Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission (Aj&K PSC) Kashmir Studies & English Portion
Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission (Aj&K PSC) Kashmir Studies & English Portion
Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission (Aj&K PSC) Kashmir Studies & English Portion
(AJ&K PSC)
Kashmir Studies & English Portion
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Azad Jammu & Kashmir Public Service Commission (AJK PSC)
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b. Syed Ali Hamdani d. Syed Bulbul Shah
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b. 13 Jul 1984 d. 5 Feb 1984
15. When was the first legislative assembly of Jammu and Kashmir established?
a. 1846 b. 1934
b. 1944 d. 1925
Research Officer, Planning Officer, 14-10 2016 AJK PSC Kashmir Studies
Portion Solved.
1. When was Kargal war started?
a. May 08, 1999 b. June 08, 1999
b. July 08, 1999 d. None of these
2. Who was arrested on October 19, 1946?
a. Farooq Abdullah b. Ibrahim Khan
b. Sheikh Abdullah d. Ch. Ghulam Abbas
3. No Tax campaign was launched in 1932 in:
a. Mirpur b. Srinagar
b. Jammu d. Poonch
4. All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference was established in:
a. 1931 b. 1932
b. 1933 d. 1934
5. Syed Khadim Hussain Shah, a Kashmiri leader, belonged to:
a. Kotli b. Bagh
b. Plandri d. Mirpur
6. Mountbatten visited Hari Singh on:
a. June 14, 1947 b. June 15, 1947
b. June 16, 1947 d. June 17, 1947
7. In 1819, the Sikh army entered Kashmir under the command of:
a. Pertab Singh b. Hari Singh
b. Ranjeet Singh (Kharak Singh also) d. None of these
8. Stand Still Agreement was offered by:
a. Hari Singh b. Nehru
b. Ibrahim Khan d. Sheikh Abdullah
9. Who was known as the Raja of Uri?
a. Sardar Ghulam Ali b. Raja Sarfraz Khan
b. Raja Zabardast Khan d. Muzaffar Khan
10. Where is fort Baghser located?
a. Mung b. Sharda
b. Smahni d. Mangla
11. Name the Kashmiri leader who died in a road accident:
a. Sheikh Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. K.H Khurshid
12. Earthquake memorial bridge is located in?
a. Bagh b. Muzaffarabad
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b. Neelum d. Balakot
13. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan was born in:
a. 1924 b. 1925
b. 1926 d. 1927
14. Where is radio Trarkhel operational?
a. Trarkhel b. Islamabad
b. Muzaffarabad d. Rawalpindi
15. Who is the Chief Justice of Supreme Court of Azad Kashmir.
a. Mustafa Mughal b. Azam Khan
b. Ibrahim Zia ________________
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b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these
Revenue Officer Paper AJK PSC 2016 Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. Where precious stone ruby is found in AJK?
a. District Neelum b. District Havely
b. District Bagh d. District Poonch
2. How many degree colleges were there in AJK in 1947?
a. 3 b. 4
b. 6 d. None
3. Sultan Zain ul Abideen Bud Shah passed away in the year:
a. 1470 b. 1475
b. 1477 d. 1479
4. Srinagar-Muzaffarabad bus service started in:
a. 2004 b. 2005
b. 2006 None of these
5. Delhi Accord was signed by Indra Gandhi and:
a. Abdul Qayyum Khan b. Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. K.H Khurshid
6. Mir Waiz Molana Muhammad Yousuf Shah joined Muslim Conference in:
a. 1930 b. 1934
b. 1938 d. 1942
7. When Muzaffarabad was made the capital of AJK?
a. 1947 b. 1948
b. 1949 d. 1950
8. Who was the second president of AJK?
a. Ali Ahmed Shah b. K.H Khurshid
b. Ibrahim Khan d. Sher Khan
9. Liberation League was established in:
a. Mirpur b. Rawalpindi
b. Muzaffarabad d. Islamabad
10. How far is Kohala bridge from the capital of AJK?
a. 28 KM b. 30 KM
b. 35 KM d. 40 KM
11. A well known book ―Mata-e-Zindagi‖ was written by:
a. Sheikh M. Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. K.H Khurshid d. Sardar Ibrahim Khan
12. How many women seats are there in Legislative Assembly of AJK?
a. 5 b. 6
b. 7 d. _______
13. The state of AJK is divided into how many divisions?
a. 3 b. 5
b. 7 d. 10
14. What is the power generating capacity of Neelum Jhelum Hydro Power Project?
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a. 950 b. 955
b. 960 d. 969
15. Who is the chief justice of supreme court of AJK?
a. Mustafa Mughal b. Azam Khan
b. Ibrahim Zia d. _______
Assistant Director Paper AJK PSC 2016 Kashmir Studies Portion Solved.
1. Who signed Jammu and Kashmir instrument of Accession?
a. Hari Singh b. Gulab Singh
b. Ranjeet Singh d. None of these
2. How many districts are there in AJK?
a. 7 b. 8
b. 9 d. 10
3. What is the total area of Siachin Glacier square miles?
a. 450 b. 475
b. 525 d. 550
4. Kishan Ganga was the old name of the river?
a. Jhelum b. Neelum
b. Sindh d. Sutlaj
5. Afghans ruled Kashmir for?
a. 60 years b. 66 years
b. 70 years d. 75 year
6. National Conference was established in :
a. 1931 b. 1934
b. 1938 d. 1939
7. How many Kashmiris were killed on July 13, 1931?
a. 17 b. 19
b. 22 d. 27
8. K.H Khurshid was born in?
a. Srinagar b. Bara Mula
b. Muzaffarabad d. Sialkot
9. Death anniversary of Ch. Ghulam Abbas is observed on:
a. 16 December b. 18 December
b. 21 December d. 25 December
10. Persian was official language in Kashmir till?
a. 1918 b. 1922
b. 1924 d. 1930
11. A well known book ―Aatish-e-Chinar‖ was written by:
a. Sheikh M. Abdullah b. Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. K.H Khurshid d. Sardar Ibrahim Khan
12. University of AJK was established in:
a. 1978 b. 1980
b. 1982 d. 1984
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13. Who was the first elected prime minister of AJK?
a. Khan A. Hamid Khan b. Sardar Abdul Qayyum Khan
b. Sardar Ibrahim Khan d. None of these
14. How many languages are spoken in Jammu and Kashmir?
a. 60 b. 64
b. 68 d. 72
15. Radio Azad Kashmir was established in:
a. 1947 b. 1948
b. 1949 d. 1950
Ariya Family:
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8. All Jammu & Kashmir Muslim Conference was established on 14,15,16 October 1932
at Pathar Masjid Srinagar where a huge crowed of at least three hundred thousand
people gathered, a stage was set above 15 feet high from the ground where 200 people
could sit. Sheikh Abdullah was elected as President and Chaduary Ghulam Abbas as
Secretary General.
9. Azad Party Muslim Conference was established in 1933
10. National Conference was established in 1939 and All Jammu & Kashmir Muslim
Conference was merged in it.
11. Anjaman e Azad e Poonch was established in 1939
12. Jammu & Kashmir Muslim League was established in 1940 due to merging of All
Jammu & Kashmir Muslim Conference.
13. Muslim Students Union was established in 1940
14. Kisan Mazdoor Conference was established in 1945
Amritsar Agreement was made between British government and Gulab Singh on 16 March,
1846, Gulab Singh had to pay 75 Lac (50 Lac at once and 25 lac before October of the same
year) Nanak Shahi to British Government and in return he was made the Mahraja of Kashmir.
