CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Pesticide

2.1.1 Understanding and Use of Pesticides

Pestisidia are chemicals used to kill

pests, both insects, fungi and weeds. Pesticides have been widely used

membrantas for the purpose of plant pests and diseases in agriculture.

Pesticides are also used at home stairs to eradicate mosquitoes, cockroaches and

penggangu various other insects. On the other hand these pesticides significantly

much cause poisoning in people (Runia Y, 2008).

Pesticides are substances (substances) chemicals used to kill

or control a variety of pests. Pesticides derived from the English language that is

pests and pest means cida means murder. The definition of a pest to farmers

very spacious namely: mites, plant pests, plant diseases

caused by fungi (fungi), bacteria and viruses, nematodes (worms

damage the roots), snails, rodents, birds, and other animals that are considered harmful

(Subiakto sudamo, 1991).

Based on Ministerial Decree No. 434.1 / Kpts / TP.207 / 7/2001, concerning

Conditions and Procedures for registration of pesticides, which is meant by pesticides

is all the chemicals and other substances and microorganisms and viruses

used for:

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a. eradicate or prevent pests and diseases that destroy

plants, parts of plants or agricultural products.

b. eradicate weeds.

c. turn off the leaves and prevent unwanted growth.

d. regulate or stimulate the growth of plants or parts

excluding fertilizer plant,

e. eradicate or prevent external pests on pets

and livestock.

f. eradicate or prevent pests water.

g. eradicate or prevent animals and microorganisms in

households, buildings and in transportation equipment.

h. eradicate or prevent animals that can cause

disease in humans or animals that need to be protected

the use of plants, soil or water.

Definition of pesticides is extensive and includes products

used in the management of crops (agricultural, horticultural and forestry).

Animal husbandry, animal health, fisheries, storage of agricultural products,

preservation of forest products; public health (including vector control

disease), buildings (specifically the control of termites), household pesticides,

fumigation and pesticide industries. In particular, pesticides used in

field crop management called plant protection products (crop

protection products, crop protection agents) or an agricultural pesticide. pronouncing

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This is meant to distinguish the types of pesticides with pesticide

used in other fields (Djojosumarto, 2008).

2.1.2 Pesticide Active Ingredients

The active ingredients of pesticides were found at 53 species, for insecticide

dominated the pyrethroid group (41.38%), Organophosphates (13.79%), carbamates

(10.34%). For approximately 73.91% fungicide mancozeb be included in

group dithiocarbamat ( Marinajati DKK, 2012).

According to WHO's active ingredient is included in the group U (not

pose an acute hazard in normal doses), class III (quite dangerous),

class II (dangerous), to class Ib (highly hazardous). A total of 12%

of the total insecticide found that triazofos ( organophosphates),

metamidofos ( organophosphates), carbofuran ( carbamates) and beta-cyfluthrin ( ptieroid).

2.1.3 formulation of Pesticides

There are important ingredients in pesticides that are active against

target pest is called the active ingredient. In the manufacture of the active ingredient in the plant pesticide

is not made of pure (100%) but tinged with material

more. The finished product which is a physical mixture of active ingredients and materials

additional inactive called formulations.

Formulation determine how pesticides with the shape, composition,

dosage, frequency and what the target's body with the formulation of pesticides

used effectively. In addition, pesticide formulations also determine aspects

safe use of pesticides made and distributed in many kinds

formulations, as follows: (Djojosumarto, 2008).

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A. Solid formulations

a. Wettable Powder ( WP), the dosage form of flour (particle size

several microns) with a relatively high concentration of active ingredient (50-80%), if

mixed with water to form a suspension. Pengeplikasian WP with

spraying.

b. Soluble Powder ( SP), a powder formulation that if

mixed with water to form a homogeneous solution. be used

by spraying.

c. Granules, is a ready-made preparations with a concentration of active ingredient

low (2%). Grain size varies between 0.7-1 mm. application

by way sown.

d. Water dispersible Granule ( WG or WDG), granular formulations

WDG should be diluted with water first and pengaplikasiaanya

by spraying.

e. Soluble Granule ( SG), similar to the WDG which also must be diluted

with water prior to use by spraying. The difference,

SG when mixed with water will form a perfect solution.

f. Flour blowing, is ready to use dosage form of flour (size

particles 10 - 3 micron) with a low concentration of active ingredient (2%)

used by way of exhaled ( dusting).

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B. Liquid formulation

a. Concentrate emulsifiable or Emulsible Concentrate ( EC), is

dosage form of concentrated (concentrate) liquid containing the active ingredient

which is quite high. When mixed with water to form an emulsion

(Granular liquid that float in liquid media, etc.). Together

WP formulation, formulation EC is the most classic formulation

used today.

b. Water Soluble Concentrate ( WCS), a similar formulation

by EC, when mixed with water do not form an emulsion, but will

to form a homogeneous solution. This formulation is used in a way

sprayed.

c. Aquaeous Solution ( AS), the concentrates that can be diluted dnegan

water. Generally, the pesticide has high solubility in water,

This formulation is used by spraying.

d. Soluble Liquid ( SL), a liquid concentrates, if mixed with water concentrates

This liquid will form a solution. Pesticides are used in a way

sprayed.

e. Ultra Low Volume ( ULV) spraying by volume ultra ntuk

low, spray volume between 1 -5 liters / hectare. ULV formulations

generally based oils for spraying with volume

ultra low use of fine spray deposit in living memory.

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2.1.4 PenggolonganPestisida

Pesticides can be classified based on the target organism and how

work, namely:

a. Insecticide

Insecticides are materials that contain toxic chemicals

which can kill all kinds of insects. Insects attack plants for

obtain food over the mountain ways, according to the type of mouth. Group

pesticide largest and consists of several sub-groups of chemicals

different, namely:

1. Mrupkan organochlorine insecticides Chlorinated hydrocarbons are chemically

insecticide classified as a relatively stable and less effective, marked by

the impact of long residue is biodegradable in the environment. One insecticide

is the famous organochlorines DDT. This pesticide has provoked

much debate. Organochlorine group is a poison against

good nervous system in insects and mammals. Poisoning can be

acute or chronic. Chronic poisoning are carcinogenic (cancer).

