In Seaweed A REVIEW OF THE NUTRIENT COMP PDF
In Seaweed A REVIEW OF THE NUTRIENT COMP PDF
In Seaweed A REVIEW OF THE NUTRIENT COMP PDF
Chapter 2
Leonel Pereira*
Institute of Marine Research, Department of Life Sciences,
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra,
Apartado 3046, Coimbra, Portugal
ABSTRACT
Currently, our society lives under a misleading apprehension of there being food
abundance…..etc, etc…… Many people of the west are surrounded by fast food rich in
calories and unsaturated fats, high powered advertising and over-consumption. The mass
market has actually become accustomed to the expression of "junk food" to designate
such offerings, but yet this highly processed ―food‖ is consumed in large amounts. The
consequences of consumption of these offerings for the mass (western) the lack of
essential nutrients, obesity and diseases related to excessive intake of sugars (diabetes)
and fat (arteriosclerosis), among others. It is worrying that the fast food trends of the west
are being adopted seemingly without concern in developing countries as they become
more prosperous, hence rates of associated disease are increasing.
What roles have the seaweeds in this picture?
Represent exactly the opposite: a natural food that gives us a highly nutritious but
low in calories. Algae are therefore the best way to address the nutritional deficiencies of
the current food, due to its wide range of constituents: minerals (iron and calcium),
protein (with all essential amino acids), vitamins and fiber [1,2].
Contrary to what happens in East Asia, the West is more involved with use of
seaweed as a source in thickeners and gelling properties of hydrocolloids extracted from
seaweeds: carrageenan, agar and alginate (E407, E406 and E400, respectively), which are
widely used in food industry, especially in desserts, ice cream, the fresh vegetable
gelatin. Perhaps in most cases, the consuming public are blissfully unaware they are
consuming seaweed derived products.
However attitudes are quite different in Asian cultures where seaweeds are highly
valued and regarded for their appearance, texture, flavour and in a number of cases,
beneficial health properties.
*
E-mail: leonel@bot.uc.pt.
16 Leonel Pereira
1. INTRODUCTION
Seaweeds are used in many maritime countries as a source of food, for industrial
applications and as a fertilizer. The major utilization of these plants as food is in Asia,
particularly Japan, Korea and China, where seaweed cultivation has become a major industry.
In most western countries, food and animal consumption is restricted and there has not been
any major pressure to develop seaweed cultivation techniques. Industrial utilization is at
present largely confined to extraction for phycocolloids and, to a much lesser extent, certain
fine biochemical. Fermentation and pyrolysis are not been carried out on an industrial scale at
present but are possible options for the 21st century.
The present uses of seaweeds are as human foods, cosmetics, fertilizers, and for the
extraction of industrial gums and chemicals. They have the potential to be used as a source of
long- and short-chain chemicals with medicinal and industrial uses [3].
Worldwide only about 221 species of algae: 125 Rhodophyta (Red algae), 64
Phaeophyceae (Brown algae) and 32 Chlorophyta (Green algae) are used. Of these, about 145
species are used (66%) directly in food: 79 Rhodophyta, 38 Phaeophyceae and 28
Chlorophyta. In phycocolloid industry, 101 species are used: 41 alginophytes (algae that
produce alginic acid), 33 agarophytes (algae producing agar) and 27 carrageenophytes (algae
producing carrageenan). Other activities will use: 24 species in traditional medicine, 25
species in agriculture, animal feed and fertilizers and about 12 species are cultivated in
"marine agronomy‖ [4,5].
The species Alaria esculenta (Linnaeus) Greville, Codium fragile (Suhr) Hariot,
Caulerpa lentillifera J.Agardh, Caulerpa racemosa (Forsskål) J.Agardh, Dilsea carnosa
(Schmidel) Kuntze, Eisenia bicyclis (Kjellman) Setchell, Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, Fucus
spiralis Linnaeus, Gelidium spp., Gracilaria changii (B.M.Xia and I.A.Abbott) I.A.Abbott,
J.Zhang and B.M.Xia, Gracilaria chilensis C.J.Bird, McLachlan and E.C.Oliveira, Laminaria
digitata (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux, Laminaria ochroleuca Bachelot de la Pylaie, Porphyra
leucosticta Thuret, Porphyra tenera Kjellman, Porphyra umbilicalis Kützing, Porphyra
yezoensis Ueda, Saccharina japonica (Areschoug) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes, Druehl and
G.W.Saunders, Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes, Druehl and
A Review of the Nutrient Composition of Selected Edible Seaweeds 17
Sea grapes or Green caviar (Caulerpa spp., Bryopsidophyceae) – There are many species
of the genus Caulerpa, but Caulerpa lentillifera and C. racemosa are the two most popular
edible ones. Both have a grape-like appearance and due to their grass-green in color, soft and
succulent texture, are usually consumed in the form of fresh vegetable or salad. They are
commonly found on sandy or muddy sea bottoms in shallow protected, sub-tropical areas.
Species Na K P Ca Mg Fe Zn Mn Cu I Reference
Chlorophyta
(Green seaweed)
9.3
780 630 0.1
Caulerpa 700 - 103 - 2.6 -
8917 - - 7.9 1- - [18,19,21]
lentillifera 1142 0 21. 3.5
1874 1650 2.2
4
384 0.6
29.7 30 -
C. racemosa 2574 318 1852 - 1-7 4.91 - - [97,100]
1 81
1610 0.8
Ulva lactuca - 140 840 - 66 - - - - [25]
U. rigida 1595 1561 210 524 2094 283 0.6 1.6 0.5 - [31]
Phaeophyceae
(Brown
seaweed)
2450 2500 725 670
Fucus 4- <0.