Gilgat Agreement:
This agreement was made on 26 March 1935 between Hari Singh and British Resident
Kashmir Colonel L.E Ling, according to which, the defense was handed over to British
government for 60 years.
This agreement was made on 12 August 1947 between Jammu and Kashmir Prime Minister
Jang Singh and Pakistan In charge State Affairs Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar. It was a
temporary agreement which soon became ineffective.
Mahraja Hari Singh wrote a letter to Lord Mountbatten on 26 October 1947 and requested
him for Annexation of Kashmir to India.
Ceasefire Agreement:
This agreement was made between Pakistan and India due to the interference of United
Nations on 1st January 1949. Due to this agreement both of the countries agreed to ceasefire
in Kashmir.
Karachi Agreement:
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This agreement was made on 28 April 1949 between Minister Kashmir Affairs and Pakistan,
according to this agreement the affairs of Gilgat Baltistan were handed over to Pakistan
temporary and Pakistan was not to declare G.B as its territorial area in anyway.
Just as Karachi agreement, IOK government held talks with India government
2 March 1963, according to this agreement, State of Jammu and Kashmir and Chinese border
was fixed.
This agreement was made after the tense situation due to war of 1965 between Pak and India.
On Russian invitation, Pak President General Ayub and India PM Lal Bahadar Shastri met at
Tashkand in Masco and made an agreement.
Dallal Commission: 13 July 1931, it was made by Hari Singh after the murder of Kashmiri
Muslims
Franchise Committee: 31 May 1931, A committee which set the assembly seats
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New Kashmir: 29,30 September 1944 National Conference under Sheikh Muhammad
Abdullah.
Free Kashmir Resolution: 8,9 June 1946, It was National Conference Resolution
UNO Commission for India and Pakistan: 21 April 1948 in United Nations a
resolution was presented and on 7 May 1948, a committee was set under the title
UNCIP
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Cristobel Youth and Age
Water Ballad
4. Percy Byshe Shelley: 1792-1822Poems:
Ozymandias, England in 1819
Ode to the West Winds The Cloud
To a Sky Lark The Triumph of Life
Time
5. John Keats: 1795-1821 Poems:
La Balle Dame Sans Merci Ode to a Nightingale
Ode on a Gracian Urn Bright Star
When I have Fears Hyperion
6. Robert Browning: 1812-1889 Poems:
My Last Duchess, Meeting at Night
Parting at Morning One Way of Love
Patriot Into Traitor
7. T.S Eliot 26 September 1888 – 4 January 1965
Departure and Arrival The Hollow Men
The Waste Land Love Songs of J Alfred Prufrock
Four Quartets
8. Emily Bronte Poems:
Lines I am the Only Being
9. Robert Frost Poems:
Fire and Ice Nothing Gold could stay
Mending Wall Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Eve The
Road not Taken After Apple Picking
10. Night Mail W.H Auden
11. O Where are you going? W.H Auden
12. This City has Ten Million Souls W.H Auden
13. He wishes for the clothes of Heaven W.B Yeats
14. Politics W.B Yeats
15. The Rose Tree W.B Yeats
16. Lady of Shallot written by: Alferd Lord Tennyson
17. Blessing of God Poem: Cecil Alexander
18. A Nation’s Strength Poem: Ralph Waldo Emerson
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19. The Character of Happy Life: Henry Wotton
20. A Fragment: Henry Wordsworth Longfellow
21. My Mother: Ann Taylor
22. Rubaiyat of Umar Khayam Edward Fitzgerald
23. Break Break Break Alferd Tennyson
24. The Snare James Stephen
25. I like to See it lap the miles Emily Dickinson
26. Leisure William Henry Davies
27. Tartary Walter De La Mare
28. New Year Resolution Elizabeth Sewell
29. Woman Work Maya Angelou
30. The Rebel Dennis Joseph Enright
31. The Huntsman Edward Low bury
32. One Art Elizabeth Bishop
33. All the World is a Stage William Shakespeare
34. Lights Out Edward Thomas
35. Because I could not Stop for Death Emily Dickinson
36. The Vanishing Village Sarah Dixon
37. Hawk’s Monologue Ted Hughes
38. Snake D.H Lawrence
39. Images and Impressions George Villiers
40. The Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer
41. Casablanca Felicia Hemans
42. A Divine Comedy Dante
43. The Rain W.H Davies
44. Loveliest of the Tree Cherry A.H Housman
45. In the Street of Fruit Stalks Jan Stall worthy
46. The Feed Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi
47. A Tale of Two Cities John Peter
48. A Man of words and not of deeds Charles Perrault
49. In Broken Images Robert Graves
50. Sonnet: A poem of fourteen lines
51. Old man the Sea written by: Earnest Hemingway
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Figures of Speech
Figure of Speech: A word or phrase that means something more or something other than it
seems to say.
Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound i.e. She sells seashells by the
seashore.
Antithesis: When two opposites are introduced together for contrasting effect i.e. It was the
best of times, it was the worst of times.
Anaphora: The use of words referring back to a word used earlier in a text or conversation to
avoid repetition i.e. pronoun he she, it or….. Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning
of successive clause i.e. I am awoke, I am strong, I am ready,. Mom, we will not run, we will
not scream, We will not be late.
Assonance: Similarity in sounds between vowels in neighboring words i.e. how, now, brown
cow
Euphemism: A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too
harsh or blunt i.e. when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing e.e. passed away
instead of died, on the street instead of homeless, between jobs instead of unemployed.
Hyperbole: An extravagant statement, the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of
emphasis or heightened effect i.e. I have tons of things to do when I get home. I am so
hungry, I could eat a horse. It was so cold, I saw a polar bear wearing hats and jackets.
Irony: The use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning i.e.
Looking at her son‘s messy room, mom says, ―Wow, you could win an award for
cleanliness‖.
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Metaphor: A metaphor states that one thing is another. It is an implied comparison between
two dissimilar things that have something in common i.e. ―All the world is a stage‖. ―The
curtain of night fell upon us‖.
Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name
of something else with which it is closely associated i.e. ―The crown‖ is used to refer to
power or authority. ―England‖ decides to keep check on immigration. ―England refers to the
government. ―Pen is mightier than sword‖. Pen refers to written words. Let me give you a
hand. Hand refers to help.
Meronym: A term which denotes part of something but which is used to refer to the whole of
it, e.g. faces when used to mean people in I see several familiar faces present.
Synecdoche: It refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts i.e. calling a car a wheel. The
wheel stands for the whole car. The phrase ―Gray hair‖ refers to an old man.
Eponym: An eponym is a person, place, or thing after whom or after which something is
named, or believed to be named. The adjectives derived from eponym
include eponymous and eponymic. For example, Elizabeth I of England is the eponym of
the Elizabethan era
Onomatopoeia: Language is arbitrary, that is there is no logical link between any gjven
feature of a language and its meaning. The only exception is in the case of onomatopoeia,
where the words imitate the sounds of their referents. Here, cuckoo is the sound made by the
bird which is how the bird got its name. It is the process of creating a word that phonetically
imitates or resembles the sound i.e. splash, drizzle, drip, growl, thunder, cuckoo etc.
Oxymoron: A combination of two contradictory or opposite words i.e. open secret, tragic
comedy, wise fool, foolish wisdom, original copies etc.
Paradox: It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but which may include
latent truth i.e. All animals are equal but some are more equal than others (Animal Farm by
George Orwell) I must be cruel to be kind. The child is the father of man.