2. Organophosphate insecticides is an acid phosphoric acid ester or tiofosfat.

This pesticide is toxic insecticides generally the most

acutely toxic to vertebrates such as fish, birds,

lizards and mammals. These pesticides have the effect, blockaded distribution

nerve impulses by binding to the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. poisoned

Chronic potentially carcinogenic organophosphate pesticides group.

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3. Carbamate, is an acid ester group H-metilkarbamat. Work

inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. But their influence on the enzyme

did not last long, because the process is quickly reversible. if signage

symptoms do not last long and quickly returned to normal. Pesticides this group

can persist in the body between 1 and 24 hours so fast

excreted.

4. Pyrethroids and pyrethroid derived from other plant derived from pyrethrum

obtained from flowers Chrysanthemun cinerariaefolum. Insecticides other plants

is a highly toxic nicotine acutely and works on the nervous system.

Pyrethrum has a low toxicity to humans but cause allergies

in people who are sensitive (Raini, 2007).

b. Fungicide

Fungicides are materials that contain toxic chemicals

and can be used to combat and prevent fungus / fungi.

This fungus damage crops in various ways. For example, the spores

into parts of the plant and held a cleavage manner

irregular cell enlargement, causing ulcers.

Irregular growth has resulted in a working system transporting water

being distracted (Wudianto, 2007).

c. Herbicide

Herbicides are pesticides used to mengandalikan

weeds or unwanted plant pests. because herbicide

active against plant, the herbicide is phytotoxic.

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d. bactericidal

Bactericidal contains an active ingredient that can kill bacteria.

The size is very small bacterium that is about 0.15 to 6 microns, making it easy

entered into a host plant through wounds, stomata, pore water, honey gland

and lenticels. In plants, a bacterial enzyme will break down the cell so

cause holes in various tissues or break flour

into sugar and simplify complex nitrogen compounds to

gain power in order to survive. These bacteria also produce substances

toxins and other substances that harm plants, even produces a substance

could stimulate host cells to divide abnormally. In the

plants, these bacteria cause disease will react corresponding type.

The bacteria can be spread through seeds, fruits, tubers, insects, birds, snails, caterpillars,

human and animal manure.

Bactericidal usually works by systemically due to bacteria

vandalized in the host's body. Soaking the seeds in a solution

bactericide is one way to control applications

Pseudomonas solanacearum which can lead to wilting in plants

family solanaceae. Examples of bactericidal namely Agrymicin and Agrept.

e. nematisida

Nematodes are small worms that looks like a length of 1 cm

pnjangnya although generally less than 200 to 1000 milimikron,

live in the upper soil layer. Toxins that can control

This nematode called nematicides. Generally granular nematicide which

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 its use can be a way sown or buried in the ground.

However, there is also a form of solution in water

its use by means of sprayed.

f. acarisides

Acarisides or often also called mitisida is material

contains a toxic chemical used to kill

mites, ticks and spiders. Parts of plants attacked is someone leaves,

stems, and fruit. Parts of plants attacked by mites will experience

changes in color, shape, raised sores or fruit to fall before

time. Example akarisida namely Kelthene MF and Trithion 4 E.

g. rodenticides

Rodenticides are materials containing toxic chemicals that

used untu turn off various types of rodents or instance mice.

Rats often attack crops, horticulture, and plant

estates in a short time with a sufficient level of losses

big. Effective rodenticides are usually in the form of poisoned bait.

For example Diphacin 110, Kleret RMB, Racumin, Ratikus RB, Ratilan, Ratak

and Gisorin.

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2.1.5 Classification Exposure to Pesticides

The classification of severity of exposure to pesticides views of activities

performed divided into four categories by Saldana et al. ( 2007) in

Sathyananarayana et al. ( 2010) ranging from the lowest to the highest

are:

1. No exposure at all

2. Indirect exposure that people Hanaya planting.

3. Residential exposure that people who use pesticides to

own household gardens.

4. Exposure agikultural that people who participate in mixing

pesticides, pesticide spraying repair or proposition that people

applying pesticides directly ketanaman.

2.1.6 Insecticide

Insecticides are materials containing toxic chemicals that

can kill all kinds of insects. Insects attack plants for

fed by a variety of ways, according to the type of mouth, such as:

a. Bite and chew, such as crickets, caterpillars and grasshoppers. by type

mouth like this, the insects can bite and chew outer baggian

plants, deciduous plants, and eat the fruit.

b. Piercing and sucking plant fluids, eg Aphis, leafhoppers, mites shield,

aphids, butterflies, fruit awl, and thrips.

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c. Sucking, such as butterflies and moths. These animals do not harm

if only limited to suck nectar or honey from flowers. However,

mostly at adult level can be a serious pest.

d. Chew and lick. These insects usually do not harm humans,

it gives advantages, such as bees. Scrape and suck,

for example, thrips or mites, Network diparutnya plants by half

so that the discharge transform and smoked. Network attacked by these pests

tend to be colored white then mengarat.

According Djojosumarto (2008), insecticides can be divided into three

based on the "how" or movement in plants after application,

that is :

a. systemic insecticides

Systemic insecticides are absorbed by the organs of plants, both through the roots,

stems or leaves. Furthermore, systemic insecticides are following the movement

liquids plant and transported to other plant parts, either

and above (akropetal) or down (basipetal), including the new shoots to grow.

Examples of systemic insecticides is furatiokarb, fosfamidon, isolan, carbofuran,

and monokrotofos.

