CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As a part of the academic requirements, an Industrial Training Program

was undergone from march 2019. The work was under control of Mr.Thameem
Raja engineer Theni district.

In the site, I observed the construction of many type of Bungalow which

constituted with two floors. I saw excavation works, foundation, lintel, stair case,
shuttering, form work, reinforcement in that site. I understood that proper
exavation of the site helps us to good results. Separate foundations are used to
distribute column and wall loads across the entire building area. The first step in
the construction was plot-leveling, followed by marking and excavation of soil
according to the engineering drawings. PCC was laid to a thickness of 0.2m to
level the base of the trench. Bar bending, placing and tying of rebar are also done.

In the site, I observed the construction of different structures which are

easily created by unskilled labours. In this site, I gained knowledge about the
step by step process of footing, foundation, brick work, etc.
 CHAPTER 2

SEQUENCE OF WORKS

2. SPECIFICATIONS

2.1 EXCAVATION

Excavation was carried out both manually as well as mechanically.

Normally 1-2 earth excavators (JCB’s) were used for excavating the earth.
Adequate precautions are taken to see that the excavation operations do not
damage the adjoining structures.

Excavation is carried out providing adequate side slopes and dressing of

excavation bottom.

The soil present beneath the surface was too clayey so it was dumped and
was not used for back filling.

The filling is done in layer not exceeding 20 cm layer and than its
compacted. Depth of excavation was 6’6” from Ground Level.

2.2 FOUNDATION

In foundation the details and the specifications are taught to me by the site
engineer the below are the details of foundations and specifications.

A foundation occupies space between the main floor of the house and the
ground below.

There is access to the foundation from the main floor or from outside.

The “floor” of the foundation can be dirt or stone with a vapor barrier, or it
may be capped with concrete.
 At our site, Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure
over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure.

Normally raft foundation is used when large load is to be distributed and it

is not possible to provide individual footings due to space constraints that is they
would overlap on each other.

Raft (Mat) foundations have the advantage of reducing differential

settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading
positions.

They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as
they can spread the loads over a larger area.

At our site, Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure
over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure.

Normally raft foundation is used when large load is to be distributed and it

is not possible to provide individual footings due to space constraints that is they
would overlap on each other.

Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as

the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions.

They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as
they can spread the loads over a larger area.

In laying of raft foundation, special care is taken in the reinforcement and

construction of plinth beams and columns.

It is the main portion on which ultimately whole of the structure load is to

come.
2.3 WALL.
A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter
or security. There are many kinds of walls such as defensive walls in fortification,
walls of buildings which are a fundamental part of the superstructure or which
separate the spaces in buildings sections sometimes for the purpose of fire safety,
walls which hold back earth called retaining walls,

offer protection from oceans such as a seawall or river as a levee.

Permanent, solid fences are walls, and border barriers between countries are
sometimes walls.

2.4 BRICK WORK

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar.

Typically, rows of bricks called courses are laid on top of one another to build up
a structure such as a brick wall

Brickwork is said to be one brick thick if it has a total width equal to the
length of one of its regular component bricks.

Accordingly, a wall of a single leaf is a wall of one half brick thickness; a

wall with the simplest possible masonry transverse bond is said to be one brick
thick, and so on.

The thickness specified for a wall is determined by such factors as damp

proofing considerations, whether or not the wall has a cavity, load-bearing
requirements, and expense.

Wall thickness specification has proven considerably various, and while

some non-load-bearing brick walls may be as little as half a brick thick, others
brick walls will be much thicker.

At these more modest wall thicknesses, distinct patterns have emerged allowing
for a structurally sound layout of bricks internal to each particular specified
thickness of wall.

Fig 2.4 Bricks used in constructing walls.

2.5 STRENGTH OF BRICK MASONRY

The permissible compressive stress in brick masonry depends upon the

following factors:

1. Type and strength of brick.

2. Mix of motor.
3. Size and shape of masonry construction.

The strength of brick masonry depends upon the strength of bricks used in
the masonry construction.

The strength of bricks depends upon the nature of soil used for making and
the method adopted for moulding and burning of brick . since the nature of soil
varies from region to region

The average strength of bricks varies from as low as 30kg/sq cm to 150 kg

/sq cm the basic compressive stress are different crushing strength.

Bricks should be soaked in water for adequate period so that the water
penetrates to its full thickness. Normally 6 to 8 hours of wetting is sufficient.

The joint thickness shouldn’t exceed 1 cm. It should be thoroughly filled

with the cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 (Cement: Sand by volume)

All bricks should be placed on their bed with frogs on top (depression on
top of the brick for providing bond with mortar).

