Gondwana Research, V 6, No. 4,pp. 817-827.

Gondwana
02003 International Association for Gondwana Research, Japan.
ISSN: 1342-937X GR , Research

Depositional Record of Tidal-Flat Sedimentation in the Permian

Coal Measures of Central India: Barakar Formation, Mohpani
Coalfield, Satpura Gondwana Basin
Chandan Chakraborty, Sanjoy Kumar Ghosh and Tapan Chakraborty
Gc.olugica1 Studies Uiiit, lndiaiz Statistical liistittite, 203, B.T. Road, Kolkata - 700 108, India, E - m i l : cliaiidanOisicnl.ac.in

(Manuscript rereived Noveiiiber 18,2002; accepted Julie 12,2003)

Abstract
The Permian Barakar Formation in the Mohpani coalfield, Satpura Gondwana basin, is composed of three broad
lithologies that occur repetitively and are iterdigitatcd: (1) several metres thick coarse- to medium-grained sandstone
bodies with scoured bases, (2) 5-20 m thick medium- to fine-grained sandstone bodies and (3) 5-20 in thick mudstone-
dominated packages with variable proportions of centimetre- to decimetre-scale, fine- to medium-grained sandstone,
carbonaceous shale and coal. The Barakar strata were previously interpreted as deposits of braided rivers and associated
inter-channel flood basin in a continental setting. Howcver, this study recognizes signatures of tidal current from the
mudstone-dominated packagcs implying marine influcncc during Barakar sedimentation.
The mudstone-dominated sediment bodies are the focus of this paper and comprise of t h e e lithofacies that bcar
imprints of tidal processes during Barakar sedimentation: (1) heterolith, (2) sandstone, and (3) coal-carbonaceous
shale, which alternate with one another within individual bodies. The heterolithic facies show interlayering of sandstonc
and claystone resembling flaser, wavy and lcnticular bedding, as well as pinstripe stratification. Successive sandstone-
mudstone couplets indicate periodic waxing and waning of flows. Within individual heterolithic packages, the
sandst0ne:claystone ratio along with the bedding style, varies cyclically upwards giving rise to alternate sandstone-
dominated and claystone-dominated intervals suggesting tidal velocity fluctuation reflective of spring-neap lunar cycle.
Thickness plots of successive sand-mud couplets also reveal cyclic variation with a conspicuous periodicity of around
12 couplets per cycle, which corroborates the spring-neap-spring (or neap-spring-neap) lunar cycle. Presence of abundant
desiccation cracks indicates periodic emergence and points towards an intertidal setting. The sandstone facies is
characterized by a variety of wave-generated features such as bundled and chevron upbuilding of lamina, bi-directional
foreset orientations, offshooting and draping laminae, scour-and-drape feature, swollen lens-like geometries suggesting
their emplacement under storin-induced combined-flow on the tidal-flat. The coal-carbonaceous shale facies represent
supratidal marsh cnvironment.
Key words: Gondwana basin, Permian coal measure, Central India, fluvial, tidal rhythmites, tidal flat.

Introduction s t a r t with basal diamictite a n d glacial o u t w a s h

deposits, followed by coal-bearing siliciclastics with
The Gondwana strata of India record resumption of Glossopteris and Triassic red beds with calcretes (Hobday,
sedimentation in peninsular India during the Permo- 1987).
Carboniferous period fol1owin.g a long depositional The glacio-marine Talchir and the overlying coal-
hiatus since the Proterozoic. Gondwana successions are bearing Barakar Formations represent the lower part of
preserved in a number of discrete, intracratonic basins in the Indian Gondwana successions, showing more or less
peninsular India (Fig. 1).These successions share the uniform lithological association in all the basins. The
faunal and floral characteristics of the Gondwana strata Barakar Formation is the primary resource of coal in India
of South America, South Africa, Australia and Antarctica, (Veevers and Tewari, 1995), and comprises of several
which comprise the other constituents of the southern meters thick sandstone bodies alternating with sediment
hemispheric part (Gondwanaland) of the Paleozoic bodies of equivalent dimensions, characterised by
supercontinent Pangea. Apart from the paleontological heterolithic (sandstone-mudstone) bedding, carbonaceous
similarities, the successions preserved in the Gondwanan shale and coal that to date, are interpreted as representing
continents resemble one another in that they generally deposition in freshwater alluvial settings (Casshyap, 1973;
818 C. CHAKRABORTY ET AL.
~

