Emollients On The Go - Susan Barklay PDF

ADVENTURES IN
COSMETIC CHEMISTRY

http://swiftcraftymonkey.blogspot.com 2
Emollients you will love: New oils & butters
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 4
HOW TO USE THESE OILS? .................................................................................................................. 4
GENERAL NOTES ON MAKING BATH & BODY PRODUCTS ........................................................ 4
FATTY ACIDS ........................................................................................................................................... 6
HYDROGENATION AND FATTY ACID SHAPES ......................................................................................... 7
HYDROGENATION ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
FATTY ACID SHAPES ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
CIS AND TRANS FATS ...................................................................................................................................... 8
OLEIC ACID ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
LINOLEIC ACID ............................................................................................................................................... 10
GAMMA LINOLENIC ACID (GLA) ............................................................................................................... 11
WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF SOMETHING IS AN ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID? ....................................... 12
A GREAT QUESTION SOMEONE ASKED ON THE BLOG ABOUT FATTY ACIDS… .............. 12
OTHER THINGS FOUND IN OILS ..................................................................................................... 18
POLYPHENOLS ............................................................................................................................................... 18
POLYPHENOLS: IT’S CHEMISTRY TIME! ............................................................................................................ 19
PHYTOSTEROLS ............................................................................................................................................. 20
VITAMIN A ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
CAROTENOIDS ................................................................................................................................................ 22
RANCIDITY ............................................................................................................................................ 23
OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY .............................................................................................................................................. 23
PHOTO-OXIDATION ..................................................................................................................................................... 23
AUTO-OXIDATION ........................................................................................................................................................ 24
HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY ......................................................................................................................................... 24
MICROBIAL RANCIDITY ............................................................................................................................................. 24
USING ANTI-OXIDANTS ............................................................................................................................... 25
USING VITAMIN E ......................................................................................................................................................... 25
CAN OILS PENETRATE OUR SKIN? ................................................................................................. 25
STRATUM CORNEUM LIPIDS ........................................................................................................... 27
CAN FREE FATTY ACIDS PENETRATE OUR SKIN? ..................................................................... 28
HEATING, HOLDING, FREEZING & THAWING ............................................................................ 30
CUPUACU BUTTER (INCI: Theobroma grandflorum seed butter) ...................................... 32
KOKUM BUTTER .................................................................................................................................. 33
SAL BUTTER (INCI: Shorea robusta) ............................................................................................ 33
ARGAN OIL ............................................................................................................................................ 34
BAOBAB OIL .......................................................................................................................................... 34
BLACKBERRY SEED OIL .................................................................................................................... 36
BLUEBERRY SEED OIL ....................................................................................................................... 37
CHIA SEED OIL ...................................................................................................................................... 38

EMU OIL .................................................................................................................................................. 38
MEADOWFOAM SEED OIL ................................................................................................................. 40
PEAR SEED OIL (INCI: Pyrus communis (pear) seed oil) ....................................................... 41
PLUM KERNEL OIL .............................................................................................................................. 42
PUMPKIN SEED OIL ............................................................................................................................ 43
RASPBERRY SEED OIL ....................................................................................................................... 44
ROSEHIP SEED OIL .............................................................................................................................. 45
SQUALANE ............................................................................................................................................. 46
WALNUT OIL ......................................................................................................................................... 46
WATERMELON SEED OIL .................................................................................................................. 47
CREATING NEW AND FUN THINGS WITH THESE OILS ............................................................ 49
HAND, BODY, AND FACIAL LOTIONS! ........................................................................................... 49
BASIC HAND & BODY LOTION FORMULA USING POLAWAX OR NATRAGEM EW ..................... 49
BASIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING A LOTION... ........................................................................................... 50
MODIFYING THIS FORMULA WITH INCROQUAT BTMS-50 ............................................................. 51
BASIC LIGHT LOTION USING SIMULGREEN 18-2 OR MONTANOV 68 ........................................... 51
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING A LOTION WITH MONTANOV 68 OR SIMULGREEN 18-2 ............. 52
BAOBAB & BABASSU BODY BUTTER WITH SIMULGREEN 18-2 .................................................... 53
MAKING LIGHT LOTIONS WITH COLD EMULSIFIERS ........................................................................ 54
SQUALANE & CHIA SEED OIL QUICK LOTION .................................................................................................. 55
ANHYDROUS PRODUCTS YOU CAN MAKE WITH OILS & BUTTERS .................................... 56
EXFOLIATING SUGAR SCRUB BARS ......................................................................................................... 56
EXFOLIATING SUGAR SCRUB BAR ........................................................................................................................ 56
LOTION BAR WITH EMU OIL ...................................................................................................................... 57
LOTION BAR WITH EMU, CALENDULA & ARNICA OILS .............................................................................. 58
OILY GELS WITH CERA BELLINA .............................................................................................................. 58
APRES BATH MOISTURIZING GEL WITH CERA BELLINA .......................................................................... 59
CREATING A LOVELY FACIAL SERUM ...................................................................................................... 60
ARGAN & EVENING PRIMROSE FACIAL SERUM ............................................................................................. 60
SWEET ALMOND & POMEGRANATE FACIAL SERUM ................................................................................... 61
WHIPPED BUTTERS ..................................................................................................................................... 61
WHIPPED BABASSU AND KOKUM BUTTER WITH PUMPKIN SEED OIL .............................................. 61
EMULSIFIED SCRUBS .................................................................................................................................... 61
EMULSIFIED SUGAR SCRUB WITH WATERMELON SEED OIL AND KOKUM BUTTER ................... 62
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 63