Pun: A pun is a play on words. It produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests
two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings.
i.e. It is an unkindest tied that every any man tied. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles,
I have a sole of lead.
Simile: A stated comparison usually formed with ―like‖ or ―as‖ between two fundamentally
dissimilar things i.e. Robert was as white as snow.
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Allusion: An allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, idea of
historical, cultural or literary or political significance i.e. ―Don‘t act like Romeo in front of
her‖. The place is like garden of Eden.
Allegory: An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand
for an abstract idea or event i.e. Animal Farm by George Orwell.
Autobiography: It tells the life story of its author. It comes through a person‘s own pen.
Anecdote: Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story or an amusing event to make
the audience laugh.
Adage: An aphorism that has that has gained credit through long use. Example: Where
there's smoke, there's fire.
Connotation: It refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing it
describes. Word carry cultural or emotional associations or meanings. A connotation is a
commonly understood cultural or emotional association that some word or phrase carries, in
addition to its explicit or literal meaning, which is its denotation. A connotation is frequently
described as either positive or negative, with regard to its pleasing or displeasing emotional
connection.
Pathetic fallacy: The phrase pathetic fallacy is a literary term for the attribution of human
emotion and conduct to things found in nature that are not human. It is a kind of
personification that occurs in poetic descriptions, when, for example, clouds seem sullen,
when leaves dance, or when rocks seem indifferent
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Couplet: Couplet has two successive rhyming lines in a verse and same meter.
Foil: In fiction, a foil is a character who contrasts with another character, usually the
protagonist, to highlight qualities of the other character. In some cases, a subplot can be used
as a foil to the main plot. This is especially true in the case of meta fiction and the "story
within a story"
Conceit: When two objects are linked together with the help of similes or metaphors.
Dialect: A particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group
Hamartia: A fatal flaw leading to the downfall of a tragic hero or heroine. "there's supposed
to be an action that reveals the protagonist's hamartia"
Hubris (/ˈhjuːbrɪs/, from ancient Greek ὕβρις) describes a personality quality of extreme or
foolish pride or dangerous overconfidence, often in combination with (or synonymous with)
arrogance.
Epithet: Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing or a person in
such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent.
Fable: Concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end.
Fantasy: Literary genre in which a plot can not occur in real world.
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Homophone: Words having same sound but different spellings and meanings.
Juxtaposition: Two ideas, characters and places etc placed together for comparison and
contrast.
Imagery: Represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our senses.
Poetic Justice: Ideas Ideal form of justice, good characters are rewarded and bad are
punished.
Parody: Imitation of a particular writer, artist or genre or famous piece of literature for
humorous effect.
Flat Character: A flat character is a type of character in fiction that does not change too
much from the start of the narrative to its end.
Prologue: Opening of a story that establishes the setting and gives background details.
Slang: A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very
informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people
Satire: Technique employed by writers to explain expose and criticize individuals or society.
Symbolism: Use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings
i.e. A chain may stand for union.
Tone: The attitude of the writer towards a subject or an audience. Choice of words or view
point of writer.
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Theme: Main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work.
Stanza: A grouping of two or more lines of a poem in terms of length, metrical form or
rhyme scheme.
Couplet: Two rhymed lines that are together and may or may not stand alone in a poem.
Rhythm: Arrangement of words create an audible pattern or beat when read aloud.
Consonance: Repeated consonant sounds at the end of words placed near each other i.e.
beats into the past… t sound.
Limerick: It is a form of verse, usually humorous and frequently rude, in five lines, Scheme
AABBA
Lyric: Lyric poetry expresses personal emotions or feelings, for the purpose of singing.
Narrative: A narrative poem tells the story of an event in the form of a poem.
Epic: A lengthy narrative poem in grand language celebrating the adventures and
accomplishments of a legendary or conventional hero.
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Foreshadowing: When author hints at events to come.
Synchronic: A reference to one point of time in language. The term Synchronic and
Diachronic is given by Saussure. Linguistics is a scientific study of language. It can be
divided into three types namely: Historical or Diachronic Linguistics, Synchronic Linguistics
and Comparative Linguistics.
Syllable: A single unit of speech in English usually containing a vowel. There are two
syllables in water i.e. wa-ter
Suffix: Any element attached to the right hand side of the stem.
Lexeme: The smallest unit which is semantically independent i.e. walk is lexeme and it has
various forms i.e. walks, walking etc
The Lemma: The lemma is the form used in dictionaries as an entry's headword. Other
forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are uncommon or irregularly
inflected forms.
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Syntax: In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the
structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word order.
The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
Noun Phrase: Any part of a sentence which has a noun as its head.
Connotation: An additional meaning which arises due to the association a word has.
Homograph: Any two or more words which are written in the same way but pronunciation
may be different i.e. lead verb lead noun read. Read
Homonym: Any set of words which share their form but have different meanings i.e. bar
legal profession and bar public house.
Bilingualism: The ability to use two languages with native like competence
Lingua Franca: A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose
native languages are different.
Dialect: Geographically distinct variety of a language. There are urban and rural dialects
Speech Community: Group of speakers who use a more unified type of language.
Vernacular: The language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people in a particular country or
region.
Psycho linguistics: The study of language in relation to our cognition and to the way we
acquire a language.
The first objective of teaching English Language is to: Develop listening skill
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Uttering with force of breath is: Stress
Number of Sounds: Vowel Twenty and Consonant sounds are Twenty Four
According to Rivers and Temper lay: 45% is: Time devoted to listening in communication
activities
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Cloze means: Missing part
Which of title fits the text best is the example of: Skimming
See the time table and tell the break time is example: Scanning
Analogy is: Comparison between two things. An analogy compares two things that are
mostly different from each other but have some traits in common. By showing a connection
between two different things, writers help to explain something important about one thing by
using a second thing you already know about. moon : night :: sun : day good : bad :: black :
white feather : bird :: fur : dog gray : black :: pink : red hot : oven :: cold : refrigerator
The picaresque novel: The Picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the
adventures of a roguish, but "appealing hero", of low social class, who lives by his wits in a
corrupt society.
Conversation: A talk, especially an informal one, between two or more people, in which
news and ideas are exchanged.
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statement by baseball player Yogi Berra, "Texas has a lot of electrical votes", rather than
"electoral votes".
Iambic Pentameter: A line of verse with five metrical feet, each consisting of one short (or
unstressed) syllable followed by one long (or stressed) syllable, for example Two households,
both alike in dignity.
Heroic Couplet: (in verse) a pair of rhyming iambic pentameters, much used by Chaucer and
the poets of the 17th and 18th centuries such as Alexander Pope.
Forensic linguistics: Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the
application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law,
language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. It is a branch of
applied linguistics.
Forgery: Forgery is a white-collar crime that generally refers to the false making or material
alteration of a legal instrument with the specific intent to defraud anyone
Scripture: Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their
practice or beliefs
Literacy: Dictionaries traditionally define literacy as the ability to read and write. In the
modern world, this is one way of interpreting literacy. One more broad interpretation sees
literacy as knowledge and competence in a specific area.
