Molecular Basis of Inflammation As Immune Response
Molecular Basis of Inflammation As Immune Response
Molecular Basis of Inflammation As Immune Response
RESPONSE
BY
ROLL # 19046114-004
Dr Razia Iqbal
Department of Zoology
UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
1. Introduction
The aging of the population, the conquest of many communicable diseases, and changing
lifestyles present an epidemic of chronic disease projected to soon extend worldwide.
Inflammation provides a unifying pathophysiological mechanism underlying many chronic
diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, certain cancers and bowel diseases,
arthritides, and osteoporosis. Common pathophysiologic scenarios apply to many of these
diseases (Schonbeck, Mach & Sukhova, 2000).
2. Need and Significance of the Topic
Emerging laboratory and clinical data provide strong evidence that inflammatory pathways
contribute decisively to the pathogenesis of a number of chronic dis-eases associated with
aging, and that these processes involve common pro-inflammatory mediators and
regulatory pathways. By understanding the common mechanisms, and shared mechanisms
that or chestrate the array of dysfunction of our various organ systems, we will be able to
better predict susceptibility to disease and gauge target therapies. Fortunately, lifestyle
measures such as abstinence from tobacco, a healthy diet, and regular physical activity can
often permit an individual to stave off many of these inflammatory concomitants of aging,
and lessen the likelihood that chronic diseases will limit a long and healthy life.
3. Review of Literature
The innate immune response mounts a rapid response to injury. It detects a broad range of
molecular patterns that are commonly found on pathogens but are foreign to mammals,
called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and thus lacks the exquisite
structural specificity of recognition by the adaptive immune response. Macrophages
express a set of pattern recognition receptors including various scavenger receptors and
Toll-like receptors, whose ligands include PAMPs such as lipopolysaccharides, surface
phosphatidylserine, and aldehyde-derivatized proteins, as well as modified forms of a
classical risk factor for atherosclerosis, low-density lipoproteins (LDL) modified by
oxidation or glycation (Brown & Goldstein, 1983).
Ligation of scavenger receptors can lead to endocytosis and lysosomal degradation of the
bound ligands while engagement of Toll-like receptors results in activation of nuclear
factor-kappa B (NF- B) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways (Brown
& Goldstein, 1983). Ligation of Toll-like receptors can also heighten phagocytosis,
production of reactive oxygen species, and release of cytokines, autacoids, and lipid
mediators that coordinate and amplify the local inflammatory response (Hansson, Libby,
Schonbeck & Yan, 2002).
The other major limb of host defenses, the adaptive immune response, mounts more
slowly, and furnishes a more finely focused response mechanism that requires the
recognition of specific molecular structures and de-pends on the generation of large
numbers of antigen receptors, i.e., T-cell receptors and immunoglobulins, by somatic
rearrangement processes in blast cells (Jaffer, Libby & Weissleder, 2006). When T-cells
recognize a foreign antigen presented to them. They initiate responses that target precisely
that antigen, including a direct attack against the antigen-bearing cell by cytotoxic T-cells,
stimulation of antibody production by B-cells, and induction of a local inflammatory
response. T-cells can differentiate into at least two sub-types of T helper (Th) cells
(Kranzhofer et al., 1999); (Schonbeck, Mach & Sukhova, 2000).
Th1 cells elaborate a number of cytokines; among them, interferon gamma (IFN-g)
prominently coordinates crosstalk between innate and adaptive limbs of the immune and
inflammatory responses by stimulating the macrophage to increase its production of a
broad gamut of mediators including autacoids, reactive oxygen species, lipid species, and
pro-inflammatory cytokines. Th2 cells can stimulate humoral immunity by elaborating a
number of cytokines that stimulate B-cell maturation into antibody-producing plasma cells
and promote B-cell class-switching to increase production of immunoglobin E (IgE)
antibodies. Th2 cells can also aid recruitment and activation of mast cells, another effector
of allergic responses and contributor to chronic inflammation in a variety of tissues and
disease states. In addition to these specialized pro-inflammatory responses, Th2 cells can
dampen the inflammatory response by elaborating cytokines with anti-inflammatory
properties such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) (Libby & Theroux, 2005).
Traditionally, various subspecialties have claimed the chronic diseases of various organ
systems as their own, and probed the pathophysiology in a reductionist manner. Yet, from
a synoptic perspective, many such diseases have more mechanisms in common than
usually recognized or acknowledged. Indeed, a generic model of chronic inflammatory
disease is proposed that highlights these shared pathophysiologic mechanisms. According
to this scheme, signals from the innate and adaptive immune systems interact and converge
on two prototypic cell types: an epithelial cell and a mesenchymal cell of the affected
organs. These signals orchestrate a repertoire of tissue responses such as recruitment of
leukocytes involved in chronic inflammation, extracellular matrix remodeling, cellular
proliferation or death, and angiogenesis (Libby et al., 1986).
Helper T-cells abound in the lesions of chronic inflammation in many organs, including
atherosclerotic plaques, rheumatoid synovium, and forms of the chronic hepatitis’s, and in
a number of pulmonary diseases. The mononuclear phagocyte, cloaked variously as a foam
cell, osteoclast, histiocyte, microglia, or alveolar macrophage, also characteristically
populates such lesions. The epithelial cell involved depends on the specific tissue involved
the vascular endothelial cell in atherosclerosis, the enterocyte in inflammatory bowel
disease, and the glomerular or tubular epithelial cell in renal disease. Similarly,
inflammatory and immune mechanisms involve different types of mesenchymal cells
depending on the organ arterial smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, myofibroblasts,
mesangial cells, synoviocytes, or pericytes (Mallat, Corbaz & Scoazec (2001).
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Emerging laboratory and clinical data provide strong evidence that inflammatory pathways
contribute decisively to the pathogenesis of a number of chronic dis-eases associated with
aging, and that these processes involve common pro-inflammatory mediators and
regulatory pathways. In atherosclerosis, increasing evidence points to the importance of
inflammatory processes in the recruitment and activation of leukocytes and in endothelial
dysfunction, in the progression of the disease, and ultimately in the thrombotic
complication that very often limits living well to age 100. We recognize increasingly that
many chronic diseases involve inappropriate deployment of host defenses critical to
survival of the species by favoring survival to reproductive age, but too often inimical to
individual longevity. By understanding the common mechanisms, and shared mechanisms
that or chest rate the array of dysfunction of our various organ systems, we will be able to
better predict susceptibility to disease and gauge target therapies. Fortunately, lifestyle
measures such as abstinence from tobacco, a healthy diet, and regular physical activity can
often permit an individual to stave off many of these inflammatory concomitants of aging,
and lessen the likelihood that chronic diseases will limit a long and healthy life
(Kranzhofer et al., 1999).
5. REFERENCES
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Jaffer, F.A., Libby, P., & Weissleder, R. (2006). Molecular and cellular imaging of
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Kranzhofer, R., Schmidt, J., Pfeiffer, C. A., Hagl, S., Libby, P., & Kubler, W. (1999).
Angiotensin induces inflammatory activation of human vascular smooth muscle cells.
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Turnitin Originality Report
Tested on Feb 09, 2019, by Turnitin Anti Plagiarism Software provided by Higher Education
Commission, Pakistan to the Instructors of the University of Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan.
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