INTRODUCTION
I can’t believe it’s been 7 years since I wrote Back to Basics as a
fundraiser for my youth programs. Since that time, I’ve played
with so many new and wonderful oils and butters, and thought
it was time to share what I’ve learned during that time about oil
chemistry, the compounds found in oils, and different ways to
use them.

As a note, this e-zine came so late in the month as I can’t stop
writing about the oils. Every time I think I’m done, I realize
there’s something more I want to share with you, and I have to add it!

Let’s start off by taking a look at oil chemistry, including the mechanisms of rancidity and
anti-oxidants; how our skin interacts with oils; then we’ll meet some of my new favourites.
HOW TO USE THESE OILS?

As I always say – in my formulas, you can substitute any oil for any oil, any butter for any
butter, any butter for any oil, and any oil for any butter and still have it work well*. You may
experience a different skin feel, different viscosity, different melting point, and so on, but
the chemistry of a lotion or scrub will work.

*The exception here is any product in which the oil or butter is necessary for the product to
work, like a whipped butter or lotion bar. Take the butter out of either of those products, and
you’re left with a bunch of liquid oil.

If you have a formula you already love, try using a liquid oil in place of the liquid oil you’ve
been using to see how you feel. Keep good notes, so you can make something you love again
and again and avoid the thing you hate!
GENERAL NOTES ON MAKING BATH & BODY PRODUCTS

If this is your first time making products, woo hoo! I admit I’m a bit jealous of the exciting
journey that lies ahead for you. If you’ve made products before, this is probably old hat, so
feel free to jump ahead!

How to read a formula? Convert the % to the word grams and you’ll be making a 100 gram
batch of something. If you want more than 100 grams (3.3 ounces) of something, you’ll
want to multiply everything by 2 for 200 grams, 3 for 300 grams, and so on.

Why do we use weighted measurements? We need to measure every formula you want
to make by weight as it’s more accurate. If I tell you to use 1 tablespoon of beeswax, is that
before or after it’s melted? Do you shave the beeswax off or does it come in pastille form?
When we make things by weight, we don’t worry about those things! Besides, when we
measure everything on the scale into the container, we only have one or two things to clean
instead of all those tiny spoons and measuring cups! Invest in a good digital scale – you
should get one for about $30 or so – and you’ll be so happy with your products.

Why do you use grams? Because I’m Canadian and that’s the way we do things up here in
metric system land. Besides, if something’s in ounces, how do you know if those are volume
or weighted ounces? A gram is always a measurement of weight so it’s easier.

What if I want to use ounces? You can, but the math gets tricky. If you try doing the
“convert the % to ounces” thing, you end up with 100 ounces, and that’s a lot of stuff. You
could convert % to ounces, then multiply by 0.1 to get 10 ounces, but that’s still a lot. It’s
just so much easier to use grams.

How much should I make of a product the first time? Make no more than 300 grams of
something. That way you don’t have a lot of something hanging around the house if you
hate it or if the formula fails. (I generally make 100 grams, but you need a little scale that
measures to 0.1 or even 0.01 grams for that!)

How should I mix the formulas? If I don’t tell you, then mix with either a stick blender or a
hand mixer with the beater blades. If I do tell you, please do it that way as it’s important to
make the product work. If you’re working with foamy or lathery things, like body washes or
face cleansers, you’ll want to use a large fork and mix it carefully.

Why are you using distilled water? Using distilled water or reverse osmosis water in
these formulas is essential. Even boiled water can contain minerals that can cause or speed
up contamination or rancidity. Invest $2 for four litres (one gallon) of distilled water and
save yourself the heartache of seeing a great product go bad!