Casshyap and Qidwai, 1971; Casshyap and Tewari, 1991; sedimentary package of the Barakar succession that is
Veevers and Tewari, 1995). replete with sedimentary structures indicative of tidal-flat
In recent years, tide- and wave-influenced deposits have depositional regime. The objective is to exemplify the
been recognized in association with several coal-bearing, geological record of tidal-flat deposits a n d their
fluvial successions demonstrating marine influence during significance for marine influence during sedimentation
their deposition in inland settings (Kvale and Archer, 1990; of coal-bearing strata which, to date, remains to be
Archer et al., 1994; Archer et al., 1995; Greb and Archer, recognized from the Barakar Formation.
1995; Kvale a n d Mastalerz, 1998; Michaelsen and
Henderson, 2000; Brettle et al., 2002). In the absence of
marine fossils, a possible marine influence during Barakar
Geological Background
sedimentation has also been surmised by several workers The Gondwana basins of peninsular India are
based on the occurrences of wave-generated structures, intracratonic in nature surrounded by Precambrian
trace fossils and high boron/sulfur contents of the coal terranes (Fig. 1).They are disposed along the ENE-WSW
(see Veevers and Tewari, 1995; Gupta, 1999,2000; Biswas, trending Namada-Son-Damodar valley, NNW-SSE trending
1999; Dutt and Mukhopadhyay, 2001), but sedimentary Pranhita-Godavari valley and NW-SE trending Mahanadi
features indicating unambiguous marine influence still valley (Fig. 1). There is a general consensus that these
rernain to be documented. The coal-bearing strata of the basins originated under a bulk extensional regime, due to
Barakar Formation, Satpura Gondwana basin, Central failure of the attenuated crust along pre-existing zones of
India (Fig. 1) have been ascribed a non-marine origin weakness imparted by Precambrian structural grains
based on the absence of marine fossils and general (Chaterji and Ghosh, 1970; Naqvi et al., 1974; Mitra, 1994;
similarities to fluvial deposits (Ray and Chakraborty, Biswas, 1999; Acharyya, 2000).
2002). In the Mohpani coalfield of this basin, Barakar The Satpura basin of Central India is the westernmost
strata are excellently preserved and fortuitously exposed Indian Gondwana basin and outcrops along the ENE-WSW
along the Sitarewa river (Figs. 1 , 2 ) allowing re-evaluation trending Narmada valley (Fig. 1). The Satpura basin
of the Baraltar depositional regime which has been contains rocks of Permian to Cretaceous age, and therefore
traditionally considered to be continental. This paper comprises the longest stratigraphic range of the Indian
presents a detailed documentation of a n 18 m-thick Gondwana basins. Interestingly, the term ‘Gondwana’ was

8 ‘derltebiatr FOSSIIS

.........Unconformity
@ Veltebiate Fossils

@ Hed Rod with Catretes

........
Unconformity

0 Coal I
carboriaceous shale

@ Red Bod
WRli calcareous nodules

@Marine
Invertebrate FossA
........ Uncanlormily
Fig. 1. Disposition of the Gondwana basins of peninsular India along the present day valleys of Narmada-Son-Damodar, Pranhita-Godavari and
Mahanadi rivers. Generalized stratigraphy of the Satpura basin fill is also shown along with key features of individual stratigraphic units.
The present study is confined to the Barakar Formation of the Mohpani coalfield, Satpura basin.

