions with artists in
the MOODLE online environment. The ability to have complementary face-to-face classroom
experiences with the actual artworks and in-group situations highlighted the importance of this
process. As the case study unfolded, mediation between artists/students and meaning making
became the central premise for learning. The significance of the study is that cognitive ideas from
Vygotsky (1978) and the broader educational field are linked in a practical way to learning,
instruction and mediation within art education (Efland 2002). Cognitive theory provided the
structure for the research framework and gave this study, avenues to make useful connections to the
emergent nature of qualitative investigations of online interactions and consequent data results.
1
For the New South Wales Board of Studies Visual Arts Syllabus, 2009, see
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/pdf_doc/visual-arts-st6-syl-from2010.pdf
13
The philosophical work of Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987) informed the threefold research
framework, which is detailed in the next chapter, but more importantly it contributed the theoretical
interaction with others. Socially mediated interaction was used to make connections to relevant
literature, theoretical frameworks, models of learning and art education theorists that were used in
this study. The relevance of Vygotsky’s work binds the theoretical notions of such authors as
Arthur Efland (2002), Kerry Freedman (2003) and Graham Sullivan (1993), who have expanded
Vygotsky’s work and made it relevant for contemporary art education. The importance of placing
art education at the centre of cognition is best explained by Efland’s (2002) integrated theory
approach and the emphasis on learning through meaning making. The importance of mediation in
the subject of Visual Arts and its potential for cognitive transformation are areas for further research
as contemporary modes of learning that are blended or online are not evident in recent research.
This seems contradictory as it is of the nature of the subject of Visual Arts for it to structure itself
within common mediated exchanges of multiple interpretations of art. See a discussion of the
As a response to the lack of research in blended and online applications in the subject of the
Visual Arts, the design of a suitably engaging secondary program and case study research design,
based on Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Online Learning Model (2002), took shape in the researcher’s
own teaching context, utilising existing school resources. It was at this point that the purpose and
objectives of the current study were confirmed. The first objective was to demonstrate student
perceptions pre-, mid-, and post- their online experience; the second, to evaluate socially mediated
communication and interaction with an art practitioner; and the third, to evaluate outcomes in the
form of possible work samples for further development and iteration in the researcher’s own
teaching practice. The three objectives mirrored the online work of Ken Ryba, Linda Selby and
Mandia Mentis (2002), who investigated the formative evaluation of online programs. The three
14
objectives were also paralleled within the triangulation of the research design and the research
questions. This provided a three-tiered methodology that utilised complementary qualitative and
quantitative analysis procedures to support and illustrate the research questions. See Chapter 3 for a
full discussion.
The study has used a mixed method approach to data gathering, analysis and investigation.
categories and theme coding were utilised to isolate and investigate salient student, teacher and
artist online dialogue. Interactions and dialogue statements were analysed first quantitatively then
through qualitative emergent categories. Interpretation of dialogue was completed through direct
interpretation of the data, the qualitative processes of member checking, and results are reported
using emergent descriptive interpretation, tables and graphs. The data tools were designed by the
researcher and are discussed in Chapter 3 to uncover examples of the theoretical positions explored
in the research framework and questions. The findings are summarised to point out student
misconceptions; the value of online learning and asynchronous discussion; the application of, and
reflection about, group work in an online environment; and the understanding of text types in art
writing practice. The kinds and amount of interaction within forums were also significant areas of
investigation, and findings are related to the isolation of student examples of ‘meaningful
understanding’ (Sullivan, 1993) and to the ‘enactment’ (Freedman, 2003) of the Visual Arts
Six preliminary conclusions have been drawn; these demonstrate the significant impact of
the study in the secondary school setting and the formative nature of evaluation of the program.
Finally recommendations are offered to the school’s Visual Arts Department and for future
research.
In the remainder of the introductory section, the case study background and context of the
The Redlands case study developed when the researcher made inquiries into the notions of
constructivism, technology and higher order thinking in Visual Arts Education. The available
literature showed a paucity of significant studies using the Visual Arts as the subject of blended or
online learning. This led the researcher to the path of establishing how Visual Arts could participate
in a constructivist experience within education. At first, the researcher was interested in establishing
a community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) using a constructivist model of delivery as
described by Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999), but as more research was compiled on the
definition and development of this type of learning it was deemed too broad and difficult to achieve
within a school environment and a limited time. A model that could support constructivist learning
was needed. Salmon’s (2002) model emerged as a suitable vehicle to establish program design
principles as it demonstrated how one would write for and support students working in an online
environment. The decision to develop a blended approach to include online and face-to-face
activities was decided by the researcher because, in the study of Visual Arts, the art object and the
art practitioner are central. The direction of the case study became clearer when the research design
was decided upon and the commitment was made to use two models: an online learning design
The nature of this case study was to investigate the interactions that occur in online learning
as an educational method for Visual Arts students in a secondary school setting. In particular, the
focus of the case study was the development, delivery, and formative evaluation of an online
learning unit within a program of work for Year 12 HSC students (2008) based on the Redlands
Westpac Art Prize and Collection. This study took place in a blended learning mode of face-to-face
teaching and online delivery using a discussion forum type option as offered by the MOODLE
online platform.
16
A Social Context for Learning in Visual Arts Education
The physical setting for this case study was defined by three different student experiences.
The first, the art prize competition, which is held annually at the Mosman Regional Art Gallery; the
second was the art collection, as a teaching resource; and the third was the communications with
associated art practitioners in an online learning environment. The importance of establishing the
educational role of the Redlands Westpac Art Prize was also considered here. The following five
sections outline the background to the prize, its educational role as a teaching resource, and the
The Redlands Westpac Art Prize was established in 1996. The aim of the Headmaster of
Redlands at that time was to establish a teaching collection for the school’s students. The collection
was to expose students to contemporary Australian artists and their works in the discipline of
painting. The main goal was to acquire a collection that would provide students and the general
school community opportunities to experience art objects directly in the school setting.
The art prize is sponsored by Westpac Bank, which each year gives the $20 000 prize
money. Many other companies that have a relationship with the school also donate money or time
in exchange for advertising on the school’s website, in the school newspaper, and within the
exhibition catalogue. Since 1999, the prize has been held at the Mosman Regional Art Gallery,
siting the exhibition in the broader community and the Australian art world. The prize has an
experienced curator who each year invites well known and up and coming Australian artists to
submit work not previously exhibited. An art judge is then invited to view the exhibition and choose
the winning work. There is also the opportunity for the audience to vote for a Viewers’ Choice
Prize. Currently the teaching collection is housed in the Arnold Library and Lone Oak, the main
17
Over the past twelve years the collection has evolved to include artists such as Imants
Tillers, Lindy Lee, Tim Johnson, Gordan Bennett, Philip Wolfhagen, Sally Smart, Julie Rrap and
Darren Siwes. In 2004 the prize was restructured to enable emerging artists to participate.
Established artists were asked to invite an emerging artist of their choice to join in the exhibition.
The first $5000 acquisitive prize was awarded to Megan Seres for the work ‘Untitled 2004’. This
restructuring added yet another dimension to the success and growth of the art prize. The school has
developed a comprehensive website documenting the artists, their works and the history of the
prize.
2. The Educational Role of the Redlands Westpac Art Prize and Collection
The Visual Arts at its core is about understanding the world through direct experience with
artworks. This direct interaction is an important step in the study of art. The meanings that are
understood from these authentic engagements are unique. Artists may choose to reveal personal,
social, cultural, political or religious events within complex artworks, and these need to be
experienced, interpreted and understood first-hand. Meaning and purposes are encoded in an artist’s
conceptual and material practice, and subject matter. These are often not experienced by the
audience when works are studied from reproductions, either in print or through virtual digital
media. It is vital for students to engage with artworks and the associated environments that artworks
exist in for authentic meaning to be elicited and understanding to take place. The importance of the
Redlands Westpac Art Prize collection for students of Visual Arts at Redlands is first and foremost
that students be given the opportunity to have such direct experiences of artworks within the school
setting.
Authentic experiences with artworks usually take place in the museum or gallery within the
framework of an excursion. Often the time with artworks is limited to a single day and may even be
reduced to minutes and short dialogues led by teachers or gallery public programs staff. Students
may be passive and minimally interactive unless prompted by structured activities. Completing
18
activity sheets, sketching, and writing personal notes about their experience are typical examples of
The Redlands Westpac Art Prize collection allows students to become engaged with
artworks both formally and informally for short or long periods of time. The artworks can be
revisited, photographed, sketched and interpreted from the student’s perspective. This flexibility is
Tapping into this resource, together with a connection with the associated art practitioner, is what
makes this program and case study distinctive from textbook-based learning and what gives the
The school is an active supporter of the arts community by hosting this annual contemporary
art prize. The prize is recognised in the art world and within the community as a prestigious event.
The school has developed strong connections to the Mosman Regional Art Gallery and its staff. The
art prize also provides the school with a forum to facilitate interactions between business
associations that sponsor the prize, and parents, staff and the community in general.
The Redlands Westpac Art Prize is an annual event that Year 12 Visual Arts students
participate in through a planned visit to Mosman Regional Art Gallery. Activities that have
• Exhibition reviews based on curatorial aspects and audience impressions of the winner.
2
‘Frames’ is a term used in the NSW BOS Visual Arts Curriculum and relates to a scaffold used to
encourage students to view artworks from four perspectives. The frames are Subjective, Structural, Cultural
and Postmodern. For more information, see the pdf at
http://www.google.co.uk/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=NSW+BOS+Visual+Arts+stage+6+curriculum+li
nk&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&redir_esc=&ei=cyUOT4nGJYGV8QO_hcTrBQ
19
• Students’ photographing of favourite works or sketching of them for their Visual Arts
Process Diaries.
• Students’ participation in the Viewer’s Choice Prize (after their having been supplied
• Students’ discussion of artworks with others while still in this authentic context.
The art collection has not formally entered into programming within the Visual Arts
Department of the school, as the artworks have not always been on site and on display in student-
accessible areas. This has been due to architectural limitations of the school’s physical environment.
But with the completion of the Peter Cornish Building and the Arnold Library, large works such as
those by Imants Tillers and Lindy Lee can now be displayed within the school. Part of the Art Prize
Committee’s role is to make sure the works are framed and mounted for display with appropriate
didactic panels. Student access has always been a key issue and the use of the works educationally
underlies the prize’s existence. The collection is spread across two campus locations. Student
accessibility varies according to the location of the works. This limitation should be addressed in
the future as the collection continues to expand. A comprehensive website has also been used as a
vehicle to introduce students to the art prize. This site documents the historical development of the
prize.
The MOODLE online learning environment was used in this case study to generate
interactive communication and dialogue between students, teachers and art practitioners. The
context of group work online was the main environment participants engaged in, although this was
often asynchronous. This setting gave students direct access to artists. Being able to formulate
20
discussions based around common syllabus structures, such as the Conceptual Framework,3 helped
This study used MOODLE courseware as a vehicle for delivering the online component of
the Visual Arts Program. The MOODLE platform was selected for six main reasons:
(1) MOODLE is an open source Course Management System (CMS), also known as a
established on a server.
(3) MOODLE has chat, forum and wiki functions that support synchronous or asynchronous
interactive opportunities for student online activities that the Visual Arts Program needs.
(4) MOODLE is also consistent with the social constructivist tradition that this study used as
(5) MOODLE can be partnered and synchronised with Edumate, the existing school data
(6) MOODLE gives authorship capabilities for both, administrator and teacher levels,
For these reasons MOODLE was suitable for establishing a learning community for Visual
Arts and the broader school community of Redlands. The front page of the school’s MOODLE
3
‘Conceptual Framework’ is a term used in the NSW BOS Visual Arts Curriculum and relates to a scaffold
used to encourage students to draw relationships between the World, the Artists, the Artwork and the
Audience. For more information, see the pdf at
http://www.google.co.uk/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=NSW+BOS+Visual+Arts+stage+6+curriculum+li
nk&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&redir_esc=&ei=cyUOT4nGJYGV8QO_hcTrBQ
21
Figure 1: MOODLE front page, 2010
Figure 2 presents the Visual Arts case study page as it was set up for the online component of the
program. The figure indicates the tasks and discussion forums that the students have used to
22
Figure 2: MOODLE Visual Arts case study online view, 2010
The Visual Arts Program design for this case study identified three important areas of online
interaction in the practices of art. It was developed after careful research and planning. The social
aspects of learning, such as context and instruction (Vygotsky, 1986), were considered as the
research framework unfolded. A blended approach to learning (Graham, 2005; Krause, 2008;
Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007) was established as the mode of delivery for the program. Activities were
tailored to include both face-to-face and online experiences. As the study design emerged, the
researcher decided that online interaction would be the only site for investigation in this case study.
For teachers who generate, implement and evaluate programs, the emerging and growing
educational structures afforded by the internet, software applications and learning platforms have
been a way forward in developing units of work for students in Visual Arts. Learning about
23
software as a tool is common in artmaking units, as there is a greater emphasis on artmaking in the
New South Wales Visual Arts Curriculum. In the history and criticism components of the course,
word processing may be used in essay writing or a Powerpoint presentation. Examples of learning
through technology are less obvious. These observations were highlighted further when the
researcher began to look for examples of literature and studies dealing with the historical and
There are two aspects to the problem that lies behind this study:
(1) the limited number of research reports of historical and critical evaluations of Visual Art
(2) the determination of what effect a blended learning environment has on student
The aim of this study was to design, implement and evaluate a blended unit of online work
for Year 12 students completing the Higher School Certificate Visual Arts course. The three
objectives of the study stemmed from the researcher’s interests in current ICT research practices
and were further influenced by the research framework. The first objective was to demonstrate
student perceptions before, during and after their online experiences. The second was to evaluate
the socially mediated communication that is produced during the online sessions while students are
working with an art practitioner; and the third was to evaluate the outcomes in the form of possible
work samples. The methodology was correspondingly focused on the three objectives as the major
site for case study research investigation. The study also made connections with, and contributions
to, the development of art historical and critical research in the secondary school setting.
24
The Research Questions
The research questions in this study were specifically designed to investigate the research
framework of the study, as set out in Chapter 2. Research Question 1 (RQ1) investigated the social
context for learning, focusing on student perceptions of, and reflections on, their experiences while
in the program. RQ2 was designed to investigate the socially mediated communication of the
(a) What are student’s initial perceptions of online learning, interaction, group work and the
(b) How do students perceive their experiences in using technology for group work, online
learning and the practices of art writing? (an explanatory, reflective question posed
online)
(c) Do student perceptions change as they engage in the unit of work? (posed post-online)
(b) How are Visual Arts Syllabus processes enacted within online learning and specific
What kind and quality of student products are developed through the online learning
environment?
25
The Need for, and Significance of, the Study
The study evolved over three years. At the time of initial development, there was a lack of
relevant research examples and papers in online learning and blended approaches to teaching with
technology in secondary school Visual Arts Education. Typically, research in Visual Arts Education
has been about artmaking from a teacher’s perspective (Bullock & Galbraith, 1992), assessment of
work (Blaikie, 1994; Blaikie, Schönau, & Steers, 2004), or interpreting children’s artmaking from a
psychological viewpoint (Cox, Koyasu, Hiranuma, & Perara, 2001). However limited research is
available in the writing practices of art (Lee 1993; McLaughlin, Thomas, & Peterson, 1984;
Szechter & Liben, 2007). This is particularly so when considering the use of online practices. (No
examples were located through literature searches). There seems to be a slow adoption of this type
The nature of Visual Arts Education as a meaningful and critical pursuit was captured in Graeme
Sullivan’s paper, ‘Art-Based Art Education: Learning that is Meaningful, Authentic, Critical and
Pluralist’ (1993). Sullivan’s work exemplifies the approach taken in the motivation and design of
the current study. Sullivan recognised art theoretical practices as remaining underutilised as a centre
of influence in art education. He identified a ‘gap’ in the teaching discipline of art education. The
present study, and specifically the Visual Arts Syllabus program design, offered an opportunity to
start to fill the gap between the teaching of theory and the doing of the practical in art education.
Sullivan gave an example of how historian and critic, Mary Eagle (1990, in Sullivan, 1993), who
works from an ethnographic point of view, establishes her critical practice from direct experience
with an art object and then a discussion with the artist. Eagle frames her critique from this
experience. This ethnographic approach is distinctive in the Visual Arts Program in this study.
Typically, New South Wales Visual Arts students study works of art from reproductions in
print or digital media. They may see an exhibition where they may be confronted by real artworks
26
and a short address from a teacher or gallery educator. The Visual Arts Program at Redlands exists
because of the school’s commitment to hosting the Redlands Westpac Art Prize and to having an art
collection accessible on site. This gives students the opportunity to become directly engaged with
artworks both formally and informally for short or long periods of time. Such direct experiences
with artworks in the school setting are rare because the majority of schools do not have the funding
to acquire such a collection. The value of access to the collection allows students to revisit,
photograph, sketch and interpret the artworks at many levels over time.
Within the context of the school itself, at the beginning of the current study, working online
was not a method used by any department. Blended learning was not used as a teaching practice
generally in the curriculum or specifically within the Visual Arts Department. To gain access to the
artists whose works are in the collection, the program was devised to include an online component
where students could have a discussion with the artists. This subsequently informed their
critical/historical writing and their understanding of the artist and his/her works. Tapping into this
resource and making connections to the artist practitioner is what makes the Visual Arts Program
This study was a single case study. No broad generalisations can be made from it. The study
investigated a sample of twelve students, two teachers and three art practitioners while working
with a blended approach to delivering face-to-face and online discussion over an eight-week
program. The unit of work fell within the framework of the NSW BOS Visual Arts Stage 6
Curriculum and it focused on a Visual Arts Case Study, Art Prizes in Australia. Visual Arts Case
27
Further, the study used only one small group of six participants to investigate interactions,
dialogue and sample work. In one episode the researcher had to act as a participant-observer due to
a technical problem that needed addressing to enable the students to continue working online.
Another important limitation of this study was the shortage of time available to train staff,
artists and students to deliver and engage in the online component of the program. Student
participants did not complete all the activities (namely Tasks 7 and 8) in the online program or
research model. Task 7 was the third online reflection opportunity and Task 8 was the Art Prizes in
Australia essay. It was not possible to extend the project as the participants had other important
HSC commitments. However, points of interest for the researcher emerged from the work that was
completed.
Access to internet was an issue for one participant in the group. Not having access at home
for even a short period of time impeded that participant’s progress in the first two activities of the
online program.
The group dynamic was also important in the motivation to undertake and succeed in the
online component. The group chosen for investigation worked successfully in an asynchronous
manner. The group also demonstrated a commitment to the Visual Arts course and program,
While the researcher is aware there are many approaches in blended learning, the use of a
blended approach has been limited to an activity level definition (Graham 2005) where both face-
to-face and online activities are offered to students. This decision provided for the interpretation of
the NSW Visual Arts Syllabus and related to the specific use of the Salmon Five Stage Model in the
The model used to develop the online component of the Visual Arts Program was Salmon’s
(2002) Five-Stage Model. In the current study the model was used to define the scope of the
28
methodology and arrange online group experiences. Salmon’s model sets up an organisational
The structure of the formative evaluation of the current study drew from the Triple P
Framework developed by Ryba et al. (2002). The triangulation and positioning of the research
questions followed the three broad areas of evaluation as set out by the framework to include
perceptions, processes and products. It was not the intention of the current study to use all aspects
of this framework. Rather aspects of the framework were used to strengthen and confirm the
The use of Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in the study was
limited as a theoretical point of view to ensure the researcher had designed the learning activities to
maximise student’s abilities to interact with adult practitioners within the online context. The case
study did not elucidate an individual participant’s psychological ZPD, nor whether participants’
The results also have limitations. The Online Feedback Questionnaire had one unintended
error with a group task question (Q29), where students were not able to respond because of a
technical error in the survey design in MOODLE. Students also experienced difficulties with the
last discussion thread where, initially, they were not able to post attachments to the forum. The
MOODLE default for attachments was set to 2meg4 and needed amendment. This impeded the
initiation of the discussion thread. Further issues with this particular discussion thread became
evident in the use of files, including those created in various versions of Microsoft Word. Some
students could not access files to update. This caused a significant time lag in the completion of the
4
2meg refers to the amount of data upload available to students.
29
The final limitation that directly related to the collection of data came with the realisation
that the IT Department in the school had decommissioned the MOODLE server without the
researcher’s prior knowledge. This meant that work samples that the researcher needed for RQ3
were lost. These technical issues were all emergent limitations imposed on the study.
Recommendations from this study are derived from the limitations as set out in the introduction and
The following glossary indicates how various terms and their intentional use is understood
Art: refers to the art world and encompasses the whole of art.
Art Education: refers to North American sources. This is a generic term encompassing the
study of, and research and theories in, education about art.
Case Study: (1) in the context of research methodology as described by Stake (1995), the
current study utilised the single case study approach in its design; (2) in the context of the New
South Wales Board of Studies Curriculum, the term refers to programs used as historical/critical
case studies in Visual Arts Education. These are typically units of work for senior students. A
Visual Arts Case Study is defined in the syllabus as working to ‘provide a means of studying
particular cases in the Visual Arts. Their function within the classroom is to illustrate a point or
something of significance’ (NSW BOS Visual Arts Stage 6 Curriculum, 2009, p. 33).
Conceptual Framework: as referred to in the NSW BOS Visual Arts Curriculum: ‘students
learn about the conceptual framework that provides a model for understanding the agencies in the
art world – the artist, artwork, world and audience. Students also learn about how this framework
30
provides for the understanding of the intentional and functional relations between artists and their
artworks, audiences and artists, audiences and artworks etc’ (Visual Arts Curriculum Stage 6, 2009,
p. 23).
Frames: as referred to in the NSW BOS Visual Arts Curriculum: ‘students learn about the
significance, value and belief in and about the visual arts’ (Visual Arts Stage 6 Syllabus, 2009, p.
25).
Interaction: is related to the interactivity that holds a firm relationship with social
development theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and the learning process that takes place within a community
(1) according to Vygotsky: symbolic tool use in human adult–child interactions within a
communications
(3) according to art education: meaning making in artistic interactions (Sullivan, 1993).
[practitioners] and other learners; and the obtaining of support during the learning process in order
to acquire knowledge, construct personal meaning, and grow from the learning experience.
1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994) by interactions between people and their environment (McMahon,
1997). Learning occurs through social interaction with more knowledgeable peers (Lave & Wenger,
31
2000) and the context of learning provides for meaningful learning to occur (McMahon, 1997).
Social Context for Learning: according to Harry Daniels (2007), in his paper ‘Pedagogy’
published in the Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky: the types of pedagogic practices currently
being researched from a Vygotskian perspective. In the current study the phrase is used to elucidate
Social Organisation of Instruction: a phrase used by Vygotsky in his book Thought and
Speech (1987) to capture how he saw the unique, cooperative learning relationship between adults
and children. In the current study the phrase is used to elucidate the second aspect of the research
framework.
relationship with what he called ‘higher mental processes’. There are two aspects that he elaborated
to define this understanding: (1) the involvement of human adult interaction and (2) the introduction
of symbolic (Kouzlin, 2003) psychological tools or signs (Wertsch, 1990) within a social interaction
or activity. In the current study the phrase is used to elucidate the third aspect of the research
framework.
Visual Arts: a school subject in New South Wales. Defined in the curriculum as: ‘Visual
Arts as a subject provides for various interpretations of the visual arts that are both contemporary
and relevant. Acknowledging that Visual Arts encompasses the areas of art, craft and design, the
subject is theoretically and practically sustained by practice, the frames, and a conceptual
framework about art. These underpinnings form the basis for content and accommodate different
student interests and abilities’ (Visual Arts Stage 6 Syllabus, 2009, p. 6). This term was used in the
32
Visual Arts Education: as the current study was focused on an Australian curriculum, this
to in the design of the research component of the study, and as understood in a more contemporary
sense: students’ exposure to real-life settings for learning with adults. The term has been applied
here as an overarching concept in relation to how interaction is understood to occur between adults
and children in a learning experience, that is, through the use of leading activities and scaffolding
Chapter 1, above, provides an overview of the current study and introduces the setting in
which it took place. The site was singularly placed within a school with an art collection that
comprises works from an art prize. The Visual Arts Program at the school is designed to contribute
to the student understanding of the art prize in terms of the practice of art writing. Chapter 1 further
introduces the key aspects of the research framework, the problem the study investigated, and the
study’s objectives, significance, research questions, and its limitations. As seen above, the chapter
also introduces key terms: their definitions and uses in this study.
Chapter 2 combines the research framework and literature review by applying the social
constructivist approaches developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky. The social context for learning,
the social organisation of instruction, and socially mediated communication are three relevant
aspects of his theory that are explained in this study. The literature review utilises this threefold
framework to select relevant publications from a multitude. This was particularly useful when
dealing with ICT education. The social context for learning establishes the role of schooling in the
twenty-first century, social capital and the rise of technology. The literature review then explains
the social organisation of instruction. This highlights the MOODLE environment, online learning,
33
interaction and the use of blended learning approaches in current ICT educational practices. Current
online learning models relevant to this study are also presented and explained. Socially mediated
communication in Visual Arts Education is explored through the concept of mediation, as presented
in the studies of visual culture and meaning making. A focus on direct experience with art objects
and art practitioners is presented to keep the focus of the literature within Visual Arts Education.
Chapter 3 establishes the research design, methodology and the conceptual development of
the case study. The chapter offers a description of the methods, procedures, program content, and
Chapter 4 highlights results and discussion points using three research questions as the
organising structure, providing rich, detailed descriptions and interpretations of the data sources,
Finally, Chapter 5 outlines the relevance of the theories and research design of the study,
draws preliminary conclusions from the summary of results, makes recommendations for the
Redlands’ School Visual Arts Department program, and suggests matters for further study.
34
CHAPTER 2: THE RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE
In recent years, there has been much reflection from educationists on the process of
teaching, learning and knowledge acquisition. The emergence of social constructivist epistemology
has its origins in Vygotsky’s perspective on cognitive development as being a product of social
interaction. That is, learning takes place during shared communicative experiences with more
knowledgeable peers or practitioners (Lave & Wenger, 1991), mainly through leading activities
(Griffin & Cole, 1984) and assisted performance (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990). Vygotsky emphasised
the social organisation of instruction within activity as a unique developmental relationship between
children and adults, and between children and children. By situating individuals within specific
social systems of interaction, relationships move from sign-mediated to socially mediated activity
(Minick, 1987a, in Moll, 1990). The Vygotskian concept of the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) becomes evident in such collaborative activity when there is importance placed on
constructing meaning (Vygotsky, 1978). It is important to note that Vygotsky was also interested in
art and literature and wrote The Psychology of Art in 1925. He believed art to function as a vehicle
for cognitive transformation. This was because of art’s symbolic and cultural nature as ‘a
and because of how humans react socially and emotionally to art objects. Meaning in art is
constructed over time and often evolves to use ‘symbolic codes and cultural conventions’ (Sullivan,
1993, p. 11). For Vygotsky the use of these codes as psychological tools offers the mind an
opportunity to expand ‘basic emotions into higher psychological processes’ (Adrian, Paez, &
Vygotsky is best known for his application of social development theory and psychological
35
constructivists believe knowledge is socially and culturally constructed. If learning is to be
meaningful, the milieu in which learning occurs is fundamental to the process of learning itself
(McMahon, 1997). The interactions with the environment, the learner’s prior knowledge, impact on
the outcomes of the learning process, subject-specific practices and the production of learning
Today, the rise of, and engagement with, technology supports the use of social
constructivism in secondary schools. This is particularly so with online learning (Jonassen, Peck, &
Wilson, 1999; Salmon, 2000), a construct that is being applied in subjects such as mathematics
(Kennedy, 2005), science (Loughland, 2008; Ng, 2010; Pedretti, Mayer-Smith, & Woodrow, 1998),
and the social sciences (Doolittle & Hicks 2003). Interestingly, Visual Arts Education seems to be
under represented in recent research illustrating application of the principles of social constructivist
thinking in education. It is contended that this is inconsistent as the historical foundation of art
education has a long engagement with the concepts of meaning making, authentic practice, critical
reflection and pluralist perspectives (Sullivan, 1993). Within the discipline itself, most research is
conducted into artmaking. The practice of art theory, remains an underutilised area of research
when drawing theoretical relationships to social constructivist epistemology. The current study is
Introduction
Vygotsky’s works are not typical of a psychologist as he wrote and lectured in many disciplines: the
social sciences, philosophy, literature and art. Vygotsky was an intellectual who lived and worked
36
thinking. Psychology for Vygotsky was cultivated within a Marxist tradition. The establishment of
the ‘new society’ played a fundamental role in his thinking, specifically towards educational
psychology. He was directed to reform Soviet psychology at the Psychological Institute of Moscow
University in 1924. He took this responsibility very seriously and began intensively to research,
test, develop and expound a theoretical approach to social psychology. For the next ten years he
researched and wrote extensively until his untimely death at thirty-eight years of age from
tuberculosis. Vygotsky was prolific, generating approximately 180 works. The political climate of
his time and afterwards, suppressed publication of his work until well after Stalin’s death in 1956.
The elements of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework are not straightforward, and would be
too vast to examine within the scope of this study. Rather, a thematic summation of his work is
presented and educational elements relevant to this study are identified and described. The themes
explored are the Social Context for Learning, the Social Organisation of Instruction, and Socially
Mediated Communication. These elements form the research framework of the current study. As
Vygotsky’s theories have been expanded by other psychological researchers, the examples used
here often demonstrate a psychological point of view; however, the intention here is to show how
the teaching and learning tasks developed in this study have been informed and constructed within
Vygotsky’s three thematic structures. These are: (1) internalisation, instruction and transformation,
(2) the ZPD, and (3) mediation and higher mental processes. Vygotsky’s themes will be shown to
Vygotsky considered cognitive development to take place in a social and historical context,
often through collaboration or apprenticeship with others. The individual is understood always to be
part of a group, whether a family, a school class or broader society. The development of the
individual is entrenched in cultural traditions, society’s limitations and, most importantly, the use of
language. On Vygotsky’s view, language is the catalyst within each individual where
37
developmental transformations can begin to occur. The individual experiences a process of
internalising concepts. This process of development produces new functioning tools and skills for
the individual to access when problem solving. Vygotsky’s theory is driven by the need to
understand social and individual processes. Semiotics is the hub in his theoretical approach, as
language is the basis of both social and individual processes. Vygotsky understood that individuals
could function within a sociocultural environment only. Today’s sociocultural environment includes
traditional forms of communication as well as technological advances in it. The internet offers a
new cross-pollinated world and access to many cultures globally. Individuals are exposed to a blend
of social communicative experiences, both face-to-face and online. Vygotsky’s theories continue to
be relevant to contemporary research into, and thinking about, social development because his view
offers the researcher a position that is embedded in social activity when learning.
engages in similar aims and objectives to enable achievement and growth. The key features of
Social Development Theory are interaction, organisation, leadership, and learning. Social
development theory advocates that social interaction precede development. In other words, without
interaction one cannot learn and progress in a group or into broader society. Research in psychology
has traditionally focused on the individual. Research concepts often start with the examination and
investigation of existing cognition in isolation from the context of society. Vygotsky’s opposing
approach – to study children within the context of school or group situations – was once not
welcomed, although eventually psychological theorists re-visioned and re-contextualised his initial
theories, bringing them to the forefront of psychological research that uses an ethnographic
approach.
Vygotsky’s work is relevant to the research framework in the current study as it positions
language or mediation at the centre of development within a social context. In the current study, the
38
online community, textual dialogue (through signs and symbols), and the investigation of the
mediation that takes place through them are at the centre of the research design.