I’m assuming you have passing familiarity with ingredients for bath & body products. If you
find something unfamiliar, please visit my blog at http://swiftcraftymonkey.blogspot.com
and look at the sections or do a search. I’ve done my best here to give you a brief overview
of various ingredients, but if I went into as much detail as I do on the blog, this little e-zine
would run 40 pages for one formula alone!

In general, I say you can alter the water phase of a product by adding a little aloe vera or
hydrosol in place of distilled water. However, you’ll have to check which ingredients can
handle electrolytes. For instance, Aristoflex AVC can’t stand them, while Sepimax ZEN was
made to handle them. My suggestion is to make each formula as you see it without adding
things the first time you try it, then add a bit of something like aloe vera at no more than
10% and see what you think. Keep great notes so you can make it or avoid it in the future. .

FATTY ACIDS
A triglyceride is made up of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acids.
If you're a lotion maker, you're familiar with stearic acid as a thickener.
Stearic acid is a C18 fatty acid, which means it is a long chain (C18) fatty
acid without any double bonds, so it's a long chain saturated fatty acid. If
we put three of these fatty acids together with a glycerol molecule, we'd
have a saturated glyceride, and one with a great shelf life!
But it's fairly uncommon for an oil to have three of the same fatty acids. They tend to have
at least 2 different kinds, and sometimes three, as you'll see below with sunflower and olive
oil.
The fatty acids connected to the glycerol backbone determine what the kind of oil or butter
we have. The fatty acids can have differing carbon chain lengths and different types of
bonding. They can also have different configurations (trans fats - you've heard about those!)
that determine if an oil is liquid or solid.
For instance, it looks like this triglyceride is

composed of a C16 chain, a C18:1 chain, and a
C18:3 chain. I know C16 is palmitic acid. C18:1 is
called oleic acid. And C18:3 is linolenic acid. This
could be a corn, cottonseed, or palm oil molecule.
The polyunsaturated chain (the C18:3 or linolenic
fatty acid has more than 1 double bond, which
means it is unsaturated, and because there's more
than 1, it's called polyunsaturated!) can go rancid quite easily!
What this means in terms of making lotions or other creations is this molecule has THREE
double bonds on that last fatty acid, so it may go rancid more quickly than something like
olive oil below.
Olive oil has between 55 and 85% oleic acid, 4.6% linoleic acid, 6.9%
palmitic acid, and 2.3% stearic acid. In this sample molecule, we see a
triglyceride with an oleic fatty acid (C18:1 - 1 double bond), linoleic acid
(C18:2 - 2 double bonds), and palmitic acid (C16 - no double bonds). If
oleic acid makes up the bulk of the fatty acids with its 1 double bond, we
are going to see an oil that is less likely to go rancid than one that is filled
with linoleic acid (2 double bonds).
Okay, so this is fascinating and all, but what does this mean for bath & body makers? Olive
oil is a liquid oil that is unlikely to go rancid quickly, but it will go rancid eventually, as
indicated by the double bonds. It also means this is a liquid oil.
So what does this all mean? By looking at an oils and butter property chart, you can figure
out if an oil will go rancid quickly! And you can look for specific properties the fatty acids
can offer in the profile to see which one you want to add for what properties. Soapmakers
have long known how to choose oils to increase or decrease certain characteristics - you
can figure out which ones you want to use in your bath & body creations by looking at the
oil profile as well!
HYDROGENATION AND FATTY ACID SHAPES

No, I'm not getting into how bad hydrogenated oils are for your heart ('cause you need a
heart to live), but my interest in this topic is all about the oils we use in bath & body
creations!

HYDROGENATION
When a molecule has double bonds, that double bond can
be broken and the fatty acid now reacts chemically with
oxygen to produce all kinds of molecules we don't want in
our lotions that have horrible smells.

Hydrogenation is the process of breaking those double bonds in advance and inserting
hydrogen into the open spaces. This makes an oil less likely to go rancid because you've
pre-oxidized it, as it were. You've turned an unsaturated fat (one with at least 1 double
bond) into a saturated fat (one with no double bonds).

Oils can be saturated without the help of processing - animal fats, shea butter, and illipe
butter are all naturally occurring saturated fats.

Saturated fats lie in a straight line (more about this below), so they pack together more
easily. When triglyceride molecules are packed together well, they become a solid oil with a
higher melting point. And they have longer shelf lives because the double bonds have been
eliminated, so they are more resistant to rancidity. You can see why this has some appeal,
eh?