Numeracy: Numeracy is the ability to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts. Basic
numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental arithmetic‘s like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Rhotic Consonants: Rhotic consonants, or "R-like" sounds, are liquid consonants that are
traditionally represented orthographically by symbols derived from the Greek letter rho,
including ⟨R⟩,
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common type of phonological process across languages. For an English example, "handbag"
(canonically /ˈhænd.ˌbæɡ/) is often pronounced /ˈhæmbæɡ/ in rapid speech. This is because
the [m] and [b] sounds are both bilabial consonants and their places of articulation are
similar;
American Realism: It was a style in art, music and literature that depicted contemporary
social realities and the lives and everyday activities of ordinary people. The movement began
in literature in the mid-19th century, and became an important tendency in visual art in the
early 20th century.
Semiotics: Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the study of sign process (semiosis). ...
The semiotic tradition explores the study of signs and symbols as a significant part of
communications. Common examples of semiotics include traffic signs i.e. stop sign.
Kinesics: Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication related to the
movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole; in layman's terms, it is the study
of body language.
Non-verbal communication: It includes facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice,
gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the
communicators (proxemics).
Neurolinguistics: It is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.
Language pathology: Neurolinguistic techniques are also used to study disorders and
breakdowns in language, such as aphasia and dyslexia, and how they relate to physical
characteristics of the brain
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Psycholinguistics or psychology of language: is the study of the interrelation between
linguistic factors and psychological aspects. The field is concerned
with psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use,
comprehend and produce language. The discipline is mainly concerned with the mechanisms
in which languages are processed and represented in the brain. The development of
psycholinguistics covers the whole span of life.
Grapheme: In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest unit of a writing system of any given
language. An individual grapheme may or may not carry meaning by itself, and may or may
not correspond to a single phoneme of the spoken language
Slang: A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very
informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people.
Colloquial: (of language) used in ordinary or familiar conversation; not formal or literary.
Universal Grammar: Theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the
acquisition of language.
Aspirated Sounds: Aspirate, the sound h as in English ―hat.‖ Consonant sounds such as the
English voiceless stops p, t, and k at the beginning of words (e.g., ―pat,‖ ―top,‖ ―keel‖) are
also aspirated because they are pronounced with an accompanying forceful expulsion of air.
Filler: "A filler: word is an apparently meaningless word, phrase, or sound that marks a
pause or hesitation in speech. Also known as a pause filler or hesitation form. Some of the
common filler words in English are um, uh, er, ah, like, okay, right, and you know.
Language Acquisition: The system of organized speech sounds by which we share our
ideas, thoughts and emotions with other individual TO make a relationship in our society is
called language.
The language Acquisition Start: Foetus can hear the sound of mother‘s voice from around
six months after the conception so we may say that language acquisition starts in the womb.
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Paralanguage: The non-linguistic aspects of speaking. Use of strictly non-linguistic
variables like pitch, loudness, tempo, timbre and voice quality. Our use of these things
conveys information about our mood and attitude: about whether we are angry, amused,
nervous, excited, impa‗tient, tired or whatever. These aspects
Lingo: The special language used for a particular activity or by a particular group of people,
the special vocabulary of a particular field of interest.
Stylistics: Is a branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style in texts,
especially, but not exclusively, in literary works. Also called literary
linguistics, stylistics focuses on the figures, tropes, and other rhetorical devices used to
provide variety and a distinctness to someone's writing
Language instinct: The powerful tendency of children to acquire language. Any physically
normal child who is adequately exposed to a language will learn it perfectly,
Language Areas: Broca’s area: provides the grammatical structure for utterances and sends
instructions to the speech organs, while Wernicke’s area handles comprehension of speech
and access to vocabulary. Both of these areas are usually located on the left side of the brain.
Lexicology: Any group of words which makes sense but not complete is called
Graphology: Graphology in its linguistic sense studies the writing system of a language or
languages. We also study about the spellings in Graphology. Graphology is the analysis of
the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting claiming to be able to identify the
writer, indicating the psychological state at the time of writing, or evaluating personality
characteristics. It is generally considered a pseudoscience
Graphetics: is a branch of linguistics concerned with the analysis of the physical properties
of shapes used in writing. It studies the way humans make marks on a surface in order to
write.
Arbitrariness: Absence of connection between words meanings and its sound or form.
Black English: The distinctive varieties of English used by many native speakers of African
or Caribbean origin. Several important English-speaking countries have sizeable populations
of black people whose ancestry lies largely in Africa or the Caribbean; most prominent here
are Britain and the USA. For various historical reasons, the majority of British and American
blacks speak varieties of English which are quite distinctive, differing from other varieties in
vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and modes of discourse.
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Displacement: The ability to speak about things other than the here and now. With just a
single known exception (see below), every signal used by a nonhuman creature to
communicate pertains wholly and directly to the immediate time and place of signaling.
Linguistics: The word linguistics is combination of two Latin words Lingua language Istics
scientific The scientific study of any language is called linguistics.
Langue and parole: Langue and parole are more than just 'language and speech' (although
this is a useful quick way of remembering them). This linguistics concept Was given by
Ferdinand De Saussure.
Langue: La langue is the whole system of language that precedes and makes speech
possible. A sign is a basic unit of langue. Learning a language, we master the system of
grammar, spelling, syntax and punctuation. These are all elements of langue. Langue is a
system in that it has a large number of elements whereby meaning is created in the
arrangements of its elements and the consequent relationships between these arranged
elements.
Parole: Parole is the concrete use of the language, the actual utterances. It is an external
manifestation of langue. It is the usage of the system, but not the system.
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different from other individual. Communicative competence can be of four types.: a man
would be aware.
Copula: A specialized grammatical item, often a verb, which serves only to express identity
or class membership. The English copula is be,
Corpus: A body of spoken or written texts in a language which is available for analysis.
Mentalist Theory: This school of thought arguing on the crucial matter of first language
acquisition in children is the mentalists‘ school of thought which is led by Noam Chomsky.
He and his followers claim that a child learns his first language through cognitive learning.
He also acquires it by natural exposure. Both ―nature and nurture‖ influence the acquisition
of language in children. Chomsky regards linguistics as a sub field of psychology, more
especially the cognitive psychology.
Behaviorist Theory: The behaviorists‘ school of thought has argued that learning is entirely
the product of experience and that our environment affects all of us in the same way. In other
words we may say that language learning is like behavior learning.
The Language Acquisition Device( LAD) Chomsky argues that language is so complex that
it is almost incredible that it can be acquired by child in so short time. He further says that a
child is born with innate mental capacity which helps the child to process all the languages
which he hears. This is called the language acquisition device. Babbling starts at 06 months
to 01 year Holophrastic or One Word 01 to 02 years Two Words 02 Years (two words convey
meanings) More than two words, Two to three years
Broca's aphasia: results from damage to a part of the brain called Broca's area, which is
located in the frontal lobe, usually on the left side. It's one of the parts of the brain
responsible for speech and for motor movement. ... Broca'saphasia is also referred to as
expressive aphasia
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Dyslexia: also known as reading disorder, is characterized by trouble with reading despite
normal intelligence. Different people are affected to varying degrees. Problems may include
difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the
head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads
Metalanguage: A form of language or set of terms used for the description or analysis of
another language
Linguistic determinism: Linguistic determinism is the idea that language and its structures
limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as
categorization, memory, and perception. The term implies that people who speak different
languages as their mother tongues have different thought processes.
The Emotive Function: The emotive function is defined as communicating the inner states
and emotions of the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!
The Directive Function: The directive function is seeking to affect the behavior of the
addressee. For example, ‗Please help me‘, ‗Shut up‘, ‗I‘m warning you‘
The Phatic Function: It is opening the channel or checking that it is working either for
social reasons (‗Hello‘, ‗Do you come here often?‘, ‗Lovely weather‘) or for practical reasons
(‗Can you hear me?‘, ‗Are you still there?‘)
The Poetic Function: It is that function in which the particular form chosen is the essence of
the message.