As Vygotsky’s works were written, and have been published, in Russian, non-Russian-
speakers’ reading and understanding of them can only be as effective as the quality of their
translations allow. Many theorists have found extrapolating exact meaning and developing a clear
theoretical approach from them to be problematic. Instead a thematic approach to understanding his
work is accepted. James V. Wertsch has been helpful. His (1985) work, Vygotsky and the Social
Vygotsky. Wertsch outlined ‘three themes that form the core of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework
(1) a reliance on a genetic or developmental method (2) the claim that higher mental processes in
the individual have their origin in social processes and (3) the claim that mental processes can be
understood only if we understand the tools and signs that mediate them’ (Wertsch, 1985, p. 14).
that exist within human consciousness and thought. He was interested in the process of
development rather than the product of it. This is evidenced in his writing in Mind and Society
of mediation’ (Wertsch, 1985, p. 15), that is, the conversion of symbols in language. Mediation is at
the core of Vygotsky’s theory and it is the mechanism that produces higher mental processes.
Through the use of psychological tools, people are able to have symbolic interaction with others
that has meaning. Vygotsky also wanted to observe ‘thinking’ in the context of schooling and he
was the first to integrate educational and psychological research. His interest in the construction and
emergence of the ZPD in children is a key research theme that has been explored by many theorists
since Vygotsky’s death. (See ‘Defining the Concept of the ZPD’ later in this study for a detailed
explanation.) Vygotsky’s work offers an explanation of the social organisation of instruction and
39
how formal education becomes part of leading development. Vygotsky further detailed and
described the function of scientific concepts and everyday concepts as ways of understanding and
Vygotsky asserted that the social context for learning has a powerful relationship to
teaching, instruction and cognitive development. Being both a teacher and psychologist he saw the
necessity to study psychology within a formal school setting to help inform and formulate a
research strategy or approach like the ZPD. Schooling for Vygotsky was fostered through mediated
sociocultural activity (Moll, 1990) and interaction between teacher and student in a learning context
or circumstance that had a positive impact on thinking and cognitive development. The aim of
formal schooling and school subjects should be to give opportunities within social contexts for
students to enlarge their own ZPD. This can occur only within a context that allows for proficiency
in socially and culturally motivated and lead activities. Students need to possess the ‘cultural tools’
(Moll, 1990, p. 12) that allow them to participate successfully in interactive activities. The mental
processing of these cultural tools is embedded in students’ sociocultural environment and the
interactions that arise for students to learn. It is through the vehicle of speech and language that this
process takes place. Vygotsky saw students as ‘elaborators of contents rather than receivers of
instruction’ (Blanck, 1990, p. 50) and he saw that development occurs through interaction with a
more competent peer or adult (Lave & Wenger, 2000). He also emphasised that it is impossible to
separate the individual from the social (Moll, 1990) in this relationship. For Vygotsky, ‘co-
operation and collaboration are crucial features of effective teaching’ (Daniels, Cole, & Wertsch,
2007, p. 311).
40
Vygotsky’s theories on the role of schooling are salient for this study because they resonate
with the key ideas of learning in a socially constructed environment online. Students engage in
groups to complete activities led by art practitioners using both speech and language in text form
within an asynchronous dialogue to mediate and communicate their understanding about artists and
their artworks.
It was important for Vygotsky that the social organisation of instruction be placed at the
heart of educational practice and that it institute the cognitive development of young children.
Vygostky wrote: ‘the only good kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of development and
leads it’ (Vygotsky, 1986, p. 188). Instruction was understood by Vygotsky to lead development; it
is directly linked to the process of mediation in learning and internalising new concepts. Vygostky
(1978) differentiated two types of instruction: ‘scientific concepts’, those learnt through organised
instruction such as formal schooling; and ‘spontaneous heuristics’, those learnt in everyday
experiences. The relationship between spontaneous and scientific concepts was characterised as
polar opposites. Yuriy Karpov (2003) provided a thorough and useful explanation of the opposing
learning/instructed learning. It is clear from these binaries that one cannot have one without the
other, as spontaneous heuristics are the foundations for scientific concepts, which, in turn, become
‘transformed into everyday life knowledge’ (Karpov, 2003, p. 66; Moll, 1990). This transformation
changes the role of spontaneous heuristics so that they ‘become structured and conscious’ (Karpov,
2003, p. 66). This demonstrates the interrelatedness of the two concepts, and when and how the
41
Karpov also drew a connection between the nature of scientific knowledge and the creation
of the ZPD’s spontaneous heuristics. He referred to the work of Seth Chaiklin (2003) that will be
discussed in the next section. One significant point that Karpov made was that Vygotsky believed
that, once students acquire scientific knowledge, their thinking is mediated and problem solving can
begin. Being able to reflect consciously is part of this process, giving students the capacity to
become ‘theorists rather than practitioners and develop the ability to operate at the level of formal-
logical thought’ (Karpov, 2003, p. 66). This would be the outcome of development led by carefully
Vagueness and ambiguity are two words that have been used to describe Vygotsky’s
definition and interpretation of the ZPD. In his writing, Vygostky presented a brief definition of the
ZPD as ‘the distance between [a child’s] actual developmental level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). This
definition is the most direct explanation that Vygotsky offered on the topic as his untimely death
precluded further elucidation. A survey of the applications of Vygotky’s research will help to
understand how the concept has developed since his death. The following survey of definitions and
ethnographical and educational investigations. A review of the relevant literature reveals many key
features appropriated and applied from the ZPD in practice. It is also important to note that the
variety of appropriations of the ZPD in many applied theorists’ works incorporate much of
include the work of Campione, Brown, Ferrara, and Bryant (1984), Griffin and Cole (1984), Brown
42
and Ferrara (1985), Cole (1985), Moll and Greenberg (1992), Tharp and Gallimore (1988, Wertsch
(1993), Meira and Lerman (2001), Chaiklin (2003), Verenikina (2003), and Rio and Alvarez
(2007), which contributes to the development of a clearer understanding of the definition and
function of Vygotsky’s intentions and of the contemporary facets of the ZPD in practice.
Brown and Ferrara revealed that the ZPD is ‘not just testing philosophy but rather it is a rich
Vygotsky hypothesised that all learning occurs in shared social experiences and that higher
psychological processes materialise within the social interaction that occurs between adults and
children especially. Brown and Ferrara identified internalisation as the key concept of Vygotsky’s
whereby learning becomes apparent with the presence of others, typically adults. Problem solving
moves from the social domain to the independent domain. Internalisation of this process occurs
• dependent on others
• guided by others
• supported by an adult or peer, while children gain understanding and take control of
learning.
43
The adult/peer then takes on the role of guide or of someone who ensures the child’s progress.
Learning occurs in two stages by: ‘other-regulation’, learning with aid; and ‘self-regulation’, using
internalised methods to solve problems. Vygotsky’s ZPD is located in the context of interactive
problem solving that starts off as a shared experience within an activity where knowledge and skills
Brown and Ferrara’s research was concerned with examining the validity of Soviet methods
of testing learning potential. To accurately identify an individual’s ZPD ‘requires a detailed task
analysis of a suitable set of cognitive tasks and detailed task analysis of possible transfer probes’
(Brown & Ferrara, 1985, p. 284). For Brown and Ferrara, a typical analysis of the extent of a ZPD
is produced by ‘how many prompts a [child] needs to solve problem 1, versus problem 2, versus
problem 3’ (Brown & Ferrara, 1985, p. 284). The ZPD demonstrates levels of interactive problem
solving and the transfer of learning, that is, how fast children can transfer skills to new situations.
What is identified in this type of testing is how rapidly a child gains knowledge, and how far the
Brown and Ferrara summarised psychological testing methods and established tools that can
define a child’s ZPD. A profile of a child’s learning potential can be isolated and the correct support
for, or apprenticeship required within, activities can be calculated. Educational implications of the
use of the ZPD are conclusive as Brown and Ferrara offered several points to consider. They
asserted that developing tools to create learning profiles is paramount, and that defining and
assessing children’s learning domains is also important. When teaching and learning opportunities
exist, instruction should be aimed at a student’s ‘upper’ zone for effective knowledge transfer to
occur. This facilitates the student’s attainment of advanced levels of knowledge and skills more
44
efficiently than exposure to concepts aimed at existing accomplishments. For Brown and Ferrara,
Campione et al. (1984) characterised the ZPD as ‘the distance between the level of
performance that a child can reach unaided and the level of participation that she or he can
accomplish when guided by another, more knowledgeable individual’ (Campione et al. 1984, p.
77). This position emphasises that the ZPD operates as a measure of individual differences in
children. The researchers stipulated that Vygotsky used the ZPD to account for individual
differences and they emphasised two points. Vygotsky, first, distinguished ‘a child’s actual
achievement tests), and [secondly] the child’s level of potential development (performance
achievable with aid)’ (Campione et al. 1984, p. 78). This ability to differentiate between various
developmental levels allowed Vygotsky to perceive a child’s achievement prospectively rather than
retrospectively (Vygotsky, 1978). He was concerned with where students could go in their
development rather than analysing where they were currently. The learning potential of children
Michael Cole (1985) drew parallels between cognitive psychology and social anthropology
to establish the criteria for a culturally grounded theory of cognition. He outlined Vygotsky’s notion
of the ZPD as a framework indicating the ‘shifting control’ or ‘changing responsibility’ (Cole,
1985, pg. 155) that takes place within a learning activity or task. Cole isolated this as a critical
feature of the ZPD. He cited the work of Fortes (1970), Kulah (1973), Lave (1978), and Childs and
responsibility and shifting control amongst communities. Field examples in these studies came from
non-western settings and cultures where apprenticeship is a typical method used to encourage
Cole also identified instruction as an integral part of learning. The method and order of
instruction is crucial for successful apprenticeship. The careful facilitation of the physical learning
process can provide the learner with greater potential and more effective scholarship.
Cole summarised what he called ‘common ground achieved’ (Cole, 1985, p. 158) within
research on the topic. The four main features of it are presented in column one of Table 1. The
points are also relevant to the current study, with the second column signalling what could happen
Table 1: How Cole’s Four Features of Apprenticeship Related to the Current Study
1. The basic unit common to the analysis of both 1. Common unit of a blended environment was
cultures’ and individuals’ psychological processes. used to analyse processes.
2. A unit consisting of an individual engaged in 2. Students were involved in online activities using
goal-directed activity under conventionalised the convention of the internet as a constraint;
constraints; examples variously designated as an activities included events that motivated activities
‘activity’, a ‘task’, an ‘event’. and tasks.
3. Where children are concerned, activities in this 3. Students engaged in dialogue with adults to
unit are peopled by others, namely adults. complete online activities. The adults, artists and
art teachers were (and are) experts in their field.
These four statements were determined by Cole to be common ground for analysts to adopt
in their research in culture and cognition. Cole advocated that anthropologists view activities as the
46
foundation for ‘internal activity’ (Cole, 1985, p. 158) or as cognition studying ‘social structure’
(Cole, 1985, p. 158), while psychologists probe the associations within activities (social structures)
in their effort to determine ‘laws of internal organisation’ (Cole 1985, p. 158). These various
approaches to research highlight the different ways that cognitive acquisition of theoretical-type
do not want to take the cultural content of activity as given, we now have common ground that can
serve as the basis for a culturally grounded theory of cognition’ (Cole, 1985, p. 158).
Peg Griffin and Michael Cole (1985), in their paper ‘Current Activity for the Future: The
Zo-ped’, examined Vygotsky’s ZPD, stating that his conceptualisation of it grew out of his rejection
of standardised testing and the implications such testing had for children’s development. Vygotsky
contended that testing, including Intelligence Quotient determinations did not completely illustrate
the development of a child and could not explain relationships between development and
instruction. The process of instruction and its relationship to development is another key feature of
scrutiny of extended research on ‘Next-step versions of the zo-ped’ and ‘scaffolding’. Griffin and
Cole expressed the view that researchers using the ZPD view the phenomenon too narrowly in
relation to the ‘understanding [of] the social genesis of human cognitive processes and the process
of teaching and learning’ (Griffin & Cole, 1984, p. 45) that Vygotsky intended. Griffin and Cole are
critical of the next-step process, and the work of researchers such as Hunt (1961), Turiel (1972) and
Siegler (1981). Their interpretations considered the sequential steps that are involved in learning
and problem solving. However, Griffin and Cole drew distinctions from next-step notions,
47
advocating rather that ‘Zo-peds’ are anticipated to epitomise numerous levels of an activity at the
one time. For Griffin and Cole, understanding what has come before and what is coming next is an
essential element of the ZPD. The authors advocated the need for apprenticeship in creating a
scaffold within a real-life context or environment. A limitation of the next-step notion is also
revealed as its not being able to ‘differentiate [this] on empirical grounds’ (Griffin & Cole, 1984, p.
47). Griffin and Cole went on to discuss that the metaphor of scaffolding as developed by Wood
(1980) is not unlike the ZPD. However, the notion of scaffolding does not offer the researcher an
avenue to view the changes in the child, therefore it could be limiting a child’s development of new
goals. Griffin and Cole further advocated that ‘the scaffold metaphor leaves open questions of the
child’s creativity’ (Griffin & Cole, 1984, p. 47). That is, children’s development is restricted by
adult’s attained knowledge. From a more recent publication, Irina Verenikina’s (2003) paper,
‘Understanding Scaffolding and the ZPD in Educational Research’, set out to examine the many
interpretations of scaffolding and its relationship to the ZPD through educational research. She
sought to identify both the metaphor in action as well as its limitation in isolating a ZPD. She
accepted that scaffolding is at the heart of the ZPD, citing a variety of interpretations, and
consensus with Daniels (2001), Wells (1999), Berk (2002), McDevitt and Ormrod (2002), and
Krause, Bochner, and Duchesne (2003). Her analysis was well balanced in detailing the strengths
contribution to understanding the relationship between scaffolding and the ZPD. For example,
(1) the essentially dialogic nature of the discourse in which knowledge is co-constructed
48
From these identified features, Wells understood scaffolding as a process operationalising the
Mercer and Fisher (1993, in Wells, 1999) argued that a teaching and learning event should:
(1) enable learners to carry out the task which they would not have been able to manage on
their own
(2) be intended to bring learners to a state of competence which will enable them eventually
(3) be followed by evidence of the learners’ having achieved some greater level of
Mercer and Fisher viewed ‘the transfer of responsibility for the task as a major goal of
scaffolding in teaching’ (Verenikina, 2003, p. 2). Lave and Wenger (1991) were critical of
communication process when compared to the notion of the ZPD. Lave and Wenger interpreted the
notion of scaffolding as ‘limited compared to ZPD ... that emphasises teacher-learner collaboration’
Griffin and Cole (1984) continued also to investigate the work of Nicholas Bernstein (1966),
Peter Anokin (1969) and Alexander Luria (1978) to further uncover an understanding of the ZPD.
Bernstein brought to the discussion two main points – the notion of the model of future and past
activities, and the concept of the functional system – as elements in the process of development.
The second concept, functionality was further expanded by Anokin and Luria. Griffin and Cole
stated:
From Anokin and Luria, we can see that the constituents of the Zo-
ped, as aspects of functional system, will have flexible roles. The
material, the task, the adults, the children, the models of the future,
the models of the past, and the temporal arrangements all function
together, as the needs and opportunities arise, to perform the function
of development (Griffin & Cole, 1984, p. 49).
49
So the ZPD is dominated by many features and affected by input from all the components involved
in a social learning situation. The resources and learning activity are unravelled through past
experiences with the help of adult-and-child interactions that cite the acceptance of a common
future understanding.
Griffin and Cole (1984) also introduced the idea of the ‘leading activity’. Citing its origins
in the work of Leont’ev (1981), the leading activity is related to a student’s reality of functioning.
With justified leading activities at the right time, the student’s everyday functioning will be
reorganised to incorporate the learning and understanding from the leading activity – in essence,
internalising it. This act opens up the opportunity for a ZPD to exist. However, only students ready
to accept the leading activities’ outcomes will be open to develop their ZPD potential. The ZPD
On the back of these concepts, Griffin and Cole highlighted three points that they were
development.
2.3 the appearance of new leading, activities which provides for the emergence of new,
performances.
50
With these three concepts explained, Griffin and Cole asserted their position through
examples in teaching, learning and development opportunities engaging the ZPD. Their research
illustrated the emergence of the ZPD within leading activities amongst play, peer activities and
work activities. They discovered that it is the leading activities framework sequencing that permits
students at different levels to access the ZPD and develop their understanding of the learning
activity.
Similarly, Ronald Gallimore and Ronald Tharp (1990) explored the concept of ‘assisted
performance’ as a notion mirroring learning and development when instituted within a ZPD. They
were extremely critical of the then current education position and believed that teaching practices
were controlled and narrow in allowing students and teachers to experience a ‘connected discourse’
(Gallimore & Tharp, 1990, p. 175) within interactive experiences. Gallimore and Tharp advocated
instructing, questioning and cognitive structuring. Gallimore and Tharp’s work is significant as they
presented a workable diagnostic model that is useful with both children and adults. Other writers
have primarily focused on uncovering the ZPD in younger children who have not yet internalised
learning processes. Gallimore and Tharp presented a four-stage model that visualises how learners
progress through the ZPD. The authors presented a diagram to explain how this might happen
through ‘performance assisted’ theory. Figure 3 illustrates the genesis of a performance capacity.
51
Figure 3: Gallimore and Tharp’s genesis of performance capacity: Progression through the zone of
proximal development and beyond. Image from ‘Teaching Mind in Society: Teaching, Schooling,
and Literate Discourse’.
The four stages will be briefly summarised here. Each stage in this diagram is interpreted as a zone
that is determined by time and development, either with others or by the self.
(1) Stage 1: Where performance is assisted by more-capable others: This is the stage where
one learns by having assistance from others, the stage where children may start to take
more responsibility for their learning. Tharp and Gallimore referred to Bruner’s (1983)
‘handover principle’. This is when a child moves from being an observer to an engaged
(2) Stage 2: Where performance is assisted by the self: This stage relates to the development
of language, thought and action. Tharp and Gallimore defined it as ‘[t]he transfer from
the sign (for example, language) from others to self’ (Tharp & Gallimore , 1988). This
stage refers to when a child realises self-directed speech. This was one of Vygotsky’s
52
indicators for identifying the ZPD. Tharp and Gallimore stated that this is a significant
(3) Stage 3: Where performance is developed, automatised, and fossilised: The terms
‘automatised’ and ‘fossilised’ are Vygotsky’s and demonstrate how he referred to the
ongoing nature of the ZPD. Here Tharp and Gallimore revisited the terms to define them
as signalling that self-regulation is internalised. They stated that ‘[t]his is a stage beyond
already developed.’ (Tharp & Gallimore,1988, p. 38). This is when task learning
becomes fixed.
(4) Stage 4: Where de-automatisation of performance leads to recursion through the ZPD:
This stage allows for the ongoing nature of learning and development in Stages 1 to 3 to
be expressed. This means the cycle of reliance on ‘self-assistance and other assistance ...
Gallimore, 1988, p. 39). ‘De-automatisation’ is the term Tharp and Gallimore used to
refer to instances of loss of development: ‘What one formerly could do, one can no
longer do’ (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 39). This is how Tharp and Gallimore justified
the need for a fourth zone. They proceeded to give examples of Stage 4, articulating that
competence’, ‘hearing the voice of the teacher’ and ‘the teacher ... repeat[s] some earlier
lessons’ (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 39) constitute the engagement of Stage 4.
Assisted performance is a process by which less competent others develop and internalise
their task and skill development. For Tharp and Gallimore the ZPD is not necessarily a sequential
experience; rather it is a recursive performance that has the capacity to engage learning and
development within the concepts of self-regulation and other-regulation. The constant shifting
53
Luciano Meira and Stephen Lerman (2001) offered a thought-provoking view on the ZPD,
claiming that it should be appropriated as a ‘symbolic space’. This was elucidated as having close
ties to Vygotsky’s intentions ‘that all development of the individual comes about through sign
mediation in activity’ (Meira & Lerman, 2001, p. 1). Their belief that symbolic space is created not
physically but through the ways people communicate was developed in their research and presented
2.1. interventions made by the teacher which orientate the child towards the new stage in
2.2. interventions made in speech or gestures by the child or the teacher towards (i)
calling for and demonstrating attention, and (iv) building relations between past,
current and future events or actions (Meira & Lerman, 2001, p. 7).
These two contributions were explored within the early childhood classroom in three
episodes where teacher and student interactions occur. The first contribution is concerned with the
teacher’s educational objectives and the student’s motivation towards attaining theoretical
knowledge in particular fields. The second is concerned directly with the communication between
the teacher and the student within the context of activity. Meira and Lerman acknowledged that, in
this type of investigation, ‘inferences’ may need to be made about certain participants’ intentions
and that the symbolic space of the ZPD is emergent within the unfolding process of the activity.
Meira and Lerman advocated the ZPD to be a ‘symbolic space for interaction and communication
where learning leads development’ (Meira & Lerman, 2001, p. 8). This was aligned in their paper
with Vygotsky’s thinking and that of Newman and Holzman (1993), and van der Veer and Valsiner
(1993).
54
Meira and Lerman argued that a ZPD is an emergent tool that accesses instances of learning
within the classroom by emphasising the symbolic value of semiotic interchanges. These learning
tools for action’ (Meira & Lerman, 2001, p. 3) are utilised in activities. The investigations of the
episodes in Meria and Lerman study identified yet another facet of the ZPD. ‘Opportunistic
instruction’ was noted as a factor in how teachers may ‘call up’ the ZPD in teaching a concept
through activity. Opportunistic instruction relates to what the student brings to the learning instance
with their knowledge background or questions being included in the development of the learning.
This interpretation is remarkably different from that of previously discussed researchers, such as
Campione et al. (1984), Griffin and Cole (1984), Brown and Ferrara (1985), and Cole (1985).
Interestingly, Seth Chaiklin (2003) in his paper, ‘The Zone of Proximal Development in
Vygotsky’s Analysis of Learning and Instruction’, provided a summative survey and critique of the
common types of conceptions of the ZPD. He identified three types of conceptions of the ZPD: (1)
Generality Assumption: applicable to learning in all kinds of subject matter; (2) Assistance
Assumption: learning becomes the property of the learner and permits the best and easiest type of
learning. Chaiklin then established why the ZPD uses development and not learning as its process
55
and drew a relationship to ‘age periods’(Chaiklin, 2003, p. 48) of child development that Vygotsky
believed informed the ZPD. Chaiklin established that a contradiction in the age period of
development can exist in an environment of social situations only. The age periods are ‘historically
and materially constructed’ (Chaiklin, 2003, p. 48). He further elaborated on this maturation point
Chaiklin saw two purposes for the successful interpretation and use of the ZPD as a model
for psychological evaluation. He explained that, first, the ZPD ‘identifies the kinds of maturing
psychological functions and (social interaction associated with them)’ that play an important role in
moving children from one ‘age period to the next’ (not based on time or their actual age) and that,
secondly, the ZPD also ‘identifies the child’s current state in relation to developing ... functions
needed for [this] transition [to take place]’ (Chaiklin, 2003, p. 49). Chaiklin expanded the ZPD
model analysable in two broad study areas of maturation. He labelled and defined the Objective
Zone of Proximal Development as ‘reflect[ing] the psychological functions that need to be formed
during a given age period in order for the next age period to be formed’ (Chaiklin, 2003, p. 49) and
the Subjective Zone of Proximal Development as‘[a] person’s ability to imitate’, reflecting a new
theoretical shift in the meaning and position of imitation, ‘in which imitation presupposes some
understanding of the structural relations in a problem that is being solved’ (Chaiklin, 2003, p. 51).
Chaiklin made a further distinction and application of the term ‘imitation’ and its relationship to the
ZPD.
Chaiklin was critical of current educational uses of the ZPD in ways limited to one aspect of
the zone and of the misguided use of the term itself within research. Nor did he support
metaphorical or symbolic interpretations. Chaiklin valued applications where the ZPD is believed to
While Vygotsky intended the ZPD to be used as a method for educational evaluation, it has
also been identified as a process for learning that bridges the gap between current and potential
development of students within his ‘genetic-cultural theory of higher [mental] functions’ (Rio &
Alvarez, 2007, p. 278). Vygotsky saw his concept of the ZPD as ‘open and divergent’ (Rio &
Alvarez, 2007 p. 278) rather than as a linear interpretation where milestones are reached through
maturation. Instead, Vygotsky believed the progression of development to have dynamic multiple
paths that lead to potential development when undertaken in a true ZPD experience. The ZPD is
emergent, finding the links ‘between the situated-embodied mind and the cognitive mind, the
individual mind and the social mind, the development already attained and the development to be
attained’ (Rio & Alvarez, 2007, p. 301). This multiplicity of the ZPD develops a rich and diverse
developmental strategy such as establishing a learning profile that can allow the student to gain
experience within subject-specific skills and knowledge, facilitating further development beyond
their potential. The concept is characterised by real-life settings for learning. The learner is
focus for learning and social development. Adult support, instruction and scaffolding are integral
57
parts of moving students from dependent to independent interaction, while enhancing a student’s
ZPD. The concept of internalisation is rooted within its structure. Known performances and
procedures that students are comfortable completing are internalised and recalled within a new
context. This new situation requires students to use known skills and knowledge in a new way.
Transformation of this knowledge occurs when students make the transition from one known
experience to another unknown experience without difficulty. The structure and organisation of
learning activities becomes important. Leading activities provide a vehicle for potential
development to occur. The task or activity should also have instruction and interaction from a
The theoretical discussion and contemporary understanding of the ZPD directly influenced
the design of this study. However, the use of the ZPD in the study is limited to its being an
overarching concept in relation to how interaction is understood between adults and children in a
learning experience. In Chapter 3, ‘The Research Design and Methodology’, the use of the ZPD
will be outlined in the context of this study and explained in relation to its purposes.
58
Vygotsky believed that higher mental processes are either mediated through involvement of
an adult or the introduction of symbolic (Kouzlin, 2003) ‘psychological tools or signs’ (Wertsch,
1990, p. 114) within a social interaction or activity. These two aspects of mediation are inherent in
the activity that takes place in the social cultural milieu. Human involvement is vast and difficult to
classify as these types of interactions are plentiful and varied; however, symbolic uses of tools are
evident in current educational practices such as writing, formulae, graphic organisers, scaffolds
(Kouzlin, 2003) and artworks (Efland, 2002). Human engagement with these sign systems (Cole &
Scribner, 1978) are ‘internali[s]ed result[ing] in behavioural transformations’ (Efland, 2002, p. 32).
Vygotsky examined mediation through the signs and symbols of communication. His main concern
was the relationships between thinking, speech and the development of language use in social and
individual activity. The way children internalised the signs and symbols or psychological tools of a
culture to access higher mental functions has been the focus for debate and elaboration by many
psychological theorists: Bower (1974), Gibson and Walker (1984), van der Veer and van Ijzendoorn
(1985, as cited in Daniels, 2001), Baillargeon (1987), Davydov (1988), and Ratner (1998).
In contemporary times, socially mediated communication and interactions are not occurring
just in face-to-face events, but are present in new, online environments to include examples such as
worldwide web and mobile communications. These interactions are known as computer-mediated
communications, or CMC. Within online environments, language has become transformed, even
deconstructed. Language is in constant transition, with evidence of emerging and changing rules of
engagement. The development of online language interactions or ‘netspeak’ can be defined as using
both speech and writing acts to communicate (Crystal, 2006). The use of this type of language is
often in a dialogue and is typical of writing out one’s thinking through a discussion. The language
used is commonly not precise, seen as ‘narrower in range of vocabulary’ (Baron, 1984, p. 131, cited
in Herring, 2001) and simplified to ‘economise on typing effort [and to] mimic spoken language
59
features’ (Herring, 2001, p. 5). What is different in communicating in this new social milieu is the
‘rhythm of an internet interaction [being] very much slower than that found in a speech situation [;
this] disallows some of conversation’s most salient properties’ (Crystal, 2006, p. 33). However, in
an asynchronous setting, the process of editing and formatting text can allow for considered
responses that are quite different from spoken words. Incongruously, in synchronous dialogue, the
use of expressions such as emoticons to demonstrate oral speech is a common feature (Herring,
2001). To warrant a new set of communicative signs and symbols relevant to the new social milieu
of the online environment, a new culture is established and internalised by users through the act of
participating with others in social or learning communities. The research design of this study
reflected the uses of online environments to study and reveal student-teacher and student-artist
interactions. A new culture of engagement emerged within the school, which previously did not
The next section of the research framework utilised the work of Arthur Efland (2002) in Art
and Cognition, where he explored the psychological differences as presented in the theories of
Piaget’s behaviourism and Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognition. In Efland’s quest to redefine and
position the cognitive application, principles and implications of the multiple theories, he used the
Visual Arts context to illustrate aspects of theories such as mediation. He made a comparative
analysis of a range of conceptions of cognitive development and used the work of both Piaget and
Vygotsky to plot a path towards an integrated theory of learning for art education. In the chapter,
‘Artistic Development in Cognitive Developmental Theories’, Efland used Piaget’s work and
Vygotsky’s work to frame children’s artistic development within cognitive development. Efland
used the studies undertaken by a range of researchers who utilised children’s drawings and graphic
expression to develop his discussion. To position the actions of the mind in art as cognitive in
nature, Efland, referred to the work of pre-cognitive theorists such as Herbert Read (1945) and
60
Viktor Lowenfeld (1952), who explored the value of emotional development in meaningful creative
activity. Efland contributed to the case that art is not just emotional activity by utilising the work of
Rudolf Arnheim (1954), who argued that perception is a cognitive function and has ‘meaningful
problem-solving activity’ (Golomb, 1992, p. 325, in Efland 2002, p. 45). This has not always been
the case as, for Piaget, art functioned outside the realms of scientific thinking (Efland, 2002, p. 42).
Efland also illustrated the sociocultural position of drawing in development and drew on the work
of Brent and Margaret Wilson (1982). He asserted that their work challenged Arnheim’s central
premise and also provided a different position from Lowenfeld’s through the use of Wilson’s
studies of imitation in children’s drawing. This was an important point as they ‘claim[ed] that
graphic representations of children are efforts to mirror the social conventions provided by their
culture’ (Efland, 2002 p. 46). Imitation is the vehicle for this learning.
Lastly, Efland commented on multiple repertoire theories, citing the work of Dennie Wolf,
Martha Perry (1988), and Anna Kindler and Bernard Darras (1998). Artistic development in this
work was dependent on the ‘expressive intent or purpose of drawing and ... setting in which it is
made’ (Efland, 2002, p. 47). This approach exists in culture and functions within it. Through this
discussion, Efland maintained that art contributes to the development of the mind and that graphic
development should verify this. However, in his overview of the theories in his chapter, he
concluded that ‘theories of drawing development tend to parallel the changing theories of cognitive
development’ (Efland, 2002, p. 51). Mirroring or emerging patterns highlight the interpretive trends
Efland (2002) reviewed mediation and its implications for art education. In his theory, he
represented mediation in the Visual Arts by applying Vygotsky’s significance of tool utilisation.
Efland observed that Vygotsky propounded his theories at the same time as the art creative self-
expression movement began to develop – a movement where ‘teaching was structured around an
idea of freedom, specifically freedom from adult intervention which was regarded as interference’
61
(Efland, 2002, p. 37, italics in original). He illustrated this through the notion of the kindergarten
and related it to Vygotsky’s biological metaphor. This approach to art education would have been
considered in Vygotsky’s terms as being too restrictive or inactive, leaving students at their ‘actual
development’ (Efland 2002). Efland recognised that the strength of Vygotsky’s theory is grounded
in social mediation as the vehicle for learning. Knowledge is culturally specific and gathered
through experience with others. He pointed to Ernst Kris to highlight this point as it exists in art
history:
Efland went on to outline three implications for art education: the first, that art should be
studied in its social context; the second, that language and additional societal representations are
devices that enable human development to move forward; and the third, that learning involves the
‘internalization or enculturation of knowledge’ (Efland, 2002 p. 49). These three implications are
conveyed through the acts of socially mediated communication. Efland proceeded to question the
cognitive revolution and concluded that there is a need for an integrated approach to cognitive
theory.