FATTY ACID SHAPES
Double bonds in a fatty acid shape can make it go from the
lovely straight line we see in the saturated fatty acids like
stearic and palmitic acid, to the kinky line you see in the oleic
acid (C18:1 - 1 double bond) and erucic acid (C22:1 - 1 double
bond, found in rapeseed and mustard seed). When we add
another double bond, it can make the fatty acid contort in all
kinds of ways, as we see in the linoleic acid (C18:2) or
arachidonic (C20:4 - 4 double bonds, an omega-6 fatty acid).

So what does this mean for us? A double bond makes the fatty acid kinky, which means it
can't pack in as tightly as those without double bonds, resulting in a more liquid oil. If you
look at the oils with more double bonds - grapeseed, sunflower, or safflower oils - you'll
notice they are considered "light" oils. Whereas oils like olive oil, avocado oil, and rice bran
oil have fewer double bonds and are heavier.

So the heavier oils have fewer double bonds, which means they go rancid less quickly than
the lighter oils. (I'm not talking about fractionated oils here...more on this in another post.)
The butters will go rancid in the distant future because they don't have any double bonds at
all!

CIS AND TRANS FATS

I know the words "trans fats" sends a shiver up our spines these days, but they are really
relevant in understanding the differences in our oils!

But wait - I've just realized I haven't really explained what a double bond is! EEK!

Carbon has 4 electrons that want to connect with other
atoms (the blue dots). Hydrogen has 1 electron that wants
to connect with other atoms (the red dots). Atoms really
like to have 8 electrons, so they connect with other atoms to
make up 8 electrons. As you can see from this picture,
carbon likes to be surrounded by 4 hydrogen atoms to
make up this 8 electron configuration.

Atoms are so desperate to make up this 8 electron
configuration, sometimes they will bond doubly or triply
with another atom to get to that number.

In the case of a double bond in a fatty acid, the carbon doesn't connect with a hydrogen, it
connects with another carbon in a double bond, leaving the hydrogen out in the cold.
Normally when we look at a fatty acid chain, we see a top row of hydrogen atoms, then a
row of carbons, then a row of hydrogens. This would be a single bonded or saturated fatty
acid because there are double bonds. If you look at the unsaturated fatty acid chain, there
are missing hydrogen atoms where the carbon atoms are double bonded! This the double
bond, and it is easily broken so something else can get in that place of the missing hydrogen.
(If you recall yesterday's post, we can make the bonds break and put hydrogen in those
spaces.)

All right...back to cis and trans fats!

When we have a double bond on a fatty
acid, it can be in either the cis- or trans-
configuration. What exactly does this
mean?

In the cis configuration, the missing
hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond (cis means "same"). The molecules
bend at the site of the double bond, giving us a kinky molecule that won't pack in nice
straight, dense lines like the saturated fatty acids. Put a bunch of these together and you
have a liquid oil!

In the trans configuration, the missing hydrogen atoms are on the opposite sides of the
double bonds. The chain doesn't bend much, so they have a straighter shape. Meaning they
can pack in more densely, resulting in an oil that behaves as a solid saturated oil instead of a
liquid oil. It has a higher melting point, doesn't need refrigeration, and is cheaper than
saturated oils like coconut or palm oil.

The process of partial hydrogenation can force the hydrogen atoms in a normal cis
configuration to become a trans configuration. The double bonds are broken, then re-
formed in the trans configuration. You are unlikely to find a trans configuration in the oils
we use in bath & body products as it usually arises out of processing and would likely cost
more than a regular vegetable oil.

OLEIC ACID
Oleic acid (C18:1) is another fatty acid that
shows up a lot in the oils we use in lotion
making. It is found in olive oil at really high rates
(78%) and high oleic sunflower oil (74%). It has
only the one double bond, so it has a longer shelf life than those oils with really high linoleic
fatty acid content.

Oleic acid is not considered an essential fatty acid because our bodies produce it. Although
oleic acid is actually found in our human sebum - you'll probably see jojoba and olive oil
touted as being very close to sebum as a selling point - it can actually make the effects of the
bacteria responsible for some types of acne (P. acnes) worse!

Oleic acid is also found in sea buckthorn (15 to 20%), grapeseed (15 to 20%), almond oil
(61%), macadamia nut (56%), and camellia seed oil (77 to 83%). Avocado oil is very high in
oleic acid (75 to 80%). It's found in decent quantities in rice bran oil (42%) and sesame oil
(45%), so these are great choices if you want to have good levels of both linoleic and oleic
acid.

It's also found in high quantities in mango butter (46%) and shea butter (40 to 55%,
depending upon region), so these are good butters to add if you're trying to increase your
oleic acid content.