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b. insecticides nonsistemik

Insecticides nonsistemik after application (eg, sprayed)

the target plant is not absorbed by the plant tissues, but just stick

on the outside of the plant. The biggest part of insecticides sold in the market

Indonesia today is the insecticide nonsistemik. For example, dioksikarb,

diazinon, dichlorvos, profenofos, and quinalvos.

c. Local systemic insecticides

Local Systemic insecticides are insecticides that can be absorbed group

by plant tissue (usually leaves), but is not translocated to the

other crops. In this category are powerful insecticides work

translaminar or insecticides that have a penetration into the tissue

plant. Some examples are the dimetan, furatiokarb, pyrolan, and

profenovos.

How to enter the insecticide into the insect's body differentiated targets

insecticide into three groups as follows:

a. Toxins stomach (Stomach poison)

Toxins gastric (stomach poison) are insecticides that

insecticide kills insects goal when they get into organ

insect digestion and absorbed by the digestive tract wall. Furthermore,

The insecticide is carried by an insect body fluid to the target

off (eg to the nervous system of insects). Therefore, insects

must first eat the plants that have been sprayed with insecticide

in sufficient quantities to kill him.

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b. contact poison

Is a contact poison insecticide into the insect's body

through the skin (Direct contact). Insect pests will die if

contact (direct contact) with the insecticide. most toxins

Contact acts as a stomach poison. Some strong insecticidal toxicity

his contacts among others diklorfos and pirimifos methyl.

c. respiratory poison

Respiratory poisons are insecticides that work via the channel

Respiratory. Insect pests will die when inhaling insecticide in the number of

sufficient. Most poison breath gaseous, or solid when it came form

or liquid, which soon changed or produce gas and applied as

fumigansian as methyl bromide.

According Wudianto (2007), insecticides can be divided based on the workings

to kill insect pests, namely:

a. Physical insecticide poisoning will cause dehydration which discharge

the body of the insect's body.

b. Insecticide poisoning protoplasm can precipitate proteins in the body

insect.

c. Respiratory insecticide poisoning can inhibit the enzyme activity of breathing.

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 Table 2.Daftar peptisida used by farmers

Pesticide group type of Pesticide

WHO Grade Ib

beta Siflur Pytrhroin Insecticide

Karfbofuran carbamate Insecticide

Metamidofos organophosphate Insecticide

Triazofos organophosphate Insecticide

WHO Grade II

Alfa Sipermentherin pyrethroid Insecticide

Amitranz Formamididine Insecticide

Bifentrin pyrethroid Insecticide

deltamethrin pyrethroid Insecticide

Difonokonazon Azone Insecticide

Dimaehipo / Bensultup Nereistoxin Insecticide

Analogue

Fenpropatrin pyrethroid Insecticide

fipronil Purazole Insecticide

imidacloprid neonicotinoid Insecticide

Karbonsulfan carbamate Insecticide

Katap Hydroxide Nerezitoxin Insecticide

Analogue

Klofenapir Pyrazol Insecticide

Klopirafos organophosphate Insecticide

lambda cyhalothrin pyrethroid Insecticide

MICP / Isoprokard carbamate Insecticide

permethrin pyrethroids Insecticide

Profenpos organophosphate Insecticide

WHO Grade III

Ciromazin triazine Insecticide

Diafentiuron urea Insecticide

Iprodion Dicarboximide Insecticide

WHO Grade U

Klorantraniliprol Diamide Insecticide

Klorfuazuro urea Insecticide

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2.1.7 Factor - Pesticide Poisoning factor

Factors affecting pesticide poisoning can be distinguished

into 2 groups include:

a. Factors outside the body that includes:

1) The spraying time and the ambient temperature

Spraying time should be considered in spraying

pesticides, the general suggested a good time to do

spraying of pesticides is at 07:00 to 10:00 o'clock in the morning and afternoon

15:00 to 18:00 o'clock (Budiawan, 2014). This is related to the ambient temperature

which can cause perspiration more especially at lunch

day. High ambient temperatures will facilitate the absorption of pesticides

organophosphate into the body through the skin or digestion.

Spraying at noon with a high temperature will

causing the metabolism in the body increases and the absorption of pesticides

into the body becomes larger. The ambient temperature is bad for farmers

pesticide sprayer is if higher than the human body that is 37ºC. If

high ambient temperature then the temperature will also increase also causes

vosodilasi which blood vessels expand to adjacent skin

(External environment) that allows the heat in the release out, more

blood to the skin to facilitate the free blood heat out through the process

radiation and sweat, sweat dirembes water by sweat glands

has a certain heat so it can absorb the high heat and

free water to the surrounding environment when the sweat evaporates. Temperatures exceeding

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make farmers sweat easily determined so that the pores - many open pores

and pesticides will easily go through the skin (Prasetya, 2010).

2) Wind direction and speed

Spraying was good to be in the direction of the wind so that the mist

spray is not blown toward sprayers and spraying should be done

at wind speeds below 750 meters per minute. Farmers are spraying

downwind will have a greater risk of pesticide poisoning when

compared with farmers who spray the plants in the direction of the wind.

3) Dose

All pesticides are toxic, doses greater the

facilitate the occurrence of toxicity farmer pesticide users. Dose

pesticides directly influence the toxicity hazards of pesticides

determined by long exposure. The recommended dose of 0.5 - 1.5 kg / ha for

spraying in the field, especially type organophosphates.

4) Old spraying per day

The longer spraying per day, the higher

Similarly the intensity of exposure occurs. Farmers should not be exposed to pesticides more

5 hours per day or 30 hours in one minggu.Rustia (2010) states

the longer the working time used and increasingly frequent

spraying, the greater for exposure to pesticides

resulting in decreased activity cholinesterase. Research conducted

Budiyono according Budiawan (2014) stated that the longer farmers

spraying the more pesticides attached

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in the body resulting in binding cholinesterase blood by pesticides.