Goiidzuana Research, K 6,No.4, 2003

 TIDAL-FLAT SEDIMENTATION IN SATPURA GONDWANA BASIN 819

ig.:., . . . . . . . .......... . ........

. . ..........
' '.
...........
...........
.' .' . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. .
. . .
. .
.
. .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

"'I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

E-r] TI Talchir Fm. Barakar Fm. i-1 Bagra Fm. r

l Volcanics Alluvium

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Mohpani coalfield. Barakar Formation was investigated along the transect of the Sitarewa river shown within the box.

introduced in geology by Medlicott (1872) while he was and the succession is unconformably overlain by the Bagra
working in the Satpura basin, after the ancient Kingdom Formation (Fig. 2). The Barakar succession is composed
of Dravidian Gonds, one of the principal aboriginal tribes of three broad lithologies (Fig. 3) that occur repetitively
who inhabited the Satpura area. The Satpura basin is now and are iterdigitated: (1) several metres thick coarse- to
considered to be of pull-apart type and is filled with - 5 medium-grained sandstone bodies with scoured bases, (2)
km thick pile of siliciclastic sediments as a result of fault- 5-20 m thick medium- to fine-grained sandstone bodies
controlled, synsedimentary subsidence (Fig. 1; Biswas, and (3) 5-20 m thick mudstone-dominated packages with
2003). Three major unconformity-bounded units can be variable proportions of centimetre- to decimetre-scale,
recognized in the succession (Fig. 1).The hallmark of the fine- to medium-grained sandstone, carbonaceous shale
lowermost unit is the presence of coal/carbonaceous shale, and coal. The mudstone-dominated sediment bodies are
which contain alluvial strata along with those deposited the focus of this paper and comprise of three lithofacies
under sub-aquatic condition (Peters and Singh, 2000). The that bear imprints of tidal processes during Barakar
upper two units represent deposition entirely in alluvial sedimentation: (1)heterolith, (2) sandstone, and (3) coal-
setting and are rich in 'red beds' with calcretes and carbonaceous shale, which alternate with one another
vertebrate fossils (Bandyopadhyay, 1999; Casshyap and within individual bodies. These facies are described and
Khan, 2000; Maulik et al., 2000). The lowermost unit interpreted in the following section based on a detailed
begins with the glacio-marine Talchir Formation (Casshyap study of an 18 m thick interval in which heterolith, coal-
and Qidwai, 1971) and is overlain by the coal-bearing carbonaceous shale and sandstone facies constitute
Barakar Formation, which is the subject of the present approximately SO%, 30% and 20% of the succession
paper (Fig. 1). respectively (Figs. 3, 4).

Barakar Succession of the Mohpani Coalfield Lithofacies 1: Heterolith

The Mohpani coalfield is located at the northeastern
D esa-ip tion
comer of the Satpura basin (Fig. 1). About 120 m thickness
of Barakar strata are exposed along the Sitarewa river The heterolith facies is represented by millimetre- to

Gondiuann Research. V. 6. No.4 . 2003

a20 C. CNAKRABORTY ET AL.

Bagra Fm.

100 Coarse-grained sandstone

80
Detailed in El Mudstonedominatedintervals
with coal and carbonaceous shale
Fig. 4

60 Fine- to medium-grained sandstone

40

--
-------
Fig. 3. Measured log of the Barakar Formation
of the Mohpani coalficld exposed along
the Sitarcwa river shown in figure 2. Note
Base of the measured section interdigitation of thrce broad lithologics
_----------_----- in the succession. The mudstonc dominated
intervals are thc focus of this paper one
TALCHIR FORMATION of which is investigated in detail.