So why do we care about oleic acid in our oils? Oils and butters containing oleic acid tend to
be very moisturizing and regenerating to our skin. They often offer anti-inflammatory
properties and some, like olive oil, mimic our natural sebum. They tend to be absorbed well
by the skin, which offers softening and moisturizing effects.

Oils high in oleic acid will go rancid far less quickly than those high in linoleic or linolenic
acids - notice the single double bond - so they might be better choices for creations you
want to last a long time.
LINOLEIC ACID
Linoleic acid is considered an essential fatty acid, one
we can't construct ourselves in our body, so we have
to get it from the outside world. It is crucial to normal barrier function in skin, and a
deficiency can lead to dry skin and hair, hair loss, and poor wound healing. It is a major
component in ceramides - about 14% - which make up about 50% of our stratum corneum
or outer layer of skin.

Ceramides are essential for the normal organization of our tissues into structures that are
responsible for keeping the barrier function of the skin functioning well, like preventing
transepidermal water loss and keeping other things out. They’re found in our skin at about
50% by mass. The other components of our skin are fatty acids (10 to 20% by mass) and
cholesterol (about 25%). A decrease in ceramides - through aging, exposure to high or low
temperatures - can lead to dry skin and itchiness due to a decrease in the efficacy of the
stratum corneum's ability to keep water in and other things out.

Note: To make a moisturizer and call it filled with ceramides, you have to follow the ratio
above of 50% linoleic acid, 10% free fatty acids, and 25% cholesterol. I'm not making the
claim any of the following recipes contain ceramides as I won't be actively including the free
fatty acids or cholesterol.

During the winter, a proportion of our ceramide 1 linoleate (acylceramide) decreases, and
this can lead to dry and itchy skin. During the summer, our skin has increased levels of
palmitic and palmitoleic fatty acids. And people with atopic dermatitis and acne show
reduced levels of linoleic acid in their skin.

Studies have shown linoleic acid can restore the barrier function and reduce scaling on your
skin. One study showed using linoleic acid on people with acne reduced the pustule size by
25% in one month. It can act as an anti-inflammatory, acne reducer, and moisture retainer.

The one problem with linoleic acid? It's a polyunsaturated fatty acid (C18:2), so most of the
oils in which we'll find it are going to have short shelf lives. We can choose ones with longer
shelf lives - like rice bran oil - or add anti-oxidants and chelating ingredients to our lotions.
(Or just accept we're going to have a short shelf life product and make a note of when to
throw it away!)

Sunflower oil contains 61 to 73% linoleic acid with a shelf life of about 6 months. The high
oleic versions will last a year, but they only contain about 3 to 9% linoleic acid. As a note,
sunflower oil contains about 630 to 700 mg Vitamin E per kilogram (which is quite a lot), so
this explains why something with such a high ratio of double bonds can last 6 months!

Safflower oil contains up to 70% linoleic acid, but again its shelf life is about 6 months.

Rice bran oil contains up to 37% linoleic acid and 42% oleic acid (more on this shortly) and
up to 400 mg per kg tocopherols, giving it a long shelf life of about a year. It also contains
Vitamin B, Vitamin E, and squalane.

Sesame oil contains up to 40.4% linoleic acid, and is a longer lasting oil thanks to the high
proportion of oleic acid (C18:1). It is a medium weight oil and is good for massage oils as it
won't stain clothes or sheets.

Soybean oil contains up to 51% linoleic acid, and contains up to 700 mg per kg tocopherols
(mostly in the gamma tocopherol state, which is great for its anti-oxidant properties). This
oil should last 9 months to a year thanks to those anti-oxidants.

Wheat germ and hemp seed are both awesome linoleic acid sources, but both have very
short shelf lives - 3 to 6 months, if you add your anti-oxidants! Hempseed contains 57%
linoleic acid, and wheat germ contains 55 to 60% linoleic acid.

Some our more expensive oils contain both linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid. Evening
primrose oil contains 9% gamma linolenic and 71% linoleic acid. Borage and black currant
oils both contain high levels. And watermelon seed oil contains 60% linoleic, 20% oleic, and
20% palmitic and stearic acids.

GAMMA LINOLENIC ACID (GLA)

Gamma linolenic acid (C18:3) is another
essential fatty acid, one our bodies can't produce.
It has three double bonds, meaning it is a fatty
acid that is going to oxidize quickly, so we need to combine it with some good anti-oxidants
or use it quickly in our lotions. It is found in small quantities in the ceramides in our skin.