Spraying is done with high frequency without equipped with

the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) will affect cholinesterase farmer

although long spraying is done <5 hours a day.

1) Years of service

The working period is a time for how long the farmers began to work as a

farmers. The longer the tenure, the more often by direct contact

with pesticides so that the risk for pesticide poisoning more

meningkat.Lama time working as sprayers affect long exposure

chronic (chronic), this is due to the length of contact with pesticides

for years. The longer the farmer becomes sprayers, then contact

with pesticides the longer and higher risk of pesticide poisoning.

Prasetya (2010) suggest that chronic poisoning is more difficult to detect

because it is not immediately felt and causes no specific symptoms and signs.

Chronic toxicity in the long term can cause interference

health. Research in Sumberejo District of Ngablak, show

farmers working life> 10 years were 51 people, with the incidence

poisoning as many as 37 people (72.5%) and were not poisoned

as many as 14 people (27.5%), while those with tenure <10 years

as many as 17 people with the incidence of poisoning of 15 people (15%)

and were not poisoned by 2 people (12%).

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2) The habit of wearing personal protective equipment (PPE)

The use of PPE in doing the work aims to protect

himself from a source of harm, either from work or

work environment. Toxins in pesticides generally contact, therefore,

use of PPE at the time farmers spraying pesticides is very important for

avoid direct contact with the pesticide (Fiananda, 2014). result

Budiyono research (2004) the completeness of the use of personal protective equipment (PPE)

and changing clothes after spraying can reduce the risk of poisoning

pesticides, thus although the land area being sprayed more and

the higher dose when using personal protective equipment (PPE) when

spraying pesticides can prevent absorption into the body of farmers

sprayers. This study is in line with the theory put forward by Sartono

(2002) suggested that poisoning can occur due

the entry of excessive pesticides or for ignoring safety procedures,

health and safety and working equipment are inadequate.

3) Pesticide management

Pesticide management is an action that the respondent before,

during and after spraying covering, pesticide storage,

sprinkling, spraying pesticides, treatment of residual pesticides, completeness

APD and disposal of pesticide containers. Usually farmers tend

underestimate the dangers of pesticides that do not comply with the terms

safety in the use of pesticides. Pesticide poisoning, especially

chronic poisoning, often not felt and consequently difficult to predict. By

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because the majority of farmers who apply pesticides has a dozen years

by the way they are and do not feel disturbed. But it is the notion of practice

management of pesticides by farmers in Indonesia today is very

dangerous to themselves and the environment around it

(Prasetya, 2010).

b. Factor in the body

Several factors in the body that affect the occurrence of poisoning

among others:

1) age farmers

Someone with age causing metabolic function

will decrease the average level of cholinesterase in the blood will be

low that it will facilitate the occurrence of pesticide poisoning. age also

related to the immune overcome the level of toxicity of a substance,

the older a person ate the effectiveness of the immune system will be more

reduced (Purwasih, 2013)

2) Gender

Peasant women tend to have average levels of cholinesterase were

higher than male farmers.

3) Nutritional status

Farmers were poor nutritional status are likely at risk of poisoning

larger when working with organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Enzyme

cholinesterase formed from protein and in a state of malnutrition, protein

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which in the body is limited, so the formation of the enzyme cholinesterase

disrupted.

4) Health Outcomes

Most people who suffer from hepatitis, cirrhosis, carcinoma

Metastatic liver, obstructive jaundice, myocardial infarction, and

dermatomyositis have content enzyme cholinesterase low.

Diisoproyfluorophospate which is used as a treatment myasthenia gravis,

paralytic ileus.

5) Smoking habit

Nicotine has a similar effect with acetylcholinesterase

of the muscle fibers so that they can invade cholinesterase in synapses

the cause can not hydrolyze achetylcholine released

the suffix plate. As a result, the amount of acetylcholine increase in tandem

with the emergence of successive impulses that stimulate muscle fibers and

raises hemalian (Rustia, 2009).

2.1.8 The impact of exposure to pesticides

Several studies have shown a link between their history

Exposure to pesticides with thyroid dysfunction, anemia, spontaneous abortion,

birth defects, and low birth weight (LBW).

a. Thyroid dysfunction

A history of pesticide exposure in pregnant women group oranoklorin

is a risk factor for the occurrence of hypothyroidism and cretinism kogenital.

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b. Anemia

Anemia may occurrence in patients with organophosphate poisoning

and carbamates is due to the formation sulfhemoglobin and methemoglobin

in red blood cells. Sulfhemaglobin occurs because the sulfur content

high on pesticides so menimbulka sulfhemoglobin bond.

Sulfhemoglobin merupan form of hemoglobin that binds to a sulfur atom

inside it. This causes the hemoglobin is abnormal and does not

be able to function in delivering oxygen. It can also be

caused due to bonding nitrite with hemoglobin to form

methemoglobin that causes hemoglobin can not be converted back to

normal hemoglobin (Purba, 2009).

Erythrocytes can be referred to as normokrom, hypochromic, hiperkrom.

Eritrositdikatakan normokrom because it contains hemoglobin in an amount

yangnormal, moderate hypochromic means containing hemoglobin in the number of

yangkurang of normal (Muttaqin, 2009). Normal color and color variation

abnormalmenunjukkan content of the cytoplasm. The general term for a variety of colors

adalahanisokromia. Hypochromia occur because of inadequate iron reserves

sehinggamengakibatkan decrease in hemoglobin synthesis. Hypochromia clinically

terkaitdengan iron deficiency anemia. Changes in the color of erythrocytes also

menunjukkankeadaan cell immaturity (Kiswari, 2014).