Thread, plumb bob and spirit level should be used for alignment, verticality
and horizontality of construction.

Joints should be raked and properly finished with trowel or float, to provide
good bond.

A maximum of one metre wall height should be constructed in a day.

Brickwork should be properly cured for at least 10 days.

2.6 LINTELS
Lintel is a structural component of a building. It is made above door and
window opening. Its main function is to support the masonry wall above openings
and transfer its load to side walls.

Lintel can be made from various materials. Such as steel, wood, stone,
RCC, etc.,

The most used material for lintel is RCC. Normally used concrete ratio for
RCC lintel is 1:2:4.

Lintel can be classified into two types Pre-cast RCC lintel Cast-in-place RCC
lintel

2.7 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Construction process of RCC lintel is simple and it doesn’t need much

technical knowledge.

Anyone can make RCC lintel with little construction knowledge.

Generally it contains 4 numbers of 10mm diameter bar inside it and stirrup

should be 8mm or 10mm diameter at 6inch centre to centre.

Normally, RCC lintel’s shape is square or rectangle and it is extended about

6 inch into masonry wall.

However, you should follow the construction manual for lintel extension-
length into wall, concrete strength and also for reinforcement details

2.8 STAIR CASES

Stairs are generally provided to connecting successive floors of building.

Stairs are constructed of three main things:

1. Flight (or) Waist slab,

 2. Treads,
3. Risers.

Flight are the diagonal 2x12s that carry the weight of the people walking
up the stairs.

Treads are the top baseboards onto which you step, and risers are placed
perpendicularly under each tread.

With this information, you're ready to begin building. See Step 1 below

for a detailed guide on how to bring a set of stairs from concept to execution.

2.8.1 TYPES OF STAIR CASE

1. Dog legged stair case

2. Open well stair case
3. Tread riser type
4. Isolated cantilever type
5. Double cantilever pre cast tread slab
Fig .2.8 STAIR CASE
2.9 REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organism's future

behaviour whenever that behaviour is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus.

This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of

behaviour.

Although in many cases a reinforcing stimulus is a rewarding stimulus

which is "valued" or "liked" by the individual.

Steel reinforcements are used generally in the form of bars of circular cross
section in concrete structure.

They are like a skeleton in human body.

Plain concrete without steel or any other reinforcement is strong in

compression but weak in tension.

Steel is one of the best forms of reinforcements, to take care of those

stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all kinds of loads.

Mild steel bars conforming to Cold-worked steel high strength deformed

bars conforming are commonly used. Grade Fe 415 is being used most commonly
nowadays.

This has limited the use of plain mild steel bars because of higher yield
stress and bond strength resulting in saving of steel quantity.

Some companies have brought Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) and

Corrosion Resistant Steel (CRS) bars with added features.

Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold-worked steel high strength

deformed bars start from 8 mm diameter.
 For general house constructions, bars of diameter 6 to 20 mm are used.

Transverse reinforcements are very important.

They not only take care of structural requirements but also help main
reinforcements to remain in desired position.

They play a very significant role while abrupt changes or reversal of

stresses like earthquake etc.They should be closely spaced as per the drawing and
properly tied to the main/longitudinal reinforcement.

Fig .2.9 REINFORCEMENT

2.10 COVER BLOCK

Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods from touching the
shuttering plates and there by providing a minimum cover and fix the
reinforcements as per the design drawings.

Sometimes it is commonly seen that the cover gets misplaced during the
concreting activity.
 To prevent this, tying of cover with steel bars using thin steel wires called
binding wires (projected from cover surface and placed during making or casting
of cover blocks) is recommended.

Covers should be made of cement sand mortar (1:3).

Ideally, cover should have strength similar to the surrounding concrete,

with the least perimeter so that chances of water to penetrate through periphery
will be minimized

Fig. 2.10 COVER BLOCK

2.11 SHUTTERING AND SCAFFOLDING

The Term ‘Shuttering’ Or ‘Formwork’ Includes All

Forms, Moulds, Sheeting, Shuttering Planks, Walrus, Poles, Posts, Standards,
Leizers, V-Heads, Struts, And Structure, Ties, Prights, Walling Steel Rods,
Bolts, Wedges, And All Other Temporary Supports To The Concrete During
The Process Sheeting.

Fig 2.11 SHUTTERING

 2.12 FORM WORK

Forms or moulds or shutters are the receptacles in which concrete is placed,

so that it will have the desired shape or outline when hardened. Once the concrete
develops adequate strength, the forms are removed.