GLA can have anti-inflammatory effects on our body and skin. It helps with the conversion
of linoleic acid into arachidonic acid, and helps with the anti-inflammatory and immune
systems in our bodies. In animal studies, GLA in the form of borage oil was effective in
reversing epidermal hyperproliferation (skin cells proliferating too quickly) and increasing
ceramide synthesis in guinea pigs (although they ate it, rather than slathering on a decadent
lotion!) Evening primrose was not as effective. Ironically, in human studies, ingesting
evening primrose oil shows good signs of treating eczema and skin irritation, although
similar studies of borage with eczema didn't show the same results.

Applied to our skin, GLA can be a great anti-inflammatory, improving skin's protective
qualities and helping repair the skin barrier faster than linoleic acid. Like the oils containing
linoleic acid, GLA will help with itchy dry skin, act as a moisture retainer, and helps with
acne prone skin. And GLA containing oils are absorbed quickly into the skin, increasing
skin's flexibility and suppleness.

Evening primrose oil specifically has been found to reduce transepidermal water loss
(TEWL) and increase stratum corneum hydration in normal skin, but it doesn't seem to help
as much as borage oil with atopic dermatitis (chronic inflammation of the skin that causes
an itchy, swollen, red rash).

GLA is found mostly in what I have called exotic oils - oils we don't tend to use in great
quantities like we do the carrier oils mainly because they are freakin' expensive! Evening
primrose, borage, rosehip, and blackcurrant oils are filled have good levels of GLA from 15
to 23%.

How much GLA should we use in our products? Unfortunately, this information is sketchy at
best with no consensus. We have suggestions from manufacturers to use up to 10% evening
primrose and 10% borage oil, but the studies just aren't there to suggest these amounts are
correct.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF SOMETHING IS AN ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID?

I continue to see oils listed as having essential fatty acids or containing omega 3, 6, or 9.
What does this all mean?

An omega 3, 6, or 9 bond means the fatty acid contains a double bond between carbon
atoms that is 3, 6, or 9 atoms from the end of the molecule, as you can see from the picture
above. When the bond is 3 atoms from the end of the chain, it's an omega 3. If it's 6 atoms
away from the end of the chain, it's an omega 6. If it's 9 atoms away from the end of the
chain, it's an omega 9.

Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids, which is to say they are
essential for human life. Omega 9 is not an essential fatty acid.

A GREAT QUESTION SOMEONE ASKED ON THE BLOG ABOUT FATTY

ACIDS…
Erika asked: I'm so confused!! I'm going in circles and about to pull my hair out! I'm trying to
understand fatty acid profiles. I get double bonds and saturated versus unsaturated in terms of
a fatty acid chain. And, I understand what fatty acid profile tells us in terms of shelf life of an
oil. But, I'm confused about what else it tells me.

For example, oleic acid (monounsaturated - omega 9 - C18:1) - not an EFA, helps with cell
regeneration and provides skin softening properties, and is also moisturizing. My question is
how does it do that? What's the mechanism? Is it related to fatty acid synthesis and the
pathway in metabolism? And why is oleic acid regenerative as opposed to linoleic acid which is
said to restore barrier function.

Linoleic acid (duo-unsaturated - omega 6 - C18:2), an EFA, helps restore barrier function and
acts as anti-inflammatory that can help with dry and itchy skin; can reduce TEWL. How does
linoleic acid work as an anti-inflammatory? Is it because it has 2 double bonds? Is it related to
the conversion of linoleic acid to GLA and AA?

What differentiates the two in terms of how they work? Is it because one has only one double
bond and the other has 2? They're the same chain length. So, I don't understand what makes
one provide cell regeneration and the other restore barrier function?

Small changes in a molecule can result in big results! It may not seem like a big deal, but the
difference of an extra double bond and the difference of two hydrogen molecules means one
of these fatty acids is oleic acid (top one), a monounsaturated non-essential fatty acid that
our body can produce, and the other is linoleic acid (bottom one), an polyunsaturated
essential fatty acid, one that our bodies can't produce. That extra double bond means that
linoleic acid will be rancid quicker than oleic acid, and means that it has a lower melting
point of -5˚C compared to 13˚C of oleic acid. Both are liquid at room temperature.

Compare these molecules to stearic acid, an 18 carbon fatty acid with no double bonds. It is
a solid fatty acid with a melting point of 69˚C with a much longer shelf life as there are no
double bonds to break and oxidize.