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c. Spontaneous abortion

The risk of spontaneous abortion have been investigated in a number of groups of wives

workers. Women who work in agriculture is more likely

to experience the occurrence of spontaneous absortus than women who did not

terpanjan (Prawirohardjo, 2006).

d. Low birth weight (LBW)

Many studies showed a close relationship between the old

exposure to pesticides LBW pregnant women involvement in activities

agriculture, the presence of pesticides in the home, the completeness of personal protective equipment,

where agricultural products are closely related to the BBRL found (Sari et al.

2006; Setiobudi et al. 2013).

2.2 Blood

Blood dalah suspension of particles in liquid colloidal solution

containing electrolyte. Perananya as a medium of exchange between cells

infection in the body from the outside environment and has a protective properties

against organisasime as a whole and particularly to blood

own (prize & wilson, 1995).

Blood is a suspension of cells and fragments of cytoplasm fluid

called plasma. On the whole blood can be considered as a network

binder in a broad sense, because basically consisted of cell elements and

subtansia intercellular formed in fungsionalpun blood plasma

a bonding network in the sense of connecting all parts

in the body so that an integrity, when blood is removed from

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the body teriri imminent freezing over liquid form elements

canary called serum (Subowo, 2002).

2.2.1 Function of Blood

Blood function in their daily lives are as follows.

a. Working as a trasport system of the body, delivering all chemicals,

oxygen and nutrients required for the body to function

normally can be run, and get rid of carbon dioxide and results

other waste.

b. Red blood cells deliver oxygen to the tissues and get rid of

partial and berkarbondioksida.

c. White blood cells provide a lot of protective material and movement area

phagocytosis of several cells, it protects the body against attacks

bacteria.

d. Plasma dividing the protein needed to form a network,

jaringa liquid refreshing, because through this fluid all body cells

receive food, and is a vehicle for transporting materials

keberbagai discharge exkretorik organs for disposal.

e. Hormones and enzymes delivered from organ with blood intermediaries.

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2.2.2 composition of Blood

Blood consists of a liquid component is blood plasma is composed of

Red blood cells (erythrocytes), some types of white blood cells (leukocytes) and fractions

cells called platelets. Serum or blood plasma consisting over 91.0% water,

8.0% protein (Albumin, Globulin, protombin and Fibrinogen), minerals: 0.9%

(Sodium Chloride, Sodium Bicarbonate, grams of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and

iron) and the rest is filled by a number of organic materials, ie glucose, fat, urea,

uric acid, creatinine, cholesterol, and amino acids. Plasma also contains gas and

carbon dioxide, hormones, enzymes and antigens (Pearce, 2006).

Red blood cells are disc binkonkaf not core which is roughly

8 mikrin diameter, 2 microns thick edges, and its thickness shortage

in the middle, just one mm or less, because it is soft and pliable

during the past microcirculation these cells undergo perunahan konfiguras. On

normal men average number of red blood cells is 5500000-6500000 and

No normal woman amounts 4500000-5500000 per cubic milliliter. The number of cells

red blood varies in both sexes and at different ages, as well

in a place where someone lived altitude will affect the amount of

Red blood cells (Price & wilson, 1995).

White blood cells or leukocytes has the main function in the system

Defense to disclose the overall state of the body through cells

leukocytes to note about the number and morphology. based on the presence

whether or not the items in the cytoplasm of leukocytes can be divided into leukocytes

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granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulosit leukocytes (lymphocytes,

monocytes) (Subowo, 1992).

Leukocytes is the active unit in the defense system is partly

formed in the bone marrow (granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes bit) and

partly in lymphoid tissue (lymphocytes and plasma cells), but after

shaped cells in the blood will be raised towards kebermacam-wide

body parts for dipergunaka. Granulocytes and monocytes defend the body

against organisms attacker by way of ingesting the organism

The confident manner phagocytosis. The main function of lymphocytes and plasma cells

is related to the immune system.

Platelets or pieces of blood the size of the small round

2sampai 4 microns in diameter. Platelets are formed in the bone marrow of

megakaryocytes, which is a very large cells in the bone marrow. platelets

formed as buds on the surface of megakaryocytes and then release

themselves to enter the blood. Konstrasi normal platelets in the blood is atara

150,000 to 350,000 cubic permilimeter (Guyton, 1995).

2.2.3 Blood Cell Function

Red blood cells have several functions, among others:

a. Erythrocytes, serves to carry oxygen from the lungs to body tissues

and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

b. Leukocytes, which has an important role in protecting the body

against microorganisms or foreign objects and improve the

vascular damage.

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c. Platelets, has a function associated with hemostasis (process

berentinya blood streaming from a wound). (Dep Kes RI, 1989).

2.3 Hemoglobin (Hb)

2.3.1 Definition

Hemoglobin is a protein that is rich in iron. affinity

(Affinity) for oxygen and oxygen was formed

oxhemoglobin inside red blood cells, through this function then oxygen is carried

from the lungs to the tissues. Hemoglobin is a carrier compound

oxygen in red blood cells. Hemoglobin can be measured chemically and number

Hb / 100 ml of blood can be used as an index of oxygen-carrying capacity

blood (Evelyn, 2009).

A hemoglobin molecule has epat containing haem group

ferrous iron and the four globin chains of the molekulhem contains one iron atom

as well as one of the globin protein can only bind one heme molecule.

Hemoglobin is inside the erythrocytes that serves to bind oxygen

lungs and release oxygen throughout the body (Brooker, 2005).

Hemoglobin serves among other things to bind and carry oxygen

from the lungs throughout the body, bind and carry CO2 from

the whole body to the lungs, giving color to the blood, and maintain

wet acid balance of the body (Arisman, 2004).

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2.3.2 Hemoglobin (Hb)

The hemoglobin level is the size of a respiratory pigment in the blood granules

red. Normal amount of hemoglobin in the blood is approximately 15 grams each

100 ml of blood and This amount is usually called "100 presen" (Evelyn, 2009). Limit

to a person's normal hemoglobin value is difficult to determine because the levels

hemoglobin vary among each tribe. However, the WHO has

set limits of normal hemoglobin levels based on age and gender

(WHO Arisman, 2004).