- - 315 - - 3.71 5.50 14.5 [8,37]
vesiculosus 11 5
5469 4322 938 994
Himanthalia
4100 8250 240 720 435 59 - - - 14.7 [8]
elongata
Laminaria 11,5 3.2 <0.
3818 - 1005 659 1.77 <0.5 - [37]
digitata 79 9 5
2532 4350 150 225 550 1.1 0.89 0.13 0.2
Saccharina 130 - [44,109,110
- - - - - 9- - - 5-
japonica 690 ]
3260 5951 300 910 757 43 1.63 0.65 0.4
S. latissima 2620 4330 165 810 715 - - - - 15.9 [8]
Sargassum 88,
- - - 1860 687 1.35 - - 43.6 [21,42]
fusiforme 6
1600 5500 235 680 405 1.5
Undaria 0.94 0.33 0.1 22 -
- - - - - 4- [8,21,44]
pinnatifida 4 2 85 30
7000 6810 450 1380 680 30
Rhodophyta
(Red seaweed)
1350 420
Chondrus 1200 600 4- <0.
- 135 - 7.14 1.32 24.5 [8,37]
crispus -4270 -732 17 5
3184 1120
3.6
Gracilaria spp. 5465 3417 - 402 565 4.35 - - - [111]
5
1600 7000 560 170
Palmaria 0.3 10 -
- - 235 - - 50 2.86 1.14 [8,21]
palmata 76 100
2500 9000 1200 610
10 - <0.
Porphyra tenera 3627 3500 - 390 565 2-3 3 1.7 [21,37]
11 63
P. umbilicalis 940 2030 235 330 370 23 - - - 17.3 [8]
1.4
P. yezoensis 570 2400 - 440 650 13 10 2 - [63]
7
20 Leonel Pereira
The pond cultivation of C. lentillifera has been very successful on Mactan Island, Cebu,
in the central Philippines, with markets in Cebu and Manila and some exports to Japan
[1,17,18]. Compared to those reported in other seaweeds, the protein content of C. lentillifera
(12.49%) was comparable to the red algae Palmaria sp. (13.87%), and was notably higher
than some other brown algae tested, e.g. Himanthalia elongata (7.49%) and Laminaria
ochroleuca (7.49%) (see Table 1) [19,20]. Apart from iodine, C. lentillifera is also rich in
phosphorus, calcium, cooper and magnesium (Table 2) [19,21]. This species is also rich in
vitamin E with moderate amount of vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and niacin (Table 3) [18].
Sea lettuce or Ao-Nori (Ulva spp., Ulvophyceae) – The sea lettuces comprise the genus
Ulva, a group of edible green algae that are widely distributed along the coasts of the world's
oceans. The type species within the genus Ulva is Ulva lactuca (see
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=247andtp=7), ―lactuca‖ meaning lettuce. Sea lettuce as a
food for humans is eaten raw in salads and cooked in soups. It is high in protein (level
between 10 and 25% of dry mass; see Table 1) [22-24], soluble dietary fibers, and a variety of
vitamins and minerals, especially iron (Table 2 and 3) [25,26].
The species Ulva pertusa (see http://www.algaebase.org/_mediafiles/algaebase/
5B7BE95A076ca2C19Dsxv2CAFF8E/k857fWdJXeJD.jpg), which is frequently consumed
under the name of ―ao-nori‖ by the Japanese people, has a high protein level between 20 and
26% (dry product) (see Table 1) [22,27,159]. According Pengzhan et al. [159] the sulfated
polysaccharide (ulvan) extracted from this species has antilipidemic effects.
The species Ulva compressa (formerly Enteremorpha compressa) (see
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=940andtp=7) is used dried in cooking, particularly with
eggs [3]. Is used to as an ingredient in the preparation of a high fibre snack, namely Pakoda, a
common Indian product made from chickpea flour [28] and their crude protein levels ranging
from 21 and 32% (see Table 1) [21,28,29].
The level of aspartic and glutamic acids can represent up to 26 and 32% of the total
amino acids of the edible species Ulva rigida (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/
imagem.php?id=1508andtp=7) and Ulva rotundata (see http://www.
algaebase.org/_mediafiles/algaebase/3EE735B10772e14708IjI34FDB98/dgduKPpgE9Zn.jpg
), respectively [30,31].
Species
B5 (Panththenic
B6 (Cobalamin)
B6 (Pyridoxine)
B2 (Riboflavin)
B1 (Thiamin)
C (Ascorbic
B3 (Niacin)
B8 (Biotin)
Reference
Folic acid
Acid)
Acid)
A
E
Chlorophyt
a (Green
seaweed)
Caulerpa 2.2
- 0.05 0.02 1.09 - - - - 1.00 - [18]
lentillifera 2
Codium 0.52 <0.2
0.223 0.559 - - - - - - - [56]
fragile 7 23
Ulva 0.01 <0.02 <0.2 [26,5
0.533 98* - - - 6* - -
lactuca 7 4 42 6]
Ulva 30 –
- - - - - - - - - - [112]
pertusa 241**
0.01 19. 0.1
Ulva rigida 9581 0.47 0.199 <0.5 1.70 <0.1 6 9.42 [31]
2 70 08
Phaeophyc
eae (Brown
seaweed)
Alaria 100 -
- - 0.3 - 1* 5* - 0.1* - - - - [26]
esculenta 500*
Fucus 0.30 14.1 [8,56
0.02 0.035 - - - - - - -
vesiculosus 7 24 ]
0.