Linoleic acid is considered an essential fatty acid, one we can't construct ourselves in our
body, so we have to get it from the outside world. It is crucial to normal barrier function in
skin, and a deficiency can lead to dry skin and hair, hair loss, and poor wound healing. It is a
major component in ceramides - about 14% - which make up about 50% of our stratum
corneum or outer layer of skin. Studies have shown linoleic acid can restore the barrier
function and reduce scaling on your skin. One study showed using linoleic acid on people
with acne reduced the pustule size by 25% in one month. It can act as an anti-inflammatory,
acne reducer, and moisture retainer.

Why is linoleic an essential fatty acid (EFA)? It's considered essential because we need it to
live. We can't produce it, so we must get it from outside sources, like sunflower or soy bean
oil. (You may also see it called a polyunsaturated fatty acid, meaning that it has more than
one double bond.)

How does it work for barrier function? In our skin, the corneocytes or skin cells are
surrounded by an intracellular matrix that provides the barrier function. The stratum
corneum liquids make up about 15% of the dry weight of the stratum corneum, and contain
about 40% to 50% ceramides, 20% to 25% cholesterol, 15% to 25% fatty acids (those with
C16 to C30 chain lengths, with C24 to C28 being the most common), and 5% to 10%
cholesterol sulfate.

So to answer the question, the reason it helps with barrier function is because it's found in
the lipids of our stratum corneum. Without linoleic acid in our skin, we would experience
essential fatty acid deficiency, which leads to increased transepidermal water loss, skin
dryness, and inflammation of the skin. Adding it back in the form of something like
sunflower oil means our skin will incorporate it as part of the stratum corneum lipids,
leading to an increase in barrier function, which leads to a reduction in transepidermal
water loss and reduction in dry skin. The reason oleic acid doesn't help with barrier
function is that it isn't part of our skin's normal make-up, so applying it topically doesn't
change the make-up of our skin's barrier lipids, which leads to the increase in barrier
function.

How does linoleic acid work as an anti-inflammatory? There are chemical messengers in
our skin called eicosanoids that play critical roles in inflammatory and immune responses
in our skin. They are produced by enzymatic reactions between LOX enzymes and linoleic
acid to produce hydroxy fatty acids, like 13-hydroxyoctadecdienoic acid, that has anti-
proliferative effects. Linoleic acid is converted to gamma-linoleic acid, then to dihomo-GLA,
then to arachidonic acid. Along the way, dihomo-GLA produces 15-HETrE, which is anti-
inflammatory, and arachidonic acid produces 15-HETE, which is also anti-inflammatory.

So the answer is yes, it is an anti-inflammatory because of the conversion of linoleic acid
into gamma-linoleic acid, dihomo-GLA, and arachidonic acid.

Does linoleic acid act as an anti-inflammatory because of the two double bonds? Sort
of...The 18 carbons and double bonds in the 6 and 9 spaces define this molecule as linoleic
acid. Take away the 6 double bond, you have oleic acid. Add a double bond at 12 and you
have linolenic acid. So I think the answer is kinda yes because if it didn't have these two
double bonds in just the right place, the molecule wouldn't be linoleic acid.

The second part of Erika’s question: Then, I look at fatty acid profiles of oils high in oleic acid
I find olive oil (78%), high oleic sunflower oil (74%), hazelnut oil (66 to 85%), and avocado oil
(75 to 80%)

Avocado oil feels soft, spreads long, and seems to absorb at a medium rate. Olive oil seems
about the same. Sunflower oil, on the other hand, feels rough and dry. And, hazelnut oil feels a
dryness somewhere between avocado and sunflower. Why is that? Is it related to other fatty
acids in each oil?

Although I don't think you can judge the nature of an oil by the fatty acid composition alone,
I think it will give you some valuable information. For instance, if you see that there are
loads of oleic acid and linoleic acid, you can guess that it's probably a more liquid oil than
one filled with stearic acid or myristic acid, both of which are solid at room temperature. If
you see that the oil has more cis bonds than trans bonds, you can guess that the one with
more cis bonds will be more liquid than those with the trans bonds. (Check out the section
above on page 8 to learn more.)

The top molecule is oleic acid with the kink in the middle thanks to the cis bond. The
bottom molecule is stearic acid without a kink in the middle. The lack of kinks makes it
easier for the molecules to lie closer to the other ones, which makes it more solid at room
temperature. (This is why we see trans fats in our foods. They are meant to replicate solid
fats like butters.)

There are more features to oils than the fatty acids, though. There are phytosterols,
polyphenols, vitamins, tocopherols, and more. So when you consider something like
hazelnut oil, you can consider the fatty acids, but also take a look at the tannins, which will
make it feel drier than something like olive oil.

I think you also need to consider personal interpretation for skin feel. For instance, you say
you think sunflower feels rough and dry, while I feel it feels very slick and greasy.