2.3.3 Functions Hemoglobin (Hb)

Hemoglobin in the blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to

complete body tissues of the body and bring back carbon dioxide from the whole cell

to the lungs to be removed from tebuh. Myoglobin some as reservoir

Oxygen: receive, store and release oxygen in muscle cells.

A total of approximately 80% iron in the body several hemoglobin (Sunita,

2006).

According to the MOH (2008) while for hemoglobin, among others:

a. The exchange of oxygen with carbon dioxide in Tissue-

body tissue.

b. Taking oxygen from the lungs and then carried throughout the Tissue-

tissue for use as fuel.

c. Carrying carbon dioxide from tissues of the body as a result

metabolism to the lungs for disposal, to determine whether a person

The lack of blood or not, can diketahuhi with content measurement

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 hemoglobin. Decreased levels of hemoglobin than normal means shortage

blood called anemia (Widayanti, 2008).

2.3.4 structure of Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin molecule consists of globin, apoprotein and four gugusheme,

an organic molecule with one iron atom. Mutations in proteins

hemoglobin decreased resulting in a group of illnesses called

hemoglobinopathies, including the most common are sickle cell anemia

and talasemi.

Hemoglobin is composed of four protein molecules (globulin chain) which

connected to each other. Normal adult hemoglobin (HbA) consists of 2

alpha-globulin chains and two beta-globulin chains, whereas in infants

still in the womb or born-again consists of several beta chain and

hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two gamma chains

named as HbF. In adult humans, the hemoglobin in the form of tertramer

(Contains 4 subunit proteins), which consists of each of the two subunits alpha

and beta-bound noncovalent. Sebunit-subunits are similar in

structural and the measurement is almost the same. Each subunit has a molecular weight

approximately 16,000 Dalton, so that the total molecular weight tetramenya be

approximately 64,000 Dalton.

Center heterocyclic ring molecules are known as porphyrin

which hold one atom of iron, ferrous iron atom is the site / local ties

oxygen. Iron-containing porphyrin called heme each subunit of hemoglobin

contains a hem so overall hemoglobin has

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capacity oksigen.Pada four molecules of this iron heme molecule attached and

delivers oxygen and carbon dioxide through the blood.

The capacity of hemoglobin to bind oxygen depends on the

existence prastitik group called heme. Heme groups that cause

blood red. Heme groups composed of an inorganic component and center

iron atom. Organic components called protoporphyrin is formed of four

pyrrole rings connected by bridges forming a ring metema tetra

pyrrole. Four mitral group and the vinyl group and the two side chains attached propionol

in this ring (Nelson and Cox, 2005).

Hemoglobin also plays an important role in maintaining cell shape

biconcave blood, if an interruption in the shape of blood cells, then

the flexibility of red blood cells passing through capillaries so less than the maximum. Thing

this is the reason why an iron deficiency can lead to

anemia. If the value is less than the value of the above can be dikatatakan anemia, and if

polinemis excess value will result.

2.3.5 the synthesis of hemoglobin

Sixty-five percent of hemoglobin is synthesized in eritroblas and 35%

the reticulocyte stage. Haem system happens a lot in mitrokondria by

a series of biochemical reactions that start with the condensation of glycine and succinyl

coenzyme A under the action of a key enzyme deltaamino laevulinc acid (ALA). synthetase

the speed limit. Vitamin B6 is a coenzyme for these reactions

stimulated by erythropoietin and inhibited by haem. finally protopirin

combine with iron to form haem each molecule

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joining the globin chains are made on poliribosom. Then

teramer four globin chains each haemnya group was formed

in "pockets" to build hemoglobin molecule (Hoffbrand, 1997).

2.3.6 Factors that affect Hb

Some of the factors that affect hemoglobin levels are:

a. Adequacy of iron in the body

According Parakkasi (2006), Iron is needed for hemoglobin production,

so that the iron anemia will cause the formation of red blood cells

smaller and lower hemoglobin content. Iron is also a

essensil micronutrients in producing hemoglobin that serves to usher

oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body, to be excreted into the air

respiration, cytochrome, and other components in the system such as respiratory enzyme

cytochrome oxidase, catalase and peroxidase. Iron plays a role in the synthesis

hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells. The content of ±

0.004% of body weight (60-70%) contained in the hemoglobin that is stored as

ferritin in the liver, spleen and hemosiderin in the bone marrow

(Zarianis, 2006).

b. Iron metabolism in the body

According Wirakusumah (2004), the iron contained in the body of the person

Healthy adults numbering more than 4 grams. The iron is in the cells

red blood or hemoglobin (more than 2.5G), myoglobin (150 mg), phorphyrin

cytochrome, liver, spleen bone marrow (> 200-1500 mg). There are two parts iron

in the body, the functional parts used for metabolic purposes and

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part of which is a backup. Hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes and enzymes

haem and non-haem iron is a form of functional and amounted to between 25-55

mg / kg body weight, whereas iron-function backup if needed for

physiological functions and the amount of 5-25 mg / kg body weight. Ferritin and hemosiderin

is a form of iron reserves are usually found in the liver, spleen and

Bone marrow. Metabolism of iron in the body is composed of absorption,

transport, use, storage and expenditure (Zarianis, 2006).

c. Dietary habit

In some rural areas of Southeast Asia 'generally makes eating one or two

sehar times. How to setup traditionally, typically do not use materials

fuel and tend to retain the nutrients contained in the food. Type

of food consumed should have a balanced proportion between

carbohydrates, proteins and fat. The suggested composition is 55-65%

carbohydrate, 10-15% protein, 25-35% fat. Carbohydrate food groups

which is usually consumed another atara bread, rice, potatoes, noodles, rice noodles. While

in the protein group, divided into two kinds, namely animal and vegetable. protein

examples of animal meat, eggs, milk while vegetable instance tofu, tempeh,

nuts. Nothing dietary fat and no saturated fat form

saturated (Baliwarti, 2009).