Efland progressed further in his next chapter, ‘The Cognitive Revolution and Conceptions of
Learning’, where he analysed three cognitive perspectives: (1) symbol-processing, (2) sociocultural
62
and (3) integrated. He investigated the three positions from an art educational point of view and
provided a set of conditions required for an integrated cognitive theory that would be suited to art
education. Through his investigation, he established that there are shortcomings to both the symbol-
‘harmonise’ the practices of art educators (Efland, 2002). An integrated theory asserts that the
nature of learning would be emphasised through ‘meaning making’, that strategies for learning are
both ‘metacognitive’ and ‘facilitated’. The nature of knowledge is ‘constructed ... within a cultural
context with cultural tools’; this includes ‘language, number and works of art’. The organisation of
knowledge is ‘motivated and purposeful’ and ‘meaning’ is found when ‘learners integrate
knowledge into their lifeworlds’ (Efland, 2002, pp. 80–81). Meaning making (Efland 2002;
Educationists such as Graeme Sullivan (1993) and Kerry Freedman (2003) offered a way
forward in providing a broader contemporary position for art education in psychology, cognition
and culture within a social context. These writers referred to key concepts and theories that are
comparative and useful in the analysis of socially mediated communication within the context of art
education.
Art education has developed within the milieu of visual culture. The definitions and
interpretation of visual culture are diverse and debated, much like the definitions of art (Freedman,
2003). Kerry Freedman’s starting point in her book, Teaching Visual Culture, was significant for
An education in the visual arts takes place in and through the realm of
visual culture ... through objects, ideas, beliefs and practices that
make up the totality of humanly conceived visual experience; it
shapes our thinking about the world and leads us to create new
knowledge through visual form (Freedman, 2003, p. 2).
63
The creation of this new knowledge can be demonstrated in the monological mediation of artworks
and the ‘social relationships [formed] between and among makers and viewers’ (Freedman, 2003, p.
production’ that is captured in mediation that is quasi-interactive (that is, one-way mediation).
Freedman positioned the concept of mediation in two ways. At the level of teaching ‘content
([as] mediate[d] between makers and viewers) [and] curriculum development and enactment’
(Freedman, 2003, p. 4). She defined curriculum as being established within interactive moments
amid students and a diverse set of individuals via texts and images. Interpretation of objects and
their representation through text and images are of paramount importance to the teaching and
5).
resonates with the design of the program of work offered by the current study. The program
engaged students directly with art objects, with written historical references about the objects, and
with the art practitioners themselves. To establish the relevance of Freedman’s work in art
education and to highlight the continuing role visual culture plays in the learning processes of
adolescence, Freedman’s most recent (2011) unpublished project ‘Art Education and Visual
Learning Networks: Lessons about Creativity and Cognition from Autodidactic Visual Culture
64
Sullivan, in ‘Art-Based Art Education: Learning that is Meaningful, Authentic, Critical and
Pluralist’ (1993), set out a framework of art-based art education outcomes that may impact on
and contemporary art practice. Sullivan advanced meaning making, authentic practice, critical
process information to the way meaning is constructed’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 6). Sullivan asserted that
the construction of meaning as a basis for art education is present in both artmaking and theory. He
went on to outline the significance of meaning and its relationship to context using Vygotsky’s
argument that exposure to culture impacts on the developing human mind. Sullivan quoted the work
of Cole and Scribner (1974), Cole (1990), and Rogoff (1990) to emphasis the directional changes
from clinical psychological research to real-world settings and episodes as sites for sociocultural
studies. He went on to set out the conception of intelligence as multidimensional. Sullivan explored
this concept using Robert Sternberg’s (1990) metaphors of the mind.5 Out of the seven metaphors a
sociological metaphor ‘highlight[s] the important role immediate family, caregivers, and other
social groups play in the development of intelligence.’ This view incorporates the notion of “shared
cognition” which asserts that people co-construct their intellectual response to the world through
group connections, peer interactions and mutually arrive[d] at understandings’ (Sullivan, 1993, p.
7).
This is important as it links the human mind with exposure to intelligence via external stimuli, as in
the notion of ‘distributed intelligence’ (Perkins, 1992, in Sullivan, 1993, p. 8). Sullivan further
advocated that learning be defined as a process of participation and interaction and that it be
conceived through the notions of ‘apprenticeship (Rogoff, 1990) and situated learning (Lave &
5
Sternberg’s seven metaphors include geographical, computational, biological, epistemological,
anthropological, sociological and systems metaphors.
65
Wenger, 1991)’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 8). This relationship of knowledge acquisition has moved from
narrow conceptions about which fundamentals students should know to ‘teaching for
understanding’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 8). With these theories and positions about learning in mind,
Sullivan drew relationships between art education and contemporary art practices. He contended
that artmaking remains at the centre of this relationship and that art writing emerges as a form of
Sullivan further demonstrated how the nature of postmodern practice is relevant to a twenty-
first-century art education, presenting four characteristics that are useful to understanding the
between language and the Visual Arts, ‘subject to scrutiny [of] symbolic codes and
cultural conventions’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 11), providing meanings that are socially
constructed. He identified that meanings in Visual Arts are also re-workable, so viewers
understand artworks. Multiple meanings are also possible and postmodernism offers the
vehicle for this. Meaning is also directly positioned in the historical aspect of the Visual
Arts as he gave examples of how historians such as John Berger and Linda Nochlin
and how each society at every phase of its existence makes its own meaning. In this
broader overt and covert social dimensions’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 12). Meaning was also
66
conceived collectively, with participation in collaborative opportunities where artistic
meaning is referenced, created and recreated. Sullivan gave two examples where
programs and artist-run workshops. Meaningful interactions with art practitioners can
shape the depth and direction of communication and, in turn, the learning that takes
place. What is significant about meaning making is that it ‘has long been acknowledged
(2) A Sense of Connection – Sullivan explored the changing connection between the
utilised artmaking and art-critical examples to highlight the need for authentic practice.
The example used by critic Mary Eagle’s (1990) ethnographic approach to research
artworks was directly related to the current study. She ensured that she had various
perspectives on which to base her understanding of works and the artists who created
them. Eagle’s method of direct experience with the artwork then a discussion with the
artist echoes the process that was taken in the program design and online component of
the unit of work designed for this study. Eagle’s critique was structured from these
various experiences within the context of the contemporary art world. The notion of
process has not been used often to impose a sense of connection within art education.
(3) A Sense of Doubt – which Sullivan framed within contemporary art practice and
postmodernism as the site for this and claimed that ‘the reasoning behind critical
reflection is a general distrust for many of the social, political, economic and cultural
claims [that are] made in the name of progress’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 13). Sullivan
67
examined critical art practice within the theories of feminism as a way of ‘critiqu[ing]
social and cultural relations’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 13). The educational value of critical
skills were also determined as being necessary; art education offers an important
opportunity for critical reflections and conversations within the context of studying art.
(4) A Sense of Perspective – provides for pluralist perspectives that are dominated by multi-
dimensional intelligence. ‘By embracing diverse social and cultural domains the
integrity and relevance of different perspectives is not only made apparent, but when
artists and art writers operate at the intersection between cultures telling insights,
connections and dislocations are revealed’ (Sullivan, 1993, p. 15). Viewpoints are
established through art practices that confront and challenge. Educationally this
characteristic holds merit, as it offers the right set of circumstances for deploying non-
Sullivan drew connections between artistic thinking, art practices and their implications for
human development. His paper was significant for this study as it positioned the many facets of art
education at the cutting edge of learning and development within the emerging constructivist
traditions. Sullivan brought together the notions of psychological research, educational inquiry and
contemporary art practices as possible avenues for social constructivist interactions. Sullivan’s
closing statement surmised how art education can achieve meaningful interactions: ‘If art education
is to be reconnected to art and life it has to be meaningful to the student, grounded in authentic
practice, foster critical and reflective attitudes and pursue pluralist perspectives’ (Sullivan, 1993, p.
19).
with others as the vehicle for cognitive transformation (Vygotsky, 1978). The context for learning
68
and instruction is socially engaging, enabling successful mediation. It is through mediation that
internalising of new enculturated concepts occurs. This can be supported in a number of ways
through the performance of a ZPD experience by developing learning potential, isolating individual
activities, and assisted performance. These characteristics in various ways can play a role in the
development of frameworks for teaching and learning, as in Sullivan’s art-based art education
framework and Salmon’s Five-Stage Model. The outcome of engaging such frameworks and
models in teaching and learning experiences is that cognition becomes shared, situated and then
distributed. Meaning making becomes the central premise for all learning interactions. Efland
(2002) called to extend this to an integrated theory that harmonises the teaching and learning
practices for art education. The following section reviews contemporary literature and discusses the
three aspects of the research framework. These include the Social Context for Learning, the Social
The literature review in this section focuses on publications relevant to the focus of the
current study, which were to create and investigate a blended learning environment within the
context of Visual Arts Education in New South Wales. The researcher first locates three aspects of
the research framework within the broad context of Australian education and schooling, then
identifies the social context for learning, and reviews a selection of current policies and publications
on twenty-first-century learning and teaching in Australian schools. The review gives a background
to the changing role of schooling through the shifts in the knowledge economy and its impact on
teaching and learning, while social capital with its relationship to technology and the emergent
(new) Australian Curriculum is also discussed. The application and integration of ICT will then be
explored to identify relevant online learning environments, frameworks, theories and blended
69
education in Australian schools. Examples are cited from distance education, connecting with the
utilisation of MOODLE as a site supporting online and blended approaches to teaching and
learning.
The second part of this section identifies literature dealing with the social organisation of
instruction which has informed the focus of method and design of the study by exploring and
defining the key concepts including online learning theories (Salmon, 2002, the MOODLE
environment, interactions online and blended learning approaches. Examples cited are papers found
within primary and secondary school settings. They are limited and typically focus on subjects such
The third and final part of this section attempts to apply socially mediated communication in
art education. This is an undervalued and understudied area. After a review of the literature, the
major focus turns to the positioning of mediation in art education within the contemporary
understanding of visual culture. This is presented through Kerry Freedman’s writing on the subject,
Teaching Visual Culture (2003), and demonstrated using Graeme Sullivan’s paper, ‘Art-Based Art
Education: Learning that is Meaningful, Authentic, Critical and Pluralist’ (1993), where he drew
connections between artistic thinking, art practices and their implications for human development.
Arthur Efland’s Art And Cognition (2002) will also be explored as he offered a cognitive
perspective on mediation in art education and directly referenced the work of Vygotsky and Piaget.
The Social Context for Learning: A Background to the Changing Role of Schooling in
Australia
A noticeable shift in education and schooling has emerged as the developed world enters
what has been coined the ‘knowledge economy’ (Australia Council of Deans of Education [ACDE],
2004). The integration of teaching, learning and technology is becoming the central governing
notion in our changing society. The context for learning is more flexible and influenced by the ever-
changing amount and type of communication or interaction that takes place in schooling. The
70
Australian Council of Deans of Education, in the paper ‘New Teaching, New Learning: A Vision
for Australian Schools’ (2004), provided a summary of old and new ideologies as viewed within
world economies and educational practices. The ACDE provided a new approach to understanding
The Council believes that education will become more important not
only to economic success, but to the preservation of social cohesion
and democracy. The new economy will demand highly trained
workers, autonomous learners and citizens both well connected and
secure in their identity. Skills of collaboration will supersede the
competitive skills required in the old industrial economy, and the
focus will shift to interpersonal relations and communications. Our
present education system is simply not prepared to meet these
demands of the new economy, and requires substantial qualitative
changes on top of greater public investment (ACDE, 2001, p. 9).
In light of the assertions made by the council about contemporary education, the council advanced
eight propositions outlining initiatives behind a knowledge economy and what they mean for new
learning and the role of education in the twenty-first century. Propositions 4 and 5 are relevant to
the current research: Proposition 4 contends that A ‘New Basics’ is Emerging, and Proposition 5,
How Does the Shift in the New Economy Impact on Teaching and Learning?
In the new economy, learning is characterised as flexible and as the adhesive that holds
progress and success together. The fact that it is lifelong and constantly in flux creates a dilemma
for current educational practice and principles. The notion of ‘just-in-time learning’ is evident, as
people need to capitalise on self-learning strategies to continue to proceed in the architecture of the
environment will metamorphose and be accessible in many diverse structures. Formal learning will
transform to become associated with a widespread, even global, population. How knowledge is
71
The new learning is less about imparting defined knowledge and
skills and more about shaping a kind of person: somebody who
knows what they don’t know; knows how to learn what they need to
know; knows how to create knowledge through problem solving;
knows how to create knowledge by drawing on informational and
human resources around them; knows how to make knowledge
collaboratively; knows how to nurture, mentor, and teach others; and
knows how to document and pass on personal knowledge. In sum,
this kind of person is open to autonomous, assisted and collaborative
learning (ACDE, 2001, p. 69).
New learning is not about recalling specialist content, facts or subject matter. Rather it
prioritises the autonomous transfer of knowledge from one situation to another, and the person’s
ability to develop higher levels of communication to problem solve with others is primary to
appreciating the depth of new learning and new knowledge. Empowering people for lifelong
learning requires more than the traditional basics (the three Rs). It is agreed that traditional literacy
is important but it is no longer the sole focus of teaching and learning in the new economy. The
traditional strategies of rote learning produced compliant learners. New learning produces
autonomous, self-directed and collaborative individuals who reflect on, and critique, new
knowledge as it is being constructed. Thus educational policies, curriculums and teaching require
revision.
Proposition 4
2001, p. 85, italics in original). It is also rapidly changing, technologically driven and diverse.
Variable learning contexts allow for diverse approaches to finding answers and interpreting
knowledge. Scholarship now requires expansion to include Knowledge and Capability Sets, that is,
people need to be competent in selecting and discriminating relevant and accurate knowledge use.
Located and Transferred Learning is embedded in locations and contexts and becomes important in
72
how learning and knowledge can be relocated to new situations. The reworking and transferability
‘Disciplined Learning and Reflexive Learning: [that is,] learning is not only about ‘disciplines’ –
received bodies of knowledge and fixed skill sets. It is also about self-awareness, problem solving
and intercultural skills – strategies, in other words, for dealing with diverse settings and rapid
change’ (ACDE, 2004, p. 85). A direct association can be made here to an aspect of Vygotsky’s
ZPD about how fast a student can resolve a new problem with minimal prompts from others.
The deans proceeded further to identify also the characteristics of what constitutes ‘good
learners’ in the new economy. Interestingly, these characteristics were also advocated by Vygotsky
in relation to the role of schooling. Aspects of Vygostky’s theoretical framework align closely with
the admissions made by the Australian Council of Deans of Education. The deans advocated eight
others ...
orientation to knowledge.
Good teachers: formal educational settings ... will create people who
73
Good communicators: ... communication is soaked with peculiarity to
the medium are markers which indicate the location and purpose of
message.
change ... sensibilities are such that they are able to use ... differences
Intelligent in more than one way: being able to think in more than one
Proposition 5
The deans’ Proposition 5 advocated that ‘technology will become central to all learning’ (ACDE,
2004, p. 99). The proposition set out to identify the role of technology in a twenty-first-century
education. The deans established that there are two ways that technology functions in a capacity to
transform learning.
The first way is learning through technology: this refers to learning that often is acquired
through self-taught approaches, where learners are exposed to new learning opportunities outside
the classroom. Technology is the vehicle for learning, giving access to not only textbook
knowledge; rather people and communities that possess many kinds of knowledge inevitably
74
sustain the knowledge economy. The main thrust of this is that the e-learning revolution will
support the obligation and commitment to find new approaches to curriculum and the continued
training of teachers. The social capital of communities will continue to develop in an online
The second way that technology functions to transform learning is through learning about
technology: this is understood as more than just learning the ‘how’ of technology but as being about
learning how it can best serve humanity in the processes of life in society. ‘Technology is not just a
tool for learning … It should be one of the main things that learning is about. It should be the
message and the medium’ (ACDE, 2004, p. 100). The discussion alluded to the need of the new
basics to include techne 6 as a key area of learning. The challenge of using technology successfully
was then assessed. New ways of using technology were set out and both positive and negative
assessments of the current and future practices in the use of technology in education were
addressed. The following table summarises the discussion and highlights the possibilities for using
Develops a compliant Develops an autonomous, active and E-learning can work to eliminate
learner interactive learner the teacher
6
Techne is described by the deans as one of the three possible learning areas that they advocate as
constituting the future of subjects in education. Traditionally the area of techne included science,
mathematics, and vocational and technical subjects. The other two key areas are oeconomia and humanitas.
75
Old Learning New Learning Technology Disadvantages
It is accepted that technology will be the leading force in future education but access and
equity issues are the biggest limitations on its use. These highlighted limitations point to the notion
of the digital divide that is now in its second generation and is affected by telecommunications,
affordability and income, online skills, age, race, sex and education. The digital divide will
influence educational policy makers and the uptake of rapidly changing ICT. Pippa Norris (2001)
identifies three aspects of second-generation digital divides. The first, is a global issue represented
by the gap between developed and Third World nations. The second aspect, internalises the divide
within a population by how its internal and social inequalities are delivered. The third aspect is a
democratic divide, where citizens operate at the level they can within the technology available to
them in a particular society. The deans argued that schooling will become responsible for lessening
the digital divide by providing computers to students for use at school and at home. For the
knowledge nation to be successful, ‘[it] must be inclusive and provide sufficient access to
computers and the Internet for their students’ (ACDE, 2004, p. 106). This has recently been seen in
Australia with the policy commitment of the Digital Education Revolution (DER) 2008. In the DER
strategic plan it was highlighted that while students have had increased “access to computers and
digital resources…only a minority are reaping the full benefits of the information technology
revolution”(DER Strategic Plan, 2008, p.3). Laptops were rolled out in schools in August 2009. The
76
Australian Government spent $386 million 7 of an allocated $1.2 billion towards meeting the
ongoing needs over 5 years of technological tools for learning in the twenty-first century. The aim
of the program ‘is to put in place sustainable and meaningful changes to teaching and learning
practices in Australian schools that ensure students are prepared for further education and training,
living and working in a digital world’ (Prime Minister Julia Gillard, media release, October 2009).
To achieve this, all students from Years 9 to 12 will have access to wireless laptops by 2012 in all
public schools. This program also offers teacher professional development through the Information
and Communications Technologies Workshop Program and a help and support budget for each
school that is involved in the program. To further support this program, a review of online
curriculum resources has taken place with the overhaul of the Learning Federation website. This
illustration indicates that there is a high cost to the new economy and in lessening the digital divide,
particularly the new demands of teaching and learning, which are rapidly changing in Australian
schooling.
This rise of technology will continue to shape the existing social capital of Australia and the
world. It will become an important commodity within the new economy. Social capital has been
researched and defined by theorists such as Pierre Bourdieu (1983), James Coleman (1988), and
Robert Putnam (1995). These theorists define social capital as a connection among individuals that
creates durable networks and relationships that function within a social structure. These networks
are apparent only when there is trust and the norms of reciprocity are evident within groups or
communities. To be part of this social capital, civil participants must interact and contribute to a
community of people committed to, shared values. This can also be exclusive or isolating for some
members of society who do not have the ability to join the community.
7
As posted on the ABC news website, 26 August 2009.
77
Kenneth Pigg and Laura Crank (2004) investigated the possibility of building community
social capital through technology. Their discussion defined the multiple aspects of social capital
through citing works and definitions by Coleman (1990), Portes (1998), Putnam (1993), Flora
(1998), Wall, Ferazzi, and Schryer (1998), Onyx and Bullen (2000), Woolcock and Deepa (2001),
Castle (2002), and Farrell and Knight (2003). Pigg and Crank established the five components of
social capital to be networks, resource(s) for action, reciprocity transactions, bounded solidarity and
enforceable trust. Their paper contextualised ‘the importance of community as both a setting and an
outcome of social action as constructed in cyberspace’ (Pigg & Crank, 2004, p. 59). They
investigated and differentiated the notions of communication and information in relation to the
opportunity to increase social capital through the five components. Communication was defined as
a multifaceted function that engages interactive multimedia and is available in synchronous and
asynchronous environments. Communication provides for the increase of social capital because of
its transfer and relationship-building capacities offered through internet participation. Networking
with people locally or globally through online discussion and email were, given as examples.
Information was represented as being less conducive to supporting social capital; however, Pigg
and Crank referred to information in terms of the ‘active’ sharing of information or the ‘passive’
searching for information. The main example that was utilised was the creation of user profile
databases, which have the potential to support the building of social capital. A contemporary
example to consider here is the rapid participation in, and popularity of, Facebook.
Pigg and Crank (2004) presented examples from many theorists who have investigated the
five components. They concluded that Information and Communication Technologies potentially
may have:
78
and improve the quality of decisions and actions taken (Pigg &
Crank, 2004, p. 69).
This may be good news for the deans’ position on technology for education and on the changing
role of schooling. Learning in the twenty-first century is in a strong relationship with the
development of the knowledge economy. It exists through the active use of, and social engagement
Interestingly and possibly controversially, in the emerging Australian Curriculum, ICT has
been defined in two ways. First, it has been set in the background as an interdisciplinary general
capability amongst literacy, numeracy, and critical and creative thinking. While secondly, as a
subject domain, it exists in the Information and Communication Technologies, and Design and
Technology, Learning Area. The Australian Council for Computers in Education (ACCE, 2011)
responded to this conceptual and definitional understanding of ICT in the Australian Curriculum,
publishing concerns about the current position’s inadequacy for four main reasons:
The ACCE then provided solutions to the identified issues by establishing the learning area
for ICT in two strands: (1) ICT competence and (2) Digital Technologies. In conclusion, they
argued that the measure of ICT competence needed to be presented ‘in two-year intervals and [with]
specific content’ (ACCE, 2011, p. 4). Digital technologies should be targeted in Years 8 and Year
10. Developing ICT as a key learning area were supported by the Australian Council of Deans of
Education (2004), who concluded, in a discussion, that there was a need for ICT to become part of
79
the new basics. The solution provided here could be useful in realising the correct positioning of
The application and integration of ICT is changing the perspective of the teaching and
learning relationship and the nature of Australian schooling. Governments both state and federal
have responded to the need for a ‘new basics’ in contemporary education. By publishing pedagogic
principles and strategies such as Pedagogy Strategy: Learning in an Online World 2003 through the
Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs
(MCEECDYA), and by outlining effective ways of integration of ICT in Australian schools, the
pedagogic strategy has recognised that teaching technology in context and ICT learner capabilities
are ‘essential for [successful] participation in today’s society and economy’ (Pedagogy Strategy,
MCEETYA, 2003, p. 3). The publication outlined the need for ICT principles and pedagogies to be
‘learner focused’, to provide ‘educational soundness’ and ‘teacher professional development’, and
to demonstrate ‘diversity, alignment’ and ‘collaboration’ when ICT is integrated effectively. The
The terms ‘online’ and ‘blended learning’ are positioned as a way to realise the outlined
strategic pedagogies and principles. ‘Blended learning environments allow students to take part in
both synchronous and asynchronous learning, overcoming barriers of communication, time and
distance’ (Pedagogy Strategy, MCEETYA, 2003, p. 8). A more recent publication from MCEETYA
80
ICT taskforce, Digital education – making change happen (2008) builds on the original principles
accomplished and leading schools in digital education. The descriptors are used to identify quality
(Digital education - making change happen MCEETYA ICT Taskforce, 2008, p.4)
The framework offers schools a starting point to evaluate their context and also assist in
establishing a long-term strategic plan by using the 10 elements to guide and foster leadership in a
digital education. Blended delivery is a term used in the document in relation to element three:
supporting professional learning. This is where staff, take on professional development and use
face-to-face, online and blended approaches to develop ICT skills. While element 4: connecting
learning beyond the school provides for the engagement of students with broader online community
connections.
In March 2012 the Draft Shape of the Australian Curriculum Technologies paper was published.
This was in response to the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians
that was established in 2008. Neither of these documents mention, blended approaches to teaching
and learning. The term online is presented in the Technologies curriculum on three occasions. The
first is to responders to the draft paper (pg.6), the second under managing projects, where students
are to consider ethical considerations while working online (pg.13) and the third in Yr 5-6 Digital
81
technologies content.
After an in-depth investigation into Australian state and territorial Departments of Education
websites to find examples of how online learning was being delivered and if blended learning
models and approaches were being promoted, it was found that most ICT-funded projects and
programs were focused on the delivery of networks, wireless Internet, computers, smart boards,
Ipads, increased bandwidth, and video conferencing; the recycling of computers, increase in access
ratios; the provision of email; and the development of digital content. For examples of funded
projects and initiatives, see Smart Schools: Smart Students 2006; Connected Classrooms Program
2007; Digital Learning Statement 2010; Ipads for Learning Trial 2011; and the Smart Classroom
Strategy 2011.
Examples in state government initiatives which aim to deliver some of the Pedagogic
Strategy as defined by MCEECDYA can be found in distance education and schooling. The
Tasmanian Department of Education project, which researches, designs and delivers online, is E-
Magine the Centre of Excellence in Online Learning (2001–2004) (cf. Chalmers [2002a]). This
project’s primary purpose was to ‘initiate and support excellence and innovation in teaching and
learning through the use of online technologies’ (Chalmers & Krawec-Wheaton, 2003). The project
drew its inspiration from the work of Stephen Heppell and the Not School Project (1998) from the
United Kingdom in supporting and training teachers in flexible online learning and delivery and the
formulation of learning networks though their online campus. The Tasmanian project is significant
as it tackles the concept of flexible learning through technology with online experiences across
multiple schools. The project has since been reallocated to a new School Education Division and
Distance Education Tasmania, where the online campus continues to deliver to students and
teachers. The existence of this project demonstrates the need for more than just ICT integration at a
school or curriculum level. Rather, a more flexibly planned, supported and researched approach to
method in Australian schools are in the Sydney Distance Education High School and the
Department of Education and Training Rural and Distance Education New South Wales, the
Schools for Isolated and Distance Education Western Australia, the Open Education Centre
Northern Territory and the Open Access College South Australia. These institutions are using
MOODLE to deliver and manage their online courses and interactions with students and teachers.
The use of MOODLE is not exclusive to these schools, as many independent and public schools
have adopted the MOODLE site as an online component to support their teaching, learning and
curriculum development. There are currently 1463 Australian site users,8 many of which are
schools. The changing relationship between technology and teacher and student learning is
facilitated in the learning community of the Sydney Centre for Innovation and Learning, based in
the Northern Beaches Christian School. The school’s Principal, Stephen Harris (2010), has applied
a whole-school approach in encouraging his school community to make the pedagogical shifts
necessary to sustain, nurture and develop ICT practices by students and teachers in their everyday
lives. MOODLE is used as a vehicle; however, it is part of a broader conception of how teaching
and learning should look in the twenty-first century. A critical change in the management structure
of the school, the professional learning of staff, and the physical, virtual and pedagogical
workspaces, have all signalled a move away from traditional concepts of the role of education. This
example demonstrates an integrated approach to the pedagogical shifts required to define the
8
Statistic from moodle.org, 24 April 2011.
83
Social Organisation of Instruction: Online Environment, Theory, Interaction, Blended
Approaches
In the technological teaching and learning relationship, instruction can occur via either
become the catalysts for this type of teaching, learning and instruction. The online theory of Gilly
Salmon and the definitional understandings of blended approaches to instruction will also be
course management system (CMS), MOODLE is a software package that provides a virtual or
online learning environment and a flexible course structure that, in turn, offers ‘opportunities for
rich interaction’ (Zsolt & Istvan, 2008, p. 3). This environment exists on internet and can be
accessed from any point connected to the worldwide web. Other CMS software such as WebCT and
Blackboard are also available. (These can also be referred to as a Virtual Learning Environment
[VLE] – Zsolt & Istvan, 2008, p. 5). The well-established systems are known as proprietary
software, meaning that there is a cost to the user for licensing and usage. Open source software does
not incur major costs to the user and is available to small or large organisations. MOODLE is an
evolving platform that users can help construct. Open source software allows access to coding,
giving the user a greater ability to customise where necessary. The software offers a range of
communication opportunities suitable for both synchronous (chat) and asynchronous (forum)
modes. It also offers a journal mode, where participants can make reflective entries. Other aspects
of the course software include assignment, quiz, resource, glossary, lesson and choice modules,
allowing for great flexibility in course or unit design. Further plug-ins, are constantly being
developed and shared by users through the moodle.org site. The MOODLE community has over
84
54,147 registered users in 212 countries.9 As open source software, it is competitive and user-
friendly in design.
constructionist by design, a feature that this study is most concerned with. Dougiamas defined
This pedagogical statement promotes online learning towards a collaborative community of practice
(Lave and Wenger, 1991). The roles of the teacher and the student are not necessarily traditional in
this community. Current educational literature in higher education where studies have been
undertaken using MOODLE include Dougiamas and Taylor (2002; 2003), Kennedy (2005), and
Benito, Camara, Losada, Arranz, and Seidel (2007); and, in the secondary school setting, Carvalho
(2007), Loughland (2008), Murphy and Lebans (2008), and Ng (2010). One of particular note, as it
was situated in the secondary school setting and is consistent with the current research, is Wan Ng’s
‘Effective e-Pedagogy for Virtual Science Learning with High Ability Secondary School Students’
(2010). Ng’s study utilised the MOODLE environment to allow gifted science students who had
attended the Sun and Science Camp to access each other within small groups across Australia,
Malaysia and the United Kingdom. The aim of the study was to apply an online learning model
designed by Ng and Nicholas (2007) in this context and to develop two forms of pedagogical
delivery. One form was ‘open structure’ and the second was ‘staged structure where learning is
guided and progressive’ (Ng, 2010, p. 50). The synchronous and asynchronous dialogue
interactions of the students were analysed in frequency and content; other data studied included
9
Statistic from moodle.org, 24 April 2011.
10
Martin Dougiamas, Moodle documentation: Philosophy; see http://moodle.org/doc/.
85
online chat interviews; and post-learning surveys canvassed student perceptions. The cognitive
theories of Bruner (1966) and Papert (1991), and Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theories, were
With the growth of internet and computer technology, online learning theories and
instructional models and frameworks have emerged rapidly (Ally, 2004; Anderson, 2004; Jolliffe,
Ritter, & Stevens, 2001; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; Salmon, 2002). These writings are but a
few from a growing body of research on the subject. There is a clear focus by theorists in this area
on developing clear design and instruction materials and activities relevant for the web and its
ongoing debate regarding whether the design of online instruction or the delivery of technology
improve learning outcomes (Clark, 2001, and Kozma, 2001, in Ally, 2004).
Online learning was defined for the current study according to Muhamed Ally’s paper,
The word ‘practitioners’ is added to this definition to include experts in the field (that is, artists).
The real-world, meaningful and authentic interactions that are significant in this type of interaction
are reflected in the program design of this study. Ally also considered the advantages of online
learning, especially the flexibility, location and type of interactive communication that it offers and
the situated nature of contextualised learning (Ally, 2004, p. 5). Ally advocated a point of further
86
significance in the use of appropriate learning and instructional strategies when developing online
materials.
On the basis of this understanding of online learning, the Five-Stage Model by Gilly Salmon (2002)
was selected for investigation and implementation as the online learning model for the current
study. However, as the study used a blended approach, the model was used as a design structure for
instructional aspects of the online components of the program activities, as set out in the research
methodology.