Historical linguistics: Also called the diachronic linguistics, deals with the language change.
Glossogentics: is used in linguistics to refer to the study of the origins and development of
language, both in the child and in the human race.
Pictogram: a way of writing in which a picture/ drawing of one object is used to represent
the object.
Alphabetic: a way of writing in which each symbol represent a specific sound or phoneme.
English arthograph: the orthography of English allows for a variation, how each sound is
represented.
Question: Which accent is mostly heard in the British call centers: Answer: Scotish
Answer: Pronunciation
Question: Roughly how many languages are there in the world? Answer: 6000
Question: What factor chiefly influences the character of our linguistic likes or dislikes?
Question: The word best describes individual preferences during speech. : Style
Question: Which professional people work with patients who have language disability?
Question: Who said that poets ―bend and break‖ language rules? Robert Graves
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Dialect Dialect refers to varieties differentiated by grammar and vocabulary. Dialect is a
geographical based language variety with distinct form syntactic and vocabulary items. For
example English has two types British and American.
Pidgin: A pidgin language is a means of communication that develops between two or more
groups that do not have a language in common.
Creole: A term used to describe a pidgin after it has become a mother tongue of a certain
people.
Register: In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently
in different circumstances. ... These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are
known as registers in linguistics. They are determined by such factors as social occasion,
context, purpose, and audience. i.e. legal register, scientific register etc
Monoglottism: (monos, "alone, solitary", glotta, "tongue, language") or, more commonly,
monolingualism or unilingualism, is the condition of being able to speak only a single
language.
Multilingualism: is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by
a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
speakers in the world's population.
Code Switching: Code switching is the practice of moving back and forth between two
languages, or between two dialects orregisters of the same language. Also called code-mixing
and style shifting.
Bilingual Diglossia: is a type of diglossia in which one language is used forwriting and
another for speech.
Polyglots: People who speak several languages are also called polyglots..
The Emotive Function: The emotive function is defined as communicating the inner states
and emotions of the addresser such as Fantastic! Oh no! Ugh!
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The Directive Function: The directive function is seeking to affect the behaviour of the
addressee. For example, ‗Please help me‘, ‗Shut up‘, ‗I‘m warning you‘
The Phatic Function: It is opening the channel or checking that it is working either for
social reasons (‗Hello‘, ‗Do you come here often?‘, ‗Lovely weather‘) or for practical reasons
(‗Can you hear me?‘, ‗Are you still there?‘)
The Poetic Function: It is that function in which the particular form chosen is the essence of
the message.
The Metalinguistic Function: It is focusing attention upon the code itself in order to clarify.
The Contextual Function: The contextual function is defined as creating a particular kind of
communication e.g. ‗Right, let‘s start the lecture‘, ‗it‘s just a game‘.
Metalinguistic: Is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other
cultural behaviors.
Metalinguistic: is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other
cultural behaviors
Lingua Franca: A lingua franca also known as a bridge language, common language, trade
language or vehicular language, is a language or dialect systematically (as opposed to
occasionally, or casually) used to make communication possible between people who do not
share a native language or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from
both native languages.
Creolization: It is the process in which Creole cultures emerge in the New World. The
mixing of people brought a cultural mixing which ultimately led to the formation of new
identities
Jargon: It is a type of language that is used in a particular context and may not be well
understood outside of it. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade,
profession, or academic field),
Ebonics may refer to: African American Vernacular English, a distinctive lect, or variety, of
English spoken by African Americans, sometimes called Ebonics. Ebonics (word), originally
referring to the language of all descendants of enslaved Black Africans, but later coming to
mean African American Vernacular English
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Standard Language: a variety of language treated as the official language used in public
broadcasting, publication and education.
Isoglosses: a line on map separating two areas in which a particular linguistics features
dialects are used.
Dialect continuam: The gradual merging of one regional variety of a language into an other.
Morphology: The level of word formation is called morphology. In this level, we study, how
words are formed and how smaller units combine to make a word. So in morphology we
study all those rules by which we form a word and their relation to other words, stem, root,
affixes etc. In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their
relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts
of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Phoneme: Any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that
distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English
words pad, pat, bad, and bat.
Morpheme: The smallest unit in grammar which caries meanings. i.e. ri in re write or a
lexical word house, tree, sick etc. Morpheme is not further divisible. If we divide it then we
will fall back to the level of phonology.
Allomorph: one of the close related set of morphs( s, es), (d,ed) any of two or more actual
representations of a morpheme, such as the plural endings s (as in bats ), z (as in bugs ), and
ɪz (as in buses )
Onset: An onset is the part of the syllable that precedes the vowel of the syllable.
Examples: Here are some examples of syllables divided into onsets and rimes
I I
it it
sit s it
spit sp it
split spl it
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spoil sp oil
pie p ie
Affixes: An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word
form ness, pre etc
Free Morphemes: The morphemes which can exist independently and have their own
meanings, i.e. book, work, room etc. they are also called root morphemes. There are two
types of free morpheme;
Full words: Full words have their own meanings. These words give complete sense and hace
laxical meanings. i.e talk, cook, and work etc.
Empty Words: Empty words are those words wich have not their own meanings. They have
only grammatical meanings and they get complete meanings when thy are used with words or
sentence. i.e the, an, hurrah.
Bound Morphemes: The morphemes which can not be exist independently because these
has not their own meanings. We attach morphemes root morphemes with bound morphemes
to construct a meaningful word i.e ness, un, d , ed etc. if we remove all bound morphemes
from a word then the morpheme that is left is called root morpheme. Bound morphemes have
three types and these types are called affix.Prefix , Surfix, Infix The affix which are used in
root of free morphemes are called infix. i.e. man men, foot feet etc
Inflection: The process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate basic grammatical
categories such as tense or plurality (e.g. in 'cat-s', 'talk-ed', '-s' an d'-ed' are inflectional
suffixes). Inflection is viewed as the process of adding very general meanings to existing
words, not as the creation of new words.
Derivation the process by which affixes combine with roots to create new words (e.g. in
'modern-ize', 'read-er', '-ize' and '-er' are derivational suffixes). Derivation is viewed as
using existing words to make new words.
Inflectional morphemes: Make minor grammatical changes necessary for agreement with
other words.
Derivational Suffix: This suffix may or may not allow the word for further attachment or
suffixation. They are class maintaining or class changing.
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Etymology: study of history and origin of words.
Coinage: is the word formation process in which a new word is created either
deliberately or accidentally without using the other word formation processes and often
from seemingly nothing.
Eponyms: new word based on the name of a person or place e.g. jeans(Italian city of
Genoa)
Blending : combination of two forms by taking the parts from mother ords.
Backformation: reducing a word (typically a noun) to make a new word (verb). Donate
(Donation), Televise (Television)
Affixes (Derivation): By adding a syllable before or end of the word. Mis+ understand=
---men)
Suffix: addition at the end of the word( heart+less= heartless), it is of two types.
A lemma: is a word that stands at the head of a definition in a dictionary. All the head
words in a dictionary are lemmas. Technically, it is "a base word and its inflections".[1]A
lemma is the word you find in the dictionary. A lexeme is a unit of meaning, and can be
more than one word. A lexeme is the set of all forms that have the same meaning,
while lemma refers to the particular form that is chosen by convention to represent the
lexeme. In English, for example, run, runsand running are forms of the same lexeme,
but run is the lemma.