176
Himanthali 0.07 28.5 [8,47
0.020 0.020 - - - - - - -
a elongata 9 6 ,56]
0.2
58
Laminaria 3.4
- 1.250 0.138 61.2 - 6.41 6.41 0.0005 35.5 - [113]
digitata 3
Laminaria 0.04 0.35 0.4 [47,5
0.058 0.212 - - - - - -
ochroleuca 1 3 79 6]
Saccharina 0.48
0.2 0.85 1.58 0.09 - - - - - [44]
japonica 1
Saccharina
0.04 0.05 0.21 0.0003 0.35 1.6 [8]
latissima
0.04 1.4
Undaria 0.17 - 0.23 - 0.4 [44,4
- 2.56 - 0.18 - 0.0036 5.29 -
pinnatifida 0.30 1.4 79 7,56]
0.22 2.5
Rhodophyt
a (Red
seaweed)
Chondrus 10 - [26,3
- - - - - - - 0.6 -4* - -
crispus 13* 7]
Gracilaria 16 -
- - - - - - - - - - [112]
spp. 149**
Gracilaria
- - - - - - - - 28.5 - - [21]
changii
2.2
6.34
Palmaria 0.073 0.51 - - 0.2 [8,26
1.59 1.89 - 8.99 - 0.009 -
palmata - 1.56 1.91 13. 67 ,47]
34.5
9
Porphyra 4.21 0.3 [47,5
3.65 0.144 0.36 - - - - 0.029 -
umbilicalis 4 63 6]
Porphyra 1600 [63,1
0.129 0.382 11.0 - - - 0.052 - - -
yezoensis 0*** 14]
* ** ***
expressed as ppm; expressed as mg%; expressed as I.U.
22 Leonel Pereira
Fucus (Fucus vesiculosus and F. spiralis, Fucaceae) – Members of this genus (see
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=242andtp=7 for F. vesiculosus photo and
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=2493andtp=7 for F. spiralis photo) are not commonly
used as food, but their extracts are reported to be useful as anti-inflammatory and anti-
cellulite and weight loss treatments. Fucus species has are reported to contain (see Table 1, 2
and 3): polysaccharides mucilage with algin, fucoidan and laminarin; polyphenols, trace
elements and minerals (iodine in the form of salts and attached to proteins and lipids),
potassium, bromine, chlorine, magnesium, calcium, iron and silicon, mannitol, vitamins and
pro-vitamins A and D, ascorbic acid and lipids (glycosylglycerides) [36-39].
Hiziki or Hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme, Sargassaceae) – The species Sargassum fusiforme
(formerly Hizikia fusiformis) (see http://www.algaebase.org/_mediafiles/algaebase/
5B7BE95A076ca2541CiyH2B27FDF/mmQhPonex6Cw.jpg) is a common, edible alga which
is widely consumed and used as a medicinal herb in China, Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia
[22,40]. It is collected from the wild in Japan and cultivated in the Republic of Korea. The
alga naturally grows at the bottom of the eulittoral and top of the sublittoral zones, and is
found on the southern shore of Hokkaido, all around Honshu, on the Korean peninsula and
most coasts of the China Sea. About 90 percent of the Republic of Korea production is
processed and exported to Japan [17].
Hiziki contains potential and intensively investigated bioactive compounds especially
fucoxanthin pigments and phlorotannins, a polyphenolic secondary metabolite (see Table 4)
[34,41]. The protein, fat, carbohydrate and vitamin contents (see Table 1 and 3) are similar to
those found in Kombu (formerly Laminaria japonica), although most of the vitamins are
destroyed in the processing of the raw seaweed. The iron, copper and manganese contents
(Table 2) are relatively high, certainly higher than in Kombu [21, 42]. Like most brown
seaweeds, its fat content is low (1.5%) but 20-25% of the fatty acid is eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) [17,35].
According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) reports, this seaweed
contains inorganic arsenic that can exceed the tolerable daily intake levels considered safe for
safe human consumption. Even though, inorganic arsenic has been linked with
gastrointestinal effects, anemia and liver damage, no evidence of such health complications
reported to date due to direct consumption of Hiziki [41].
Kombu or Haidai (Laminaria spp. and Saccharina spp., Laminariaceae) – Saccharina
japonica (formerly Laminaria japonica) (see http://www.algaebase.org/_mediafiles/
algaebase/3EE735B10772e11C1FMvk34536ED/YSqPfyD87qHw.jpg) is perhaps the best
known species of kelp. It has broad, shiny leaves and flourishes in cool waters off the coasts
of Japan and Korea. It has been cultivated in Japan for about 300 years and elsewhere on a
large scale for about forty years. A rich stock (Dashi) can be prepared from kelp because of
its concentration of the flavor-enhancer glutamic acid. It is considered that the best varieties
of Kombu grow in the cool coastal waters of the northern-most Japanese island of Hokkaido
[32]. Haidai is the Chinese name for Saccharina japonica, seaweed that was introduced to
China accidentally from Japan in the late 1920s. Previously, China had imported all of its
requirements from Japan and the Republic of Korea. This alga is now cultivated on a large
scale in China. Saccharina japonica grows naturally in the Republic of Korea and is also
cultivated, but on a much smaller scale; the demand is lower because Koreans prefer Wakame
(Undaria pinnatifida) [17].
