The Theory of Social Evolution

OPEN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS
Student: JOEL PHILLIP T. GRANADA Professor: PHILIP G. QUERODA, Ed.D

Subject: Sociological – Anthropological Foundations of Education (EDF 202)
THE THEORY OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION

The origin of sociology as an academic and scientific discipline is the history of the study
of social change and social problems in 18th and 19th Century Europe. Western Europe at this
period was swept with ravaging social changes and associated social problems occasioned by
twin revolutions born out of the Era of Enlightenment: firstly, the French Revolution which
started in 1789 and the British Industrial Revolution (1750-1850).
The French Revolution of 1789 witnessed intense violence and the bloody terror shook
Europe to its core. With the divine rights of Kings been questioned and the decline of the
authority of the church and theology as the true source of knowledge and associated rise in
application of rationality and empiricism, the aristocracy throughout Europe feared that
revolution would spread to their own lands, and intellectuals feared that social order was
crumbling in Europe with the pervasive changes and social problems recorded in France. On the
other hand, the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century reinforced these concerns.
Starting first in Europe and then in the United States, the Industrial Revolution led to many
changes, including agricultural revolution (shift from manual to mechanized agriculture),
transport revolution (faster forms of transporting raw materials, finished goods and people e.g.
rails and trains), industrialization, the rise and growth of cities as people left their farms to live
near factories (rapid urbanization) etc. As the cities grew, other social problems manifested as
people lived in increasingly poor, crowded, and decrepit conditions, and crime was rampant.
SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change as earlier discussed is ubiquitous and inevitable as change is the only
permanent phenomenon. According to Defleur et al. (1977 cfAnele 1999) „social change is the
alterations in the pattern of social organization of specific groups within a society or even of the
society itself‟. Likewise, Moore (1968 cf Anele 1999:17) defined social change as „the significant
alteration of social structures (that is of patterns of social action and interaction), including
consequences and manifestations of such structures embodied in norms (rules of conduct),
values and cultural products and symbols‟.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change has the following characteristics as identified by Idrani (1998) and Anele
(1999):
1. Inevitable: Social change is inevitable and unavoidable as it occurs all the time. Its
process may be imperceptible and can be cumulative, i.e., one may not easily perceive the
processes of social change, although it is always taking place.
2. Ubiquitous: Social change is present in every human society. There is no society that
is static and unchanging. All societies are susceptible to social change. In other words, social
change is a universal phenomenon (it is everywhere and anywhere). Iti s spread both over time
and space.
3. Multi-Leveled: Change occurs both at micro-level and macro-level. The point here is
that while social change often refers to noticeable changes in social phenomena, we must not
lose sight of the fact that small changes in minor relationships and smaller groups canal so be
significant especially in a pluralistic society e.g. ethnic unrest.
4. Contagious: Social change is contagious like infectious diseases. The influence of
change in one area or aspect of society can have an impact on other related areas. For example
changes in religious beliefs can cause change in the economy, family etc.
5. Rate: Social change has a rate; it can be rapid (revolutionary) or slow (evolutionary).
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6. Detectable and Measurable: Social change is detectable and measurable. Anele
(1999:18-21) provides following detection and measurement parameters: scale (involving the
size of the society and degree or magnitude of alteration); brevity (involving length of change
e.g. short term changes are easily observable and measured unlike long term changes that are
usually measured retrospectively); repetition (changes that repeated frequently are most likely
to be identified and measured unlike those occurring sparingly)
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change as earlier mentioned is as old as human society and as human society has
changed over time so as social scientists and social philosophers have propounded several
explanatory theories to social change in society. Some of these theories would be considered
below.
1. Evolutionary Theory
Evolutionary theory views social change as progress and hold a linear view that tends to see
only the most recent societies as having achieved the highest level. Social change is viewed as
natural, inevitable, and continuous and moves in a particular direction. Change is also seen as
necessary, just as Charles Darwin explains development following on from natural selection.
The concept of evolution was made popular by the natural scientist Charles Darwin who in
his „Origin of Species‟ published 1859 postulated that „all life forms including the human race
had gradually evolved from lower orders of life as a result of progressive adaptation to the
environment through the survival of biological forms best adapted to a competitive struggle‟.
From Darwin’s perspective, the most basic elements of biological evolution are organisms and
their environment.
For Auguste Comte, human society and civilization progresses through a natural and
inevitable course and which forms the basis upon which humans and their society are
organized. Comte divided society into traditional and modern societies. The Theological stage
which is akin to the military stage saw humans attributing all forms of natural occurrences to
supernatural forces such as gods. The Metaphysical stage is characterized with abstract
reasoning and the use of philosophy and logic in explaining phenomena. The final stage which
is Positivists or scientific stage is akin to the industrial era with science and its application is
utilized as the standard for all explanations.
2. Diffusion Theory
Diffusion theory suggests that social change is as a result of diffusion of cultural patterns
and practices of other societies which is a function of spread of cultural practices from society
to society.
This implies that change is externally induced and not internally generated as the
evolutionists asserts. Diffusion has been defined by Horton and Hunt (1980 cf. Anele 1999) as
“the spread of culture traits from group to group”. According to Kroeber (1973 cited in Anele
1999:102) “diffusion is the process, usually but not necessarily gradual, by which elements or
systems of culture are spread; by which an invention or a new institution adopted in one place
is adopted in neighboring areas, and in some cases, continues to be adopted in adjacent ones,
until it may spread over the whole earth”.
3. Cyclical Theory
The cyclical theory of change holds that civilizations go through cycles of growth and decay.
Each civilization learns from its predecessors. The classical Greek philosophers were the first to
utilize this model. Plato spoke of eras of time when initially hopes will blossom on to deteriorate
as the era disintegrates.
4. Functionalist Theory
Functionalism as developed by Emile Durkheim emerged from the evolutionary theory.
Although Functionalists emphasize what maintains society and not what changes it, they try to
understand problems of change processes in the context of a stable system. Proponents see
change as slow and societies as having interrelated parts, with cause and effect having a
reciprocal impact on one another.
According to the theory, society consists of interdependent parts each of which performs
particular functions and helps to maintain the stability of the entire social system which has a
tendency to seek equilibrium and balance. Imbalances in the system mean that the system has
to adjust to new equilibrium. Social change hence denotes movement from one state of social
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stability to another for instance traditional societies move from traditional values/kin ties to
industrialization with weakened kin ties and individualism.
5. Conflict Theory
The conflict theory propounds that change emanates as a result of conflict and class
struggles among competing groups in society. These groups can be an economic or political
class, gender, racial or ethnic groups all pursuing conflicting group interests in the society. The
theory holds that conflict and social change are ubiquitous, normal, constant, and inevitable
phenomena in human society as it is a veritable tool in remedying social inequalities and
injustice in society. Karl Marx who is credited to be the major proponent and originator of the
conflict theory equally viewed social change and history as moving in a dialectic manner. He
however parted ways with Hegel‟s theorizing by viewing materialism instead of idealism as the
prime mover of society. For Marx ideas are not the ultimate precipitating factor of change but
material stuff. He argues that the mode of production of material life, conditions the general
process of social, political and intellectual life including social change processes. For Marx, it is
not the consciousness of men that determines their existence but their social existence
determines their consciousness.
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OPEN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS

Student: JOEL PHILLIP T. GRANADA Professor: PHILIP G. QUERODA, Ed.D

THE THEORY OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

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