The Salmon model is widely cited amongst theorists and researchers and has recently been
used in developing higher and distance education course design (Conole, Oliver, Falconer,
Littlejohn, & Harvey, 2007; Goldsmith & Strachan, 2007; Jones & Peachey, 2005; Stenalt &
Jorgensen, 2007; Wilson & Mackness, 2006) and online research methodology (McPherson &
Nunes, 2003; Fox & Trinidad, 2006; Ryba et al. 2002). Gunn (2001) and Manghani (no date) have
The model comprises five stages, illustrated as steps, in which learners are led by e-
moderators (online tutors) through carefully designed e-tivities (online activities) and work
asynchronously. Salmon has stressed that the importance of the content in the e-tivities is crucial to
the success of learners’ online interaction. Salmon defined e-tivities as interactive, motivating,
engaging, purposeful and taking place over time (Salmon, 2002, p. 1). E-tivities help develop
learner skills in both collaboration and the use of software. The Five-Stage Model is designed like a
‘social scaffold’ (Salmon, 2000, p. 32) to ensure that learners progress through the online learning
87
process. Figure 4, represents Salmon’s diagram of the learning stages and interactivity of online
Figure 4: Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Model as a social scaffold. Image from: ‘E-tivities: The Key to
Active Online Learning’.
Stage 1: Access and Motivation: offers learners a starting point in getting to know in this
instance the MOODLE discussion platform and in becoming familiar with the online environment
and group. Motivation is the key principle and often the most difficult part in accomplishing
interaction. Salmon advocated clear explanation of the aims and purposes of the activities and of the
roles of participants. Motivation should be planned and offer challenges for participants.
Stage 2: Online Socialisation: will occur if there is support by the e-moderator. The online
environment is not able to ensure that this occurs of its own accord. This is the beginning of the
development of a culture where learners feel comfortable and are able to voice their opinions.
88
Stage 3: Information Exchange: is where interactivity starts to increase and learners are
comfortable, with the environment and topic under investigation. The focus shifts to ‘interaction
with course content and interaction with people’ (Salmon, 2000, p. 38). Stage 3 offers learners the
Stage 4: Knowledge Construction: should give rise to interaction and collaborative work. As
the terminology suggests, this is the stage where learners and others interact through active, critical,
creative or practical ways of thinking (Salmon, 2002, p. 29). Salmon cited communal
constructivism as the underpinning principle in this stage where emphasis on ‘real situations and
experiences’ (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002, in Salmon, 2000, p. 41) fosters the growth of
Learners use past experiences to develop their own learning and understanding, contextualising
For any of these stages to be reached there must be a certain level of interaction or
‘interactivity’ (Anderson, 2004; Salmon, 2002) between the participants in the online context.
Online Interaction
At this point in the literature review it important to identify and discuss the types of
interaction that occur in online environments and to review a selection of relevant recent studies
that exemplify online participation that may offer some educational value.
interactivity holds a firm relationship with social development theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and with
the learning process that takes place within a community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In the
online environment, interaction can occur in various ways: computer/video/audio conferencing, and
text-based exchanges that include asynchronous and synchronous communication. Michael Moore
89
(1989) identified the following types of interactive relationships: student-student, teacher-student,
student-content, these relationships, were further expanded by Anderson and Garrison (1998), to
include teacher-teacher, teacher-content and content-content. Interaction in the current study was
expanded one step further to include the art practitioner or ‘expert in the field’ (Lave & Wenger,
institutions. Examples include education courses in teacher training programs and broader courses
in universities (Fox & Trinidad, 2006; Hough, Smithey, & Evertson, 2004; Sing & Khine, 2006).
(CMC). This is an area of research that, while growing rapidly, is yet to develop a theoretical
position by demonstrating empirical evidence (Jeong, 2003) within online communication studies.
Coding systems are emergent in nature and often specific to, or designed for, unique research tasks
or questions.
CMC studies of primary and secondary school applications are limited. From my
investigation there are no CMC research papers in Visual Arts Education at a secondary level.
There are examples in secondary science (Baker, de Vries, Lund, & Quignard, 2001), languages,
(Jahnke, 2010; Kern, 1996; Kimber & Wyatt-Smith, 2010; Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996),
ICT (Cheong & Cheung, 2008), primary education (Lipponen, 2000; Lipponen, Rahikainen,
Lallimo, & Hakkarainen, 2003; van der Meijden & Veenman, 2005) and online K–12 curriculum
development (Doering, 2007). The educational value of these inquiries into interaction
demonstrates a range of outcomes. However, the importance of research in school settings must be
realised for future engagement with CMC for primary and secondary students.
90
Definition of a Blended Learning Approach to Instruction
interaction and give students learning opportunities to match their learning styles. A blended
approach to instruction can be defined as ‘the integration of different types of resources and
activities within a range of learning environments where learners can interact and build ideas’
(Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007, p. 1). A more contemporary use of the term ‘blended learning’ is
directly associated with e-learning or learning online. There are many ways in which the terms are
defined in the current literature. Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) defined this association as ‘the
collaborate over a period of time (asynchronously) ... [allowing] for different forms of dialogue and
new types of learning’ (Littlejohn & Pegler, 2007, p. 3). Charles Graham and others defined
blended learning as ‘combin[ing] online and face-to-face instruction’ (Reay, 2001; Rooney, 2003;
Sands, 2002; Ward & LaBlanch, 2003; Young, 2002, in Graham, 2005). Graham advocated four
activities
• Course-Level Blending: FTF and CM activities that overlap in time or follow one
another in sequence.
• Program-Level Blending: participants choose a mix of FTF and CM activities that may
be offered at a distance.
end of a course, while online work is completed during the intervening period.
He further established three categories of blends for blended learning systems: (1) enabling,
(2) enhancing and (3) transforming. The last-mentioned is found in software applications and
learning management systems, and is underpinned by the use of technology and the application of
91
constructivist theory, where ‘learners [move] from [the] model of learners as receivers of
information to a model where learners actively construct knowledge through dynamic interactions’
(Graham, 2005, p. 13). Interestingly, Graham concluded, through his review of corporate and higher
‘environments, constraints such as class size, location, and availability of technology [, which] can
provide a formidable barrier to making transformative changes’ (Graham, 2005, p. 14). The current
study is aligned to the approach of activity-level blending as detailed by Graham. It offered students
activities that were designed to work on a face-to-face level as well as in the online context.
Another useful definition of blended learning came from Margaret Driscoll (2002) as she set
out four concepts to define different understandings of how blended learning is interpreted and
Driscoll identified the multiple characteristics and practices that blended learning can offer teachers
and instructional designers. It is important to grasp that technological pedagogy in the form of
The term ‘hybrid’ is also associated with courses that offer a mixed mode or blended
approach to teaching and learning (Brown, 2001; Young, 2002, in Montera-Gutierrez, 2005), where
92
students may learn at a distance or engage in self-paced (Valiathan, 2002, in Mortera-Gutierrez,
Another definition consistent with the aims of the current study has been offered by
strengthened through the application of technology as the vehicle to engage in the ‘continuous
learning process’ (Singh, 2003). The approach offers a learning environment that is flexible, self-
paced, timely and differentiated. Student learning is complemented by unique interactions with
activities, resources, peers, teachers and practitioners. Knowledge is not the focus; rather the quality
of interactions in the teaching and learning experience becomes the goal. This is where a blended
recent years become a common mode of practice in course and subject construction in order to
enhance group interaction and facilitate asynchronous learning opportunities for an increasingly
enlarged student cohort. Ana-Maria Bliuc, Peter Goodyear and Robert Ellis (2007) provided a
In contrast, secondary education research is limited to a few papers. Examples include Jean
Macnish and Sue Trinidad’s investigation (2002) of a Vocational Education and Training course in
93
retail in Western Australian schools; and K McKenna’s (2002) ‘Thinking Multimedia Program: A
Real World Experience for Students’, which used a range of technology including discussion
boards. Julie Robinson, Carloyn Thistlethwaite and Tsae Wong (2005), directors of teaching and
learning at John Paul College, Queensland, re-visioned their school’s pedagogy to include the
potential for blended learning. In the current literature search, there were no examples grounded in
Visual Arts education that demonstrated a blending of learning. Due to the lack of research in the
secondary school sector it is difficult to draw conclusions about how blended learning is defined
and applied. In higher education the blending of learning is moving more quickly, new publications
take up key ideas to include mobile devices, connectivity, openness, collective intelligence and
virtual worlds (Salmon 2012), frameworks and practices (Garrison & Vaughan 2008). Innovations
in blended learning area are largely in higher education. The parameters of blended learning for this
study were determined by the context of a secondary high school setting. More research is required
education. The contemporary absence of investigations into blended learning and the Visual Arts
has driven my interest in the area. This impetus has been further underpinned by my classroom
experience.
It is now helpful to highlight the current position of secondary Visual Arts education with
respect to socially mediated communication. As this is a context that has not been written about
explicitly in the field of Visual Arts education, ‘mediation’ has been the common research term
used to explore socially mediated communication. However, it became evident from researching for
the current study that authors have generally presented a broader application of technology in
Visual Arts education. Some examples include artmaking curriculum in both primary and secondary
settings (Crowe, 1988; Johnson, 1997; Matthews, 1997; McCulloch, 1984; Pitt, Updike, & Guthrie,
94
2002), collaborative dimensions of learning (Hamm & Adams 1992), art teachers’ perceptions
about technology (D’Angelo, 1988) and art technology and communication in museum settings
(Pierroux, 1998, 2003a&b, 2011). Mediation in Visual Arts education has often been presented in
art educational research and theory as investigating the ‘mediated image’ either in the making and
creating of artworks (Chia & Duthie, 1993; Freedman, 1989; Greh, 1986; Madeja, 1993;
Thompson, 2003), in collaboration with others to create virtual art objects in online environments
(Roland, 2003; van der Meijden, Janssen & Ligorio, 2002), or in the interpretation and appreciation
In the process of researching socially mediated communication for this literature review, it
was difficult to locate a research thread within art education that acknowledged mediation that is
communicated socially within an ICT secondary setting. However, one paper that investigated the
computer-mediated nature of art education was Tony Scott’s article, ‘Computer Mediated Art
Education: Extending the Paradigm of Computer Art’ (1992). While this article was written some
time ago, its historical significance is important as there are points made that are still relevant to the
area of secondary school Visual Arts education and its connection to technology and computer
mediated communication. This lack of available research papers further highlights the slow
advancement in the research on technology in the subject of Visual Arts in a secondary context.
Scott has a dual role as an art educator and a computer educator, and his experience in these
roles provided him with the impetus to bring the two subject areas together. Scott advocated a dual
approach to computer-mediated art education. The first approach is for art educators ‘to address the
ways in which computer use affects the arts’ and the second is for art educators to understand ‘the
catalytic nature [of computers,] resulting in the reconfiguration of the teaching process itself’ (Scott,
1992, p. 27). He stated that the second point in computing education is well researched and that he
would focus on the first: ‘the mediation of artistic dimensions of society by computer and the art
95
educator’s responsibility to address that mediation’ (Scott, 1992, p. 27). Scott went onto describe
He also identified that art education at the time has emerged to be understood from a
discipline-based orientation with multiple perspectives (Sullivan, 1993). But he also conceded that
the application of computers in this area has been largely directionless. Scott articulated that this
was the case because ‘computing facilities in the arts are mostly used for artmaking ... we generally
see scientific visualisation processes interpreted only from a perspective of artmaking’ (Scott,
1992). Scott made it clear that computers play a role in the development of students’ ways of
knowing in all aspects of art educational studies. ‘The use of computers to promote historical
provides opportunities for new paradigms of teaching and learning’ (Scott, 1992, p. 29). This article
was written twenty years ago and it seems from the lack of literature that the shift to a new
paradigm is yet to happen for computer mediation in Visual Arts at a secondary level.
To bring this discussion into more recent literature, a broader discussion of ICT and art and
design education11 is needed. Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas in her article White Heat or Blue Screen?
Digital Technology (2008), reviews the adoption of ICT in art and design education. The article
pursues to examine the pedagogical debate with ICT and its use in art and design education,
offering an answer to why there is not much research in CMC in Visual Arts at a secondary level.
One of her first main claims is that “…no consensus exists within art and design education as to the
11
Art and Design education is understood here at a higher education level, as it is still a separate
subject in current NSW schools. Design in the forth coming Australian National Curriculum is
aligned with Technology but not vice versa. This in itself may lead to partly answering the debate to
where the ICT focus of Visual Arts education in secondary curriculum is situated at the present
time.
96
role of ICT or even its validity in the arts”. Her second main claim is that the definition of ICT as
tool or subject is yet to be embraced by art and design educators. Radclyffe-Thomas draws on
research to substantiate her claim “Recent international research into technology use in art and
design education (Wood, 2004b) reveals that although a minority of teachers have embraced digital
art as a subject encouraging full use of its potential, for most teachers technology is conceived of
and used as a tool, an addition to their repertoire…” This correlates with Scott’s perspective that
artmaking is still the main deployment of technology use. However her discussion on this matter is
elaborated and constitutes that there is still this belief but a growing number of educators are “using
computers as a research, an artmaking and a communication tool.” On the point of CMC she
expands her discussion to highlight key benefits and examples of good practice in higher art and
design education, where institutions have linked with other geographically distant institutions to
produce a virtual studio environment. The pedagogical significance of this being that students could
see the progress of work and post comments and have interactions with others while in the creative
process. Other examples cite video conferencing as a method where students and teachers can
With all this examined, Radcyffe-Thomas identified that funding, teacher adoption and use
and setup of ICT, the homeostatic nature of institutions, and even timetable constraints are factors
that can burden the creative uptake of ICT in art and design education. The current study has started
to address the possibilities for giving students the opportunity to engage with practitioners, have
Chapter Summary
This literature review took its direction from the three-fold research framework of the
current study. First, it broadly positioned the changes in Australian schooling through policy
development and its implications for contemporary ICT practices. With government economic
demands, the professional development of teachers and the acquisition of computer hardware in
97
technology, seems to be where funded educational projects of the last decade have focused on
achieving goals in ICT in contemporary Australian schooling. It is clear that there is some
consensus amongst policymakers that technology and knowledge construction should be at the
centre of how we should teach and learn, although there is still disagreement and debate whether
ICT should be a stand-alone subject or integrated within all learning areas. This debate is currently
unfolding as Australian education enters a new era and moves to a national curriculum. The
Australian Council for Computers in Education has argued that the current conceptualisation is
inadequate.
Secondly, the concepts of online learning and blended learning are still finding their place in
contemporary Australian education, with examples appearing in distance education programs. The
inception and use of MOODLE has provided for this uptake in the secondary school setting. This is
due to its philosophical standing, low-cost accessibility, and user development options, which allow
for unique authorship of MOODLE applications and specific program design according to need.
What can be drawn from the examples discussed here is critical in adopting needed change in
in teaching and learning through technology. Even the physical aspects of the workspaces of
students and teachers, and the interactions that are allowed to take place and are given appropriate
time to develop, are critical to the challenge of moving education forward. For the few researchers
working in the secondary school setting, they have begun the important shift in teaching and
learning in the twenty-first century. These are significant projects as they begin the dialogue
Thirdly, from the absence of research in the critical and historical areas of technological
uses in art education, it is clear that researchers need to investigate a range of issues in the subject
area. An integrated model in the practices of learning about art though technology is needed. A
blended approach to teaching and learning in secondary settings could warrant this change.
98
However, the importance of mediation as the vehicle for social transformation is yet to be taken up
by art educators in contemporary environments such as blended or online learning. This said, the
nature of the subject of the Visual Arts lends itself well to this kind of activity, as it provides
opportunities for meaning making, authentic practice, critical reflection and pluralist perspectives
(Sullivan, 1993) in multiple interpretations of art knowledge. A contemporary art education needs
to provide all these opportunities, and technology should be able to employ social mediation to
achieve this.
One of the purposes of this study was to provide the school Redlands with the formative
evaluation of a unit of Higher School Certificate work that eventually took place in 2008 using the
MOODLE online environment. The formative evaluation took into consideration the interaction of
staff, students and art practitioners with their engagement in, and completion of, tasks online. The
study focus and design was located in the depth of dialogue created by the three types of
participants. The units of analysis took place in groups, where students, staff and art practitioners
worked online to produce written products. The sampling strategy emerged within the framework of
a single case study. A single, preselected group was used as the major source of in-depth
investigation, then a subgroup was selected for dialogue and product outcome investigation. Data
were collected mainly by a qualitative approach, although some quantitative data were collected
and analysed: part of the research structure, and the research questions, demanded this
This complementary approach to gathering research utilised the Triple P Framework (Ryba
et al., 2002). This framework has specific qualitative and quantitative dimensions. The controls that
were exercised in the case study were supported by naturalistic case study inquiry. Boundaries were
set by the particular secondary school setting, the MOODLE online environment, the New South
99
Wales Board of Studies (NSW BOS), the Higher Schools Certificate (HSC) curriculum, and also by
an emergent case study design. The analytical method was descriptive and interpretative, following
an inductive analysis of the emergent data found in the participants’ dialogue and online products.
Patterns, themes and categories were established after the data were collated. Both content and
statistical analysis took place but results were not generalised due to the smallness of the sample.
The case study found its confidence in validity by careful design. Triangulation of multiple
data and methodology sources was the main strategy of investigation using three research questions
and three goals of inquiry. The study occurred within a fixed period of time and was structured into
three analytical phases. The logistics and limitations of the case study entailed the individual
differences amongst participants, including their variable access to internet, and allocation of time
and commitment to the case study. Ethical considerations were addressed through informed consent
and exclusion of personal details from content that was evaluated for the case study. The cost of the
The study sought to answer the question: What effect does the blended learning environment have
(a) What are initial student perceptions of online learning, interaction, group work and the
(b) How do students perceive their experiences in using technology for group work, online
100
RQ2: Socially Mediated Communication
(b) How are Visual Arts Syllabus processes enacted within online learning and specific
What kind and quality of student products are developed through the online learning
environment?
Site Selection
The site selection for this study was determined by the place of employment of the
researcher as a research fellowship was offered within the school setting. The researcher established
a proposal outlining the use of MOODLE as a platform for blended learning within the Visual Arts
Department. An innovative program was developed and accepted by the school as an important
formative research project with the potential to shape the future of ICT use in the school’s
curriculum. The use of this site meant easy access and advantages for the researcher, such as
knowing student and teacher skill levels and access to the available resources within the department
Ethics
Ethical considerations in this case study were important because of the type of participants
who were expected to be involved. The study used informed consent as a mechanism to ensure
participants were aware of their commitment to, and involvement and possible risks in, the study.
As students were under the age of eighteen, parental consent was required before the
commencement of the online program. Students and parents had the choice to withdraw from the
101
study. The consent form outlined the selection process of the participants, the risks and
confidentiality of the study, and the aims and purposes of the research. A copy of the Participant
As part of the case study methodology, all dialogue and responses were coded. Identifying
information such as names and school-, department-, or site-specific terminology were removed.
This was to ensure the privacy of the participants and to minimise any bias emerging from the
researcher. The discussion forums were analysed after the member checking process to ensure
integrity in the analysis of the data. Student responses to the pre- and post-questionnaire were also
anonymous.
The participants in this study included the researcher, students and staff of the Redlands
Visual Arts Department, and invited art practitioners who had participated in the Redlands Westpac
Art Prize during the past ten years. The table below summarises the research participants by type.
Students 12
Teachers 2
Art Practitioners 3
Researcher 1
Total 18
The student’s were enrolled in the Year 12 HSC Visual Arts Course in 2008. This blended
learning program of work was constituted as one Visual Arts Case Study that the class needed to
complete prior to the HSC Examination. The program ran from May through June in 2008. It was
decided eventually that this Visual Arts Case Study would not be part of any major final assessment
as not all students were comfortable with the MOODLE online learning environment. Students
worked in three small groups determined by the researcher after careful analysis of social and group
102
dynamics through the Pre-Online Questionnaire. The teachers involved were current employees of
the school at the time of the case study program and they offered their commitment beyond their
normal teaching load to become online tutors. They received minimal training by the researcher but
were already familiar with the MOODLE online platform in various ways, having had experience
with it in the Visual Arts Department over about two years prior to the commencement of the
program. The staff had a good understanding that they were there to encourage and support the
students.
The art practitioners were invited from the list of past recipients of the Redlands Westpac
Art Prize. Three art practitioners agreed to complete online work with the students, which is why
there were three groups. The art practitioners were given a minimal introduction to the MOODLE
online environment and program outline on the phone, as they were located geographically in the
Blue Mountains, NSW; South Australia; and Tasmania. This precluded face-to-face contact during
the short time of the delivery of the program. The art practitioners were in touch with the researcher
by phone or email for support in negotiating the interface. The researcher gave support when and
where it was needed to ensure the practitioners were able to interact successfully online with their
student groups.
The researcher played several roles in the research project, including those of the class
teacher, directing the face-to-face experiences; the MOODLE online administrator of groups, where
interaction was consciously limited to making responses only; the ‘help desk’, resolving technical
Sample Selection
The sample selection for this study was informed by the pre-selection of the Visual Arts
Program, which itself was under formative evaluation. As such evaluation does not seek to
103
generalise (Patton, 1990, p. 156), findings here will be utilised to improve delivery of the program
within Redlands school. The sample selections were determined by the research questions.
All participating students and their responses were studied in relation to RQ1. There were
class activity. As students worked online, there were three online reflection periods during Task 3
Forum, Task 5 Forum, and Task 8 Forum (See Table 4). These mid-program reflections were
designed to encourage students to discuss their online experiences but were not compulsory. As an
evaluation task at the end of their online experiences, students completed an Online Feedback
Questionnaire (Appendix 3). This was a compulsory activity although, on the day, three students
were absent from school and did not complete the survey. The absences are noted in the results
chapter. These absences seem, however, to have had little effect on answering this research question
as there were sufficient responses from the other participants to establish results. Teacher responses
were low in this part of the study as the questions were aimed at students only. The following table
gives a summary of the Data Collection Instruments and the student and teacher response totals.
To analyse the large body of dialogue created in the online discussion samples of this study
effectively, it was decided to analyse only one group for RQ2. This was the ‘Smart Arts Group’
104
(SA), which was selected for three important reasons: (1) the group dialogue was focused on the
online tasks and of a high quality, (2) the researcher was not part of group interaction, and (3) the
The RQ2(a) sample selection included two forums with five threaded discussions in the
SA’s communication, namely, Task 2: Forum: Who Am I?, and Task 4a: Forum: Conceptual
Framework Discussion: (1) Artist, (2) Artwork, (3) Audience, (4) World (four discussion threads).
The RQ2(b) sample selection emerged from a review of data in RQ2(a) Table 16. Data were again
drawn from Task 4a: Forum: Conceptual Framework Discussion. The same discussion threads were
used but they were investigated from two different points of view: (1) the enactment of the Visual
Arts Curriculum, and (2) the giving of advice to the students by the artist.
The RQ3 sample selection was the last discussion thread from the SA group, Task 4a:
Conceptual Framework Discussion. This discussion was chosen because it demonstrated how
participants created the artist summary while using the Conceptual Framework scaffold document
Bias
As this study utilised a blended approach to learning, the researcher was also the face-to-
face teacher for all the twelve students involved. This is in part why no face-to-face episodes were
part of the research. Participants were not told which aspects of their online work or which group’s
discussion, communication and work samples would be studied. This was kept confidential until the
member check process. The researcher was aware of being a participant-observer since the
researcher was an online tutor for one of the groups. However, to ensure lower instances of bias, a
deliberate decision was made to use a group tutored by another teacher. During this study the
105
researcher had to alleviate several online problems in the capacity of site administrator, so there
were communications related to such problems that were imperative to resolve for the successful
continuation of the project. In the dialogue that was studied there were two instances of the
researcher making direct contact with one student in the studied group. This was an administrative
matter to do with the upload size of documents in forums. The interaction was short and had a direct
impact to the students being able to continue with the forum. It has been noted in the conclusion
that a more practical approach to the management of the site is needed, for example having an IT
Administrator resolve technical problems. This would ensure the researcher is not involved with
As this study utilised a single case study to formatively evaluate an educational program
within a particular setting, content analysis (Neuendorf, 2002; Weber, 1990) was both qualitative
and quantitative. A variety of methods, including questionnaires, online reflections and forum
dialogue, and a work sample were used to obtain the data needed to answer the research questions.
There were two questionnaires each designed to investigate student responses regarding
their knowledge and experiences of specific topics related to the case under investigation. Both
qualitative and quantitative questions were posed to students in the questionnaires. The timing of
administration of the questionnaires was also important, as the data were to be used to identify pre-
and post-online responses. While students worked online, they were given opportunities to reflect
identifies the three stages at which questionnaires were administered and student online reflections
recorded. It is useful to understand the rationale for these instruments and their connection to RQ1.
106
Table 5: Outline of the Data Collection Methods and Rationale, and How They Related to the
Research Questions
Stage (1 to 3) Data Collection Rationale Research Question
Method
Prior to online Pre-Online This questionnaire established RQ1(a) What are initial student
activity Questionnaire where students were at the perceptions of online learning,
beginning of the program. interaction, group work and the
During online Student online These reflections were used to RQ1(b) How do students perceive their
activity reflections see how students experienced the experiences in using technology for
practice of art writing?
online environment. group work, online learning and the
practices of art writing?
After online Post-Online This questionnaire established RQ1(c) Do student perceptions change
activity questionnaire, whether students’ perceptions as they engage in the unit of work?
changed at the end of the
work sample
program.
RQ1(a) Pre-Online Questionnaire: The aim of this questionnaire was to ascertain baseline
skills of students in order to understand their existing technological skills and use of technology. It
also investigated how they perceived online learning, and participation in group work, and what
they thought about art writing practice and understood it to be. The results are presented under the
following headings: Technological Skill, Group Work, Online Learning, Art Writing Practice. The
RQ1(b) Student Online Reflections: These were an important qualitative tool as research
participants were asked to reflect on their online experience through a discussion forum while they
were working online. These reflections were headed: Technological Skill, Group Work, Online
Learning, and Art Writing Practice. This data instrument aimed to capture the thoughts and
experiences of research participants as they were working through the activities. There were three
formal opportunities to record reflection and five questions. As the research participants did not
complete every activity in the program, the third reflection opportunity was not taken up. This was
107
unfortunate; however, the same two questions from this reflection opportunity were re-presented as
statements inviting responses in the Feedback Questionnaire. Stronger conclusions could have been
drawn with both data sources, but this was not to be. Table 6 outlines the reflection task, timing and
1 What are your thoughts on the online learning experience so far? after first artist
forum
2 What were the challenges or difficulties faced in the conceptual framework after conceptual
forum? framework forum
How has this forum helped with your investigation into your artist?
3 What has been the challenge of working in a group online? after WIKI forum
was not
Do you think that working online has improved your art writing practice? completed
RQ1(c) Post-Feedback Questionnaire: the main aim of this questionnaire was to give
formative feedback to the researcher about the Visual Arts Program design and the participation of
the students. Topic areas covered in the feedback questionnaire included: Technical Issues 1–5
(QQ1–5), Online Expectations (QQ6–10), Online Activities (QQ11–16), Art Tasks (QQ17–21), Art
Writing Practice (QQ22–25), Group Work (QQ26–32), Learning (QQ33–37), E-tutor (QQ38–40),
Art Practitioner (QQ41–42) and Improvement of Learning Activities (Q43). This questionnaire was
both quantitative and quantitative and used statements and questions. Students had to express a
judgement based on the five measures of a Likert scale (McLeod, 2008), namely: Strongly Agree,
Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree, Not Applicable. Students were also given the opportunity to
RQ2: Forum Dialogue: It was decided that only one group’s dialogue would be investigated using
two forums, namely, Task 2: Forum: Who am I? and Task 4a: Forum: Conceptual Framework.
108
RQ3: Discussion Thread: The so-called CF Doco discussion thread was used here to analyse
This case study engaged both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis. This
mixed method approach was used to give multiple viewpoints of the case under study. The
quantitative aspects of this case were not used to generalise findings as the sample was small.
However this method was used to isolate and summarise results from questionnaires and forum
posts that were useful to interpret better the setting under study. The researcher was concerned for
some of the time with detailed reporting, thick descriptions, and interpretations of multiple realities
within the study setting. To establish credibility in this study, Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) case study
inquiry method was sustained in the research by the way the data were collected, assembled,
Triangulation is one method that is fundamental for the qualitative researcher. The
credibility of case study results lies in triangulation by presenting three different points of view of
the project. This process is used to measure and confirm internal validity. The research design in the
current study used triangulation within data collection to establish its credibility (Lincoln & Guba,
Data analysis was executed using Excel spread sheets, working on printed copies by hand.
The pawing method (Ryan & Bernard, 2010) was used as an initial investigation to colour-code
student responses locating salient categories, subcategories and themes. Coding of responses was
Triangulation of data sources played an important role in the development of these analytical tools.
interpretation approach (Stake, 1995), responses were broken down into statements. Each new idea
109
or thought from participant reflections was separated by a direct interpretation made by the
researcher. From this the researcher then made assertions about each idea or thought offered by the
participant. The aim of this data investigation was to uncover the meaning and possible patterns
behind the reflections students made about their perceived experiences. Member checks were used
to ensure credibility of the researcher’s interpretations. Lincoln and Guba (1985) defined member
checking as a process that allows stakeholders or groups involved in a study to test the accuracy of
interpretation and the intent of information. Member checking gives research participants the
opportunity to make judgements about the constructions that are being made about them within the
specific context. This can be an informal or formal process and is seen in naturalistic inquiry as ‘the
most crucial technique for establishing credibility’ (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 314). Research
participants in the current study were emailed documents for consideration and asked to comment
about their reflection statements and forum discussions. Responses were then coded, by a response
number, then more explicitly by the group name and student number, then by response section. For
example: Smart Arts Student 1 section a, was coded SAS1a, Arty Farty Homosapians (spelt like
this by the students) Student 1 section b was coded AFH1b, and Obelix vs Asterix (also spelt like
this by the students) Student 1 section c was coded OvsAS1c etc. These codes were used to track
RQ1(b) Student Reflections Statement Coding: To isolate further data for investigation the
researcher then decided to statement code the interpreted responses to see if these revealed any
patterns. First, each reflection period was colour-coded using the emergent statement codes and
then totalled. The responses were sorted into categories under the following statement codes:
110
• Group Responses
• Leading Statements
• Value Online Learning Statements
• Rephrase Question
• Agreement Statement
• Joke Statement
• Emoticon/Emotions Statements
This system of coding was developed and utilised to identify the number of statements in
each category. The aim was to highlight salient categories in the reflection responses. This process
was then used to refine the statements for further analysis. As the data were analysed, two areas
emerged as possible categories to further sub-code. Data from the categories Group Responses and
Value Online Learning Statements were chosen as specific areas to categorise further. This choice
was made by the researcher due to the large number and variable quality of responses in these two
categories.
Group Responses: These responses were sub-coded into three categories to include:
These categories were used to gain insight into how students identified with the group.
Value Online Learning Statements: These were subcategorised first into quantitative
positive and negative statements that were presented in a comparative chart. The researcher then
These subcategories were presented in text and through a table representing student responses.
111
RQ2(a) Forum Post Analysis
Quantitative analysis of number and kind of posts: It was necessary to give an overview and
total of the quantity and kind of posts and response interactions across the two investigated forums:
Who am I? and Conceptual Framework. This is presented through tables and in the text.
Analysis of communication/interaction using emergent theme coding: The aim of this data
analysis was to investigate the amount and kind of communication and interaction that was taking
place between artist and student, student and student, and student and teacher. There was no
teacher/practitioner interaction. This analysis focused on the dialogue and communication of the
research participants while working in the online environment in the Who am I? and the Conceptual
Framework forums. For consistency the same response coding practices were used to track student
and artist responses. The responses were numbered first, then coded; for example, Smart Arts
Student 1 section a, b, c was coded SAS1a, b, c, and, as there was only one artist in the group, the
coding was numerical, thus: Artist responses 1, 2, etc were coded Artist 1, Artist 2, etc. Emergent
and salient themes were established during this process of data investigation.