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Difference between stem and lemma: In computational linguistics, a stem is the part of
the word that never changes even when different forms of the word are used. A lemma is
the base form of the verb. For example, from "produced", the lemma is "produce", but
the stem is "produc-". This is because there are words such as production.
Phonetics: Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of human speech,
Phonology: The study of sound system of language or more. Phonology studies the
systematic relationships between sounds within the grammar of a language. studies also
the patterns of stress we use in speaking and the variations of pitch or tone.
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The sounds with a given place features are listed in the columns, and can be read
off the table. However, I shall give them here for convenience:
[MANNER : stop] = {/p/, /b/, t/, /d/, /tS/, /dZ/, /k/, /g/}
[MANNER : fricative] = {/f/, /v/, T/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /S/, /Z/}
[VOICE : +] ={/b/, /d/, /g/, /dZ/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /Z/, /m/, /n/, /-/,
Articulators involved
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Alveolar active tongue tip/blade to passive front part of alveolar ridge
Retroflex active tongue tip raised or curled to passive post alveolar (difference between
postalveolar and retroflex: blade vs. tip)
Velar active body of tongue to passive soft palate (sometimes to back of soft palate)
Schwa: A vowel sound used in unstressed syllables, for example the sound of ‗a‘ in
‗above‘. Its symbol is ə.
Open Vowel: A vowel that you pronounce with your tongue on the bottom of
your mouth
Open Syllable: An open syllable occurs when a vowel is at the end of the syllable,
resulting in the long vowel sound, e.g. pa/per, e/ven, o/pen, go & we. Open
syllable words are open because they are not closed by a consonant.
Airstream Mechanism: Any of the various ways in which a stream of moving air can
be produced within the vocal tract. The three principal mechanisms are pulmonic
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(involving lung air), glotta1ic (involving pharynx air) and velaric (involving mouth air).
Each of these may produce an egressive (moving outward) or an ingressive (moving
inward) airstream, resulting in six possible airstreams. Of these, the pulmonic egressive
mechanism is by far the most widespread, but the glottalic egressive and glottalic
ingressive mechanisms are also well attested, and the velaric ingressive mechanism
occurs in some languages. There is also the highly unusual oesophagic egressive
airstream mechanism.
Adam's apple: a projection at the front of the neck formed by the thyroid cartilage of
the larynx, often prominent in men
Phone: It is the smallest identifiable unit found in a stream of speech that is able to
transcribed with an IPA symbol. International Phonetic Alphabet.
Diphthong: A vowel which is articulated with the change in tongue position i.e (ai)
Monophthong: The word monophthong shows that a vowel is spoken with exactly one
tone and one mouth position. For example, when you say "teeth", then while you are
creating the sound of the "ee", nothing changes for that sound. A monophthong can be a
lexeme of a language and as such it can as well be a syllable. Monophthongs are also
called ‗pure vowel sounds‘ and they are 12 in number. They include:
Homophone: The words that are pronounced in the same way i.e. four, fore, pore, pour
Morph: Item of language which can‘t be broken down further without losing meanings.
Intonation: Use of pitch to convey information, the rise and fall of the voice in
speaking. At around 9 months age do babies first use some of the rhythm and intonation
patterns of the language they are learning
Minimal Pair: when two words with same patterns occur and have only one different
phoneme---bat,cat etc. sailing, railing, different sounds in a single position.
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Prosody: A term which refers to all supra segmental features of language i.e. pitch,
loudness, tempo and rhythm.
Grammatical words: are words that help us construct the sentence but they don't mean
anything: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, etc.
That weakened form: is called "weak form" as opposed to a "strong form", which is the
full form of the word pronounced with stress. The strong form only happens when we
pronounce the words alone, or when we emphasize them. Weak forms are very often
pronounced with a schwa, and so are very weak and sometimes a bit difficult to hear
properly. Sometimes weak forms are easy to spot, because we use contractions in the
spelling to show it: I am French (strong form) I'm French (weak form)
Place of Articulation:
Place of articulation is the point in the vocal tract where the speech organs restrict the
passage of air producing distinctive sounds and is particularly important for the
production of consonants. Consonant sounds are referred to by their place of articulation:
Labial/Bilabial: The difference between bilabial and labial is that bilabial is (phonetics)
articulated with both lips while labial is of or pertaining to the lips or labia. Bilabial is
(phonetics) a speech sound articulated with both lips while labial is (linguistics) a labial
consonant. / b /p /m /w
Labio-Dental labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lip and the upper
teeth / f / v
Dental: A dental consonant is a consonant articulated with the tongue against the upper
teeth, such as /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ in some languages.
Alveolar / t /d /s /z /l /n/ (tongue touching the alveolar ridge behind the upper teeth)
Palato-alveolar /dʒ / tʃ/ (tongue touching both the hard palate and the alveolar ridge)
In vowels air is manipulated by the shape of the oral cavity and the position of the
speech organs. Thus you can have:
Vowel A speech sound that is produced with an open airway or vocal tract. The air is
shaped by the lips, tongue and jaw to produce the different vowel sounds. Vowels form
the centre of each syllable.
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Consonant A speech sound that is produced with some form of constriction or
obstruction to the air that flows through the vocal tract from the lungs.
Frontal vowels : / i (need) / I (name) / ɛ (bed) / æ (cat)/ (front of the tongue + palate)
Back vowels: / a(car) / ɒ(not) / ɔ (ball) / ʊ (book) / ʊ (blue) / (back of the tongue +
palate)
Affricates: /dʒ / tʃ/ (airstream is stopped as for a plosive and then released slowly with
friction)
Nasals: / m / n / ŋ/ (airstream is diverted through the nasal cavity by lowering the soft
palate)
Liquid: in phonetics, a consonant sound in which the tongue produces a partial closure
in the mouth, resulting in a resonant, vowel-like consonant, such as English l and r.
VOICE: Voicing occurs when the vocal folds or chords situated in the larynx vibrate.
Elision : The process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the
deliberately careful pronunciation ----/wiəstəm/
Semantic role (thematic roles): role of words to illustrate the meanings. a. simple b.
complex
Instrument and experience: if an agent use an entity to perform an action, that is called
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instrument. If a noun phrase is used to designate an entity as the person who has a
feeling, perception or state, it fills the role of experience.
Homonyms: In linguistics, homonyms, broadly defined, are words which sound alike or
are spelled alike, but have different meanings i.e. bank (of river), Bank( money saving
place)
Polysemy: one form having multiple meanings. head( head of state, head of team.)
Homonymy: In linguistics, homonyms, broadly defined, are words which sound alike or
are spelled alike, but have different meanings.
Polysemy: The same lexical item has different meaning is called polysemy.
False Friends: words that look like same but whose meanings are different?
Componential analysis
Autonomy: An autonomous portion of the meaning of a word is one which can function
independently of other meanings associated with the same word form
Cliché: a phrase or opinion that is overused and betrays a lack of original thought. "that
old cliché ‗a woman's place is in the home‘"
Constatives: In his early work on speech acts, the philosopher Austin drew a distinction
between constative utterances, like The cat sat on the mat, which had a purely
descriptive (statement-making) function and which could be treated in terms of truth and
falsehood, and performative utterances, like I promise it will never happen again,
Entrenchment: (also called establishment) This refers to the degree to which something
(form or meaning) is permanently recorded in some sort of mental store.