A Review of the Nutrient Composition of Selected Edible Seaweeds 23
The species Saccharina latissima (formerly Laminaria saccharina), despite being a deep
seaweed (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=1506andtp=7), prefers areas with calm
waters, being present in the North Atlantic from Norway to northern Portugal. Commercially
this seaweed is called "Royal Kombu" and its composition is very similar to that of
Laminaria ochroleuca (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=1638andtp=7), known
commercially as "Atlantic Kombu‖ and of L. digitata (see http://www.algaebase.org/_
mediafiles/algaebase/3EE735B10772e033A6jpH30F0391/2rgkFQ1L8AyP.jpg), known
commercially as ―Kombu Breton‖. The Atlantic Kombu is a rather tougher than the Kombu
from Japan and is distributed in Iberian Peninsula from Santander, in Cantabria (Spain), to
Cape Mondego in Portugal [8,38,43].
Kombu stands out for its high mineral content (particularly magnesium, calcium and
iodine). Calcium and magnesium regulate together many functions, including the nervous
system and muscles. The various species of the genera Laminaria and Saccharina have been
used as a source of iodine in the industry, mineral with a role in thyroid function, as noted
above (see Table 2 and 4). The alginic acid present in these algae has shown preventive
effects against contamination by heavy metals and radioactive substances, especially
Strontium 90. Among the properties of these seaweeds, we highlight the following: anti-
rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, regulators of body weight and blood pressure (due to the
presence of laminarin and laminin). These Laminariaceae also prevent atherosclerosis and
other vascular problems due to its bloodstream fluidifying effects [8,34,39].
Sea spaghetti or Haricot vert de mer (Himanthalia elongata, Himanthaliaceae) - Is long,
dark (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=276andtp=7), and rich in trace elements and
vitamins. It is successfully cultivated in Brittany, France, and increasingly exported fresh for
the Japanese restaurant trade. The long strands must first have its furry layer removed by hand
under cold running water before it is prepared for eating [32].
Little known in Asian countries, it is increasingly valued in Europe, both in restaurants
and in specialty bakeries. For several years they have manufactured specialty pies, pizzas,
pastas, pates, breads, and snacks, since its taste is reminiscent of some cephalopods (squid
and cuttlefish) [8].
This species is characterized in particular by its high iron content (59 mg per 100 g of
algae) and the simultaneous presence of vitamin C, which facilitates the absorption of this
trace element (see Table 2 and 3) [47]. Sea spaghetti is rich in phosphorus, a mineral known
to enhance brain function, helping to preserve memory, concentration and mental agility
[8,38].
Wakame or Quandai-cai (Undaria pinnatifida, Alariaceae) – Is a invasive brown seaweed
(see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=1146andtp=7) originating from the Pacific, which
lives in deep waters (up to 25 m) and can reach 1.5 m in length and is one of the most
important species of commercial seaweed, next to nori, on the Japanese menu and is eaten
both dried and fresh [8, 38].
The nutritional value is high, as the leaves consist of 13% protein, as well as containing
substantial amounts of calcium (see Table 1 and 2) [21,44]. Traditionally Wakame is
harvested from wild populations by boats by means of long hooks and then sold fresh or sun
dried. Since this seaweed is salted for transport, certain cleansing must take place before
eating. Wakame must be thoroughly rinsed under running water, then placed in boiling water
for thirty seconds, then rinsed in ice water. The leaves are then spread out and the hard midrib
is removed [32]. Wakame has relatively high total dietary fibre content; it is higher than Nori
24 Leonel Pereira
or Kombu (see Table 1). Consumption of dietary fibre has a positive influence on several
aspects related to health such as reducing the risk of suffering from colon cancer,
constipation, hypercholesterolemia, obesity and diabetes. Besides, many constituents of
dietary fibre show antioxidant activity as well as immunological activity [45]. In this sense,
U. pinnatifida (Wakame) showed some positive effect on cardiovascular diseases
(hypertension and hypercholesterolemia) [46]; this alga contains basically dietetic fibre, being
its principal component alginate. This alginic acid has demonstrated to reduce hypertension in
hypertensive rates [46].
Like other brown seaweeds, the fat content is quite low (see Table 1). Air-dried Wakame
has a similar vitamin content to the wet seaweed and is relatively rich in the vitamin B group,
especially niacin (see Table 3) [44,47]; however, processed Wakame products lose most of
their vitamins. Wakame contains appreciable amounts of essential trace elements (see Table
2) such as manganese, copper, cobalt, iron, nickel and zinc, similar to Kombu and Hiziki
[8,7,44].
Wakame is one of the most popular edible seaweed in Japan and has been found to
contain 5–10% fucoxanthin [48] apart from containing polar lipids such as glycolipids. Health
benefits of fucoxanthin are anticancer effect — it is evaluated that neoxanthin and
fucoxanthin were reported to cause a remarkable reduction in growth of prostate cancer cells,
and also demonstrated anti-obesity activity and anti-inflammatory activity [49]. Fucoxanthin
(see Table 4) is other major biofunctional pigment of brown seaweeds and the content in
various edible seaweeds including U. pinnatifida has been reviewed by Hosakawa et al. [50].