centimetre-scale altcrnation of fine-sandstone and Interpretation

mudstone (Fig. 5). Desiccation cracks are abundant The characteristics of lithofacies 1 clearly indicate
(Fig. 6), whereas plant litters, burrows and rootlets are alternate traction and suspension sedimentation. The
common in this facies. The thickness of this facies varies ripples and their internal laminae formed due to traction,
from 10 cm to more than 1.5 m. The heterolithic sediment whereas the intervening mud layers represent suspension
bodics reveal a variety of bedding styles due to variation settlement implying periodic waxing and waning of flow.
in the proportion of sandstone and mudstone and their Within individual heterolithic packages, the
internal structure (Fig. 5). Accordingly, several subfacies sandstone:claystone ratio along with the bedding style,
can be delineated as described below: varies cyclically upwards giving rise to alternate sandstone-
(1) Ripple-laminated s a n d s t o n e with thin, dominated and claystone-dominated intervals (Fig. 11).
discontinuous mudstone layers between lamina cosets The succession of different subfacies and their bedding
(Fig. 7). The sandstone layers show wave-ripple cross- styles resulted due to temporal variation in the ratio of
laminae with bi-directional orientations and chevron the rates of traction sedimentation and suspension
pattern of arrangement, along with undulatory and settlement in response to a longer-period flow fluctuation
draping laminae. than that associated with deposition of a single sandstone-
(2) Ripple cross-laminated sandstone with thin mudstone couplet. Thickness plots of successive layers
but continuous mudstone layers between lamina cosets within heterolithic bodies also reveal cyclic variation for
(Fig. 8). both sand and m u d layers (Fig. 1 2 ) . Presence of
(3) Ripple cross-laminated sandstone with fairly thick desiccation cracks indicates a depositional environment
mudstone layers between lamina cosets (Fig. 9). that suffered periodic submergence and emergence and
(4) Centimeter-thick flat, massive/parallel-laminated points towards a tidal-flat system.
sandstone layers with intervening mudstone partings. Although not uncommon in o t h e r sedimentary
(5) Mudstone-rich packages with continuous ripple environments, sandstone-mudstone heterolithic units
trains or isolated ripples occurring as form sets (Fig. 10). displaying flaser, wavy, lenticular and pinstripe beddings
Ripples may be symmetrical o r asymmetrical with are the most common characteristic features of the tidal-
wavelength and amplitude of 5-10 cm and 1-3 cm. flat system signifying periodic flow fluctuations (Reineck
(6) Mudstone-rich packages with millimetre-scale and Wunderlich, 1968; Reineck, 1972). Similar features
streaks of sandstone defining pinstripe stratification (Fig. 5) may also develop within continental fluvial systems that

Gondzvnnn Resemch, V. 6, No. 4, 2003

 TIDAL-FLAT SEDIMENTATION IN SATPURA GONDWANA BASIN 821

are affected by periodic rise and fall of water level due to

propagation of tidal waves far inland through the fluvial
channels. However, we preferred the coastal, tidal-flat
interpretation as this facies is associated with facies
deposited under the influence of wave and tide in open
marine condition (see following sections).
The alternation of sandstone and mudstone layers is
interpreted to reflect tidal rise and fall (Rahmani, 1988;
Tessier et al., 1988; Williams, 1989; Dalrymple et al., 1991;
Nio and Yang, 1991). Each sand-mud couplet, representing
sand deposition from traction and/or suspension (high
velocity stage of the flow) followed by suspension fallout
of mud (stillstand or slack water stage of the flow) records
a single tidal fluctuation in a diurnal or semidiurnal system
(Archer et al., 1995). The tidal influence on the origin of
these rhythmites is also indicated by the cyclic occurrence
of sandstone-dominated and mudstone-dominated