Facets: These are aspects of the meaning of a word belonging to different ontological
types that sometimes behave in an independent way and thus give an appearance of
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ambiguity.
Gestural deixis: This refers to the use of a deictic expression in a situation where,
prototypically, speaker and hearer are together and the hearer can see what the speaker is
doing.
Listeme: Any item in an ideal lexicon of a language whose meaning cannot be predicted
on compositional principles, and which must be learned individually. Thisincludes
morphemes, lexemes (including idioms) and, for some linguists, phonesthemes. This
corresponds roughly to what lexicographers call a ‗lemma‘.
Zeugma: a figure of speech in which a word applies to two others in different senses
(e.g. John and his driving licence expired last week ).
Collocation: an arrangement of words that commonly occur together, eg. ‗dead serious‘
Semantic Narrowing: When a word becomes less general than its earlier meaning
Pragmatics: is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which
context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory,
conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior
in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology. It is language use in social
contexts.
Question: What pragmatic ability do children acquire through their feeding routines in
the first year of life? Ans: How to take turns in conversation
Question: What do people do to their lips while baby talk? Ans. Round them
Question: What is sign of linguistic deterioration during old age? Weak voice quality
Deixis: The pointing or specifying function of some words (as definite articles and
demonstrative pronouns) whose denotation changes from one discourse to another.
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deixis refers to words and phrases, such as "me" or "here", that cannot be fully
understood without additional contextual information—in this case, the identity of the
speaker and the speaker's location.
Proxemics: The branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of space that people
feel it necessary to set between themselves and others.
Vocalics: It is how people express themselves through voice. The voice has different
vocal properties. These properties are: rate, or speed at which the person speaks, pitch,
inflection and variety in the voice, volume, being loud or soft, and articulation and
pronunciation, or how correctly and clearly the person speaks.
Ad hoc concept: In relevance theory, a concept formed on one occasion, for that
occasion, is called an ad hoc concept. Relevance theory appeals to ad hoc concepts in its
explanation of metaphor, loose use, hyperbole and other issues in lexical pragmatics.
Anaphora: Use of pronouns (it) and noun phrases with the objects to refer back
something already mentioned.
Speech acts: Expressions; a type of action performed by a speaker with the utterance,
requesting, commanding, questioning, or informing. It is of two types: Direct: Questions
(sentence start with helping verb) Indirect: normal sentence
Abuse: In Austin‘s work on speech acts, an abuse is one of two ways in which a speech
act can be infelicitous. Abuses result from a failure to meet felicity conditions that
require of participants in a speech act certain attitudes or certain subsequent behaviour.
For example, it is an abuse if a speaker utters ‗I promise to paint your house,‘ with no
intention of subsequently painting the house, or if she has the intention but does not
subsequently carry out the action.
Accessibility: In relevance theory, and in cognitive science more generally, the degree to
which it is easy to recall a stored piece of information or other item from memory, or to
derive information from a stimulus by processing it.
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background, but this information is not already known to the hearer, the hearer is
expected to accommodate that information. For example, if a speaker says ‗My aunt‘s
parrot is ill‘ the speaker will expect the hearer to take it from her (if she does not already
know it) that she does in fact have an aunt with a parrot. In this case the speaker has told
the hearer something by, in a sense, proceeding as though the speaker already knows it.
Ambiguity: Ambiguous expressions are expressions that have more than one meaning in
the language,
Anaphora and Cataphora: Broadly speaking, an anaphor is a word that refers back to
a previous word. So, for example, the pronouns in the following sentences are anaphors:
The student studied really hard for her test. So if an anaphor refers back to something
previously mentioned, what happens when you refer to something not yet mentioned?
Cataphor! Because she studied really hard, Nancy aced her test. So the first thing to
notice here is that the pronoun comes first. That‘s what differentiates an anaphor from a
cataphor. In fact, cataphors are sometimes called ―backward anaphors‖ because of the
direction of reference within the sentence or utterance.
Behabitive: In Austin‘s classification of speech acts, behabitives are speech acts such as
apologies, greetings, congratulations, criticisms and curses: all these are speech acts in
which the speaker expresses an emotion or attitude, often towards the hearer. According
to Austin, in making a behabitive speech act the speaker is ‗reacting to other people‘s
behaviours and fortunes‘.
Compositionality: The principle that the meaning of a phrase (or sentence) depends
only on the meanings of the parts (words, morphemes) and the way that they are put
together
Echoic use. In echoic use of language speakers merely repeat utterances made by other
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speakers in order to achieve a specific communicative effect, typically to convey a
specific attitude towards the relevant utterance such as surprise, pleasure, scepticism,
mockery, disbelief.
Entailment: Linguistic entailments occur when one may draw necessary conclusions
from a particular use of a word, phrase or sentence. Entailment phrases are relations
between propositions, and are always worded as, "if A then B," meaning that if A is true,
then B must also be true.
Exercitive: In Austin‘s classification of speech acts, exercitives are the class of speech
act concerned with giving a decision in favour of or against a particular course of action,
or with advocating a course of action.
Exhibitive utterance: In Grice‘s work, a purely exhibitive utterance is one that is aimed
at showing the hearer that the speaker has a certain belief.
Felicity conditions: In speech-act theory, felicity conditions are the conditions that must
be satisfied for a speech act to come off successfully.
Free Enrichment: In free enrichment, the output sense is more specific than the input
sense. Free enrichment typically works by narrowing down the extension of an
expression through the contextual addition of a component to its meaning.
Heuristic: A heuristic is a rule or method that helps you solve problems faster than you
would if you did all the computing. It sounds fancy, but you might know a heuristic as a "rule
of thumb."
Illocutionary act:
In speech-act theory, an illocutionary act is the act performed in making an utterance, such as
promising, asserting, requesting or naming, in contrast to the locutionary act (the act of
saying a certain sentence, with a particular meaning) and the perlocutionary act, which is
concerned with the effects of the utterance.
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Implicature: the action of implying a meaning beyond the literal sense of what is explicitly
stated, for example saying the frame is nice and implying I don't like the picture in it.
Literal use: When the words used by a speaker are used with their basic, linguistically
encoded meaning we say that they are used literally, or equally that they are used with their
literal meaning.
Misfire: In Austin‘s work on speech acts, a misfire is one of the two ways in which a speech
act can be unsuccessful. According to speech-act theory, there are felicity conditions on
speech acts. If certain of these conditions are not met, then no speech act is performed
Parody: A term borrowed from literary criticism and theory of art where ‗parody‘ means an
exaggerated imitation of the style of a certain artist/writer/musician
Plug: In work on presuppositions, a plug is a linguistic item that blocks presuppositions. For
example, utterances of ‗It was John who ate all the cake‘ are said to presuppose that someone
ate the cake, and that there was cake. Embedding this sentence under the verb ‗say‘ gives:
Saturation:Saturation is the provision of values from the context for variables or empty slots
in the linguistic logical form of the utterance
Semantic innocence: This is the idea that the contribution to meaning made by a linguistic
expression should be the same on every occasion. For example, the name ‗London‘ refers to
the same thing in both the examples below.
I have been to their parties, but I haven‘t eaten anything I have been to their parties, but I
haven’t eaten anything {there}
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continuous flow of time, or repetitive occurrence), and mood or modality (degree of
necessity, obligation, probability, ability)
Tense: Tense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense
only roughly relates to time. English has only two verb tenses: present and past.
Aspect: Aspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in
English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has
four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.