Forms are generally made of the materials like timber, plywood, steel, etc.
Generally camber is provided in the formwork for horizontal members to
counteract the effect of deflection caused due to the weight of reinforcement and
concrete placed over that.

A proper lubrication of shuttering plates is also done before the placement

of reinforcement. The oil film sandwiched between concrete and formwork
surface not only helps in easy removal of shuttering but also prevents loss of
moisture from the concrete through absorption and evaporation.

The steel form work was designed and constructed to the shapes, lines and
dimensions shown on the drawings.

All forms were sufficiently water tight to prevent leakage of mortar. Forms
were so constructed as to be removable in sections. One side of the column forms
were left open and the open side filled in board by board successively as the
concrete is placed and compacted except when vibrators are used.

A key was made at the end of each casting in concrete columns of

appropriate size to give proper bonding to columns and walls as per relevant IS.
Fig.2.12 FORM WORK
2.13FLOORING

For flooring ceramic verified tiles are used. These are of varies sizes, the
sizes used are as shown below

80 cm x 80 cm in living room and dinning

60 cm x 60 cm in bed rooms and kitchen

30 cm x 30 cm in toilets

30 cm x 45 cm for walls up to height of 8’ i.e 2.4 m

The tiles is used in wash area and original granite is used in balcony. Lift
lobby and fascia wall and floor are made using composite marble and vitrified
tiles. Staircases are using vitrified tile flooring.

Placing tiles at the bottom of floor and wall is known as skirting. Bending
the edge of tiles and granite is known as bending. The tiles and granites placed
on the wall is known as doing. The parking area surrounding the building is made
by vacuum dewatered flooring. Inter lock are used in main entrance ground.

2.14 PLASTERING

Plasterwork refers to construction or ornamentation done with plaster, such

as a layer of plaster on an interior or exterior wall structure, or plaster decorative
moldings on ceilings or walls. For walls, the ratio of cement and mortar is 1:4.
For ceiling, the ratio of cement and mortar is 1:6.
2.15 LIME PLASTERING

Lime plastering is composed of lime, sand, hair and water in proportions

varying according to the nature of the work to be done. The lime mortar
principally used for internal plastering is that calcined from chalk, oyster shells
or other nearly pure limestone, and is known as fat, pure, chalk or rich lime.
Hydraulic limes are also used by the plasterer, but chiefly for external work.

Perfect slaking of the calcined lime before being used is very important as,
if used in a partially slaked condition, it will "blow" when in position and blister
the work. Lime should therefore be run as soon as the building is begun, and at
least three weeks should elapse between the operation of running the lime and its
use. The first coat or rendering is from 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick, and

mixed in the proportions of from one part of cement to two of sand to one
part to five of sand. The finishing or setting coat is about 3/16 inches thick, and
is worked with a hand float on the surface of the rendering, which must first be
well wetted.Roughcast or pebbledash plastering is a rough form of external
plaster

2.16 PAINTING WORK

Painting is the final work of a building which gives a fantastic and fabulous
look to the building. Painting a wall requires a bit of planning, but when done
right, can give a room a completely different feel. Mostly of two coatings of paint
were used for the smooth surface. Roller brushes were used instead of normal
brushes to get smooth surface. The undulation in the wall is noted. Based upon in
it the painting thickness varied.

Mostly of white color painting was painted inside and outside the hall.
Painting works were done using constructing scaffoldings outside the wall.