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d. Caffeine

Observations been done by researchers who suspect

the effect of caffeine on a decrease in hemoglobin levels. slowdown

hemoglobin is reinforced by the many cases of anemia in countries

mengokonsumsi populated much coffee (Aliyah, 2011).

e. Milk

There are some foods that inhibit iron absorption misalya

like milk. But that does not mean there should be consuming milk because milk

protein and kelsium are also needed by the body. Just need

gives the lag time of about 2-3 hours after taking supplements

ferruginous before drinking milk (Laubach, 2008).

f. Chronic diseases, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, and so on.

g. Imbalance between nutritional intake and activities conducted.

h. Age

Blood levels higher in adults than children, grades

media hemoglobin rise for 10 years during the subsequent children will

increased during purbetas (Gibson, 2005).

i. Gender

Hemoglobin levels in women less than men, the low

women because of their hemoglobin levels experience a loss of more iron

many compared to men due to menstruation each month there is no difference

Significant among men and women of the concentration of hemoglobin,

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but the loss of iron during menstruation routine of women who make

decreased hemoglobin concentration (Rushton, 2001).

j. exposure to pesticides

Pesticides are substances used to prevent or kill

pest (pest). Pests are organisms that compete for food,

interfere with the comfort, or harmful to human health. Use

pesticide is already very widespread, with regard to the positive impact that

increasing agricultural production and the decrease of diseases

penularanya through the intermediary of food ( food-borne diseases) or punvektor

( vector-BRONE diseases). Ideally, the pesticide has toksikhanya effect on

target organisms, namely pests. However, in practice, most

the active ingredient is used as a pesticide toxicity is not specific enough,

so that the negative impact on human health.

2.3.7 Hemoglobin inspection methods

Hemoglobin can be determined by the method of the photoelectric

(Hemoglobin-cyanide, oxyhemoglobin), Sahli, color scale (tallquist), Cupri Sulfate

(For skrning prospective blood donors), and automated method (Gandasoebrata,

2013).

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2.4 erythrocytes

2.4.1 Definition

Mature erythrocyte is a biconcave disc with a diameter

about 7 microns. Erythrocytes are cells with incomplete structures. Cell

erythrocyte consists only of the membrane and the cytoplasm without a cell nucleus. Component

erythrocytes only consist of erythrocyte membranes, enzymes and hemoglobin system

consists of heme and globin ( Devotees, 2006).

2.4.2 function of erythrocytes

Function of erythrocytes carry oxygen to the tissues to production

erythrocyte little more determined also by the level of tissue oxygenation

whereas erythrocyte production is governed by eritopoetin which is a hormone that

directly affecting bone marrow activity is very sensitive to

changes in levels of oxygen in the tissues (Widman, 2005).

2.4.3 erythropoiesis

The formation of erythrocytes in the red bone marrow, spleen, and liver.

Development in the bone marrow through the various stages, first

large and contain nucleus but no hemoglobin, then

binding hemoglobin and eventually lose nucleus ( Widman, 2005).

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2.4.4 Examination Number of erythrocytes

Erythrocyte examination performed to detect cell abnormalities

Red blood that serves as the primary transport that carries oxygen.

Normal erythrocyte lifespan on average 110-120 days. Each day cell damage

erythrocytes at 1% of the total number of erythrocytes there and followed

the formation of erythrocytes by the bone marrow. The level of damage to erythrocytes

Faster (erythrocyte lifespan shorter) than the capacity of the bone marrow

to produce erythrocytes (a process called hemolysis), will lead to

anemic condition.

Count the number of cells of the erythrocyte there are two methods, namely manual and

electronic (automatic). The manual method using arithmetic booth with the principle:

blood is diluted with a solution isotanis tarhadap erythrocytes, so the erythrocytes

more easily calculated. The number of erythrocytes per unit volume of blood is determined by

count cells under a microscope and then multiplying it by

using a specific multiplier factor. Diluting solution that is used is

Hayem solution, made from 5.0 g Sodium Sulfate Crystals; Sodium Chloride 1.0

gram; Mercury Chloride 0.5 grams and add 200 ml distilled and use values ​of 3.80 rujukanya

up to 4.80 million / mm 3 ( Gandasoebrata, 2013).

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2.5 Hemoglobin relationship with Total erythrocytes

The formation of hemoglobin occurs in the erythrocytes, starting in

proeritroblas and then continued a little in the reticulocyte stage, because

when reticulocyte leave the bone marrow and enter the blood stream,

then reticulocyte hemoglobin continues to shape slightly for a few days

next (Guyton, 2006).

The development of erythrocytes in bone marrow through various stages

initially large and contains the nucleus but no hemoglobin, then

loaded with hemoglobin and eventually loses its nucleus and newly released

into the blood circulation. The process of formation of erythrocytes impaired

led to the formation of hemoglobin too disturbed cause

hemoglobin formation was also disrupted. The decline in the number of erythrocytes usually

accompanied by a decrease in hemoglobin levels as an indication of the fall of the number of erythrocytes

(Hofbrand, 2005).

2.6 The influence of pesticides on hemoglobin and number of erythrocytes

Sulfhemoglobin occur because of the high sulfur content in pesticides

thus forming a bond sulfhemoglobin. One example of a reaction that occurs

in the body due to pesticides (zinc ethylene or zineb bisdithiocarbamate).

Zine breaks down into etilentiourea. Carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide.