Winged kelp, Edible kelp or Atlantic wakame (Alaria esculenta, Alariaceae) – This is a
large brown kelp (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=2115andtp=7) which grows in the
upper limit of the sublittoral zone. It has a wide distribution in cold waters and does not
survive above 16°C. It is found in areas such as Ireland, Scotland (United Kingdom), Iceland,
Brittany (France), Norway, Nova Scotia (Canada), Sakhalin (Russia) and northern Hokkaido
(Japan). The seaweed is eaten in Ireland, Scotland (United Kingdom) and Iceland either fresh
or cooked, and it is said to have the best protein among the kelps and is also rich in trace
metals and vitamins (see Table 1 and 3), especially niacin and contains up to 42% alginic acid
[17,26,51,52]. The species is used for a cultivar of purposes from value-added sea-vegetables
to fodder and body care products. Recently, it has become of economic interest as a foodstuff
in aquaculture for herbivorous mollusks, urchins, shrimp and fish [53].
Lipids and Omega 3 and Porphyra spp. Prevention of cardio-vascular diseases, [8,23,39]
fatty acids omega 6 acids Brown algae osteoarthritis and diabetes
Carotenoids β-carotene, Chondrus crispus Antimutagenic; protective against breast [94,115,116,
lutein Porphyra yezoensis cancer 117,118,119
Red algae ]
Red algae
Phycoerythrin [131]
26 Leonel Pereira
Table 4. (Continued).
Proteins and Proteins Palmaria palmata Higher protein contents are recorded in [23]
amino acids Porphyra tenera green and red seaweeds (on average 10-
30 % of the dry weight). In some red
seaweed, such as Palmaria palmata
(dulse) and Porphyra tenera (nori),
proteins can represent up to 35 and
47% of the dry matter, respectively.
Agar-agar is a powerful gel-forming of all gums because of the unusual length of its
carbohydrate molecules. It is also unique in its ability to withstand near boiling-point
temperatures, making it ideal for use in jellied confections in tropical countries since the
ingredients can be treated at high temperatures and then cooled [32,54,55].
The agarophytes, from which this gum is extracted, are gathered and left on the beach to
dry and bleach before being sold to a factory where it is cleaned, washed, and boiled to
extract the gum. Traditionally the, water soluble extract is it is frozen and thawed. More
28 Leonel Pereira
recently precipitation methods have been developed, which alternative process relies on
synaeresis [17]. As the water runs out of it, so do any of the impurities, leaving the purified
gum to be dried. This method of purifying (freezing and thawing) is said to have been
discovered accidentally by a Japanese innkeeper during a frosty winter of 1658. Since then,
the product has gained in popularity in Japanese cuisine, not only for making jellies, but also
as a general thickener for soups and sauces [32,38,54].
A popular Japanese sweet dish is mitsumame; this consists of cubes of agar gel
containing fruit and added colors. It can be canned and sterilized without the cubes melting.
Agar is also used in gelled meat and fish products, and is preferred to gelatin because of its
higher melting temperature and gel strength. In combination with other gums, agar has been
used to stabilize sherbets and ices. It improves the texture of dairy products such as cream
cheese and yoghurt. Agar has been used to clarify wines, especially plum wine, which can
prove difficult by traditional methods. Unlike starch, agar is not readily digested and so adds
little calorific value to food. It is used in vegetarian foods such as meat substitutes. There is
an increased recent interest in agar as used in dedicated Kanten restaurants catering for
modern weight conscious Japanese consumers [17].
Dulse or Dilisk (Palmaria palmata, Florideophyceae) – Is a relatively common Atlantic
seaweed (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=854andtp=7). It is comparatively small (up
to 50 cm long), and can occupy a wide range of habitats from the intertidal, with brief
exposure to relatively deep niches, in cold and turbulent waters. The name "dulse" comes
from the Irish vocabulary (dils = edible seaweed) and has little to do with the Latin dulce
meaning tasting good or sugary or sweet. In fact eating dried dulse may be described as being
an acquired taste which can be quite strong and distinctive [38]. Dulse was prized by the Celts
and the Vikings and has been harvested on beaches at low tide, air-dried, and boiled in soups
from Ireland to Iceland well into the 20th century. The people of Scotland, Ireland, and
Iceland have been using Dulse for centuries, and collect it off their coasts. Many consider it to
be the most delectable of all seaweeds [32,56]. Today, this species is successfully cultivated
along the coast of Brittany in France, Ireland and northern Spanish coast [57,58,59].
Dilsea carnosa is another type of edible seaweed
(http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=370andtp=7), unrelated to the regular Dulse, but
identical in taste, appearance, and nutritional value. Dried Dulse is a popular food in Canada,
where much of the world's current supply is harvested in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
From there, it is exported to Scotland, Ireland and the US. Dulse is extremely rich in iodine,
phosphorus, calcium, and contains more potassium than any other food. In Canada, Dulse is
available in many major coastal food outlets and supermarkets and can be served in a variety
of ways: as a side dish, in soups and salads, as a sandwich ingredient or in powdered form to
be used as a spice or condiment flavoring [17,32].
About 30% of the dry weight of dulse comprises minerals (e.g. iron, iodine and
potassium) and proteins of high nutritive value (18%). Palmaria palmata also has relatively
high amounts of vitamin C, which facilitates the absorption of iron (see Table 2 and 3). This
seaweed is ideal as a restorative in states of anemia and asthenia (weakness). Strengthens
vision (vitamin A) and is recommended for treatment of gastric and intestinal problems and
for regeneration of the mucous membranes (respiratory, gastric, and vaginal). Like other few
red algae [60], Palmaria palmata has anthelmintic effect and acts as an antiseptic and
parasites control, cleaning up the gut [8,56].