Coal carbonaceousShale

Laminated claystone

Mudstone with Sandstone ripples train

Mudstone with lentl~ularsandstones

Cross laminated sandstone

laye!- separated by mudstone

:;gt:p;;";::F
mudstonedrapes
Cross lamlnated wavy bedded
sandstone With mudstone ilasers

cross laminated Sandstone

i--------i ::z:::%:h
1- n
o&h
y
c
; Stratified
Fig. 5. Field photograph of heterolithic facies (lithofacies 1)taken from
Structureless sandstone the interval shown in figure 4. Note vertical variation in the
DeSiCCatlOn crack sandstone(bright bands): mudstone (dark bands) ratio and
Mud ciasts different types of stratification style. Pen is 15 cm long.
C m 5~aledominoiau11s

convolute hmination

Slump fold @ coal seam

intervals reflective of the lunar orbital cycle, which causes
a neap (low) and a spring (high) tide with an interval of
4 Root
EGaQ 14.75 days (Figs. 11, 12; Kvale and Mastalerz, 1998). The
( Burrow
average number of sand-mud couplets occurring within
_* Plant remains
two successive mud-dominant and sand-dominant
intervals of the Barakar heterolithic facies is approximately
12 (Fig. 12), which is close to the present-day interval of
14.75 days between halfmoon and new/fullmoon. It,
therefore, follows that in the Mohpani area the tide was
diurnal in nature. Tidal currents presumably interfered
5 with wave-induced oscillatory currents to result in
s
T- combined-flow ripples with their characteristic internal
lamination style (Fig. 8; Arnott and Southard, 1990).
Shareface Sandst
Lithofacies 2: Sandstone
Fig. 4. Detailed litholog of a mudstone-dominated interval (shown in
Fig. 3) of the Barakar succession of the Mohpani coalfield. Description
Note interdigitation of the three major constituent lithofacies:
(1)heterolith, (2) sandstone, and ( 3 ) coal-carbonaceous shale. The sandstone bodies of lithofacies 2 are dominantly

Gondwana Research, V. 6, No. 4, 2003

822 C . CHAKRABORTY ET AL.

variation in stratification style from parallel-lamination

to ripple bedding.
Interpretation
The stratification styles of the sandstone lithofacies
point towards wave-influenced sedimentation. Relatively
larger size of the bedforms coupled with the occurrences
of undulatory/parallel-laminations and scour-and-drape
feature suggest strong flows. Presence of mud clasts and
vertical variation of stratification style from parallel-
lamination to ripple-bedding also corroborates deposition
from temporally waning shooting flows such as those
associated with storms. The storm-induced oscillatory
flows were probably associated with unidirectional
Fig. 6. Bedding plane view of desiccation cracks within lithofacies currents as indicated by the trough cross-stratification, as
1. Photograph was taken from the interval shown in figure 4. well as the internal laminations of the ripples are
Coin diameter - 2 cm.
suggestive of combined-flow regime (cf. Arnott and
Southard, 1990). The sandstone lithofacies occurs in
fine- to medium-grained and vary in thickness between association with the tidal-flat deposits of lithofacies 1 and
0.3 m to > 1 m. Coarser-grained sandstone beds occur forms only 20% of the succession (Fig. 4). We thus infer
rarely, and are either trough cross-stratified (set thickness that lithofacies 2 was deposited in the tidal-flat regime
10-30 cm) or massive. Some of these beds contain -platy - during occasional storms.
mud clasts. The fine- to medium-grained sandstone bodies
are either parallel-laminated (Fig. 13) or wavy bedded
(Fig. 14). The wavy bedding style appears to be the
consequence of preservation of ripple morphologies
defining set boundaries. The ripple forms vary in
wavelength from 15 cm to 30 cm with amplitudes of
3.5-5 cm. The internal structures include cross-lamination
and undulatory, parallel-lamination (Fig. 14). The lamina-
sets show bundled and chevron upbuilding, bi-directional
foreset orientations, offshooting and draping laminae,
swollen lens-like geometries, scour-and-drape feature (Fig.
15; De Raaf et al., 1977). In places, platy mud clasts are
Fig. 8. Photograph of lithofacies 1 showing a ripple-bedded unit with
present aligned parallel to the interfaces of the wavy beds. thin but continuous mudstone partings (dark) between cross-
A few sandstone bodies show a systematic upward sets. Pen length - 15 cm. Photograph was taken from the interval
shown in figure 4.