etc.,
 Fig .2.16(a) INTERIOR PAINTING

Fig . 2.16 (b)EXTERIOR PAINTING

 CHAPTER 3

DETAILS OF THE PROJECT

DETAILS OF THE STRUCTURE

GROUND FLOOR

Fig: 3.1.1

Name Of Lay out : Merina City

Name of Village : Endapulli Panchyath

 `FIRST FLOOR

Fig: 3.1.2

Name Of Lay out : Merina City

Name of Village : Endapulli Panchyath

 COLUMNS LAY-OUT

Fig: 3.1.3
Name Of Lay out : Merina City

Name of Village : Endapulli Panchyath

 CHAPTER 4

MEDHODS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

DESIGN OF COLUMN

A Column can be defined as a vertical structural member

designed to transmit a compressive load. In the modern construction
industry,columns are mostly constructed by concrete ,apart from that materials
such as wood, steel , fibre-reniforced , polmer, cellular PVC aluminium too been
4.1 Methods of Design
4.1.1 Introduction
The Indian standard code practice (IS 456 SP 16) FOR R.C structures and
national building have been followed in the design. All the design being done
by limit state method.
4.1.2 LIMIT STATE METHOD OFDESIGN
Limit is a condition of a structure at which it causes to function in the
manner for which it was designed. Limit state are classified as
 Limit state of collapse or ultimate limit state
 Limit state of serviceability
A structure or a part of a structure must be safe against collapse and also
serviceable in use. Safety requires that the structure to be adequate to withstand
the design loads with regard to collapse.
Serviceability requires that the deflection and width of the cracks to be
within the permissible limits and vibrations to be tolerable under the action of
design loads with regards to serviceability.
The design aids to IS 456, Published by the Bureau of Indian Standard
made the design by the limit state method is being widely used in practice.
The method gives economical result when compared with conventional
working stress method.
4.2 Methods of construction
For multi storey structure four types of construction have been used, namely
 Loading bearing construction
 Composite construction
 Reinforced concrete frame construction
 Steel framed construction
It has been found that fully load bearing construction is suitable up to 2
stories and if there are more number of stories is required framed construction is
needed for high rise building either steel or composite is required.
Our stadium building is construction by Framed structure
 CHAPTER 5

5.1 DISIGN OF COLUMN:

STEP-1
MATERIAL CONSTANTS
𝑓𝑦=500N/𝑚𝑚2
𝑓𝑐𝑘= 30N/𝑚𝑚2
Column size = 350×400mm
Unsupported length of column 𝑙𝑜=3910-750
=3160mm
(One end hinged and other end is fixed)
STEP-2
AXIAL LOAD FACTORED
𝑃𝑈=0.45× 𝑓𝑐𝑘 × 𝐴𝑐+0.67𝑓𝑦 × 𝐴𝑠𝑐
Min 𝐴𝑠𝑐=0.8-6%
Hence assume 0.2% =2% of 𝐴𝑔
=2 100 × 750
𝐴𝑠𝑐=6300𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝑐=𝐴𝑔-𝐴𝑠𝑐=[(400×750)-6300]
𝐴𝑐=293700𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑢= (0.45×30×293700) + (0.67×500×6300)
𝑃𝑢=6075.45KN
Effective span:
𝑙𝑜=3160 mm ,( one end hinged and other
end is fixed)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓=0.7×3160
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓= 2212mm
STEP-3
TYPE OF COLUMN:
𝐿/ 𝑑 = 2212/750 =2.94 <12
𝐿 /𝑏= 2212/ 350 = 7.37<12
Hence should be design short column
STEP-4
MOMENT CALCULATION:
𝑀𝑢.x = 𝑃𝑢.D/2000[𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓/d]2 =
6075.45𝑋0.750 2000
=[2.278/5.88]2
𝑀𝑢.x =38.74 KN.m
𝑀𝑢.y = 𝑃𝑢.b /2000[𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓/b] 2 = 6075.45𝑋0.3 2000
=[911.3/14.74]2
𝑀𝑢.y = 6.14 KN m
STEP-5
CALCULATION OF ECCENTRICITY:
𝑒𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜 /500 +𝑏/ 30 = 3160/ 500 + 350/ 30
𝑒𝑥 = 17.98 < 20mm
𝑒𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜 /500 + 𝐷 /30 = 3160 /500 + 750/ 30
𝑒𝑦 = 31.32> 20mm
MOMENTS DUE TO 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑢.x = 𝑃𝑢.𝑙𝑥 = 6075.45X0.02 = 121.5 KN m
𝑀𝑢.y = 𝑃𝑢.𝑙𝑦 = 6075.45x0.031 = 188.33KN.m
STEP-6
LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT:
Assume % of steel pt= 2.5%
𝑃𝑡/ 𝑓𝑐𝑘= 2.5 30 = 0.08
 If (0.8 – 6%) is the range of main steel area of column
The cover column = 40mm
Assume 25mm ∅ bars
𝑑, = 40 + 25/2 = 52.5mm
𝑃𝑢 𝑓𝑐𝑘.𝐵𝐷 = 6075.45𝑋1000 30𝑋350𝑋750 = 0.478
HENCE IT’S SAFE

Fig .5.1 COLUMN DESIGN

 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In these training activities, I learnt lots of core related details of above

mentioned topics. This help to improve the knowledge and to know about the
field work to the best.

In-Plant Training will provide an industrial exposure to the students as well

as to develop their career in the high tech industrial requirements. Reputed
companies are providing In-plant training to Students. Here students initially get
counsulated in order to emerge out their interest in various streams and what are
all the basic concepts they know on that domain.

After the successful completion of studies, students have to face this

competitive world with this knowledge to face many problems and to find the
right solutions which has to be solved in minimum duration of time. The In-plant
training is totally different from the class environments.