RQ2(a) Theme Coding: In this instance the theme coding that emerged was based on the
interactions that took place during discussions. The researcher isolated responses within posts with
four themes that were useful for investigating RQ2(a). These communications were used to
investigate Sullivan’s (1993) notion of a sense of connection. Themes were identified as follows:
• make claims
• draw conclusions
Themes were isolated from the forums and coded first with the discussion thread/response then the
student code. For example, Artist 1 SAS1 refers to discussion thread Artist response 1 by Smart
Arts Student 1. Results are presented in the text and through tables.
112
RQ2(b) Processes: The same data were then investigated to isolate the understanding of
processes that took place in the discussions. There were two process that warranted investigation:
(1) the application of the syllabus scaffolds as examples of the enactment of the syllabus
(Freedman, 2003) and (2) the artist giving advice. The latter was an emergent aspect of the data.
(1) Student references and applications to the Frames and Conceptual Framework were
isolated through the questions that they asked the artist. The questions were first coded
with the discussion thread/response then the student code. For example Artist 1 SAS1
refers to discussion thread Artist response 1 by Smart Arts Student 1. Then each question
§ Art practice: this was also used as a label for interpreting the data.
(2) The artist giving advice to students was an emergent category of data analysis. All the
artist’s references to advice were isolated for interpretation. Codes related to the
discussion thread were used, for example, ARTIST 30, AUDIENCE 23, relates to the
Results for both (1) and (2) are presented in the text and through tables.
RQ3 Products: The aim of this data collection method was to isolate how students created the
product from the online interaction with the artist practitioner. Students were asked to choose a
colour to write in early on in the online program. This was used consistently through the forums and
in the Conceptual Framework document. This was the method used to track the development of the
SAS2 = pink
SAS3 = black
SAS4 = orange
The first level of triangulation was applied to the data and was governed by the Triple P
Framework (Ryba et al., 2002; Appendix 4). This approach evaluated the data from three different
perspectives and at different phases of the project. At the second level of triangulation, the Triple P
Framework also influenced the development and direction of the research questions. Within the
program evaluation for RQ1, the student participant points of view were recorded using three
different methods of evaluation. Student perceptions were investigated at three different points in
time in the program. While interaction analysis was the focus for RQ2, there where three types of
interaction analysed using theme coding. The final aspect of triangulation was in RQ3, where
student interaction, construction and quality of a final product were investigated. Table 7 visualises
114
Table 7: Triangulation in the Research Design
LEVEL 1 TRIANGULATION: TRIPLE P FRAMEWORK
The principal research strategy was qualitative; thus it is important to outline the method
relevant for investigation in this particular case study. Qualitative methods have emerged from
within social sciences and humanities approaches to research and theory interpretation.
Anthropology and the study of society and culture are at the root of the qualitative research field.
‘Qualitative inquiry accepts the complex and dynamic quality of the social world’ (Hoepfl, 1997, p.
48). Denzin and Lincoln (1998) stated that ‘qualitative research operates in a complex field that
crosscuts five historical moments’ (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 2). The moments or periods can be
listed as follows:
115
These periods have amplified the many facets of what it means to apply qualitative methods to
present-day research. It is also impossible to grasp the depth of the qualitative research field without
comprehending the historical phases of its inception. It is also understood by academics and
researchers that qualitative research is difficult to define as it has ‘no theory or paradigm that is
distinctly its own’ (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998, p. 5). Nevertheless Denzin and Lincoln presented a
generic definition:
Under educational conditions, qualitative researchers have adopted many traditional and
emerging methods to investigate a range of contexts where student/teacher relationships exist. The
natural setting of the learning environment, which in recent times has become more flexible, is the
main site where this kind of research takes place. The emergent capacity of qualitative research
makes it suitable for educational researchers. Emergent research ‘seeks to observe and interpret
meanings in context, it is neither possible nor appropriate to finalise research strategies before data
collection has begun’ (Patton, 1990, in Hoepfl, 1997, p. 51). This phenomenon is the driving force
Marie Hoepfl, in her paper ‘Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology
research design. She presented a checklist that is a synthesis of a number of authors’ views on the
subject (Bogdan & Biklen, 1985; Eisner, 1991, in Hoepfl 1997; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Patton,
116
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
These characteristics identify that the qualitative study is indicative of context, human
interaction and observation, reasoning and emerging themes, thick description and interpretation
within the bounds of a specific phenomenon, with particular interest in the unique. Research design
is inconclusive until data are collected, and dependability needs distinctive measures. This is not to
discredit the validity and credibility of qualitative research design. Rather, this list explicates a
divergent approach to identifying primary research questions and workable hypotheses within a
qualitative study. These characteristics are also found in the research methods of Robert E. Stake
(1995).
The educational research methodology adopted in this study was a case study approach.
Stake argued the merits of a single case study approach to research in the educational field. He
identified aspects of educational research that are specifically relevant to the present study and its
goals of documenting and evaluating emergent educational research by means of a single case.
Stake identified that a ‘case study is the study of the particularity and complexity of a single case,
coming to understand its activity within important circumstances’ (Stake, 1995, p. xi). The present
117
case study was concerned with a program evaluation where the case study was a unique case (Stake,
1995) in an art educational context, occurring online, where participants were working with art
practitioners and their teachers. Units for analysis were gathered from a pre-online questionnaire,
online dialogue interactions, online participant reflections, a post-online questionnaire and online
products that were then used as records for examination. The aim was to provide formative
evaluation of this case using the intrinsic approach to case study research (Stake, 1995). Direct
interpretation and narrative description drew assertions from the observations of the case. Meaning
was contextual within the limitations of the project (Yin, 1984). The role of the researcher in this
The model for this case study was developed from the research undertaken in the literature,
principally one current online learning design structure and one evaluative framework. Gilly
Salmon’s (2002) Five-Stage Online Learning Model was used to develop, organise and sequence
the content, delivery and instruction of the online component of the program. The principles of this
model were used to promote collaborative group activity and successful online interaction. Whereas
Ryba et al. (2002) offered a qualitative data direction, the Triple P Framework, which provided a
• investigate where participants have engaged in dialogue through the carefully structured
118
Both the model and framework view the case in detail from multiple viewpoints and are
consistent with the aims of formative evaluation of a single case with a small sample of participants.
Other models were initially explored through the literature review, for example, those of Jonassen
et al. (1999) and Lave and Wenger (1991), but these models were deemed too broad for the
investigation of this singular case. It is important to note that the New South Wales Visual Arts
Syllabus was also a framework that was used to design the content of the program and online
activities.
Figure 5, diagrammatically represents the Visual Arts Program design developed by the
researcher for the purposes of understanding interaction in the Visual Arts classroom. The figure
identifies the context, the use of the models, the research framework and the points at which the
research questions were devised for investigation of the case. The following paragraphs illustrate
and explain how these have been interpreted and used in the case study design.
119
Figure 5: Program design model for identifying online interaction in art
Program Context
The New South Wales Board of Studies Visual Arts Stage 6 Syllabus was the framework for
the instructional components of this unit of work. A Visual Arts Case Study is defined in the
syllabus as working to ‘provide a means of studying particular cases in the Visual Arts. Their
function within the classroom is to illustrate a point or something of significance’ (NSW BOS
Visual Arts Stage 6 Curriculum, 2009, p. 33). In the context of the Stage 6 Syllabus, meaning and
value of the case, is determined by the teacher. This is the most important aspect of the Visual Arts
Case Study to exemplify the conceptual understanding of Visual Arts. The Visual Arts Case Study
was the context for this program design. The design was unique as it not just utilised the classroom
120
and secondary resources but provided access to art practitioners. This primary reference offered
students an opportunity to understand first-hand the practices of art as they studied the artist and
came to appreciate the significance of their work. It utilised the Conceptual Framework scaffold
(See Appendix 5) as an investigative tool for developing questions for discussion with art
The design of the program of work, Art Prizes in Australia (Appendices 6 and 7), was
conceived from the need for the Redlands art collection to become an integral part of the teaching
and learning resources in the school’s Visual Arts Curriculum. The researcher aimed to develop an
innovative unit of work that would allow students and teacher’s access to galleries, artworks in the
collection, and associated art practitioners. It was decided early on that access to the art practitioner
was critical to the success of the program and would give the students a real-world experience. This
motivation determined the direction and development of the unit of work to include an online
identity guessing game and discussion components for interaction with the art practitioner. This
social context for learning was supported by the MOODLE online platform. As this unit was class
work, and the blended approach to online learning was selected for the case study. The unit of
work, comprising ten online tasks and one or two face-to-face periods a week, was estimated to take
eight weeks to complete. The addition of gallery visits and viewing of the school’s art collection
was important to develop student understanding of art practice and of the art world as a context for
learning.
For the purposes of this study a snapshot of the blended learning activities is presented here.
Time constraints imposed by the Higher School Certificate examinations in this and other subject
areas meant not all program components were completed online. These particular aspects are
121
Table 8: Visual Arts Program Activity Overview
Wk Face-to-Face Activities Gallery Activities Online Activities
1 Introduce case study on RWAP, class View and document the Access and Motivation:
discussion, articles on art prizes; RWAP collection. Task 1 Live Chat: Net name,
establish what constitutes an art prize? (1 hr) introduction, establishing
(1 hr) Curator’s presentation (1 hr) group name (2 hrs)
Introduce MOODLE interface (1 hr)
Complete Pre-Online Questionnaire
using MOODLE (20 mins)
(Establish online groups from
questionnaire data)
2 Research RWAP Website (1 hr) Visit Archibald Prize: focus Socialisation:
on the judge and the critic Task 2 Forum: Who Am I?
View RWAP Collection and group- discussion with artist (1 hr)
3
specific artwork. Task 4 Reflections Forum
Discuss and generate questions for (30 mins)
Conceptual Framework Discussion Information Exchange:
based on the Artist, Artwork, World, Task 4a Forum: Artist
Audience (2 hrs) investigation; dialogue with
artist online, using formulated
Group time in class to follow up on None questions for artist;
4
MOODLE and task at hand (1 hr) investigation of the
Conceptual Framework
Look at other art prizes in Australia (2-3 hrs across two weeks)
through articles. Discuss what
constitutes an art prize (1 hr) Task 4b Show and Tell:
Emergent forum, where
students discuss their own
5 Group presentations on artist None work with artists
investigations of the Conceptual
Framework (1-2 hrs) Task 5: Reflections Forum
Class teacher feedback (30 mins)
122
Interaction
As this unit of work was concerned with a blended approach to learning, engaging a mixed
mode delivery method of face-to-face and online interaction, it was decided that only a selection of
online interactions and pre-, mid-, and post-online reflections and questionnaires would be the
student-artist and student-teacher. This was not intended to narrow the investigation but to make the
data sources and data analysis manageable and to focus on the particularities of the specific
The ZPD was referred to in the program design because the ZPD is an inherent part of the
social context in which online learning occurs. Interaction is the overarching concept towards which
this research investigation was aimed. The online learning activities were designed specifically for
students to interact with adult art practitioners. This was significant as the social context for
learning and the social organisation of instruction are critical concepts in Vygotsky’s theory for
higher psychological processes. The teacher was placed in a support role, encouraging students to
engage with art practitioners. This case study was not concerned with elucidating individual
participants’ ZPDs and whether they have widened. The use of this theoretical point of view was to
ensure the researcher had designed the online learning activities to maximise students’ ability to
The Five-Stage Model was useful in this case study design as it offered a level of support
for participants as they negotiated the online program. The Five-Stage Model was chosen to ensure
that participants were supported in the online environment and to avoid common problems related
to participation in online coursework. The asynchronous nature of online learning was at the core of
123
the model. The model was underpinned with constructivist notions this included information
exchange and knowledge construction. It was based on progressing through the steps of
interactivity that take place in a given online group experience. The model was also useful for the
researcher to define, simplify, and arrange online activities as they dovetailed with face-to-face
lesson experiences in classroom and gallery settings. This model was used to organise the online
environment and activities and to enable users to have success in their program of work with online
interactions. The focal point of this program model was the engagement of participants in online
collaborative groups. Central to each stage was the challenge of the individual participant within
group interactions and the pacing and timing of each activity. Movement through the stages could
differ between participants. It is important to note that this study was not in any sense interested in
testing whether students progressed through the stages or arrived at all the steps in their
experiences. In this case study, face-to-face support and activities were also offered to support and
encourage greater success with the new teaching and learning medium. Activity level blending
(Graham 2005) was chosen as the approach to ensure that the demands that the tasks within the unit
The Triple P Framework offered this case study the structure to develop research questions
from multiple points of view. The three areas of analysis in this framework, as defined by Ryba et
(1) Perceptions: students’ own views about their feelings and experiences
(2) Processes: analysis of online interaction patterns and of the content of cognitive and
metacognitive processing
(3) Products: observable outcomes of learning in the form of publications, reports, folios,
124
What is significant is that Ryba et al. (2002) also used Salmon’s Five-Stage Model to
organise their evaluative questions. In the current study, however, this analytical structure was
primarily used to triangulate the formative evaluation of the study. It was not the intention of this
investigation to answer all the questions offered by this framework. Rather, the focus was to
determine the structure of the research questions to be used in the triangulation of the research
design.
Products
Within the online learning activities there were three products that were set as tasks for
students to complete: the Conceptual Framework summary; an oral presentation; and the artist’s
wiki, together with a short essay on art prizes in Australia. The products that were developed by the
students included a summary of the Conceptual Framework discussions with the artist and, for one
group, the artist’s wiki. Students were guided to summarise their questions and dialogue with the art
practitioner and to create a Conceptual Framework summary document that was to be delivered in
125
CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter summarises the results of the study. It is presented under headings that correspond to
the research questions. As both qualitative and quantitative investigations generated the results,
discussion is also included, using as subheadings topics that led or emerged from the research. RQ1
investigated the social context for learning by investigating student perceptions and how they may
have changed during the program. RQ2 investigated the meaningful communication and
interactions that occurred while enacting part of the Visual Arts Curriculum. An emergent process,
the artist giving advice, is also documented here. RQ3 investigated the products that the students
created while working online. This question relates, in part, to RQ2, as responses to it provided
evidence of the process of implementing the Visual Arts Curriculum. However, due to data loss this
question was not effectively concluded. In the next chapter, conclusions and recommendations will
be presented.
RQ1(a) Results
What are student initial perceptions of online learning, interaction, group work and the practice of
art writing?
The results from this questionnaire were grouped into three broad areas of interest:
Technical Skill, Group Work and Art Writing Practice. In the interest of clarity, results are
The twelve student participants in the study group had daily access to the internet during the
online component of the work unit. One student, however, was moving house, so for some of the
126
time, access to the internet was possible from school only. One student was absent. Nine students
indicated that they engaged in social activities using chatroom and forums, and all students
indicated that they accessed email. The use of software programs such as Word, Powerpoint and
Excel also indicated that students used technology for schoolwork outcomes. Interestingly the
majority of students perceived that they were advanced users of technology. Referring to Question 9
in the questionnaire, half the sample perceived that they had not previously completed online
activities or coursework. This suggests either of two possibilities. One, that online learning is not a
commonly used pedagogy in the school setting in all subjects and by all teachers; and two, the
counterintuitive but still plausible situation that research participants have indeed completed online
learning activities as part of coursework but have failed to recognise that it was online learning.
Table 9 summarises results from the first section of the questionnaire, from Question 1 to Question
9. Question 10 will be addressed separately. Results from Question 3 are also not reported here as
127
Table 9: Technical Skills: Summary of Results
3. What kind of software programs do you use most? (Not reported in these results)
128
Question 10 in the questionnaire asked the student participants: What do you think online learning
is? They were asked to write a response to this question in their own words. All eleven responded;
see Appendix 8 for their responses. When the responses were assessed, the researcher found five
participants presented statements indicating that they were unsure of the meaning of online
learning. Two participants believed that online learning is a knowledge acquisition process and
three participants identified interaction as a process of working online; within those responses two
students mentioned discussion as an element of online learning. From this data only three of the
eleven participants indicated an appreciation that online learning includes some kind of interaction
with others. This could be due to the fact that all computer tasks students engage in at school are
viewed as examples of online learning. From this data analysis it appears that the participants in this
sample did not have a good understanding of the concept of online learning. The data suggest that
the lack of familiarity with the term and concept of online learning indicates that perhaps online
learning is perceived by student participants to be the same as a computer-based tasks, for example,
participants had a limited understanding of the concept of online learning. A tentative conclusion
that could be drawn from this instance is that online learning is not widely used as a pedagogical
Recommendation
A useful follow-up question for students in future studies would be: Can you describe or list other
online learning experiences you have had at school? It may also be useful to have a questionnaire
for teachers to complete to see what their perceptions of online learning are?
129
2. Group Work
Table 10 summarises the five questions that were used to isolate the student participants’
RQ1(a)
11. Describe some situations where you have worked as part of a group.
13. What problems have you experienced in the past in group work situations? Give specific examples.
14. What positive experiences have you had with group work?
15. Which of the following roles best describes you within a group?
Leader/Coordinator/Secretary/Participant/Observer
The questions were designed to identify what kind of group situations students had
previously participated in and how they perceived their experiences, either positively or negatively.
Research participants were asked to write in their own words and to give specific examples
wherever possible. Participant responses were coded as Student 1 (S1) etc and will be referred to in
Question 11 identified, through description, the range of situations where participants had
done group work. The question was left open to invite any group situation rather than limiting
responses to a school setting. All but two students mentioned group work as an element of learning
in the school setting. S2 referred to work as a situation where they had worked in a group. Four
students mentioned previous online experiences and identified the MOODLE platform, and forums
as examples.
130
Question 12 was a subjective question that investigated how students felt about group work.
S11 was the only student in the sample to highlight an absence of a positive experience when
working in a group and that they preferred to work individually. Most students highlighted the
positive and negative sides of group work in their responses. Others mentioned only positive
reflections about their group experiences at school. It is evident from the responses that all students
Question 13 identified specific problems that are inherent within group work situations. The
Question 14 probed participants for examples of positive experiences while within group
situations. Generally all participants saw group work as a positive experience. Interestingly, S11
valued interaction with others if it were to have a possible benefit or provide an avenue for personal
improvement. S9 mentioned motivation as a strong component of group work and S5 stated that
Question 15 asked participants to give themselves a role in a group situation: Were they a
Leader, Coordinator, Participant, or Observer? Seven of the eleven student participants saw
themselves as leaders willing to lead group work and not just participate.
Overall, this section of the Pre-Online Questionnaire identified that the participants valued
group work and expected it to be part of their learning experiences. The negatives that were
identified are probably typical of members of any group and are not particular to this setting or
131
3. Art Writing Practice
The questions in this section asked students to reflect on their understanding of art writing
practice. The three questions were designed to establish what students may or may not know about
16. What is your S3, S4, S8 gave a value judgement e.g. basic/high
understanding of
S1, S9, S10 referred to the syllabus components e.g. Frames, Conceptual
art writing?
Framework, Art History, Art Criticism
17. What makes art S2, S5, S7, S8, S11 made some reference to art techniques/concepts specific to
writing difficult the subject
for you?
S1, S3, S4, S6, S9, S10 gave non-subject-specific answers that were grounded in
language
18. What kind of S1, S5 gave responses that were not relevant to the question
support do you
S2, S3, S4, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11 gave general, non-subject-specific answers that
think you need to
were language-based and could be applied to any particular subject
improve your art
writing?
132
Generally the student answers did not indicate an appreciation that art writing is a specific
form of text genre, for example, historical or critical. This could indicate that the students had not
been explicitly taught these forms were not engaging in art historical and critical reading beyond the
course content and viewed this type of art writing as specific to answering course-related questions.
Which maybe due to the habit or convention that writing about art at the school level is mainly
confined to examinations.
What is clear is that participants identified language structures, ways of thinking, key words,
and unpacking examination questions as difficulties. Others, focused on essays or writing practice
as a way of improvement, this, again indicates a focus on examinations or questions that students
are used to answering in a course context. These responses were not subject specific and could be
Recommendation: Establish an activity in the senior course program that defines and
highlights examples of the two aspects of art writing practice to enable students to develop a deeper
and more coherent understanding of them as they play a role within the wider context of the art
world.
RQ1(b) Results
How do students perceive their experiences in using technology for group work, online learning
For this part of RQ1(b), student online reflections were collected at two of the possible three
collection points in the online component of the program. Students were asked to reflect on their
experiences while working online. Below is a summary of all of the posts from each group in each
reflection forum. This gives an overview of the number of posts and identifies which group/s were
133
Table 12: Reflection Questions and Total Student Group Posts
1) What have been the challenges of working in a group online? Not administered due to time
constraints
2) Do you think that working online has improved your art writing
practice?
TOTALS 19 18 7 44
The most active group was the SA group, with 19 responses; this group was followed
closely by the AFH group, with 18 posts. The OvsA group had the fewest responses, with a total of
7 posts. The data from the two reflection periods were analysed by using the data tool: Statement
Coding. The following table displays a comparison of the two reflection tasks, 3 and 5, and gives
134
Table 13: Comparison of Task 3 and Task 5 Reflection Statements
RQ1 (b) RESULTS
Technology Problem 4 5 9
Confirming Statement 3 0 3
Group Responses 7 2 9
Leading Statements 2 0 2
Rephrase Question 7 5 12
Agreement Statement 7 4 11
Joke Statements 6 1 7
Emoticon/Emotions Statements 8 2 10
To establish a logical way to track the number, kind and sequence of responses, each student
response was given a number and a corresponding code with a letter to indicate a new response or
part of a response. For example, Smart Arts Student 1 responses a, b, c, were coded SAS1a, b, c.
This ensured that the researcher could track where responses came from in the original dialogue and
that readers could follow Appendices 9, 10 a, and 10b, and Table 12.
After considering the type of responses that would best answer the aspects of RQ1(b), the
researcher decided to focus on only the coded responses in the Group Responses and Value Online
Learning Statements categories. Responses in the categories shaded in grey in the table above
related specifically to two aspects of RQ1(b) as they offered insights into participant perceptions
while working with the online program. In analysing posts related to Group Responses and Value
135
Online Learning Statements (categories in grey), statements resulting from Task 3 and Task 5 will
be considered separately.
With regard to the reflection questions, the Task 3 question was both more subjective and
easier to respond to than the Task 5 question, which is possibly why there were more responses to
the Task 3 question. The Task 5 question asked for specific examples of difficulties encountered
with a particular forum; this question was structured in this way to elicit more objective responses.
The responses in the first reflection period were the most numerous from the three forums. This
could indicate that interest in the online program dropped off as students worked with it or it may
indicate that the latter question was harder to answer in the time available.
Group Responses
There were 9 group responses: 7 in the first reflection and 2 in the second. These can be
sorted as responding directly to the functioning of the group online, and can be grouped according
to three categories:
There were 4 specific responses to the group perspective related to the online experience
that demonstrated how students felt about the group. SAS2u, v,12 AFHS3g and SAS1u commented
on the group perspective, not just the student’s own experience. Phrases such as ‘We’ve all
managed’ and ‘We’ve worked together’ demonstrate that the students were reflecting on their
ability to understand and work together in the new learning environment. Achievement and
12
Responses were coded by a response number, then more explicitly by the group name and student number,
then by the response section. For example, Smart Arts Student 1 section a was coded SAS1a, Arty Farty
Homosapians [sic] Student 1 section b was coded AFH1b, and Obelix [sic] vs Asterix [sic] Student 1 section
c etc was coded OvsAS1c etc.
136
weakness statements are related to these reflection responses. SAS2v and AFHS1e are examples of
this.
reflection statements. The responses are identifying with weakness and achievement within a group.
The fact that students were identifying strengths and weaknesses of the group and were looking at
the structure of the group, as opposed to just the outcome of the task, is a positive outcome. It
shows that the students were not only working face-to-face but also collaboratively in an online
environment.
There were 39 responses in total that referred to the value of online learning in the online
reflection forums. There were 24 in the first reflection (Task 3) and 15 in the second (Task 5). The
chart below compares the total number of negative and positive responses about online learning.
Comparison*Chart*
Task"5"
posi.ve"
nega.ve"
Task"3"
Negative responses were made early in the first reflection period. In SA Group, Student 3
(SAS3) offered four responses: SAS3e, f, g and h (see Appendix 10a). In response SAS3e, the
student acknowledged that she was far more comfortable with face-to-face interactions and
137
traditional writing methods, while in response SAS3f, she indicated that she knew technology was
advancing and will improve as she had experienced access issues related to poor hardware at the
beginning of the unit. In the SAS3g response, she reiterated that she was not comfortable with the
online medium and, in SAS3h, she gave an example, explaining that online learning (chat) was
difficult due to timing matters. While Student 3 (S3) from the Obelix vs Asterix Group (OvsA)
provided a negative response in both forums (see OvsAS3f and h in Appendices 10a and 10b), the
first response was not directly related to online learning but the broader use of the internet.
OvsAS3f indicated the shortcomings of the quality of information on the internet, while OvsAS3h
later referred to the time lag associated with some asynchronous discussion.
The number of positive responses was larger than the number of negative ones. The
Positive Value Comments: There were 8 positive value comments made directly about the online
learning experience. SAS1k, SAS4a, SAS2t and x, AFAS3a, AFHS2d, AFHS3e, AFHS3l, and
OvsASd used words such as ‘good’, ‘very good’, ‘successful’, ‘fun’, and ‘exciting’ to describe the
experience. As part of these responses, some students gave examples about the online environment
being ‘new’ and about the process of interaction and communication with the artist as being part of
Positive Interaction with Online Practitioner: In total there were 11 responses that referred to the
process of interacting or communicating with the artist. Table 14 summarises the responses.
138
Table 14: Student Responses Highlighting Positive Interaction with the Online Artist Practitioner
RQ1(b) RESULTS
12 SAS4e and it is really great that we are actually taking to artists about their works so easily
19 OvsAS1a its good to be able to have something real to talk to, rather than a book or an article
22 OvsAS3c nah its really good to be able to actually communicate and discuss with someone
instead of just reading about them
23 OvsAS3d We can actually get the facts we need straight from the person instead of trying to find
things out about them
28 SAS1t It has helped i feel, as we can ask questions about the artist, artwork world, etc
31 AFHS2h I think this was a really good experience for us to get an inside to (the correct words
here would have been ‘insight into’) how a successful artist works
32 AFHS2i and for us to be able to chat to them and ask them anything!
34 AFHS2m but it was very good task because we got the exact answers we wanted and we know the
info was correct because it came straight from the artists mouth
39 OvsAS3k but yeah ... it is much better than just looking through text books cos you actually get a
definite response to what you want to know
139
The responses show that students valued the accuracy and ease of access to information via
the primary source of the practitioner. The reflection statements can be identified as demonstrating
a valuable interaction with the practitioner across all groups in both reflection periods. Statements
offered judgements about the success of the program and the effectiveness of the online context.
This may indicate a sustained satisfaction among the participating students with the online
environment and the environment’s ability to create opportunities for real-world interactions.
This could reflect students’ growth in comfort with the online experience.
As Task 8 reflection was not completed during the time allowed for this unit, the perception about
students’ art writing during this period of the unit could not be analysed. This is an emergent
RQ1(c) Results
Do student perceptions change as they engage in the unit of work?
The answers to the last part of Research Question 1, that is, RQ1(c), were sought by an
Online Feedback Questionnaire. It was used to gather results from a feedback point at the end of the
online learning experience, giving an opportunity for triangulation and for drawing possible
conclusions.
the following areas: Technical Issues (QQ1–5), Unit Expectations (QQ6–10), Online Activities
(QQ11–16), Art Tasks (QQ17–21), Art Writing Practice (QQ22–25), Group Work (QQ26–32),
Activities (Q43). The questions were structured using the values: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),
Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD) and Not Applicable (NA). Appendix 3 gives the reader an
140
overview of the questions. Students were also given the opportunity to write answers to the
following questions: QQ5, 16, 21, 32, 43. As this feedback questionnaire was developed to assess
online work, the term ‘e-tivity’ (Salmon, 2000) was used to describe online activities.
There were 9 out of 12 students who responded to the Online Feedback Questionnaire.
There was one unintended error with a group task question (Q29), where students were not able to
respond because of a technical error in the survey design in MOODLE. This is another emergent
Figures 8 to 16 below summarise the feedback according to the section headings in the
questionnaire; after each graph the results are discussed. Student responses are represented by codes
Technical'Issues'
6"
5" 1."I"experienced"difficul:es"in"
accessing"MOODLE"and"the"
Number'of'Students'
online"case"study"materials""
4"
2."I"used"the"help"desk"to"
3" resolve"my"access"issues"
2" 3."Using"MOODLE"for"the"first"
:me"was"easy"
1"
4."I"ini:ally"needed"more"
explana:on"on"how"to"use"
0"
MOODLE"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
141
Five students agreed that they experienced difficulties with using MOODLE but only two
used the help desk. Possible reasons for not using it was that it was not obvious how to access it on
the MOODLE interface or that students preferred face-to-face help in class. Q3 responses confirm
this result: six students did not find using MOODLE for the first time easy. The responses to Q4 do
not seem to support the students’ claims of having difficulties in using MOODLE as only three felt
While the numbers in this sample do not render the results statistically valid, the feedback
poses some interesting questions concerning student’s ability to use new software and their
preferences in accessing assistance when faced with problems. This is partially addressed by the
responses to Q5.
Q5: I was able to overcome issues online by … There were 7 student responses: S1 simply
stated ‘I could really’, while SS2, 7, 8 and 9 all indicated that they overcame technical issues by
talking to the teacher or friends. S4 downloaded software to resolve their problem and S6 went to
Unit'Expecta6ons'
10"
6."The"purpose"of"the"online"case"
9" study"was"clearly"explained"
8"
7" 7."I"understood"the"assessment"
Student'Numbers'
criteria"for"this"unit"of"work"
6"
5"
8."Online"resources"were"
4" appropriate"and"useful"for"the"eH
IviIes"
3"
9."The"expectaIons"of"the"online"
2"
unit"were"clearly"outlined"at"the"
1" beginning"
0" 10."I"understood"the"online"
SA" A" D" SA" NA" expectaIons"and"how"I"should"
Student'Opinions' parIcipate"in"discussions"
142
Figure 8: Student opinions about unit expectations, QQ6–10
The responses to QQ 6 to 10 strongly indicate that the expectations of the online unit were clearly
Online'Ac5vi5es'
9"
8" 11."The"first"e89vi9es"allowed"me"to"
get"comfortable"with"the"online"
7" environment"
Number'of'Students'
6"
12."The"e89vi9es"were"well"
5" structured"and"helped"guide"the"
groups"work"
4"
13."There"were"too"many"e89vites"to"
3" complete"in"this"unit"of"work"in"the"
9me"allocated"
2"
1" 14."The"explana9on"of"the"e89vi9es"
were"clear"and"concise"
0"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
The responses to QQ11, 12 and 14 suggest that the majority of students found the e-tivities
to be accessible and well structured. However they also felt that the time allocated to complete the
tasks to their satisfaction was insufficient (see the responses to Q13). Interestingly, in Q15, just over
half of the students felt there was enough guidance in time management for the tasks to be
completed, but the remainder disagreed. There are two possibilities here: that the online tasks and
guidelines were too complex, or that the students did not manage their time well.