Fig. 7. Photograph of lithofacies 1 showing ripple cross-laminated sets

with discontinuous mudstone drapes. Note draping and Fig. 9. Photograph of lithofacies 1 showing a ripple-bedded unit with
offshooting laminae and variable foreset orientations. thick and continuous mudstone layers (dark) between cross-
Photograph was taken from the interval shown in figure 4. Coin sets. Coin diameter - 2.5 cm. Photograph was taken from the
diameter - 2 cm. interval shown in figure 4.

Gondwunu Reseuuch, V. 6, No. 4, 2003

 TIDAL-FLAT SEDIMENTATION IN SATPURA GONDWANA BASIN 823

Lithofacies 3: Coal-carbonaceous Shale from 1.22 m to up to 10 m (Raja Rao, 1983). The thickness,
however, varies laterally. The coal stringer/claystone ratio
Description
tends to increase towards the coal seams. Some claystones
This facies comprises interlaminated to interbedded, show very fine lamination. Finely macerated organic debris
dark grey to black carbonaceous claystone and coaly and leaf imprints on bedding planes are very common.
stringers that often grades vertically and laterally into The coal is generally dark and partly shining with a
economically exploitable coal seams (Figs. 4, 13). In the moderate specific gravity showing interlayering of vitrain-
measured section (Fig. 4), the thickness of this facies clarain and vitrain-durain bands with very little fusain.
ranges between 0.2 and 1 m. Subsurface drilling revealed Approximate maceral composition is: vitrain-40%, clarain-
occurrence of four major coal seams ranging in thickness 48%) durain-lo%, fusain-2Yo.The rank of the coal ranges
from medium-volatile bituminous (mvb) to high-volatile
B-bituminous (hvBb) (Raja Rao, 1983).
Interpretation
High organic carbon content of lithofacies 3 points
towards accumulation of fine-grained, terrigenous

47 SIOll" layers

3
spmg New
Y) -*
c
Fig. 10. Photograph of lithofacies 1 showing isolated sandstone ripple Y

JZ
trains encased within mudstone (dark). Note profuse, thread- m 2
like desiccation cracks in the upper part. Pen length - 15 cm.
Photograph was taken from the interval shown in figure 4.
1

Spring
90 Cm
0
I 10 20 30 40 50 60 69

Neap Lamina number

Fig. 12. Lamina-thickness plots from a continuous succession of

75 Spring lithofacies 1 revealing alternate sandstone- and mudstone-
dominated intervals. Note also periodic thickness variation
of the sandstone as well as mudstone laminae and that the
Storm crests of the sandstone curve (dotted line) coincide with the
troughs of the mudstone curve (dashed line). Number of
60 sandstone-mudstone couplets within two successive
Spring sandstone- and mudstone-dominated (or vice versa) intervals
are found to be around 12 suggesting spring-neap-spring tidal
cycles. Anomalously thick sandstone layers are probably storm
deposits.
45 Neap

Spring

30 Neap

Spring

Fig. 11. Periodic vertical variation

15 Neap in the sandstone (bright):
mudstone (dark) ratio
within a continuous
Spring succession of lithofacies Fig. 13. Parallel-laminated sandstone bodies of lithofacies 2 with an
Crn 1 suggesting spring- intervening coal layer (dark). The pen is 15 cm long.
0 neap-spring tidal cycles. Photograph was taken from the interval shown in figure 4.