A Review of the Nutrient Composition of Selected Edible Seaweeds 29
Irish moss or Carrageen moss (Chondrus crispus, Florideophyceae) – This species (see
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=305andtp=7 for hand harvest photo,
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=1522andtp=7 for Irish moss pudding photo and
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=1020andtp=7 for habit photo) is found along the coasts
of the North Atlantic in both Europe and North America [61]. It can either be reddish-purple
or green in color. Ireland is a major source of the world's supply and where this vegetable is
steamed and eaten with potatoes or cabbage. Its most common use outside of Ireland is in the
making of rennet-free gelatin (carrageen). This is preferred by full vegetarians and on certain
religious grounds since true gelatin is a product of animal processing. One example of its
traditional use is in the production of blancmange (literally white jelly), a traditional vanilla-
flavoured pudding. In eastern Canada, a company is cultivating a strain of Chondrus crispus
in on land tanks and marketing it as Hana Tsunomata, for seaweed salad (see
www.acadianseaplants.com), a yellow variant that resembles traditional Japanese seaweed
that is in limited supply from natural resources [17,38,56].
Mastocarpus stellatus is frequently collected with C. crispus and sold as a mixture under
the name Carrageen or Irish moss [17].
Carrageenan is extensively used in the manufacture of various soft cheeses, ice cream,
aspics and jellies (see ―Phycocolloids‖ and Table 6).
Nori or Purple laver (a large number of species including Porphyra yezoensis, P. tenera,
P. umbilicalis and Porphyra spp., Bangiophyceae) – The original and traditional Nori is
produced from Porphyra yezoensis (see http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/5f/Porphyra_yezoensis.jpg) and P. tenera cultivated in Japan. The word "nori"
originally means ―all seaweed‖; however the modern application of the word is taken to
include the purplish-black seaweed sheets often seen wrapped around rice in sushi cuisine.
Nori sheets come largely from cultivation in Japan, the Republic of Korea and China. In
Japan's list of products from marine culture, Nori has the highest production volume,
followed by oysters, yellowtails and Wakame, the last being another seaweed used as food. In
traditional way, to obtain Nori, freshly harvested fronds of Porphyra are chopped, pressed
between bamboo mats, and dried either in drying rooms or in the sun. Good quality Nori is
mild-tasting and black in color, but having a purple sheen. It should be packed airtight since it
is very hygroscopic However, today the production of Nori is more mechanical [17,38].
There is an Atlantic Nori (see http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=569andtp=7), which
is produced from wild algae of the genus Porphyra (e.g. P. umbilicalis, P. leucosticta and
others), which is traditionally consumed in Celtic countries and in the Azores archipelago. In
Wales and Ireland it is still used in preparing the dish called "laverbread‖ [8,38].
Many species of the genus Porphyra are rich in amino acids. Nori is exceptionally rich in
provitamin A (see Table 3), surpassing the vegetables and also seafood and fish. Nori has a
low percentage of fats and these are of great nutritional value because more than 60% of them
are polyunsaturated fatty acids omega 3 and 6. This dried seaweed contains large amounts of
protein, ash, vitamins and carbohydrate (see Table 1) [21,62]. The levels of taurine (> 1.2%)
are notable as this compound aids enterohepatic circulation of bile acid, thus preventing
gallstone through controlling blood-cholesterol levels. Relatively high levels
ofeicosapentanoic acid, choline, inositol and other B-group vitamins are regarded as
beneficial to health. The occurrence of porphyosins and betaines that prevent respectively,
gastric ulcers and lower blood-cholesterol levels are particular interest (see Table 4)
[8,38,63].
30 Leonel Pereira
Ogo, Ogonori or Sea moss (Gracilaria spp., Florideophyceae) – Fresh Gracilaria species
have been collected and sold as a salad vegetable in Hawaii (United States of America) for
several decades. The mixture of ethnic groups in Hawaii (Hawaiians, Filipinos, Koreans,
Japanese and Chinese) creates an unusual demand and supply has, at times, been limited by
the availability of stocks natural sources. The alga is being successfully cultivated in Hawaii
using an aerated tank system, producing up to 6 tones fresh weight per week. In Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, species of Gracilaria are collected by coastal people
for food [64]. In southern Thailand, an education program was undertaken to show people
how it could be used to make jellies by boiling and making use of the extracted agar (See
Phycocolloid ―Agar‖ and Table 6). In the West Indies, Gracilaria is sold in markets as ―Sea
moss‖ and in some locations is marketed also as ―Irish moss‖; it is reputed to have
aphrodisiac properties and is also used as a base for a non-alcoholic drink. It has been
successfully cultivated for this purpose in St Lucia and adjacent islands. Gracilaria changii
(see http://www.naturia.per.sg/cjsurvey/vegetative/text/gracilaria%20changii.htm) is
consumed in certain coastal areas especially along the east coast of Peninsula Malaysia and in
East Malaysia, where it is occasionally eaten as a salad dish [17,65].
The red alga Gracilaria chilensis (see http://www.algaebase.org/_mediafiles/algaebase/
3EE735B1076ca33F0Bquh2E9B16C/f8jBtU6jij4V.jpg), belonging to the Gracilariaceae, is
known as ―Pelillo‖ in Chile, on account of its appearance [15]. It has a long and filamentous
thallus. It is a reddish brown alga, with variable branching reaching 2 m. It grows in bunches
or isolated, in habitats with solid substrates [66]. This alga is almost entirely used in the
domestic and foreign industry for the development of agar, and is one of the most exported
(126,000 tones/year) [15].