Hydrogen sulfide is an agent that produces sulfthemoglobin. Nitrogen

in the hydrogenation of molecules has an important role to

sulfhemoglobin formation. Sulfhemoglobin an establishment

hemoglobin which binds to the sulfur atom therein. This causes

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Hemoglobin is a form of hemoglobin is abnormal and can not be

function in delivering oxygen. methemoglobin formed

when the iron in hemoglobin is oxidized from the ferrous into ferric. Nitrite bond with

Hb Hb spread to form methemoglobin can not bind

oxygen. Sulfhemoglobin and methemoglobin in red blood cells can not be

converted back into normal hemoglobin (Pinkhas, J et al., 1963).

Sulfhemoglobin and methemoglobin in the blood will cause

decreased levels of hemoglobin in red blood cells, causing hemolytic

anemia. Hemolytic anemia caused by contact with the pesticide caused

because the enzymatic defects in red blood cells and the amount of toxic substances

taken into the body (Kelner, MJ and NM Alexander, 1986).

The number of erythrocytes in circulation has decreased, the decline in the number of

erythrocytes can be caused by the short life of red cells due to exposure

pesticides that may damage the membrane. Bone marrow as

erythropoiesis place. Increased activity of erythropoiesis cause erythrocytes

Immature (Luis TC, 2009).

2.7 specimens

As hematological examinations using whole blood ( whole

blood). The blood of the same shape or condition as when circulating

in the bloodstream. Specimen form of venous or capillary blood, for

Blood examination purposes should be coupled with an anticoagulant (Riswanto,

2013).

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1. blood capillaries

Capillary blood samples of adults conducted at the fingertips

tanggan third or fourth and children earlobe. taking blood

Capillary done when the blood volume required little, or in a state

emergency (Gandasoebarta, 2013).

2. venous blood

Venous blood sampling performed on adults difossa cubital vein.

Venous blood sampling needs to be done carefully and thoroughly, and the need

considered the place to be used for decision must be examined

sengan carefully among others the location and size of the vein (Gandasoebrata, 2013).

2.8 anticoagulants

Anticoagulants are materials used to prevent clotting

blood. Anticoagulants EDTA (Ethylene diamine Tetra Acetate) is

anticoagulants good and is often used for a variety of tests

hematology. Used in the form of Na salt 2 EDTA or K 2 EDTA. K 2 EDTA

more widely used because of solubility in water is approximately 15 times larger

of Na 2 EDTA. EDTA in dry form with the use of 1-1.5 mg EDTA /

ml whereas in the form of user and its 10% EDTA solution of 0.1 ml / ml blood.

EDTA salts alter calcium ions from the blood into shape

which is not ion. Each 1 mg of EDTA to avoid forming one milliliter

liquid EDTA blood (EDTA 10%) more ssering used, the use of

Dry EDTA, a container of blood and EDTA should be homogenized for 1-2

minute for slow dry EDTA larutanya. More use of provisions

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causes the erythrocytes mengkirut so hemtokrit value lower than the value

actual (Gandasoebrata, 2013).

2.9 Examination of hemoglobin and erythrocytes with the Device Number

Automatic

Hemoglobin and red cell count can be done by means of

Automatic (Hematology Analyzer). Examination with automatic calculating machine

can provide quick results, but this tool has limitations, Tools

automated hematology have excess time efficiency is the examination

done quickly, it only takes about 3-5 minutes. Volume

sempel examination takes only a little, in the case

blood sample of the patient is sometimes difficult to get the volume of blood

enough, but with these automated tools can be used blood samples

using peripheral blood with less amount of blood. Results

issued by these tools usually been through a quality control conducted

by internal laboratory.

Automated hematology instrument has no weakness can count cells

abnormal, and in terms of treatment requires special attention such as temperature

control room should be done regularly. Reagents and blood samples

used is a blood sample with an anticoagulant. If there is blood

clot then if inhaled will damage the appliance (Sysmex).

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2:10 Source Inspection Errors Hematology

2.10.1 Pre-Analytical phase or stage Getting Started

1. The patient's condition, prior to specimen form peminatan

laboratory examination. The identity of the patient must be written correctly (name,

age, sex, medical record number, etc.) accompanied

diagnosis or clinical information. Identification must be written correctly

according to the patient to be taken.

2. Sampling should ideally be done the morning, techniques or ways

specimen collection must be done properly according to standards

oprating procedure (SOP) that exist.

3. The specimen to be examined sufficient volume, good condition no lysis,

kadeluwarsa fresh or not, does not change color, do not change shape,

appropriate use of anticoagulants or preservatives, are accommodated in a container

qualified and identity in accordance with the patient data.

2.10.2 Analytical phase

Analytical phase is the construction stage testing of samples for

obtain inspection results. Phase analytic attention reagents, instruments,

inspection methods, mixing the sample and the inspection process.

2.10.3 Stage Post-Analytic

Post-analytical phase or the final stages of examination issued to

assure that the results of the examination were excluded totally valid or

right (Budiwiyono, 2002).

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2:11 Theoretical framework

Use of Pesticides Spraying Time Environmental

Temperature Wind Direction
and Speed ​Dose Frequency
oral
Pesticide Spraying Completed
Work Period PPE Pesticide
Inhalation
Farmers Exposed to Pesticides Management

Skin

Pesticides Log Into

Farmers Gender Age
Body
Nutritional Status Health
Outcomes Smoking
Habit

As a result of pesticide poisoning

Sulfhemoglobin formation and

Methemoglobin in
SDM

Low hemoglobin level

Red cell count decreased

Anemia

Figure 1. Framework Theory

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2:12 conceptual framework

Farmers exposed

pesticide

Hemoglobin levels the number of erythrocytes

The independent variable Dependent variable

Figure 2. Framework Concepts

2:13 hypothesis

There is a relationship of hemoglobin levels with the number of erythrocytes exposed

farmers spraying pesticides on red scallions village district kalmpok

Brebes.

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