Gondwana Reseauch, V. 6 , No. 4, 2003

824 C. CHAKRABORTY ET AL.

sediments along with plant debris in a marsh environment. the inland extent of the tidal influence in ancient settings;
Thick coals presumably developed in low-lying,peat mires and (3) it facilitates chronostratigraphic correlation
that used to remain starved of siliciclastic input for a between marine and alluvial strata leading to a proper
considerable period and sustain accumulation of vegetal sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the continental
matter, but suffered episodic burial by siliciclastics that succession (Shanley et al., 1992).
led to transformation of the organic debris into coal. The Barakar Formation of the Satpura basin including
Occurrence of this facies in association with tidal-flat that of the other Gondwana basins is traditionally
deposits (facies 1and 2; Fig. 4) suggests a supratidal marsh considered to be of alluvial origin (Veevers and Tewari,
enviroment. 1995). There are indeed fluvial deposits within the Barakar
succession of the Satpura basin represented by several
Discussion meters thick, coarse-grained, multistoreyed, sheet
sandstone bodies that are thoroughly cross-stratified
Recognition of tidal signatures within a continental displaying unidirectional, angle-of-repose, 0.5 to 1.5 m
succession has manifold significance: (1) tidal deposits thick, trough and planar cross-sets (see Ray and
are unambiguous evidence of marine influence, in contrast Chakraborty, 2002; Fig. 3). However, the foregoing
to wave-influenced deposits which may also form in description of the mudstone-dominated lithological
exclusively continental domains (e.g., lakes and fluvial intervals occurring in association with the coarse-grained,
flood basins); (2) it enables reconstruction of the broader fluvial sandstone bodies (Fig. 3) clearly reveals operation
paleogeography of the basin revealing the transition of tidal current implying marine influence. There are also
between alluvial and marine domains (Dalrymple et al., meter-scale, fine- to medium-grained sandstone bodies
1992; Kvale and Barnhill, 1994), as well as estimation of that interdigitate with the fluvial and tidal-flat deposits
(Fig. 3) displaying hummocky, swaley cross-stratifications,
cross-stratified bundles with mud drapes and herringbone
cross-stratification (Ghosh, 2003). Presence of
herringbone cross-stratification is indicative of tidal
current. Cyclic occurrences of bundles of clay-draped
foresets also suggest fluctuating flows of tidal periodicity
(Boersma, 1969; Terwindt, 1981; Shanley et al., 1992;
Yang and Nio, 1985; Nio and Yang, 1991). On the other
hand, hummocky and swaley cross-stratifications indicate
storm-induced flows. This association of sedimentary
Fig. 14. A wavy-bedded sandstone body of lithofacies 2 displaying structures thus points towards a tide-storm interactive
undulatory parallel-lamination (middle part) that gives way subtidal, shoreface setting for the deposition of the fine-
to cross-laminated sets with variable foreset orientations. Coin
diameter - 2 cm. Photograph was taken from the interval to medium-grained sandstone bodies.
shown in figure 4. It, therefore, follows that an entirely alluvial condition
cannot be invoked for the coal-bearing Barakar Formation
of the Satpura basin. Available evidence favours for a
transitional marine depositional setting characterized by
coeval fluvial, marginal marine and shoreface
environments. The trends of ripples (Fig. 16) measured
from the tidal-flat facies association indicate a roughly E-
W shoreline. Paleocurrent data of the fluvial deposits reveal
northerly river flow (Fig. 16), with some small petals in
the rose indicating southerly flow and suggesting tidal
influence. The shoreface strata reveal prominent bi-
polarity roughly along the N-S line (Fig. 16).
The detailed paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Barakar depositional regime for the whole Satpura basin
Fig. 15. A wavy-bedded, cross-laminated sandstone body of lithofacies
is out of the context of the present paper and will be
2 displaying: (a) swollen lens-like sets, (b) bundled and
chevron upbuilding of laminae, (c) draping and offshooting presented in a separate publication. However, the stacking
laminae, (d) scour-and-drape feature and (e) opposite foreset pattern of the fluvial, tidal-flat and shoreface deposits in
orientations. Coin diameter - 2.5 cm. Photograph was taken the Barakar successions depicts a number of
from the interval shown in figure 4.