Verbal Mood: Verb mood is to the "attitude" of the verb. More specifically, "mood" refers to
the degree of necessity, obligation, or probability. Is it a statement of fact? Is it a command?
Mood can be expressed in any verb tense. The three main moods used in English
are indicative, subjunctive, imperative.
Gradable Opposites: The relationship between opposites is known as opposition. ... Graded
(or gradable) antonyms are word pairs whose meanings are opposite and which lie on a
continuous spectrum (hot, cold). Complementary antonyms are word pairs whose meanings
are opposite but whose meanings do not lie on a continuous spectrum (push, pull).
Bildungsroman: A novel about the moral and psychological growth of the main character.
Avant Grade: A group of people who develop new and often very surprising ideas in art,
literature etc.
Motif: Something such as an important idea or subject that is repeated throughout a book or
story etc. A single repeated design or pattern.
Gothic Novel: An English genre of fiction popular in the 18th to early 19th centuries,
characterized by an atmosphere of mystery and horror and having a pseudo-medieval setting.
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Answer: The process by which words acquire more negative meanings.
Answer: The idea that early civilizations imitated naturally occurring sounds.
Corpus linguistics: is the study of language based on large collections of "real life"
language use stored in corpora (or corpuses)--computerized databases created
for linguistic research. Also known as corpus-based studies.
Corona: with the front edge of the mouth some sounds are made as t/th which are called
corona sounds.
Dorsum: With the back edge of the mouth, some sounds are made that are called dorsum i.e.
k/g/ sounds.
Lexis is a term in linguistics for the vocabulary of a language. Adjective: lexical. The study
of lexis and the lexicon (a collection of words) is called lexicology. The process of adding
words and word patterns to the lexicon of a language is called lexicalization.
Discreteness is a concept going back (at least) to the structuralists. General idea. The idea is
that a linguist representation can be broken down into small, discrete units that can then
recombine with other small, discrete units to create new linguistic representations.
Question: Firstly, to which of these language groups does English belong? Answer:
Germanic
Conjugation: changing of the form of a verb in order to reflect person, number, tense and
mood?
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Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic,
Syntagmatic Relationship:
Words become a sentence because they are chained together. Syntagmatic relationship
explains the relation between linguistics units at each level. For example in this sentence: He
may go out. It is pronoun>>>Auxiliary>> Verb>> Adverb>> The above words have
relationship with each other because ―he‖ has a specific relationship with ―may‖ and with
―go‖ with ―out‖. Any change in the linear order will change the meaning of the sentence. So
the order can not be changed.
Meaning of Morpheme: Shape, so we may say that morphology studies the shapes of the
words. How the words form, where they originate from, what are their grammatical forms
etc.
Coinage: It is the invention of totally new terms or words i.e. trade names etc.
Conversion: A change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be
used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion. It is also called
category change or functional shift. Have you buttered the toast? They are vacationing in
France. We bottled the home.
Finite State Grammar: The simplest grammar discussed by Chomsky that is capable of
generating an infinite set of sentences by means of finite number of rules over a finite
vocabulary is called the finite state grammar.
Meta Language: The language used to analyze or describe a language e.e. English, the
phoneme /b/ s voiced, bilabial, stop in meta language.
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Object Language: it is the language used for communicative purposes.
Use and Mention: The language itself is ―Mention‖ and its use when we are communicating
using the language for practical purpose.
Gradable Opposites: Assertion of one means denial of others e.g. big, small
Per locutionary: A per locution is carried out by a speaker making an utterance. The effect
we want to create on the listener.
Dommisive: A speech act that commits the speaker to do something in future. Such as
promise, threat etc e.g. If you don‘t stop fighting, I ‗ll call the police (threat)
Directive: A speech act that has the function of getting the listener to do something e.e.
suggestion, request, command etc. Please sit down, shut the door.
Declarative: A speech act which changes the state of affairs i.e. ―I now pronounce you man
and wife‖.
Cortex: The nerve cells or gray matter form the surface of the brain, which is called cortex. It
covers cerebrum and is the outer layer of any part of the organ.
White Matter: White matter is always under the cortex, consists of connecting fibers.
Cerebral cortex: It is the decision making organ of the body. It receives message from all
the sensory organs. It initiates all voluntary actions. It is also called the store house of human
memory.
Corpus Callosum: Two parts of the brain, left and right hemisphere are connected by
Corpus Callosum. It is a pathway leading from one side to another. It permits the two brains
communicate with each other.
Cerebral Hemisphere: The brain is divided into two parts called cerebral hemisphere. One
on the right, one on the left, connected by corpus callosum. The left hemisphere controls the
movement of right side of body and right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side
of body.
Cerebellum: It is located under the cerebral hemisphere. It is also divided into two parts and
is responsible for equilibrium.
Brain Stem: It is found at the bottom of brain and it connects brain to the spinal cord.
Broca’s area: One area in the left hemisphere is known as Broca‘s area or the speech center.
Because it is an important area involved in speech. Damage to this area of brain leads to
different type of aphasia.
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Wernik’s Aphasia: Wernik‘s aphasia patients are fluent speakers but have difficulty in
comprehension and producing semantically utterances. This problem is associated with
damage in the back part of the left hemisphere.
Broca’s aphasia: It is speech production breakdown due to damage on the front part of the
left side of brain.
Anomia: it is that type of aphasia in which the patient has difficulty in finding words
although speech is fluent. This problem is associated with damage towards the center of left
hemisphere.
Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Loss: The patient with this kind of aphasia can‘t arrange
words in sentences. There is loss of contiguity.
Jargon’s Aphasia: In this, utterances are long an long but it is difficult to find semantic
meanings.
Loss of Reading Habit: There is another kind of aphasia in which a person can write but
can‘t read.
Behaviorism: J.B Watson was the founder of this theory. Pavlov a Russian psycholinguist is
a great proponent of this theory. B.F Skinner an American linguist wrote a book ―Verbal
Behavior‖ in 1957 in which he argues in favor of this theory.
Operant Conditioning: Operant mean voluntary behavior. It is the result of a learner‘s own
free will and is not forced by any outside person or anything. Stimulus, response,
reinforcement and repetition.
Mentalist: The behaviorist‘s view of language acquisition was extremely challenged from
the 60s onward under the influence of Noam Chomsky. He says that child learns first
language through cognitive learning. Humans have innate capability of learning a language
that was named as LAD Language Acquisition Device by Chomsky. It is also called
Chomsky‘s theory of innateness.
Code Mixing: A fluent bilingual talking to another fluent bilingual changes language without
any change at all in the situation. This kind of alteration is called code mixing.
Spatial deixis. Forms used to point to location e.g. here there etc.
Person deixis: is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as. the speaker.
the addressee, and. referents which are neither speaker nor addressee. Me, you etc
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such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn. A
greeting–greeting pair. A question–answer pair.
Tautology: Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In
simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times.
Apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself e.g. business is
business.
Deictic Projection: Deictic projection = speakers being able to project themselves into
other locations, time or shift person reference. Eg. via dramatic performances, when using
direct speech to represent the person, location and feelings of someone else.
Deixis and distance. 2. ... The word 'deixis' is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the
most basic things we do with utterances, which means 'pointing' via language.'
Any linguistic form used to accomplish 'pointing' is called a deictic expression.
Content Condition: In order to count as a particular type of speech act, an utterance must
contain certain features e.g. a promise must be about a future event.
Projection Problem: The problem of the presupposition of a simple structure not surviving
when part of a more complex structure.
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