143
Q15 asked the students to comment on the most challenging e-tivity. SS1, 4 and 8 stated
Chat, Interview and Wiki were difficult areas while the responses from SS4 and 9 did not answer
the question. S6 stated that the group activity demotivated them, and S7 wrote ‘none’ (no online
Art'Tasks'
8"
7" 17."I"felt"comfortable"with"
the"content"of"the"art"tasks"
Number'of'Students'
6" as"they"were"similar"to"class"
5" work"
4" 18."I"found"the"art"tasks"
appropriately"challenging"
3"
and"sFmulaFng"
2"
1" 19."The"structured"art"tasks"
0" allowed"me"to"extend"my"
SA" A" D" SD" NA" knowledge"
Student'Opinions'
Most students agreed that they were comfortable with the art tasks. The tasks were familiar
enough to make them accessible and facilitate learning. Q21 asked students whether the art tasks
were more or less difficult to complete in the online environment rather than in class. S1 stated
‘more difficult’ as they could not talk to their teacher; S2 stated ‘less’ as they had instant access to
tutors; S3 did not answer; and S4 stated that sometimes technical difficulties made it harder. SS5, 7
and 9 provided answers that did not clearly indicate whether the task was more or less difficult. S6
misinterpreted the question. S8 said that it was less difficult, stating that the e-tivities were
Art'Wri4ng'Prac4ce'
10"
9"
8" 22."I"feel"this"unit"of"work"has"
improved"my"art"wriEng"skills"
7"
Number'of'Students'
6" 23."The"discussions"that"took"place"
online"had"impact"on"the"quality"of"
5" the"groups"responses"
4" 24."Working"with"draKs"and"
feedback"from"eMtutors"and"arEsts"
3" meant"that"work"submiNed"was"of"a"
higher"quality"
2" 25."I"found"it"difficult"to"produce"
work"electronically"
1"
0"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
There was unanimous agreement that the online discussion had a positive impact on the
quality of the group’s responses during the task. Further, it was possible that it was responsible for
the majority of participants seeing an improvement in their individual art writing skills. In spite of
this, nevertheless, 6 students said they found it difficult to produce work electronically. This could
have been a symptom of the school’s level of implementation of computer technology at the time of
the study.
145
RQ1(c) Results: Group Work: QQ26–32
Group'Work'
10"
9"
26."I"found"working"within"a"group"online"
was"challenging"
8"
7" 27."I"learnt"a"lot"from"the"other"group"
members"
Number'of'Students'
6"
5" 28."Working"online"has"let"me"develop"
relaHonships"with"students"I"would"not"
normally"socialise"with"at"school"
4"
3" 30."Having"Hme"to"consider"other"
students"points"of"view"and"give"a"
considered"response"was"beneficial"to"
2" the"groups"discussions"
31."I"struggled"to"make"contribuHons"to"
1"
the"group"discussions"
0"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
Figure 12: Student opinions about group work, QQ26–31 (Q29 is not included as there was a
Just over half the students found that working online was a challenge. A reflection of the
novelty of this kind of learning environment, at the school level at that time. While a majority of
students felt they learnt something from other group members, they were unanimous in their
affirmation of the value of asynchronicity for group discussion. Only 3 of the students found it
difficult to make contributions to the group discussion. No firm conclusion can be drawn from this
other than a possible lack of comfort working in this environment or difficulties with computer
access.
146
Question 32: What would have made their group work better? All 9 students responded to
this question. SS1 and 8 identified a bigger class and group, SS2 and 9 referred to more frequent
participation and contributions, and S3 referred to organisation. S4 wanted a set time and date for
discussions, S5 referred to a more fun webpage, S6 referred to working individually, and S7 stated
‘none’.
Learning'
9"
8"
33."Approaching"this"topic"online"
has"been"beneficial"to"my"
7" learning"
34."I"learnt"how"to"negoDate"
Number'of'Students'
6"
with"others"in"the"online"
5" community"
35."I"learnt"how"to"work"on"
4" problems"in"a"group"situaDon"
3"
36."I"learnt"liGle"working"in"this"
2" new"way"
1" 37."I"felt"that"I"have"developed"a"
deeper"understanding"of"the"
0" topic"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
The answers to this group of questions were interesting. The majority of students affirmed
the benefits of online learning in this context and they valued the experience of working in a group
online. In addition, students stated that they developed a deeper understanding of the topic
understudy by approaching it in this manner. Yet the majority agreed that they had learnt little
working in this ‘new way’. This contradicts their previous responses but it could be a symptom of
147
the wording or sequencing of the questions. Some of the contradiction can perhaps be accounted for
the results for QQ43. Any blended learning program might benefit from a more reflective follow up
feedback 8 weeks after completion of the online component. This would allow for learning and may
E3Tutor'
8"
7"
38.The"online"e7tutor"I"had"
6" made"me"feel"welcome"and"
Number'of'Students'
guided"me"through"the"online"
5" learning"stages"of"this"unit.:"
4" 39."Adequate"support"and"
feedback"was"given"by"the"e7
3" tutor"to"the"group.:"
2"
40."The"e7tutor"was"more"like"a"
1" mentor"than"a"teacher.:"
0"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
There was an overwhelmingly positive response to the online E-tutor (teacher) in these
online tasks. It would have been interesting to have run, a control group who were not given an e-
tutor to compare their journey through the online tasks with the mentored groups.
148
RQ1(c) Results: Art Practitioner: QQ41–42
Art'Prac66oner'
9"
8"
Number'of'Students'
7"
41."Being"able"to"talk"to"
6" ar=sts"directly"made"this"
5" unit"of"work"more"
4" relevant"to"my"HSC"
3"
42."The"feedback"the"
2"
ar=st"gave"improved"the"
1" final"copy"of"the"group"
0" work"
SA" A" D" SD" NA"
Student'Opinions'
The majority of students agreed that the feedback the artists gave during the discussion
improved the final work. The majority of students agreed that being able to communicate with the
artists made the work more relevant to their studies. This positive response suggests that accessing
the perspective of the artist, as a primary source, reveals information not transparent in the object
itself. Student OVSAS1 later stated “Its good to cut through the wifty wafty crap you find in
textbooks”
Responses to Q43: How do you think the online unit of work can be improved? Table 15 presents
149
Table 15: Responses of Students 1 to 9 to Question 43
RQ1(c)
Student Response
S6 Take it offline. Have hard copies you MUST hand in to encourage those who are less
enthusiastic about the unit to complete it
S7 the convosations
S8 Outlines a little clearer online rather than with help from the teacher
S9 better describing
S4 may have meant that more training with MOODLE was required. SS5 and 8 referred
either to the layout of the interface of MOODLE or to the task descriptions within MOODLE as
needing improvement. S9’s response was a very brief statement but may also refer to the
improvement of task descriptions. SS1 and 7 referred to the interactive nature of the program and
working online as areas that need improvement. S6 thought that working offline would improve
RQ2(a) Results
RQ2 investigated the asynchronous forums completed by 4 students from the Smart Arts
Group, 1 artist and the teacher. Analysis of these data was both qualitative and quantitative to
highlight best the various aspects of the research question. Data categories emerged from the
dialogue, and the interactions between student and artist, student and student, and student and
teacher were reported. There were 2 forums with 5 threaded discussions in the Smart Arts Group
communication, namely: Task 2: Forum: Who Am I? and Task 4a: Forum: Conceptual Framework
150
Discussion: Artist/Artwork/Audience/World (4 threads). Table 16 illustrates the number and kinds
There was an overall total of 61 posts over 16 days, from Wednesday 14 May 2008, starting
at 8.07 am, to Thursday 29 May 2008, finishing at 10.24 pm. The four students posted the largest
number of times, with 33 posts, followed by the artist, with 26 posts. The teacher appeared in only
one discussion thread and posted only twice. The first discussion thread (Who am I?) had the largest
number of posts at 23, followed by Audience (12), Artist (10), and Artwork and World, with 8 posts
each. Table 17 illustrates the number and kinds of interactions between the participants.
151
The highest number of student interactions (50) took place with the artist; 9 posts were
student to student and 2 posts, were directed by the teacher to the students. The cells shaded in grey
The student to artist communication was fairly regular and consistent across all the
discussion threads. Typical engagement ranged from question-and-answer type responses to more
involved discussions where both students and artist offered opinions, reflections, advice,
confessions or debate, while reiteration, clarification, explanation and supportive statements were
offered in discussions. These discussions made connections and relationships, provided examples,
gave in-depth descriptions and interpretations, and drew conclusions. The discussions began with
direct questions to the artist, which started the discussion threads about the artwork, artist, audience
and world. The discussions then moved to more in-depth treatment about the artist’s practice, the
philosophical and conceptual meanings behind the work ‘Nothing to hold on to’ and the broader
aspects of defining: What is a painting? and What is art? The students often made personal
admissions about their working practices; this was an unintended outcome and led to a forum being
set up by the researcher to discuss the students’ own artworks. This was an emergent aspect of the
Student to student communication occurred in two of the five threaded discussions. The first
appeared in the Who am I? discussion. SAS1 expressed disagreement with SAS2, who had made a
guess to name the artist in question. The second student to student communication entry followed
from SAS4, who agreed and supported SAS1. Further into the discussion, SAS2 entered a plea:
‘Agh! She got there before me :(.’ This comment was directed to SAS4, who asked the artist another
question. SAS1 inserted an image of Batman and Robin as a response to a joke the artist made
earlier in the discussion, but she directed it to SAS2 as an attempt at humour. SAS2 then
152
demonstrated frustration at not being supported by his group members: ‘Everyone’s against me. –
sits in corner and pouts–’. The next two student-to-student communication comments (SAS4:
‘Yay!!! We rule :)’; and SAS2: ‘Hoorah! :)’) consolidated the success and happiness of the
achievement of those two students who independently arrived at the same artist. These interactions
were categorised as agreement/disagreement with each others’ investigations and were emotional
There were two more student-to-student communications in the Artwork discussion thread.
SAS1 told SAS4: ‘um in the artist forum Artist2 and my convo is heading into the realms of
artwork questions... so yeah the last couple of entries kind of overlap artist and artwork :)’. SAS2
replied: ‘Well, SAS1, the conceptual framework is all about connections. ;)’. This short interaction,
while not seeming significant, does demonstrate that the students were thinking about and making
meaningful connections across discussion threads, using the syllabus conceptual structures and
enacting them in the discussions. This is also an example relevant to RQ2(b) and to how Visual
Arts Syllabus processes were enacted through the discussion. This interaction illustrates that
students may have a meaningful understanding of the context that they are studying in.
The teacher posts appeared as responses 17, 18 and 43 in the Who am I? discussion. The
first response gave good positive feedback about the group’s ideas and encouraged them to continue
the detective work and conclude with a group answer. The teacher also asked where was student
SAS3(?), as they had not yet entered the discussion. The teacher’s final statement commented on
the group’s nature being true to its name: ‘Wow! Smart Arts you certainly live up to your name!’
The teacher’s interactions in the discussion thread were mainly directional or observational and
153
Interpretation of the discussion posts
To gain a deeper understanding of the communication that took place, the next section
analyses the forums in context and tries to identify the most meaningful understandings that are
The researcher has elected to report on only those posts and responses that were relevant to
RQ2(a). Not all posts were analysed because of the large number or size of responses. Analysis was
orientated to highlighting ‘meaningful understanding’ (Sullivan 1993) within the discussion and
context. The results are explored below under the headings of ‘Students’ and ‘Artist’.
This forum was the first interaction the Smart Arts Group had with their artist. It was set up
by the researcher as a Who Am I?–type guessing game. The artist was briefed by telephone with the
aims and purpose of the forum and the use of MOODLE. The artist began the forum on Wednesday
14 May 2008, 8.07 am, with the first artist post giving a clue: ‘my work is about emptiness …’ and
ended on Wednesday 21 May 2008, 8.16 am, with the teacher giving a final encouraging statement:
‘Wow! Smart Arts you certainly live up to your name!’ During the seven intervening days that this
forum was active, there were 23 posts in total: 8 artist posts, 2 teacher posts, 13 student posts (SAS1
x 4 posts, SAS2 x 5 posts, SAS4 x 4 posts. One student, SAS3, did not lodge any posts during this
period). As this was an asynchronous forum, the timing of the posts varied, with two days’ non-
communication from the start of dialogue and one day’s non-communication over a weekend. This
did not seem to have any obvious adverse affects on the dialogue generated, as the group was able
to debate successfully and solve the mystery about who their artist was. There was enough online
154
Students
The artist’s first post, a clue, gave a philosophical and conceptual background to the meaning of her
artwork. One word, ‘emptiness’, sparked a meaningful discussion. On the first analysis of the
dialogue in the forum, the researcher noted that students proceeded to ask only five questions.
These questions immediately resonated as applications of three of the four NSW BOS Syllabus
Frames. Table 18 provides an interpretive explanation of how these questions enact the Visual Arts
Syllabus.
RQ2(a) Results
SAS1/4 ... does the emptiness also apply to the SAS1 made relationships between the
emotions or on a bigger scale like the Subjective and Structural Frames at a high
WORLD ... and also what is your level because she connected these to the
palette like does it add to the empty? philosophical expression of emptiness.
SAS4/9 is your work a painting or another type SAS4 used a Structural Frame question to
define the medium used, the question
of medium?
promoted a more directed discussion.
SAS4/14 Oooooo ... well then if it is not a SAS4 tried to consolidate the reason for the
work’s not being a painting and asked
painting??? Does you[r] work have a
another question. Attempted to reframe the
cultural aspect? investigation from a Cultural Frame point of
view.
These questions are evidence that the students were operating within the knowledge of the
Visual Arts Syllabus as they drew conclusions based on these investigative questions and reached a
155
consensus about ‘who’ their artist was. Linking these structures to philosophical meaning engaged
Artist
This next section isolates how the artist and SAS2’s communication was meaningful. From
the 8 posts the artist made, 3 directly encouraged the students to think about the philosophical
meaning and references in her artwork. Table 19 provides the responses and the researcher’s
Table 19: Artist’s Responses to Clues about Artwork and Researcher’s Interpretation of Them
RQ2(a) Results
3 SAS2 … the work IS empty of a specific subject … the process • Artist put forward a response
was also empty, empty of a predefined destination ... so to that may or may not have
answer your question, yes a bit of both ... but funnily enough in clarified the student’s
the end I did make a work, the work IS something ... and not question.
empty at all!! ha
• Artist was trying to foster a
deeper discussion about the
topic, ‘emptiness’.
5 Yes SAS1 … the emptiness is a big emptiness, a philosophical • Artist responded by clarifying
emptiness, and at the same time it is an intimate personal that the emptiness is big,
emptiness … and on this very intimate level I think the palette philosophical, intimate and
that I chose specifically attributed this empty feeling/or sense personal, and directly related
of ‘empty’ to a particular gender … hope that helps ...? this to the chosen palette.
Introduced the idea of gender.
• A deeper and more
meaningful understanding of
her work was offered in this
post.
23 My work doesn’t have a cultural aspect ... • Artist gave a clear No answer
to change direction of
discussion.
24 The palette is limited (constrained) ... (limited in a way that • Artist offered a summation of
could make it gender specific ... i.e. a palette for a male or the thoughts and
female) … You could have asked questions like ... ‘is the investigations in the
palette all dark’, or ‘all light’ or ‘is it mostly based on one discussion so far.
colour/hue’? or is it pink or blue ...? Is it bold or subtle ...?
• Artist redirected the
156
RQ2(a) Results
25 Is NOT (primarily) paint, but of other medium … (and the discussion to sum up progress
medium is HIGHLY unusual!!!) ... (I'm handing the answer to so far by giving more
someone here!) meaning to the clues.
• Artist returned to the original
26 And is about emptiness ... clue.
One of the students, SAS2, responded to response 5 with his hypothesis (response 6) about
the identity of the artist. He supported it by referring to his investigation of the Redlands Westpac
Art Prize (RWAP) website (Appendix 11) and by quoting aspects of the descriptive citation and
RQ(2a)
6 Hmm. Well I cannot seem to shake a sneaking • Student put forward a guess as to who the
suspicion that you could very well be Beth artist might be, making a hypothesis with
Norling, for her 2006 Westpac Art Prize winner quotes from the RWAP website.
‘Nothing to hold onto ...'. I make this hypothesis
based on ‘empty/receding qualities’, ‘nothingness • Student had gathered evidence from the
discussion and investigation of the website
of the title’ and of course ‘Nothing to hold onto
to make meaningful connections with the
...’ is a small, private and feminine world’.
clues and discussion, prompting his
conclusion.
making conceptual connections to the artist’s work through the title ‘Nothing to hold on to ...’ and
the word ‘empty’. SAS1 entered the discussion with response 7 and disagreed, putting forward the
name of another artist and making connections to their work through words such as ‘it is very dark
157
and emotional, and it looks really empty, but on the other hand full ...’ SAS1’s response was
supported by student SAS4 in response 8, who agreed by connecting her understanding of the clue
to the untitled nature of the work, stating ‘ “untitled” does reflect a sense of emptiness both visually
and conceptually’. SAS4 furthered the debate by asking a question about medium (response 9). The
discussion then moved in a direction that was not fruitful to the debate and the artist refocused the
discussion by cleverly summarising the findings to date in responses 23–26. SAS4 then responded
to the artist by guessing her name. SAS4 then proceeded to justify her choice by making meaningful
connections to the clues with the RWAP website information. Table 21 presents response 32.
RQ(2a)
32 She too uses materials such as plasticine, wall- • Student supported her guess with quotes
paper, tape, cardboard, tracing paper and oil- from the RWAP website.
paint ... her artwork ‘Nothing To Hold On To’
encompasses ‘empty/receding qualities’ and there • Indicates that the student had been
is a ‘feminine mood to the work,’ and there is an investigating so that she was able to make
absence about the work ‘that still retains a strong meaningful connections between the clues,
visual and emotional presence’. discussions and the website.
SAS4 came to her conclusion based on the question she had asked about art media. The title
here just directed her to the work but she drew connections with ‘empty/receding qualities’ and
another clue about gender, ‘feminine mood to the work’. She continued with the mention of absence
and ‘that still retains a strong visual and emotional presence’ as her final meaningful connection.
It is important to note that, after this forum, the students were able to engage with this
artwork intimately for a period of time in a face-to-face situation. This direct experience was
carefully timed after the Who am I? forum to allow the group’s members to develop a range of
questions for the artist to engage with in the subsequent Conceptual Framework forum and threaded
158
discussions. This is particularly pertinent, as this artwork has three-dimensional qualities that
viewers may be limited in appreciating from photographs alone. Without direct experience of the art
object but only the study of a reproduction, students could arrive at a distorted view of the artwork.
This practice is also in line with Sullivan’s (1993) framework influencing art-based art education –
making connections.
This forum took on the role of allowing the students to engage in discussions with the CF
and the artist. It began on Friday 23 May 2008 with all group participants posting questions at
various times and was completed by the artist on Thursday 29 May at 10.24 pm. This forum lasted
for seven days and there was a total of 38 posts: 18 by the artist and 20 by the students (SAS1 x 5
posts, SAS2 x 5 posts, SAS3 x 6 posts, SAS4 x 4 posts). As the forum was started on a Friday, there
were two initial days’ non-communication over a weekend. Tuesday 27 May also had no posts
added to the artwork thread and on Wednesday 28 May there were no posts in three of the threads,
namely, Artist, Audience and World. Communication during this forum was conducted on most
days and the missed days did not seem to affect the natural flow of the discussion. There were no
connection (Sullivan, 1993), the posts in the discussion threads were categorised as follows:
Table 22: outlines the amount of this type of communication across the four threads.
159
Table 22: Summary of Responses in Discussion Threads according to Theme Categories
RQ(2a) Results
Makes an interpretation 1 0 1 0 2
Draws conclusions 1 1 0 0 2
Total Responses 40
In total there were 40 responses across the four categories. Three-quarters of the responses
indicated that participants were making connections within the discussions; this was the largest
theme category. The Artist and Artwork threads produced a higher proportion of connections-type
responses, followed by the World thread and, lastly, the Audience. The in-depth descriptions were
offered only by the artist and two students (SAS1 and SAS2), who, made interpretations while
engaged in the discussion. Lastly, one student (SAS1) and the artist drew conclusions in the
discussions.
To enable a deeper understanding of the responses in the themed categories the following
section will expand the content of the responses using the theme categories as headings.
This theme sums up the largest number of responses. The artist presented 20 responses that
relationship. Whereas, the students made only ten responses, (SAS1 x 4 responses, SAS2 x 3
responses, SAS3 x 0 responses, SAS4 x 3 responses). Three questions developed the artist-artwork
160
and artist-audience discussions. There were four statements where two students made connections
with the artwork, connecting meaning to the material and the scale of the artwork.
Interestingly, while there were four discussion threads with different aims, the main
connection that was being made across all discussions concerned the artist-artwork relationship.
This seemed to be the area with the strongest connections being made by the artist, and these, in
turn, were possibly being understood by the students. Table 23 is a breakdown of the type of
Table 23: Summary of Responses Categorised as ‘Makes Connections and/or Sees Relationships’
Artist-Artwork 12
Artwork-Meaning 6
Artist-World 1
Art Practice 3
Material Practice 4
Student-related connections 4
TOTAL 30
The artist made all five in-depth descriptions during this discussion period. Interestingly,
there were no in-depth descriptions in the artwork thread, where one would think it logical to have
such a discussion. This might indicate that the flow of discussion was natural and not always guided
by the predesigned tasks set by the researcher. A recommendation here might be to allow students
to start their own discussion threads. The response number coding in Table 24 below names the
161
discussion thread then the response number. Artist discussion response 49 thus is coded ARTIST
49.
RQ2(a) Results
ARTIST 49 it was empty of things … but not empty of Artist clarified again the
feeling or meaning … connection between the
artwork’s subject and its
conceptual meaning.
ARTIST 51 I think I try not to ‘think up’ a subject … but Here the artist demonstrated how
let one emerge ... she had arrived at the subject of
her work.
AUDIENCE 4 as if it was a secret drawer had been opened Artist provided a simile of a
to reveal something very personal … almost drawer for the artwork’s
too personal … conceptual understanding and
continued to open up its personal
connection.
AUDIENCE 46 I can to a certain degree start the discussion Artist described the artwork’s
... set up a question … but really it doesn’t role and provided a metaphor of
matter … the more open ended the better ... an open-ended discussion as a
vehicle for engaging with
meaning.
WORLD 60 it[’s] just that i made a decision/set myself Artist highlighted her personal
the challenge to make work that expresses intention when creating artworks,
fragility, beauty, vulnerability … kindness describing what sort of content
interests her.
The artist used in-depth descriptions to clarify for the students how she came to complete a
work about ‘emptiness’. She used a simile and metaphors within the descriptions to illustrate
conceptual/personal understandings and feelings about the artwork. These responses further
162
developed the descriptions given in the first forum. These too may have developed a richer and
Makes an Interpretation:
There were two responses that made interpretations, both made by students in
communication with the artist. Response ARTIST 45 by SAS1 reflected upon the artist’s discussion
about the subject and related meaning in her artwork. SAS1 gave an interpretation about the
significance of the emptiness of the subject matter to the artist by stating ‘to you the empt[y]ness
The second interpretation was made by SAS2 in response AUDIENCE 16. At this point the
discussion about how the audience had related to the artist’s work had been established. The artist
reflected on the size of the work and stated that she did not think a work like that could win a prize.
SAS2 responded with his interpretation: ‘Well, it seems that it was a case of mysterious content that
surpassed the daunting sizes of other works!’ In this statement he made a judgement that the
conceptual strength in the work surpassed the other large-scale works to win the prize.
Draws Conclusions:
In the discussion threads there were two responses that drew conclusions. The first was by a
student (SAS1) in response ARTIST 46. The student had been reading the artist’s responses about
the meaning in her work. She drew a conclusion: ‘so then really to you its not empty of meaning but
empty of visual’. In this statement the student concluded that there was a paradox in the artwork.
The second response to draw a conclusion, ARTWORK 27, was by the artist. She had been
discussing her traditional training as a constraint in her artmaking practice and how she has aimed
to undo this by the technique of using her left hand. By reflecting in this discussion she came to a
conclusion that, by doing this, she had been challenging her own artmaking traditions ‘so the
163
RQ2(b) Results
How are Visual Arts Syllabus processes enacted within online learning and specific Visual
Arts tasks?
In the current study the definition of ‘processes’ has emerged from the literature and data to
be understood as:
The students demonstrated and enacted the curriculum mainly through the process of asking
questions within the discussions. A review of Table 16 data from RQ2(a) was the first point at
which the researcher identified this connection in the first forum. With further review of the CF
forum, the discussion with the artist also identified that there were instances where the artist gave
advice to students. Data was drawn from only the CF forum for RQ2(b).
During the four discussion threads, there were 29 questions asked by students (SAS1 x 6,
SAS2 x 3, SAS3 x 17, SAS4 x 3). There was one instance of interaction directly related to the
questions within the threads. This was discussed under student-student communication earlier in the
To identify if there were any patterns of syllabus use or enactment, the researcher isolated
the students’ questions and interpreted them using the syllabus structures as points of reference.
There were nine questions that dealt directly with the subjective nature of the artwork and of
audience responses to it. There were eight questions that engaged the Structural Frame to uncover
the use of non-art materials, the work’s scale, and the symbolic nature of the work. While there
were only two questions engaging the Cultural Frame, discussion was conducted on a philosophical
level about links with Buddhism and is related to the nature of symbolism that is absent from the
164
work. There were two questions that pursued discussion around the Postmodern Frame. There was a
valuable discussion about the fact that this artwork in the art prize context challenges the notions of
painting and possibly the conventions of art. There were five questions that directed the discussion
to the artist’s practice, questioning methods and techniques used in developing the work. The final
eight questions were connected to the syllabus through the CF and the artist’s practice. There were
four questions asked about audience responses to the work and whether the artist planned her work
with a response in mind, and finally there were four questions about the artist’s practice and her
unusual method of using her left hand to complete intimate aspects of the work.
The questions also clearly revealed a close connection to the activities that the students were
asked to undertake. The CF was the guiding structure used in the discussion threads. This was
designed by the researcher to guide the students in the construction of their questions so that they
kept to the focus of each discussion thread. Table 25 demonstrates how the questions were
Table 25: The Ways that the Students’ Questions Engaged Aspects of the Conceptual Framework
RQ2(b) Results
Artist 3
Artwork 3
Artist-Artwork 13
Artist-Audience 3
Artwork-Audience 3
Artwork-World 2
Artist-World 2
Total 29
165
Whilst there were four clear discussion threads, the questioning and discussion moved
across the CF as two points developed. An example of this was in ARTIST 17 and 18 responses by
SAS1: ‘So do you think that if this personal situation wouldn’t have happened you would’ve still
gone ahead with this work, or even if the work (if you still did it) would’ve had the same impact to
yourself, and even the audience?’ SAS1 was clearly making connections between the artist,
artwork, and audience in these questions. Another example was in responses AUDIENCE 34, 35
and 36 by SAS3: ‘What a[n] interesting way to use symbols and things, what made you think of
that? Were there any influences culturally that made you incorporate that idea of symbolism, or do
you just like the whole thought of making the viewer interact with your art?’ This student pursued
An emergent process that arose through the discussions was that the artist gave advice to the
students in two discussions. The first appeared in the ARTIST thread starting at response 30 where
she was talking about the need to have integrity within artworks. Table 26 gives a transcript of the
166
Table 26: Artist’s Input Demonstrating Advice Given to Students in ARTIST Discussion Thread
RQ2(b) Results
Artist Advice 1
ARTIST 30 I think art needs to have integrity ... and integrity starts with ‘subject’.
ARTIST 32 or did you pick it to be clever or topical or because you couldn't think of anything better?...
ARTIST 33 quite often we chicken out on saying what we really want to say and end up saying what we
think we should say ...
ARTIST 36 I am convinced that if you are brave enough to be honest in your work (and this means
being honest with yourself FIRST)
The second occasion of advice being given came following SAS2’s asking for advice after a
discussion about size in artworks and how this might contribute to the meaning of works. SAS2
started AUDIENCE 17 thus: ‘My artwork which I am thinking of doing contains small, intimate
pieces of work’. AUDIENCE 18 began with ‘Do you have any words of wisdom, or did you come to
an epiphany regarding your work and its size?’ The artist responded by giving pros and cons in
relation to the size of artworks, then she gave very detailed advice on the processes that the student
should think about and engage with to decide on that aspect of his works. Table 27 is a transcript of
167
Table 27: Artist’s Advice in the AUDIENCE Discussion Thread
RQ2(b)
Artist’s Advice 2
AUDIENCE 23 If you are making a series of small works ... really think in terms of the whole piece
and the size of that.
AUDIENCE 24 lay it out in the sequence in which you intend it to be viewed and look at the whole
thing (as an illustrator I do this with picture book illustrations even though they are
viewed sequentially) …
AUDIENCE 26 moments of sparseness ... and moments of detail, areas of distinct colour
AUDIENCE 27 (assuming you are working with colour, and if not, think in terms of blocks of tone
contrasted with areas of line ... )
AUDIENCE 28 A great artist to look at is a guy called [Artist’s first and last names] (represented by
[Name] Gallery) … his works are small, but they are so arresting ... great imagery ...
odd and beautiful colour ... and somewhat narrative (which may interest you/ and be
appropriate to your project) ...
These excerpts illustrate how interaction and discussion with an art practitioner can provide
unexpected avenues for engagement with students about art and artmaking practice. This was a
168
RQ3 Results
What kind and quality of student products are developed through the online learning environment?
RQ3 investigated the last thread in Task 4a: Conceptual Framework Forum completed by
the Smart Arts Group. The CF Doco thread (so called by the student) was started by SAS1. There
was a total of 9 posts over 22 days – from Monday 2 June 2008, starting at 6.03 pm, to Tuesday 24
The four students lodged seven posts and the researcher lodged two in the role of site
administrator. The latter were necessary as there was a technical problem concerning the size of
documents that could be attached to the discussion thread, and the Conceptual Framework template
(Appendix 5) would not post. This thread also showed the longest time lags between posts. There
was a two-day time lag between posts 1 and 2, a weekend time lag between posts 6 and 7, and a
thirteen-day time lag between posts 7 and 8. This last time lag was due to technical problems
experienced by the students when downloading and posting documents using different versions of
Microsoft Word. The researcher’s suggestion was to save the document as .rtf (rich text format).
This worked for 3 students but SAS1 had the most difficulty working with the file as she had
Windows Vista. These technological issues are likely to have adversely affected the outcome of the
discussion and the possibilities for successful product creation. Providing standardised versions of
SAS4 was the first to successfully attach a Conceptual Framework template after the
researcher changed the forum upload size. SAS4 took the lead to direct the other group members to
make a start on the document: ‘It would probably be easiest if we each filled in the original
components of the conceptual framework … re-read, summerise [sic] the conversations with Artist1
and fill in the template …’ SAS3 confirmed this statement and said: ‘Yeah that sounds really good’,
169
but went further to question how the linkages in the Conceptual Framework could be resolved.
SAS3 suggested: ‘… should we all try and find some time one art class where we can just discuss
them and write them in? As it will probably be less complicated than each one of us having to
individually go through the conversations we’ve each had and then fill in the links.’ No one replied
to this post and the following day SAS3 uploaded her additions to the document. The next three
posts, by SAS2, SAS1 and SAS4, had no interaction, but rather supported uploaded documents with
statements such as ‘Here’s my bit’, ‘FINALLY! I got it to work …’ The last post by SAS4, ‘I added
a link…’, indicated that the discussion was not completed. There should probably have been more
There were five uploads of the Conceptual Framework document. SAS1, SAS2 and SAS3
uploaded once and SAS4 uploaded twice. Each student at the start of the online learning program
chose a colour to write in. This colour coding was to enable the researcher to track students’
additions to the document and to see if there were any revisions of the document or evidence of
knowledge construction. This was not investigated due to the MOODLE server being
decommissioned by the IT Department before the researcher could successfully download all the
files necessary to investigate this research question. The researcher did however attempt to locate
documents through the students. However with the nature of this study, students had already
completed their HSC and moved on so where not able to contribute a saved sample of work.