Gondwana Research, V. 6 , No.4, 2003

 TIDAL-FLAT SEDIMENTATION IN SATPURA GONDWANA BASIN 825
~

progradational cycles (Fig. 3) and points towards a wave Conclusions

and tide-influenced, fluvio-deltaic environment for the
The major conclusions of the present study are as follows:
deposition of the Barakar Formation instead of an
estuarine condition (cf. Shanmugam et al., 2000). The (1) The Barakar coal measures of the Mohpani
upper part of the underlying Talchir succession is coalfield, Satpura Gondwana basin contain strata bearing
represented by shallow-marine deposits and in the Satpura imprints of sedimentation under the influence of wave
basin the Talchir-Barakar transition appears to be and tide as has recently been documented from several
continuous (Ghosh, 2003). Beds containing marine fossils other coal-bearing successions of the world.
have been identified within the Talchir Formation at (2) The wave/tide-influenced strata described here
several localities along the Son and Damodar valley as show rhythmic interlayering of sandstone and claystone
well as from the Satpura basin (Ghosh, 2003) indicating resembling flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding, as well as
an early Permian marine incursion in the form of a seaway pinstripe stratification. The tidal influence on the origin
following a relative sea level rise (cf. Veevers and Tewari, of these rhythmites is indicated by the cyclic occurrence
1995). Presumably, the Barakar fluvio-deltaic regime was of sandstone-dominated and mudstone-dominated
established as the rate of sediment supply exceeded the intervals reflective of the lunar orbital cycle, which causes
rate of relative sea level rise. Lower Gondwana deposits a neap (low) and a spring (high) tide with an interval of
also occur in the eastern Himalayan region (Krishnan, 14.75 days. Presence of desiccation cracks implies a tidal-
1982). It thus seems that the marine regime during the flat environment.
late Talchir-Barakar period represented kind of a strait (3) The overall paleogeography appears to be
along the ENE-WSW elongate Narmada-Son-Damodar transitional marine instead of alluvial as was considered
valley connected with the Tethys in the east (cf. De, 1996, previously. The paleocurrent data indicate a roughly E-W
Ghosh, 2003). shoreline and northward fluvial transport.

(A) Ripple trends

in tidal-flat facies

277.84'
97.84"

n = 22

(B) Fluvial Sandstones (C) Shoreface Sandstones

350.70

Fig. 16. Trends of ripples in the tidal-flat

facies (A) Paleocumnts of the fluvial
(B) and shoreface (C) sandstone
bodies are also shown. Note distinct
bi-polarity in the shoreface
paleocurrents and orthogonal
relationship of fluvial and shoreface
paleocurrents with the mean ripple
trend.

Cond7uanu Research, V. 6, No. 4, 2003

826 C. CHAKRAWOKTY ET AL

(4) The deposition of the Barakar Formation was of Lower Gondwana sedimentary rocks, Pench valley coalfield,
presumably associated with a n ENE-WNW trending Madhya Pradesh (India). Sediment. Geol., v. 5, pp. 135-145.
cnibayment connected with the Tethys in the east. Casshyap, S.M. and Tewari, R.C. (1991) Depositional model
and tectonic evolution of Gondwana basins. In: Venkatachala,
B.S., Maheswari, H.K. (Eds.), Ind. Gond. Mem. Geol. SOC.
Acknowledgments India, v. 21, pp. 95-206.
Chaterji, G.C. and Ghosh, P.K. (1970) Tectonic framework
Financial assistance from the Indian Statistical Institute, of peninsular Gondwanas of India. Rec. Geol. Surv. India, v.
Kolkata, and Department of Science and Technology, New 98, pp. 1-15.
Delhi, is gratefully acknowledged. Critical reviews by Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A. and Boyd, R. (1992) Estuarine
Drs. P.Michaelsen and M.J. Brettle greatly contributed to facies models: conceptual basis a n d stratigraphic
the improvement of the paper. implications. J. Sediment Res. v. 62, pp. 1130.1146.
De9A.K. (1996) Role of Tethys in Gondwana sedimentation of
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