5. PHYCOCOLLOIDS
What Are Phycocolloids?
Colloids are compounds that form colloidal solutions, an intermediate state between a
solution and a suspension, and are used as thickeners, gelling agents, and stabilizers for
suspensions and emulsions (see Table 6). Hydrocolloids are carbohydrates that when
dissolved in water form viscous solutions. The phycocolloids are hydrocolloids extracted
from algae and represent a growing industry, with more than 1 million tons of seaweeds
extracted annually for hydrocolloid production [67-69].
Many seaweeds produce hydrocolloids, associated with the cell wall and intercellular
spaces. Members of the red algae (Rhodophyta) produce galactans (e.g. carrageenans and
agars) and the brown algae (Heterokontophyta, Phaeophyceae) produce uronates (alginates)
[68,70-72].
The different phycocolloids used in food industry as natural additives are (European
codes of phycocolloids):
Agar (Agarophytes, Rhodophyta) – Most Agar is extracted from species of Gelidium and
Gracilaria. Closely related to Gelidium are species of Pterocladiella (see
http://macoi.ci.uc.pt/imagem.php?id=571andtp=7), and small quantities of these are collected,
mainly in the Azores (Portugal) and New Zealand. Gelidiella acerosa is the main source of
agar in India. Ahnfeltia species have been used in both Russia and Japan, one source being the
island of Sakhalin (Russia) [17, 38]. Gelidium spp. and Gracilaria spp. are collected in
Morocco and Tunisia and Chile for Agar production [15,73-76].
Agar is a phycocolloid the name of which comes from Malaysia and means ―red alga‖ in
general and has traditionally been applied to what we now know taxonomically as –
Eucheuma (see ―Agar-Agar‖). Ironically we now know this to be the commercial source of
iota carrageenan. Agar is composed of two polysaccharides: namely agarose and agaropectin.
The first is responsible for gelling, while the latter has thickening properties [77].
Agar is a relatively mature industry in terms of manufacturing methods and applications.
Today most processors are using press/syneresis technology; although some still favor
freeze/thaw technology or a mixture of these technologies. While the basic processes may not
have changed, improvements in presses and freezing equipment must be noted. High-pressure
membrane presses have greatly improved dewatering of agar and thereby reducing energy
requirements for final drying before powder milling. Average prices of this phycocolloid
were US$ 18 kg-1 and global sales in 2009 were US$ 173 million [70].
The origin of agar as a food ingredient is in Asia where it has been consumed for several
centuries. Its extraordinary qualities as a thickening, stabilizing and gelling agent make it an
essential ingredient for preparing processed food products. Furthermore, its satiating and gut
regulating characteristics make it an ideal fiber ingredient in the preparation of low calorie
food products. The principal applications of agar food grade are (see Table 6): fruit jellies,
milk products, fruit pastilles, caramels, chewing gum, canned meat, soups, confectionery and
baked goods, icing, frozen and salted fish [77].
About 80 percent of the agar produced globally is for food applications (see Table 5 and
6), the remaining 10 percent is used for bacteriological plates and other biotechnology uses
(in particular agarose electrophoresis). Agar has been classified as GRAS (Generally
Recognized as Safe) by the United States of America Food and Drug Administration, which
has set maximum usage levels depending on particular applications. In the baked goods
industry, the ability of agar gels to withstand high temperatures allows for its use as a
stabilizer and thickener in pie fillings, icings and meringues. Cakes, buns, etc., are often pre-
packed in various kinds of modern wrapping materials and often stick to them, especially in
hot weather; by reducing the quantity of water and adding some agar, a more stable,
smoother, non-stick icing may be obtained [17,68]. Some agars, especially those extracted
from Gracilaria chilensis, can be used in confectionery with very high sugar content, such as
fruit candies. These agars are said to be "sugar reactive" because the sugar (sucrose) increases
32 Leonel Pereira
the strength of the gel. Since agar is tasteless, it does not interfere with the flavors of
foodstuffs; this is in contrast to some of its competitive gums which require the addition of
calcium or potassium salts to form gels. In Asian countries, it is a popular component of
jellies; this has its origin in the early practice of boiling seaweed, straining it and adding
flavors to the liquid before it cooled and formed a jelly [17].
Table 5. Agar grades depending on their final use (Adapted from Armisen [78])
A high quality alginate forms strong gels and gives thick, aqueous solutions. A good raw
material for alginate extraction should also give a high yield of alginate. Brown seaweeds that
fulfill the above criteria are species of Ascophyllum, Durvillaea, Ecklonia, Fucus, Laminaria,
Lessonia, Macrocystis and Sargassum. However, Sargassum, is only used when nothing else
is available: its alginate is usually borderline quality and the yield usually low [38, 81].
The goal of the extraction process is to obtain dry, powdered, sodium alginate. The
calcium and magnesium salts do not dissolve in water; the sodium salt does. The rationale
behind the extraction of alginate from the seaweed is to convert all the alginate salts to the
sodium salt, dissolve this in water, and remove the seaweed residue by filtration [17].