Although technical issues with the server and time limits hampered the completion of the work, the
activities constructed around Salmon’s Stages 4 and 5 have not been discussed here. However, one
group (Smart Arts) did undertake construction of an artist’s Wiki (knowledge construction), which
170
Quality
This area could not be investigated or reported on in the results, as there was no sample to
evaluate.
Interaction
Interaction in this thread was limited to basic posts concerning direction or the uploading of
the document. The technical problems experienced with the uploading of, and access to, files may
have adversely affected the flow of dialogue and the motivation of students to complete this forum
more fully and to a higher level of interaction. As there was no work sample produced, it is not
Summary of Findings
This section provides a summary of the findings arrived at in this chapter. It is presented
using the first and second levels of triangulation in the methodology. The subheadings of
Perceptions, Processes, and Products will be used to focus on the relevance of each research
question.
RQ1: Perceptions:
Online Learning: Students’ perceptions of online learning before they began the online program of
work indicated that online learning was not a common pedagogy in the school setting and that it
was possible that students were not aware that they had engaged in previous online activities and
had failed to identify that they had been online learning. It was clear from the student online
reflections that they valued the opportunity to work online with an art practitioner. There were also
statements of sustained satisfaction about the online environment. Interestingly, there was a
decrease in the negative comments from the first reflection period to the second. This could mean
students became more comfortable with their online experiences. The feedback questionnaire
indicated that the majority of students understood the expectations of the unit and found the online
activities accessible and well structured. However students felt that the time allocated was
171
insufficient for them to complete their allocated tasks, and there was a comment about the
descriptions of the online tasks needing more clarity. Most students did agree though that they were
comfortable with transferring the class art tasks to the online environment.
Group Work: It was evident from the pre-online responses that all the students had previous
experience in some kind of group. Four of the students referred to other online experiences,
identifying the MOODLE platform, and forums as examples. The participants also demonstrated
that they valued group work and expected it to be part of their learning experiences in the school
setting. The negatives associated with group work were typical of members of any group and were
not peculiar to a group engaged in an online learning experience. The reflection statements about
group work while working online demonstrated that students were very aware of the group function
and that they had identified strengths/achievements and weaknesses in group work. Being able to
reflect on the function of the group rather than just the outcome of the task made this reflection
question a positive one for the students. At the end of the program students were asked to rate their
group work online. Responses indicated that students felt that they had learnt from others in the
group, and they were unanimous in their affirmation of the value of asynchronicity in relation to
group discussion. Students also responded positively to the benefits of online group work, which
they believed developed a deeper understanding of the topic. However there was a contradiction in
the results here with students also stating that they had learnt little working in this ‘new way’. This
could be a symptom of the questions asked or of the language used by the researcher.
Art Writing Practice: In the Pre-Online Questionnaire, students’ responses did not indicate that they
had a clear understanding of art writing practice as a text type. The focus of their responses was
difficulties with language structures, ways of thinking, key words, and unpacking examination
questions. These characteristics are not confined to Visual Arts writing and could be related to any
subject in the HSC. Students offered no reflections while online as they did not complete this
172
agreement that online discussion had a positive impact on the quality of group responses during the
task and was possibly responsible for the majority of participants seeing an improvement in their
individual art writing skills. The students also agreed that communicating with the artist made the
RQ2: Processes: The interaction that took place broadly investigated the amount and kind of
communication that was represented in the selected group forums. The researcher then isolated the
need to explore ‘meaningful understanding’ and the enactment of the Visual Arts Syllabus
structures as the main focus of inquiry. Early on, students demonstrated that they were operating
within the knowledge of the Visual Arts Syllabus in particular engagement with the Frames.
Questions formulated to arrive at a consensus about ‘who’ their artist was clearly indicated this.
Students further demonstrated that they were able to link these structures to philosophical meaning.
This demonstrated that they were using these structures at a high level. Further investigation of the
next forum identified that three-quarters of student responses were making connections within
discussions while exploring the artist-artwork relationship. This seemed to be the area with the
strongest connections, being made by the artist. The artist-artwork relationship, in turn, was being
understood by the students. The artist’s use of in-depth descriptions in the discussion threads may
have developed a richer and more sophisticated understanding of the artwork for the students.
Interpretation of the meaning of the artwork by students was presented in two responses. This
demonstrated the significance of the notion of emptiness and the conceptual strength of the artwork.
There were also two responses that drew conclusions. The first response – by a student – was
significant as it concluded that there was a paradox in the meaning of the artwork. The second
response – by the artist – revealed that the artist was challenging her own artmaking traditions. This
evidence indicates that students and the artist were operating in the discussion to gain meaning and
173
Processes were further investigated as the enactment of the Visual Arts Curriculum. Results
indicate that the students used 29 questions in an appropriate manner to develop discussions using
the Conceptual Framework scaffold as a guide. The discussion and questions moved across the four
discussion threads. There were two significant examples that demonstrated that students were
relationships. This section of the results provides salient examples that illustrate the notions of art
RQ3: Products: The challenge of technological compatibility and document upload size hampered
the progress of this discussion thread. Interaction was adversely affected by three time lags in the
asynchronous discussion. Even though all students posted contributions there was only one
interactive post in this discussion and the discussion did not have a conclusion or a completion
element to it. It is not possible to summarise any results from the work sample due to the loss of
Conclusion
RQ1 results demonstrated student misconceptions about online learning yet also established
that most students valued online learning and the experience of working online. While RQ3 results
confirmed negative effects of time lags in asynchronous discussion, RQ2 results effectively isolated
The researcher is aware that the reliability of these results is limited by the small sample and
the results are not intended to be generalised or transferable. These results are relevant to this case
and school setting. However the formative evaluation of the online program does enable the making
of recommendations to the school, the development of the Visual Arts Program and, possibly, the
devising and conducting of further research in art education. The next chapter will put forth six
preliminary conclusions, and provide recommendations about the uses of the theoretical devices and
models, and the limitations, results and the further refinement of the study.
174
CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter sets out the relevance of the theories used in the current study, the application
of theory in art education, the appropriateness of the research design, preliminary conclusions from
the summary of results, recommendations from the study, concluding remarks, and suggestions and
Vygotsky’s theoretical relevance was positioned in this study in two ways: the first, by
interpreting his concepts of the ZPD, instruction, mediation, internalisation and transformation, and
the second, by engaging three aspects of his theory to organise the threefold research framework of
the current study. Vygotsky integrated educational and psychological perspectives in a sociocultural
environment. He advocated the importance of the role of formal schooling and instruction. This
social context for learning has a powerful relationship with teaching, instruction and cognitive
development. The use of Vygotsky’s work in the current research framework was relevant as he
interactions with others that students may learn. Symbolic tool use of speech and language gave
formation to this type of interaction and was the catalyst for developmental transformations. This
process has been defined by recent multiple expansions of the ZPD. The enactment of the ZPD
experience provides opportunity for apprenticeship, scaffolding, leading activities and assisted
performances. Contemporary researchers such as Kouzlin and Efland have expanded examples of
symbolic tool use to include scaffolds (in this study: Frames, and the Conceptual Framework) and
artworks. Internalisation and transformation of these tools are attained through mediated social
exchanges and individual reflections. Vygotsky’s theories were relevant, because today’s
175
well as contemporary ones. Individuals are exposed to a blend of social communicative experiences
both face-to-face and online. Teaching and learning frameworks such as those designed by Salmon
and Sullivan are examples that demonstrate shared, situated and distributed social learning
experiences. In Visual Arts Education this is pertinent as meaning making becomes the central
premise for all learning interactions. Vygotsky’s theory is relevant to contemporary research and
thinking as he exploited the sociocultural environment and the position of learning within a social
experience. This resonates with the current study’s design and outcomes.
The application of theory in this study focused on firstly, designing the Visual Arts unit of
work to allow students to engage in a blended approach to learning using a social scaffold
(Salmon’s Five Stage Model) for the online component, and secondly, to apply the art theories of
Sullivan and Freedman. The second application was evidenced in the analysis of the study data
demonstrating examples of the theories in the asynchronous dialogue between the artist and
The online component of the blended unit of work was designed to reflect Salmon’s Five-
Stage Model, while also being consistent with the New South Wales Board of Studies Visual Arts
Stage 6 Syllabus. The Smart Arts Group successfully worked through the first three stages of the
model: access and motivation, online socialisation and information exchange. The group had begun
to access stage four, knowledge construction, through the construction of a WIKI but were not able
to complete this stage due to time limitations. The online interactivity of this group was consistent
with regular postings and increased as the group progressed through the stages.
The group’s asynchronous dialogue with the artist was in-depth and clearly demonstrated
examples of Sullivan’s theory to include themes such as (1) makes connections and/or sees
relationships, (2) gives in-depth descriptions, (3) makes interpretations and (4) draws conclusions.
Of these four themes the most compelling was the amount of dialogue that made connections within
176
the discussions. The artist/artwork relationship was the site for the strongest connections that
demonstrated a Sullivan’s theory of sense of connection and meaning making. While the other three
components were present there was less occurrence of these themes in the discussions.
The in-depth descriptions located in the dialogue exchanges were mainly developed by the
artist discussion, where she used a metaphor and a simile to help explain and uncover the meaning
of ‘emptiness’ in the her work. These in-depth descriptions offered the students the opportunity to
access a greater depth of understanding about why the artist made the work.
There were only four interpretations and conclusions that were made by students and the
artist. These responses were isolated as significant in demonstrating instances of Sullivan’s theory.
The first student interpreted the notion of emptiness and offered the first conclusion about the
relevance of the notion of emptiness in the artwork. The second interpretation offered explanation
about the nature of the works mysterious meaning and related it to the artwork’s size. The last,
conclusion, was made by the artist herself, where she came to a realisation about challenging her
Freedman’s concept of mediation was applied to see if the application of the Visual Arts
Curriculum was present in the asynchronous dialogue. This was evidenced in the study through the
questions students asked the artist. The questions were clearly engaging the Frames and were
crossing over the Conceptual Framework structure in the discussions. This is significant as it
demonstrates that the student’s were mediating their understanding if these structures at a high
level.
Freedman’s concept became apparent as the artist sought to give advise to the students. This type of
mediated interaction provided an unexpected avenue of engagement, where students discussed their
177
The Appropriateness of Research Design
This study’s research design was guided by Graham’s activity level blended approach to
learning and a research model design that brought together the online work of Salmon and of Ryba,
Selby and Mentis. The appropriate application of Salmon’s model was useful in this study as the
arrangement of the online learning activities within MOODLE was structured within the five stages
of the learning model. This afforded the participants an opportunity for sequential and gradual
exposure to the demands of learning online. The activity level blended approach to learning, a
combination of face-to-face experiences, and online learning activities and discussions were
relevant and useful at a secondary-school level because they gave structure and confidence to the
participants but they also gave opportunities for students to engage with primary resources such as
Equally the appropriate application of key aspects of Ryba et al.’s Triple P Framework
directed the formative evaluation and triangulation of the research questions and data instruments in
the study. The broad areas evaluated were student perceptions, interactive processes, and possible
products. The dual application of the online learning model and the analytical framework were
relevant in this research design, as it confirmed, the validity and credibility of the emergent research
results. The use of member checking was also completed with research participants to ensure
An in-depth summary of results is presented at the end of the previous chapter. This summary offers
(a) What are initial student perceptions of online learning, interaction, group work and the practice
of art writing?
178
Student pre-online perceptions demonstrated misconceptions in their understanding of the
new style of learning even if they had participated in online learning previously as some of the
participants had prior exposure to MOODLE. This demonstrated that online learning was not a
common pedagogy in the school setting and students had a lack of familiarity with the term and
concept. Student online interactions pre-online where described by students as social experiences
to include: chat rooms, forums and email. All students indicated that they had participated in-group
work, either in the school setting, work setting, or through previous MOODLE experiences.
Students were able to identify the positive and negative aspects of group interaction and highlighted
the challenges to include the division of labour, motivation and individual opinions. Benefits
included interaction with others as an avenue for personal improvement. Perceptions about art
writing were not significant and demonstrated that students did not see it as a specific text type.
This could be due to the curriculum structure where art writing at the school level is connected to
examinations. Much of the responses given to this section of the questionnaire demonstrated that
results were not Visual Arts subject specific and could be related to any school subject.
(b) How do students perceive their experiences in using technology for group work, online learning
The use of student reflection periods while working online was a very powerful tool as it
allowed students to have a voice about their learning. Group responses indicated that students were
very aware of the function of the group online and were able to identify weakness and achievement
within the group. This is a positive outcome as students were not just task orientated but saw the
value of the group experience in the online context. Students also demonstrated that they valued the
interaction with the art practitioner. Students believed this primary contact made accessing the
accuracy of information important in learning about the artist. General responses were very positive
and indicated a sustained satisfaction with the online environment and the environment’s ability to
create opportunities for real-world interactions. The perceptions about students’ art writing could
not be analysed as this period of reflection was not completed by the students. From the results it
179
can be said that the majority of students have a positive response to the use of technology while
It can be deduced from the results that student perceptions did change from their initial
misconceptions about online learning. This can be directly related to their ability to engage and
reflect on their learning. There were statements of sustained satisfaction about the online
environment and a decrease of negative comments as the students progressed in the unit of work.
This could also reflect the students’ growth in comfort with the online experience.
There was a large range of communication in the asynchronous forums investigated by this
research question. The most significant communication was between the student and artist. Typical
engagement ranged from question answer type responses to more involved discussions where
opinions, reflections, advice and confessions featured in the posts. The responses reiterated,
clarified, explained, provided examples, made connections and relationships, gave in-depth
descriptions and drew conclusions within discussions. Both philosophical and conceptual discourse
took place in the posts around the artist’s work. This is where examples of Sullivan’s authentic
engagement through meaningful connections were identified. This result was beyond the
expectation of the researcher. Student to student communication while less prevalent, on two
occasions, demonstrated that students were thinking about and making meaningful connections
across discussion threads while using syllabus conceptual structures. The student to teacher
responses where limited to observations, directional instructions and positive feedback about group
achievement and did not demonstrate any meaningful connection with the students or discussion.
180
(b) How are Visual Arts Syllabus processes enacted within online learning and specific Visual Arts
tasks?
The results indicated that the students demonstrated and enacted the curriculum mainly through the
process of asking questions. The questions were analysed in terms of the way students had utilised
the syllabus Frames and Conceptual Framework structures to guide their investigation of the artist
and her work. These structures and activities have easily transferred to the online environment as
the students where able to successfully apply these in the new context without difficulty. An
emergent process that was identified by the researcher pertained to the artist giving advice to
students, which arose from the discussion data. This interaction and discussion with the artist
illustrated that the online environment can provide valuable unexpected engagement for the
students.
What kind and quality of student products are developed through the online learning environment?
The kind of documents that were attempted by students were working on a Conceptual
Framework word document and then working towards a basic WIKI. The quality of these products
was not determinable due to technological compatibility and upload size challenges. This adversely
affected the interaction possibilities in the asynchronous discussion. It was not possible to
investigate or summerise any results from the works sample due to this loss of data.
Three initial objectives were used to develop research questions and data analysis tools to
interrogate the data. There has been mixed success in the results.
(1) to demonstrate student perceptions before, during and after their online experiences
181
(2) to evaluate the socially mediated communication produced in the online component of
the program
The first two objectives were achieved, while the third in part could not be consolidated, as
the data was lost when a server was decommissioned without the researcher’s knowledge. This was
The first preliminary finding demonstrates that online learning has not been a common
pedagogical method in the school setting. The significant outcome from the implementation of the
current program and the researcher’s commitment to develop this form of learning is that other
subject areas in the school have begun the assimilation of online discussion as part of their
programming. As a result of this case study and the interest it provoked, a transition from face-to-
face to a blended approach to learning has been initiated in other subject areas.
The second finding is that student reflection discussions are an important learning tool in the
online process. Students demonstrated the ability to reflect upon and discuss the function of online
groups by evaluating the strengths, weaknesses and achievements of the group. This demonstrated
that students were able to work collaboratively in this context. The students’ responses to the
Online Feedback Questionnaire affirmed the value of asynchronicity in online discussions and were
The third finding demonstrates that students have not been aware of the distinction between
the two types of writing found in art historical and critical practices. Rather, students gave generic
responses to questions asked about art writing, referring to language and essay structures that are
relevant to any subject. In this line of questioning, students also agreed that communicating with the
The fourth finding demonstrates that students have been able to engage the knowledge of
the Visual Arts Syllabus and operate syllabus structures to a high level in the online environment.
This transfer of knowledge and skills is significant because students were able to link syllabus
182
structures such as the Frames and Conceptual Framework to questioning in discussions, enabling
The fifth finding demonstrates that students have been able to make regular connections in
their discussions with an artist. The strongest connection that was made related to the artist-artwork
relationship, with three-quarters of the discussion responses making connections. There were two
responses that were significant, indicating that the artist and the students were operating in the
discussion to gain meaning and a sense of connection to the artwork and to the artmaking practice
of the artist.
The sixth finding illustrates the common outcome of technical difficulties and time lags in
asynchronous discussion threads. The negative effects time lags have on the motivation and
completion of online discussion and activity were made clear in the last discussion thread that was
investigated.
The single case study methodology in this instance offered insightful episodes of interaction
for research and investigation. This methodology was relevant for the study as generalisations were
not its objective. The use of the small sample in the study made it possible for the researcher to
isolate and process salient examples of dialogue from the online work that the group under study
had completed – especially since there was such a large number of responses in the discussion
threads – and for these examples to be investigated and interpreted at some depth by the researcher.
The timing of the program and training of the students, staff and artists should be considered
when developing and delivering a program such as the one employed in this case study. This unit
was delivered in the third term of the Higher School Certificate (HSC). It may have been more
appropriate had it been placed at the beginning of the HSC course, as students may have been able
to dedicate more time to the online work and complete all aspects of the online program. It is
recommended that online interactions be given appropriate time to develop; however, with the
183
challenge of persuading artists to work online, this was the only time available for all participants to
engage in this study. This is one of the challenges of working in educational field research.
Even though the MOODLE software used was not complex, it had hidden and not-so-
obvious features that made the initial engagement with the unit take longer than anticipated. A
recommendation here is to have a preliminary unit built into the design of a project that would
allow participants time to practise and engage with the interface of MOODLE. A user instruction
package that highlights basic operations such as starting threads, posting discussion, and
The engagement of the researcher as the administrator of the MOODLE site gave the
researcher insights into how the platform worked; however, it is recommended that a separate help
desk with support from the IT Department within the school be provided to ensure that the
researcher does not participate in any online discussions or the resolution of technical issues. Hence
the researcher would be removed from any communication with the research participants during the
running of the unit. It would also help ensure that prompt assistance would be offered to
participants as needed.
Equal access to the internet and appropriate software such as compatible versions of
Microsoft Word should also be offered to all participants to help ensure equity and access for all
group members. This may improve the group’s commitment to working online and faciliate final
outcomes achieved.
Five recommendations have emerged directly from the results in addition to the two
recommendations from the initial survey conducted prior to the students’ beginning online work.
The first of these recommendations from the initial survey came from the Technical Skill Level
future studies. The question should read: Describe or list other online learning experiences you have
had at school?’ This is a more direct question and uses more appropriate language for secondary
school students.
184
A recommendation that can be made from the art writing component of the survey is that an
activity in the senior course programming defining and highlighting examples of the two aspects of
art writing practice, that is, art historical and art critical writing, is required for students to develop a
deeper, coherent understanding of these aspects and how they play a role within the context of the
art world. Observing and practising the differences between these two aspects of art writing should
The feedback questionnaire identified one section that had caused some confusion. It is
recommended that statement number 36 in the questionnaire be revised to read as follows: ‘I did not
learn while working online’. This should clarify the intention of the statement for participants.
The researcher managed the development of the online learning activities. There is evidence
to suggest, however, that this might be best kept as an initial strategy only and that, as students
become more comfortable with the medium, they be allowed to start their own discussion threads.
This recommendation might allow for unguided discussions to occur and give students more
The decommissioning of the MOODLE server without the researcher’s prior knowledge
adversely affected the possibilities of concluding investigations relating to RQ3. This identifies a
need for a transparent and explicit policy within the school relating to data storage and the
decommissioning of servers, especially the timing of the latter. All stakeholders involved need to be
informed of the timing of decommissioning before it occurs so that adequate measures can be taken
to archive online discussions and files. On the other hand Murphy’s Law is ever present in technical
systems. The Head of Department may develop a discreet backup of data storage system and the
Concluding Remarks
applied to areas of Visual Arts beyond art making. It has gathered selected research publications
185
and theories, of work relevant to social mediation and construction of meanings in the Visual Arts.
The study itself is innovative in method and content by constructing these experiences for Visual
Arts high school students within the written component of the HSC curriculum in New South
Wales. The unit of work signals the learning benefits in constructing interactive asynchronous
collaborative and emerging way. This study is a timely attempt to decouple learning in Visual Arts
writing/studying from examination style tasks. The unit of work exemplifies the significance of
experience of an interaction with original artworks for the students. In this study the originals are
part of the school’s collection and seen in the students own environment but the experience would
The curriculum and syllabuses in the Visual Arts are likely to always be dominated by
experience mediated through reproductions. This study does not aim to replace this convention but
to moderate it with injections of experiences of the real and original. Thus exemplifying Sullivan’s
notions of meaning, connection, doubt and perspective in the Visual Arts. Secondary school Visual
Arts programs should provide avenues for students to experience, in Sullivan’s words, ‘a sense of
meaning and connection’ with artists, artworks, critics and historians. The employment of
technology as a vehicle to achieve this is one way of shifting to a new paradigm of teaching and
The blended learning environment is a vehicle that can redefine the notion of the ‘audience’
(2) empowering students and redefining both audience and artist/audience concepts. The
student dialogue/discussion online with the artist(s) transforms the student into a critical
audience by engaging, questioning, integrating and confirming with their artist the
186
artwork/object meaning.
(3) applying these experiences in a Vygotskian sense the students are pushed or push
themselves beyond their actual development. This is done through teacher intervention
(unit of work) and socially mediated interactions. These can include face-to-face, peer to
peer, student to artwork and students to artist practitioners. These interactions are
demonstrated in the context of art writing, which provides opportunities for meaning
It is also worth noting that this study exemplifies the Australian Council of Deans of
Education’s concern with proposition number four that knowledge today is highly situated, linked
and proposition five that technology will become central to all learning. The initial case study
exploratory instance of the technological centrality to all learning and the nature of knowledge
This study has demonstrated that a blended approach to learning in the Visual Arts using an
online environment which, actively engages students in socially mediated interactions with art
practitioners will change students’ perceptions about learning. The selection and the design of the
research questions in this study enabled investigations to be carried out at some depth and to
produce six preliminary findings. This study has taken steps towards making theoretical
connections and contributions to the development of the art historical and critical body of research
in the field of contemporary Visual Arts Education. There is evidence to suggest that blending art,
technology and authentic face-to-face and online experiences in the Visual Arts enhances
meaningful interactions.
187
Suggestions and Implications for Continued Research
To continue the research begun in this study, it is suggested that the amount of time
allocated for conducting the program be increased and that the program be placed earlier in the
Year 12 Visual Arts course. In addition, students could be introduced to MOODLE software in yr
9-12. Further, if any staff, students or artists are unfamiliar with the software used in the program,
training in its use should be conducted earlier in the academic year. A site administrator should
also be in place from the IT Department in the school. This administrator would deal directly with
helpdesk type questions from the teachers and students involved and with setup of the background
Identifying teachers’ perceptions of online learning before and after working through the
unit would also be useful. Administering pre-online and post-online questionnaires for teachers
would assist in this regard. This addition to the research would enhance the findings by providing
data for a comparative analysis of perceptions about online learning between teachers and students
in the secondary school context. Such information will optimise the refinement of the blended
with one online discussion group working with primary sources such as the artworks and artists,
and another online discussion group working with only secondary resources, and conducting
discussions within the student group but without any input from the artists. This approach could
then isolate the implications and value of asynchronous discussion for Visual Arts education.
On a larger scale, this study could also be expanded and adapted to enable two or more
schools to participate in the online environment and the Visual Arts Program. The connections
made within this online community would also be worth investigating. This would enable an
increase in the participation of Visual Arts secondary students in the online environment.
188
A larger section of the Visual Arts program model should also be investigated to include the
five stages of online learning and the different types of interaction. This would allow for a greater
comparative analysis to be examined in the results, demonstrating how participants are interacting
From a theoretical point of view, a stronger pedagogical relationship between Salmon and
Vygotsky’s work would enable the possibility of a researcher to investigate how students may learn
and move through the stages of Salmon’s Five Stage Model. An exploration of this would be a
The existing program design model could also be reviewed and further developed to include
meaningful connections in dialogue and collaborations in online environments. This would add to
the already useful interaction aspect of the model. Providing more depth to the investigation of the
online interactions already investigated. This could be another avenue for further investigation and
a research devise could be created to isolate and interpret these particular instances from a Visual
Arts perspective, further driving more field specific research questions. Research questions could
include:
1) How do students and teachers perceive their Visual Arts experiences and
3) How do students communicate and work collaboratively with their peers and
These three questions are still relevant to the three aspects of the theoretical framework but lead the
More research in the area of the historical and critical aspects of Visual Arts teaching and
learning is also needed. The written aspects of the arts, is prevalent in the artworld, there is less
focus or opportunity for students to specialise in theoretical aspects of the Visual Arts curriculum as
189
artmaking and studio practices are the continued focus even in the new Australian Curriculum.
More research in the historical and critical aspects of art writing at a secondary level is needed to
promote the value of this specific field within Visual Arts education. A way forward for Visual Arts
teachers is to use this model to structure art historical and critical experiences for students.
190
APPENDICES
Approval No 062039
A case study to examine the quality of student online dialogue, generated in the context of a Visual Arts unit
of work, within a collaborative environment using MOODLE courseware.
Complaints may be directed to the Ethics Secretariat, The University of New South Wales, SYDNEY 2052
AUSTRALIA (phone 9385 4234, fax 9385 6648, email ethics.sec@unsw.edu.au). Any complaint you make will be
treated in confidence and investigated, and you will be informed of the outcome.
[Your consent]
Your decision whether or not to permit your child to participate will not prejudice you or your child’s future relations
with The University of New South Wales and SCECGS Redlands. If you decide to permit your child to participate, you
are free to withdraw your consent and to discontinue your child’s participation at any time without prejudice.
If you have any questions, please feel free to ask us. If you have any additional questions later, Ms. Meg Lomm will
9968 9845 be happy to answer them.
192
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND SCECGS REDLANDS
A case study to examine the quality of student online dialogue, generated in the context of a Visual Arts unit
of work, within a collaborative environment using MOODLE courseware.
You are making a decision whether or not to permit your child to participate. Your signature indicates that,
having read the attached Parental (or Guardian) Information Statement, you have decided to permit your child
to take part in the study.
…………………………………………………… .…………………………………………………….
Signature of Parent/Guardian Signature of Witness
…………………………………………………… .…………………………………………………….
Please PRINT name Please PRINT name
…………………………………………………… .…………………………………………………….
Date Nature of Witness
…………………………………………………… .…………………………………………………….
Signature(s) of Investigator(s)
……………………………………………………
Please PRINT Name
I hereby wish to WITHDRAW my consent for my child/ward to participate in the research proposal described above
and understand that such withdrawal WILL NOT jeopardise any treatment, or my child/ward’s relationship, with The
University of New South Wales and/or SCECGS Redlands.
…………………………………………………… .…………………………………………………….
Signature Date
……………………………………………………
Please PRINT Name
The section for Revocation of Consent by the parent/guardian should be forwarded to Kim Snepvangers, Head
of School, School of Art Education, PO BOX 259, Paddington, Sydney, 2021.
193
Appendix 2: Pre-Online Learning Questionnaire
Instructions: Complete the following questionnaire by circling the correct answer or using full sentences.
3. How comfortable are you using software like Word, Powerpoint, Excel?
Yes No
Yes No
Yes No
Group Work
10. What possible problems have you experienced in the past in group work situations? Give specific examples
11. What positive experiences have you had with group work?
12. Which of the following roles best describes you within a group?
15. What kind of support do you think you need to improve your art writing?
194
Appendix 3: Online Feedback Questionnaire
Instructions: Please complete the questionnaire by placing a tick in the appropriate box indicating your
response.
SA = Strongly Agree A = Agree D = Disagree SD = Strongly Disagree NA=Not Applicable
Technical Issues SA A D SD NA
The expectations of the online unit were clearly outlined at the beginning.
E-tivities SA A D SD NA
The first e-tivities allowed me to get comfortable with the online environment.
The e-tivities were well structured and helped guide the groups work.
There were too many e-tivities to complete in this unit of work in the time
allocated.
The explanation of the e-tivities were clear and concise.
I found the login and time guidelines were accurate in giving me an idea of how
long
The it would
most take toe-tivity
challenging completewasthe e-tivities.
because
Art Tasks SA A D SD NA
I felt comfortable with the content of the art tasks as they were similar to class
work. the art tasks appropriately challenging and stimulating.
I found
The art tasks were far more / less difficult to complete online because
The discussions that took place online had impact on the quality of the groups
responses. 195
Working with drafts and feedback from e-tutors and artists meant that work
submitted was of a higher quality.
I found it difficult to produce work electronically
Group Work SA A D SD NA
Working online has let me develop relationships with students I would not
normally
Group socialisehelped
discussions with at
meschool.
understand the tasks in greater depth.
Having time to consider other students points of view and give a considered
response was
I struggled beneficial
to make to the groups
contributions to the discussions.
group discussions.
Learning SA A D SD NA
E-tutor SA A D SD NA
The online e-tutor I had made me feel welcome and guided me through the online
learningsupport
Adequate stages of this
and unit. was given by the e-tutor to the group.
feedback
Being able to talk to artists directly made this unit of work more relevant to my
HSC.
The feedback the artist gave improved the final copy of the group work.
196
Appendix 4: The Triple P Framework Model
197
Appendix 5: The Conceptual Framework Scaffold
198
Appendix 6: Art Prizes in Australia Case Study Program
199
Appendix 7: Online Learning Activities
The following activities were designed to integrate the Five-Step Model developed by Salmon (2002) and the
requirements of the New South Wales Board of Studies Visual Arts Stage 6 Syllabus. Embedded in the
activities were both syllabus and e-tivity requirements. The online component of the case study ‘Art Prizes in
Australia’ unfolded according to a five-stage online process.
The Pre-Online Questionnaire was completed prior to the start of the online work in the MOODLE online
environment.
___________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 1: Online Chat
Purpose: Introductions, establish a Group Name and a Net Name: live chat: 1 hour.
(2) Introduce yourself to the group. Post a short paragraph about who you are and what you are doing in your
artmaking practice for the HSC.
You may like to choose a Net Name or, if you like, an abbreviation of your name for ease of typing. You
should also add a picture to your information page if you have not already done so.
Respond: to others as they login and make positive responses to their introductions. Discuss whether you
like the group names offered and choose a name for the group.
Purpose: for students to be introduced to artists and to get to know their group online.
Respond: to the messages from your group that help you find the answer!
Feedback and Assessment: Groups will score according to participation rate and how quickly they find and
post their answer.
(The first person to reach this forum should start the discussion.)
200
_________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 3: Forum Reflections
(The first person to reach this forum should start the discussion.)
___________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 4a: Forum Conceptual Framework (4 discussions)
Purpose: to formulate questions for the artist, using the conceptual framework.
The groups will have 4 discussion threads going, based around the agencies Artist, Artwork, World,
Audience.