Water-in-oil emulsions such as mayonnaise and salad dressings are less likely to separate
into their original oil and water phases if thickened with alginate. Sodium alginate is not
useful when the emulsion is acidic, because insoluble alginic acid forms; for these
applications propylene glycol alginate (PGA) is used since this is stable in mild acid
conditions. Alginate improves the texture, body and sheen of yoghurt, but PGA is also used in
the stabilization of milk proteins under acidic conditions, as found in some yoghurts. Some
fruit drinks have fruit pulp added and it is preferable to keep this in suspension; addition of
sodium alginate, or PGA in acidic conditions, can prevent sedimentation of the pulp and to
34 Leonel Pereira
create foams. In chocolate milk, the cocoa can be kept in suspension by an alginate/phosphate
mixture, although in this application it faces strong competition from carrageenan (see Table
6). Small amounts of alginate can thicken and stabilize whipped cream [82,83].
Carrageenan (Carrageenophytes, Rhodophyta) – Carrageenans represent one of the major
texturising ingredients used by the food industry; they are natural ingredients, which have
been used for decades in food applications and are generally regarded as safe (GRAS). The
phycocolloid ―carrageenin", as it was first called, was discovered by the British pharmacist,
Stanford in 1862 who extracted it from Irish moss (Chondrus crispus).The name was later
changed to ―carrageenan‖ so as to comply with the ‗-an‘ suffix for the names of
polysaccharides. The modern carrageenan industry dates from the 1940s, receiving its
impetus from the dairy applications (see the carrageenan applications in Table 6) where
carrageenan was found to be the ideal stabilizer for the suspension of cocoa in milk chocolate
[68].
Figure 1. Idealized units of the main carrageenan types (After Periera et al. [68]).
A Review of the Nutrient Composition of Selected Edible Seaweeds 35
The commercial carrageenans are normally divided into three main types: kappa-, iota-
and lambda-carrageenan. The idealized disaccharide repeating units of these carrageenans are
given in Figure 1. Generally, seaweeds do not produce these idealized and pure carrageenans,
but more likely a range of hybrid structures and or precursors (see Table 7). Several other
carrageenan repeating units exist: e.g. xi, theta, beta, mu and nu (Figure 1). The precursors
(mu and nu), when exposed to alkali conditions, are modified into kappa and iota,
respectively, through formation of the 3,6-anhydrogalactose bridge [68,72,84,85]. This is a
feature used extensively in extraction and industrial modification.
Carrageenans are the third most important hydrocolloid in the food industry, after gelatin
(animal origin) and starch (plant origin) [86]. The most commonly used, commercial
carrageenans are extracted from Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum [17].
Primarily, wild-harvested genera such as Chondrus, Furcellaria, Gigartina,
Chondracanthus, Sarcothalia, Mazzaella, Iridaea, Mastocarpus, and Tichocarpus are also
mainly cultivated as carrageenan raw materials and producing countries include Argentina,
Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, Portugal, North Korea, South
Korea, Spain, Russia, and the USA [4,70].
The original source of carrageenans was from the red seaweed Chondrus crispus, which
continues to be used, but in limited quantities. Betaphycus gelatinum is used for the extraction
of beta (β) carrageenan. Some South American red algae used previously only in minor
quantities have, more recently, received attention from carrageenan producers, as they seek to
increase diversification of raw materials in order to provide for the extraction of new
carrageenan types with different physical functionalities and therefore increased product
development, which in turn stimulates demand [17]. Gigartina skottsbergii, Sarcothalia
crispata, and Mazzaella laminaroides are currently the most valuable species and all are
harvested from natural populations in Chile and Peru. We can not let to mention the recent
earthquake in Chile (February 27th, 2010), which caused the elevation of intertidal areas and
the consequent large losses of harvestable biomass. Small quantities of Gigartina
canaliculata are harvested in Mexico and Hypnea musciformis has been used in Brazil [87].
The use of high value carrageenophytes as a dissolved organic nutrient sink to boost
economic viability of integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) operations has been
considered [88,160].
Large carrageenan processors have fuelled the development of Kappaphycus alvarezii
(which goes by the name ―cottonii‖ to the trade) and Eucheuma denticulatum (commonly
referred to as ―spinosum‖ in the trade) farming in several countries including the Philippines,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kiribati, Fiji, Kenya, and Madagascar [17]. Indonesia has
recently overtaken the Phils as the world‘s largest producer of dried carrageenophyte
biomass.
Shortages of carrageenan-producing seaweeds suddenly appeared in mid-2007, resulting
in doubling of the price of carrageenan; some of this price increase was due to increased fuel
costs and a weak US dollar (most seaweed polysaccharides are traded in US dollars). The
reasons for shortages of the raw materials for processing are less certain: perhaps it is a
combination of environmental factors, sudden increases in demand, particularly from China,
and some market manipulation by farmers and traders. Most hydrocolloids are experiencing
severe price movements. Average prices of carrageenans were 10.5 US$ kg−1 and the global
sales in 2009 were 527 million US$ [4,70].
36 Leonel Pereira
CONCLUSION
In addition to their ecological importance, seaweeds exhibit original and interesting
nutritional properties. From a nutritional standpoint, the main properties of seaweeds are their
high mineral (iodine, calcium) and soluble dietary fibre contents, the occurrence of vitamin
B12 and specific components such as fucoxanthin, fucosterol, phlorotannin. If more research
is needed to evaluate the nutritional value of other marine algae (e.g. Grateloupia spp.,
Bonnemaisonia spp., Delesseria spp., etc.) seaweeds can be regarded as an under-exploited
source of health benefit molecules for food processing and nutraceuticals industry.
The potential for commercialization of seaweed based, antioxidant compounds as food
supplements or nutraceuticals ensures continued dedicated efforts to eventually develop
38 Leonel Pereira
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