After viewing the artworks at school, as a group students are to construct a series of questions for their artist
based around the agencies Artist, Artwork, World, Audience. A minimum of 3 questions should be generated
in relation to each agency to help sustain discussion with the artist online.
Respond: Everyone in the group should offer at least 2 questions and make responses to, and discuss, other
questions that are asked.
Feedback and Assessment: Participants will score according to participation rate and the quality of the
questions they generate.
__________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 4b: Show and Tell: Students are to discuss their own work with artists.
__________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 5: Forum Reflections
(1) What were the challenges or difficulties faced in the Conceptual Framework forum?
(2) How has this forum helped with your investigation into your artist?
(The first person to reach this forum should start the discussion.)
___________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 6: Wiki
Wiki: Artist summary: minimum 5–8 logins required by all group members individually, 3 hours
Groups are to generate a wiki online as a summary of their discussions with, and questioning of, their artist.
The Conceptual Framework is to be used as a scaffold for this (this was completed in the previous forum).
You may also use the internet and articles and make links to websites, as needed.
A minimum of 500 words with images should be created using the wiki format.
201
Final submission date is Monday 16 June 2008.
Response: Both e-tutors and artists will provide feedback to students on the progress of their wiki.
Feedback and Assessment: Participants will score according to participation rate and the quality of their
written response.
______________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 7: Forum Reflections
Do you think that working online has improved your art writing practice?
(The first person to reach this forum should start the discussion.)
______________________________________________________________________________________
TASK 8: Forum Essay
Groups are to prepare an essay based on their knowledge and experience of art prizes in Australia. (Use
lecture or class notes, handouts, articles, internet sites and your experience at exhibitions, the Redlands
Westpac Art Prize and the Archibald Prize.)
ESSAY TASK:
Analyse the role of audience perceptions in Australian art prizes.
In your essay, you may consider ‘audience’ to include the public, critics, historians, patrons, sponsors and
curators.
Your essay must be presented in a draft format to your e-tutor for feedback before the submission date and
should not exceed 1000 words.
Response: Students will need to assemble relevant knowledge and participate through discussion. An E-tutor
will guide students through discussion.
Feedback and Assessment: Feedback on the draft from the E-tutor. Groups will score according to
participation rate and the quality of the essay submission.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Online Feedback: In-Class Questionnaire
The Online Feedback Questionnaire was completed at the end of the online work in the MOODLE online
environment.
202
Appendix 8: Pre-Online Questionnaire: Responses to Question 10
Student (SS1–11)
S2: is a place where students can interact and learn outside of the school environment
S6: Using a computer (specifically the internet) to learn and form discussions with other
online users.
S7: Using a computer (specifically the internet) to learn and form discussions with other
online users.
S11: Online learning I believe is the acquisition of facts and data and previously carried out
research in order to aid or benefit your personal work
203
Appendix 9: Coding of Groups’ Responses
204
Appendix 10: Coded Value Online Learning Statements
205
206
Appendix 11: Redlands Westpac Art Prize Webpage: Beth Norling
207
REFERENCES
Adrian, J. A., Paez, D., & Alvarez, J. (1996). Art, emotion and cognition: Vygotskian and current
approaches to musical induction and changes in mood, and cognitive complexization.
Psicothema, 8(1), 107–118. Retrieved from http://www.psicothema.com/pdf/8.pdf
Ally, M. (2004). Foundations for educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson, The theory
and practice of online learning (pp. 15–44). Athabasca University, Canada: AU Press.
Anderson, T. (2004). Towards a theory of online learning. In T. Anderson, The theory and practice
of online learning (pp. 47–74). Athabasca University, Canada: AU Press.
Anderson, T., & Garrison, D. R. (1998). Learning in a networked world: New roles and
responsibilities. In C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education (pp. 97–112).
Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.
Anokin, P. K. (1969). Cybernetics and the integrative activity of the brain. In M. Cole & I.
Maltzman (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary soviet psychology. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Arnheim, R. (1954). Art and visual perception. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Australian Council for Computers in Education (ACCE). (2011, April). Position Paper on ICT in
the Australian Curriculum. Retrieved from http://acce.edu.au
Australian Council of Deans of Education. (2001). New teaching, new learning: A vision for
Australian education. Retrieved from http://www.acde.edu.au/pages/images/New Learning
A Charter for Australian Education (download pdf 581Kb).pdf
Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority. (2012). Draft shape paper of the australian
curriculum: Technologies. Retrieved from http://www.acara.edu.au/default.asp
Baker, M. J., de Vries, E., Lund, K., & Quignard, M. (2001). Computer-mediated epistemic
interactions for co-constructing scientific notions: Lessons learned from a five-year research
programme. In P. Dillenbourg, A. Eurelings, & K. Hakkarainen (Eds.). Proceedings of
EuroCSCL 2001: European Perspectives on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
(pp. 89–96). Presented at Maastricht McLuhan Institute, Maastricht, Netherlands.
208
Benito, R., Camara, E., Losada J. C., Arranz F. J., & Seidel L. (2007). Using MOODLE and flash
animations in an interactive learning environment for introductory physics in engineering.
In 6th WSEAS International Conference on E-ACTIVITIES (pp. 277–280), Tenerife, Spain.
Berk, L. (2002). Child development. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Blaikie, F. (1994). Values inherent in qualitative assessment of secondary studio art in North
America: Advanced placement, Arts PROPEL, and international baccalaureate. Studies in
Art Education, 35(4), 237–251.
Blaikie, F., Schönau, D., & Steers, J. (2004). Preparing for portfolio assessment in art and design:
A study of the opinions and experiences of exiting secondary school students in Canada,
England and the Netherlands. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 23(3),
302–315. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-8070.2004.00409.x
Blanck, G. (1990). Vygotsky: The man and his cause. In L. C. Moll (Ed.). Vygotsky and education:
Instructional implications and social applications of sociohistorical psychology, (pp. 31-
58). NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bliuc, A. M., Goodyear P., & Ellis, R. A. (2007). Research focus and methodological choices in
studies into students’ experiences of blended learning in higher education. The Internet and
Higher Education, 10(4), 231–244.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1982). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Bonk, C., & Graham, C. (2005). Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs.
San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Bonk, C., Kim, K. J., & Zeng, T. (2006). Future directions of blended learning in higher education
and workplace settings. In C. Bonk, & C. Graham (Eds.), The handbook of blended
learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 550–567). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Bourdieu, P. (1983). Forms of capital. In J. C. Richards (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for
the sociology of education (pp. 241-28). New York, NY: Greenwood Press.
Brown, D. G. (2001). Hybrid courses are best. Syllabus Magazine, 15(3), 22.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
209
Bullock, A. L., & Galbraith, L. (1992). Images of art teaching: Comparing the beliefs and practices
of two secondary art teachers. Studies in Art Education, 33(2), 86–97.
Campione, J. C., Brown, A. L., Ferrara, R. A., & Bryant, N. R. (1984). The zone of proximal
development: Implications for individual differences in learning. In B. Rogoff & J. V.
Wertsch (Eds.), Children’s learning in the zone of proximal development. New Directions
for Child Development, 23, 77–91. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Carvalho, A. (2007). Profiting from the internet in primary and secondary school teaching: From
online resources and tools to LMS. Thomas Kundert (Trans.). Sisfo Educational Journal, 3
(May-August), 25–38.
Castle, E. (2002). Social capital: An interdisciplinary concept. Rural Sociology, 67, 331–349.
Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky's analysis of learning and
instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. Ageyev & S. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky's educational
theory and practice in cultural context (pp. 39-64). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Chalmers, M., & Krawec-Wheaton, A. (2003). Virtual schools and colleges: ‘Thinking outside the
box’. Presentation at the WebCT Asia Pacific Conference, Gold Coast, Australia, September
2003. Retrieved from internet but no longer available online.
Cheong, C. M., & Cheung, W. S. (2008). Online discussion and critical thinking skills: A case
study in Singapore. Secondary School Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,
24(5), 556–573.
Chia, J. &, Duthie, B. (1993). Primary children and computer-based art work: Their learning
strategies and context in art education. Art and Technology, 46(6), 23–41.
Childs, C. P., & Greenfield, P.M. (1982). Informal modes of learning and teaching: The case of
Zinacenteco Weaving. In N. Warren (Ed.) Advances in cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 2).
London, UK: Academic Press.
Clark, R. E. (2001). A summary of disagreements with the ‘mere vehicles’ argument. In R. E. Clark
(Ed.), Learning from media: Arguments, analysis, and evidence (pp.125–136). Greenwich,
CT: Information Age Publishing.
Cole, M. (1990). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline? Center for Human Information
Processing, San Diego: University of California.
Cole, M. (1985). The zone of proximal development: Where culture and cognition create each
other. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cognition: Vygotskian
perspectives (pp.146–161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cole, M., & Scribner, S. (1974). Culture and thought. New York, NY: Wiley.
___. (1978). Introduction. In L. S. Vygotsky (Ed.), Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes (pp. 1–15). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
210
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of
Sociology, 94, 95–120. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/pss/2780243
―――. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press.
Conole, G., Oliver, M., Falconer, I., Littlejohn, A., & Harvey, J. (2007). Designing for learning. In
G. Conole & M. Oliver (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives in e-learning research: Themes,
methods and impact on practice. Open and Distance Learning Series, F. Lockwood (Ed)
RoutledgeFalmer.
Council of Australian Governments. (2008). Digital Education Revolution Strategic Plan. Retrieved
from foi.deewr.gov.au/
Cox, M.V., Koyasu, M., Hiranuma, H, & Perara, J. (2001). Children’s human figure drawings in the
UK and Japan: The effects of age, sex and culture, British Journal of Developmental
Psychology 9(2), 275-292.
Crowe, B. (1988, 8–11 November). Computers in the secondary school art curriculum: Painting a
picture of effective teaching. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South
Educational Research Association, Lexington, KY.
Crystal, D. (2006). Language and the internet (2nd ed.). Melbourne, VIC: Cambridge University
Press.
D’Angelo, J. (1988). Computers for Art Teachers. Art Education, 41(5), 41–48.
Daniels, H., Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. (Eds.). (2007). The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky. New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Davydov, V. V. (1988). The mental development of younger school children in the process of
learning activity. Soviet Education, 30(10), 3–36.
d’Entremont, C. (2004). Virtual learning environments: Using online course management systems
to implement contructivism in learning at the secondary level (master’s thesis). Retrieved
from http://moodle.org/other/dEntremont_Final_Paper.pdf
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1998). Strategies of qualitative inquiry. London, UK: Sage.
de Zwart, H. (2003). Moodle: An exploration of the possible uses in secondary education. Bijlmer:
Open Schoolgemeenschap. Retrieved from http://moodle.org/other/hansdezwart.html
Doering, A. (2007). Adventure learning: Situating learning in an authentic context. Innovate, 3(6).
Retrieved from http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol3_issue6/Adventure_Learning-
__Situating_Learning_in_an_Authentic_Context.pdf
Doolittle, P. E., & Hicks, D. (2003). Constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of
211
technology in social studies. Theory and Research in Social Education, 31(1). Retrieved
from http://www.itma.vt.edu/modules/spring03/learnth/DoolittleHicks5.pdf
_____. (2002). Interpretive analysis of an internet-based course constructed using a new courseware
tool called Moodle. Proceedings of the Higher Education Research and Development
Society of Australasia (HERDSA) 2002 Conference, Perth, WA. Retrieved from
http://dougiamas.com/writing/herdsa2002/
_____. (2003). Moodle: Using learning communities to create open source course management
systems. Proceedings of the EDMEDIA 2003 Conference, Honolulu, HI.
Driscoll, M. (2002). Blended Learning: Let’s get beyond the hype. E-learning. Retrieved from
http://elearningmag.com/ltimagazine
Eagle, M. (1990). Adelaide biennial of Australian art 1990. Adelaide, SA: Art Gallery of South
Australia.
Efland, A. (2002). Art and Cognition: Integrating the visual arts in the curriculum. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Eisner, E. W. (1991). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational
practice. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Farrell, H., & Knight, J. (2003). Trust, institutions and institutional change. Politics and Society,
32(3), 537–566.
Flora, J. (1998). Social capital and communities of place. Rural Sociology, 63(4), 481–506.
Fortes, M. (1970). Social and psychological aspects of education in Taleland. In J. Middleton (Ed.),
From child to adult: Studies in the anthropology of education. New York, NY: Natural
History Press.
Fox, R., & Trinidad, S. (2006, 7–10 July). Technology’s role in leveraging curriculum reform.
Paper presented at the Conference on ICT in Teaching and Learning, ICT2006, Hong Kong,
China.
Freedman, K. (1989). Micro-computers and the dynamics of image production and social life in
three art classrooms. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 21(3), 290–298.
____. (2003). Teaching visual culture: Curriculum, aesthetics, and the social life of art. NewYork,
NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
____. (unpublished). Art Education and Visual Learning Networks: Lessons about Creativity and
Cognition from Auto-Didactic Visual Culture Communities. Retrieved from
http://www.niutoday.info/2011/06/07/art-ed-professor-kerry-freedman-wins-grant/
212
Gallimore, R., & Tharp, R. (1990). Teaching mind in society: Teaching, schooling and literate
discourse. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and
social applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 175–205). New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Garrison, D.R., & Vaughan, N.D. (2008) Blended learning in higher education: Framework,
principles and guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Gillard, Julia. (2009, October). Prime Ministerial Media Release. Retrieved from
http://www.abc.net.au
Goldsmith, G., & Strachan, B. (2007). Supporting learners on their e-journey. In N. A. Buzzetto-
More (Ed.). Principles of effective teaching online (pp. 55–82). Santa Rosa, CA: Informing
Science Press.
Golomb, C. (1992). The child’s creation of a pictorial world. Berkeley, CA: University of
California.
Government of Victoria, Department of Education and Early Childhood. (2010). Digital Learning
Statement. Retrieved from
http://www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/teachlearn/innovation/digitallearning/dls.p
df
Graham, C. R. (2005). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions.
In C. J. Bonk, & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives,
local designs (pp. 3–21). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Gredler, M. E. (1997). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Greh, D. (1986). Using computers in secondary art. Art Education, 39(6) 4–9.
Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1984). Current activity for the future: The zo-ped. In B. Rogoff & J.
Wertsch (Eds.), Children’s learning in the zone of proximal development: New directions
for child development (pp. 45–63). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gunn, C. (2001). Effective online teaching: How far do the frameworks go? Proceedings of
ASCILITE Conference, Melbourne, VIC. Retrieved from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne01/pdf/backup/gunnc.pdf
Hamm, M, & Adams, D. (1992). The collaborative dimensions of learning. New Jersey: Ablex.
Harris, S. (2010, August). The SCIL Story: Embedding research and innovation into everyday
school practice. Presented at Edulearn, Sydney Centre for Innovation and Learning.
213
Retrieved from http://scil.com.au/documents/stephen-harris_embedding-research-and-
innovation.pdf
Hoepfl, M.C. (1997). Choosing qualitative research: A primer for technology education researches.
Journal of Technology Education, 9(1). Retrieved from
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v9n1/hoepfl.html
Holzman, L., & Newman, F. (1993). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist (critical psychology)
Routledge’s Critical Psychology Series. London, UK: Routledge.
Hough, W., Smithey, M. W., & Evertson, C. M. (2004). Using computer-mediated communication
to create virtual communities of practice for intern teachers. Bradley Journal of Technology
and Teacher Education, 12(3), 361–386.
Jahnke, J. (2010). Student perceptions of the impact of online discussion forum participation on
learning outcomes. Journal of Learning Design, 3(2) 27–34.
Jeong, A. (2003). The sequential analysis of group interaction and critical thinking in online
threaded discussions. The American Journal of Distance Education, 17(1), 25–43.
Johnson, M. (1997). Orientations to curriculum in computer art education. Art Education, 50(3),
43–47.
Jolliffe, A., Ritter, J., & Stevens, D. (2001). The online learning handbook: Developing and using
web based learning. London, UK: Kogan Page.
Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist
perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Jones, N., & Peachey, P. (2005). The development of socialisation in an on-line learning
environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 3(3), 1–20. Retrieved from
http://ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/3.3.4.pdf
Karpov, Y. V. (2003). Vygotsky’s doctrine of scientific concepts: Its role for contemporary
education. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller, Vygotsky’s Educational
Theory in Cultural Context (pp. 65–82). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Kern, R. (1996). Computer mediated communication: Using e-mail exchanges to explore personal
histories in two cultures. In M. Warschauer (Ed.), Telecollaboration in foreign language
214
learning: Proceedings of the Hawaii Symposium (Technical Report No. 12, pp. 105–119).
Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Hawaii University, Honolulu.
Kimber, K., & Wyatt-Smith, C.M. (2010). Secondary students’ online use and creation of
knowledge: Refocusing priority for quality assessment. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 26(5), 607–625. Retrieved from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet26/kimber.html
Kindler, A., & Darras, B. (1998). Culture and the development of pictorial repertoires. Studies in
Art Education, 39(2), 147–167.
Koroscik, J.S., Osman, A. H., & DeSouza, I. (1988). The function of verbal mediation in
comprehending works of art: A comparison of three cultures. Studies in Art Education,
29(2), 91–102.
Kouzlin, A. (2003). Vygotksy’s education theory in cultural context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Kozma, R. B. (2001). Counterpoint theory of ‘learning with media’. In R. E. Clark (Ed.), Learning
from media: Arguments, analysis, and evidence (pp. 137–178). Greenwich, CT: Information
Age Publishing.
Krause, K., Bochner, S. & Duchesne, S. (2003). Educational psychology for learning and teaching.
Southbank, VIC: Thomson.
Kulah, A. A. (1973). The organisation and learning of proverbs among the Kpelle of Liberia
(Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Irvine.
Lave, J. (1978). Tailored learning: Education and cognitive skills among tribal craftsmen in West
Africa. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Irvine.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, S-Y. (1993). Professional criticism in the secondary classroom: Opposing judgments of
contemporary art enhance the teaching of art criticism. Art Education, 46(3), 42–51.
Leont’ev, A. N. (1978). The problem of activity in psychology. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept
of activity in soviet psychology. White Plains, NY: Sharpe.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York, NY: Sage.
Lipponen, L. (2000). Towards knowledge building: From facts to explanations in primary students’
computer mediated discourse. Learning Environments Research, 3(2), 179–199, doi:
10.1023/A:1026516728338
215
Lipponen, L., Rahikainen, M., Lallimo, J., & Hakkarainen, K. (2003). Patterns of participation and
discourse in elementary students’ computer-supported collaborative learning. Learning and
Instruction, 13(5), 487–509. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00042-7
Littlejohn, A., & Pegler, C. (2007). Preparing for blended e-learning. Oxton, UK: Routledge.
Loughland, A. (2008). An exploratory study of the pedagogical use of Moodle to scaffold learning
in a senior secondary class. In A. Loughland (Ed.), Proceedings of the Authentic Assessment
Practices for Student Learning Conference, Sydney, NSW, 16–17 August 2007 (pp. 19–34).
Retrieved from
http://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/professional_learning/resources/papers/Proceed
ings_AAP4SL_07.pdf
Lowenfeld, V. (1952). Creative and mental growth (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan.
Luria, A. R. (1978). The development of writing in the child. In M. Cole (Ed.), The selected
writings of A. R. Luria. New York, NY: Sharpe.
Macnish J., & Trinidad, S. (2002). E-learning in the Western Australian schools sector: Lessons
learnt. Retrieved from
http://knowledgetree.flexiblelearning.net.au/edition02/_download/JM-ST-el.pdf
Madeja, S. S. (1993). The age of the electronic image: The effect on art education. Art Education,
46(6), 18-24.
Manghani, S. (n.d.). Assessing Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Model for teaching and learning online
(pp. 1–23). Retrieved from
http://manghani.free.fr/elearning/Assessing%205%20stage%20model.pdf
McCulloch, W. (1984). A change of image: Computers in the art room. Art Education, 37(4), 44–
46.
McDevitt, T. M. & Ormrod, J. E. (2002). Child development and education. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
McKenna, K. (2002, July). Thinking multimedia. ACEC 2002 Proceedings, Australian Computers
in Education Conference, Hobart, TAS.
McLaughlin, M. W., Thomas, M. A., & Peterson, J. (1984). Art history, art criticism and
production: An examination of art education in selected school districts. Retrieved from
http://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/2009/R3161.3.pdf
216
McMahon, M. (1997, December). Social constructivism and the world wide web: A paradigm for
learning. Paper presented at the ASCILITE Conference, Perth, WA. Retrieved from
http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth97/papers/Mcmahon/Mcmahon.html
McPherson, M. A., & Nunes, J. M. (2003, 26–28 August). A practitioner’s evaluation of Salmon’s
Five-Step Model for the use of CMC in HE. Proceedings of the 4th Annual LTSN-ICS
Conference, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland (pp. 221–226).
Meira, L., & Lerman, S. (2001) The zone of proximal development as a symbolic space. London,
UK: Southbank University. Retrieved from
http://pdf.edocr.com/56cfdca322e369aba2f663963796b0849e4debf9.pdf
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). (2003).
Pedagogy strategy: Learning in an online world. Australia. Retrieved from
http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/pedagogy_strategy_file.pdf
___.(2008). Digital education- making change happen. Australia. Retrieved from
http://aictec.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/Digital-Education-Making-Change-Happen.pdf
___. (2008) Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians. Retrieved from
http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/verve/_resources/national_declaration_on_the_educational_go
als_for_young_australians.pdf
Moll, L. C. (Ed.). (1990). Vygotsky and education: Educational implications and applications of
educational psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Moll, L.C., & Greenberg, J. B. (1990) Creating zone of possibilities: Combining social context of
instruction. In L. C. Moll (Ed.) Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and
applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 319–348). New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Moore, M (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–6.
Mortera-Gutierrez, F. J. (2005). Faculty best practices using blended learning in e-learning and
face-face instruction. Retrieved from http://www.uwex.edu/disted/conference
Murphy, J., & Lebans, R. (2008). Unexpected outcomes: Web 2.0 in the secondary school
classroom. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 134–147.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
New South Wales Board of Studies. (2009). Stage 6 Visual Arts Curriculum. Sydney, NSW:
Author.
Newman, F., & Holzman, L. (1993). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist. London, UK:
Routledge.
Ng, W. (2010, 4–6 October). Effective e-pedagogy for virtual science learning with high ability
secondary school students. In H. Fujita, & J. Sasaki (Eds.), WSEAS Conference
Proceedings, 9th International Conference on Education and Educational Technology,
Iwate Prefectural University, Iwate, Japan (pp. 49–55). Retrieved from
http://www.wseas.us/e-library/conferences/2010/Japan/EDU/EDU-05.pdf
217
Ng, W., & Nicholas, H. (2007). Conceptualising the use of online technologies for gifted secondary
students. Roeper Review, 29(3), 190–196.
Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide: Civic engagement, information poverty and the internet in
democratic societies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Onyx, J., & Bullen, P. (2000). Measuring social capital in five communities. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 36(1), 23–42.
Papert, S., (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism:
Research reports and essays, 1985–1990 (pp. 1–12). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Pedretti, E., Mayer-Smith, J. & Woodrow, J. (1998) Technology, text, and talk: Students’
perspectives on teaching and learning in a technology-enhanced secondary science
classroom. Science Education, 82(5), 569–589.
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199809)82:5<569::AID-SCE3>3.0.CO;2-7
Perkins, D. N. (1992). Smart schools: From educating memories to educating minds. NewYork,
NY: Free Press.
Pierroux, P. (1998). Art in networks: Information and communication technology in art museums
(thesis, Department of Art History, University of Oslo,
Norway). Retrieved from
http://folk.uio.no/palmyre/Hovedoppgave/
_____. (2003a). Communicating art in museums: Language concepts in art education. Journal of
Museum Education, 28(1): 3–8.
_____. (2003b). Getting art: Collaborative looking at images and texts. Intermedia, University of
Oslo, Norway. Retrieved from internet but no longer available online.
Pigg, K. and Crank, L. (2004). Building community social capital: The potential and promise of
information and communications technologies. Journal of Community Informatics, 1(1), 58–
73.
Pitt, S. P., Updike, C. B., & Guthrie, M. E. (2002). Integrating digital images into the art history
curriculum. Educause Quarterly, 2, 38–43.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review
of Sociology, 24, 1–24.
Prawat, R. S., & Floden, R. E. (1994). Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of
learning. Educational Psychologist, 29(1), 37–48.
Putnam, R. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
218
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. Journal of Democracy
6(1): 65–78. doi:10.1353/jod.1995.0002
Ratclyffe-Thomas, N. (2008). White heat or blue screen? digital technology in art & design
education, International Journal of Art & Design Education, 27(2), 158-167.
Ratner, C. (1998). Prologue. In R. Rieber, (Ed.), M. J. Hall (Trans.), The collected works of L. S.
Vygotsky. Vol. 5: Child psychology. London, UK: Plenum Press.
Reay, J. (2001). Blended learning: A fusion for the future. Knowledge Management Review, 4(3), 6.
Rio, P. D., & Alvarez, A. (2007). Inside and outside the zone of proximal development. In H.
Daniels, M. Cole, & J. Wertsch (Eds.). The Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (pp. 276–
303). Cambridge MA: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, J., Thistlethwaite, C., & Wong, T. (2005). Breaking out of the box. Presented at the
National Institute of Education Conference NIE, Singapore. Retrieved from
http://conference.nie.edu.sg/paper/Converted%20Pdf/ab00081.pdf
Roland, C. (2003). Art education, collaboration and the internet. Paper presented at the National
Convention of the National Art education Association, Minneapolis, MN. Retrieved from
http://www.artjunction.org/articles/arted_collab_internet.pdf
Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. London,
UK: Sage.
Ryba, K., Selby, L., & Mentis, M. (2002). Analysing the effectiveness of online communities.
Retrieved from
http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=ryba%2C%20selby%207%20mentis%202002
&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB4QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fvi
ewdoc%2Fdownload%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.137.8687%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf&ei=E
gr-ToqhEMaa-wbL2MS1AQ&usg=AFQjCNHta8n2ZCVboohoM4bQ3KdnIuDT7A
____. (2002). E-tivities: The key to active online learning. London, UK: Kogan Page.
____. (2012). Tech for teaching: five trends changing higher education, The Conversation,
Retrieved from http://theconversation.edu.au/tech-for-teaching-five-trends-changing-higher-
education-7617
Sands, P. (2002). Inside outside, upside downside: Strategies for connection online and face-to-face
instruction in hybrid courses. Teaching with Technology Today, 8(6) Retrieved from
219
http://www.uwsa.edu/ttt/articles/sands2.htm
Scott, T. (1992). Computer-Mediated Art Education: Extending the paradigm of computer art, Arts
Policy Review, 94 (1) 27-33.
Siegler, R. S. (1981). Developmental sequences with and between concepts. Monographs of the
Society for Research in Child Development, 46(2), (entire issue).
Sing, C. C., & Khine, M. S. (2006). An analysis of interaction and participation patterns in online
community. Educational Technology and Society, 9(1), 250–261.
Singh, H. (2003). Building effective blended learning programs. Educational Technology, 43, 51–
54.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stenalt, M. H., & Jorgensen, D. S. (2007). Using e-tivities, video dialogues and informal
communication to motivate university teachers online. In Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference of European University Information Systems, EUNIS 2007.
Grenoble University, France.
Sternberg, R. (1990). Metaphors of the mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence. Cambridge
University Press.
Sullivan, G. (1993). Art-based art education: Learning that is meaningful, authentic, critical and
pluralist. Studies in Art Education, 35(1), 5–21. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/pss/1320834
Szechter, L. E., & Liben L. S. (2007). Children’s aesthetic understanding of photographic art and
the quality of art-related parent–child interactions. Child Development, 78(3), 879–894.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01038.x
Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in a
social context. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Thompson, C. (2003). Kinderculture in the art classroom: Early childhood art and the mediation of
culture. Studies in Art Education, 44(2), 135–146. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/pss/1321056
Turiel, E. (1972). Stage transition in moral development. In M. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of
research and teaching. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Valsiner, J., & van der Veer, J. (1993). The encoding of distance: The concept of the ‘zone of
proximal development’ and its interpretations. In R. R. Cocking & K. A. Renninger (Eds.),
The development and meaning of psychological distance (pp. 35–62). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence-Erlbaum.
220
Van der Meijden, H., Janssen, J., & Ligorio, M. B. (2002). Edgar degas: reconstructing his art in a
three-dimensional virtual world. Paper presented at the 5th international society for cultural
research and activity theory (ISCRAT). Netherlands: Amsterdam.
van der Meijden, H., & Veenman, S. (2005). Face-to-face versus computer-mediated
communication in a primary school setting. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(5) 831–859.
van der Veer, R., & van Ijzendoorn, M. (1985). Vygotsky’s theory of higher mental processes:
Some criticisms. Human Development, 28(1), 1–9.
Verenikina, I. (2003). Understanding scaffolding and the ZPD in educational research. Retrieved
from http://www.aare.edu.au/03pap/ver03682.pdf
Vygotsky, L. (1925). The psychology of art. Nate Schomolze (Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1971.
―――. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V.
John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
―――. (1986). Thought and language. A. Kozulin (Ed). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
―――. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 1. Problems of general psychology. R.
Rieber & A. Carton (Eds.). New York, NY: Plenum.
Wall, E., Ferazzi, G., & Schryer, F. (1998). Getting the goods on social capital. Rural Sociology,
63, 300–322.
Ward, J., & LaBranche, G.A. (2003). Blended learning: The convergence of e-learning and
meetings. Franchising World, 35(4), 22–23.
Warschauer, M., Turbee, L., & Roberts, B. (1996). Computer learning networks and student
empowerment. System, 14(1), 1–14.
Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic inquiry: Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education. New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide
to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Wertsch, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
―――. (1990). The voice of rationality in a sociocultural approach to mind. In L. C. Moll (Ed.),
Vygotsky and education (pp. 111–126). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
221
Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. (1982). Teaching children to draw: A guide for teachers and parents.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Wilson, C., & Mackness, J. (2006). E-learning in practice: Developing the leadership e-learning
environment. Paper from Networked Learning Conference. Retrieved from
http://www.networkedlearningconference.org.uk/past/nlc2006/abstracts/pdfs/P18%20Wilso
n.pdf
Wolf, D., & Perry, M. (1988). From endpoints to repertoires: Some new conclusions about drawing
development. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 22(1), 17–34.
Wood, D. J. (1980). Teaching the young child: Some relationships between social interaction,
language, and thought. In D. R. Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language and
thought. New York, NY: Norton.
Woolcock, M., & Deepa, N. (2001). Social capital: Implications for development theory, research
and policy. World Bank Research Observer, 15(2), 225–249.
Yin, R. K. (1984). Case study research: Design and methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Young, J. R. (2002). Hybrid teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional and online.
Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from
http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i28/28a03301.htm
Zsolt, T., & Istvan, B. (2008). Moodle and social constructivism. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.ittk.hu/netis/doc/textbook/Toth_Bessenyei_moodle_eng.pdf
http://www.ittk.hu/netis/doc/textbook/Toth_Bessenyei_moodle_eng.pdf
Websites
Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs. (2011).
http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/mceecdya/
222
Ministers’ Media Centre, Education, Employment and Workplace Relations portfolio. (2011).
http://www.deewr.gov.au/ministers/gillard/media/releases/pages/article_091022_114337.asp
x
New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2011). Visual Arts Media Project.
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/creativearts/ict/visualarts/in
dex.htm
New South Wales Government, Department of Education and Communities. (2011). Connected
Classrooms Program. Retrieved from https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/about-us/how-we-
operate/connected-classroom/
New South Wales Government, Department of Education and Communities. (2011). NSW
Curriculum and Learning Innovations Centre.
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/ict/index.htm
223