As an aside, fatty acids that are not part of a triglyceride are called free fatty acids, and there
is some indication free fatty oleic acids might be disruptive to the skin's barrier and
increase transepidermal water loss. (There’s more about this on page 28.) This is one
reason to consider the greater picture when looking at the fatty acids of oils.

So, as you can probably tell, I don't think that you can judge an oil by its fatty acid profile
alone because there are just too many variables that go into how an oil will feel, what its
melting point will be, what it offers to our skin, and so on.

Erika continued with the awesome questions! Then, I look at other fatty acids in each of the
oils and additional confusion sets in, with the function, or mechanism of other fatty acids
contained in those oils.

Another example, coconut oil. It contains a lot of lauric acid (47.5%) But, so what? (not to
sound cheeky) What does that mean other than the fact that lauric acid is a saturated fatty
acid, C12, so it's a medium chain fatty acid, no double bonds, which offers a long shelf life.
What is the effect, or benefit of lauric acid? What can I expect from the lauric acid in coconut
oil?

And, coconut oil also contains unsaturated fats with "18.1% myristic acid (C14), 8.8% palmitic
acid (C16), and a titch of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic acids. Because of this saturation,
this is a very long lasting oil." C16 palmitic acid and C18 stearic acid are also saturated fatty
acids, as well as myristic acid (C14)

Stearic acid - helps with moisture retention, flexibility of skin and skin repair (saturated C18),
it also provides thickening properties - how? why? is it because it's a saturated fat?

And myristic acid (C14), which is much like stearic acid, but it's considered a penetration
enhancer - why is this considered a penetration enhancer when it's similar to stearic acid
which works as a co-emulsifier and thickener.

GLA - helps with inflamed skin, and helps restore barrier function (polyunsaturated - omega 6
- C18:3)

Sigh.

I'm not trying to be a chemist. I just would like some basic understanding so that when I look
at the fatty acid profile of an oil I can say, oh, hey, this has lots of myristic acid, so I can expect
__________ from this oil because myristic acid does __________________ by way of __________________
(in an easy to understand way) :-)

All fatty acids are going to offer moisturizing to our skin as they are found in oils, which are
inherently moisturizing. Having said this, there isn't a lot of really great information on
what fatty acids other than linoleic (and its relatives) or oleic acid. I couldn't find much on
stearic, palmitic, myrisitc, or lauric acids.

What does stearic acid offer to our skin? Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid that has
reported anti-viral and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as thickening properties.
Adding stearic acid or a butter containing it will be thicker than those without. This
thickening power is thanks to the structure of the molecule in that it lies straight, meaning
that more molecules can pack into a smaller space, making it thicker. As well, it can make
our skin feel slightly colder than using a product without it.

What does lauric acid offer to our skin? Lauric acid is a saturated fatty acid that has
reported anti-microbial properties that could be used as treatment for acne issues. It will
help to thicken the products we make containing it.

What does myristic acid offer to our skin? It is a saturated fatty acid that will help to
thicken the products we make containing it and it will offer moisturizing to our skin. I could
not find anything indicating it was a penetration enhancer.

What does palmitic acid offer to our skin? It is a saturated fatty acid that will help to
thicken the products we making containing it and will offer moisturizing to our skin.

When it comes to your sample sentence above, you could say - oh, hey, this has lots of
linoleic acid, so I can expect it to help restore barrier function and can reduce
transepidermal water loss because it is a fatty acid found in our skin and it can reduce
inflammation because it helps produce eicosanoids that play a critical role in inflammation
and immune system responses in our skin and because it's converted into GLA in our skin. I
also think it'll be quite liquid because of the large quantity of cis bonded linoleic fatty acids.

You could say that stearic acid will offer moisturizing because it's found in this or that
butter, that it will thicken the product in which we use it thanks to the structure of its
molecule and high melting point.

OTHER THINGS FOUND IN OILS

POLYPHENOLS
Polyphenols are found in our oils in three major ways - flavonoids, lignans, and tannins.
They are the structural backbone for most anti-oxidants found in plants, and we can use
them in our creations to offer some awesome benefits. Polyphenols show up in most of the
botanically based ingredients we use in lotion making - hydrosols, essential oils, carrier oils,
butters, and so on - and they're what make essential oils essential!

There are over 4,000 identified flavonoids - you may see them as flavenols, flavones,
isoflavones - and I'm not going into all of them on this blog! The ones containing ketones,
like flavonoids and flavonals, are potent anti-oxidants with anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory,
and anti-microbial benefits for your skin, and work as anti-oxidants for the purposes of
preventing rancidity.

Flavonoids behave as anti-oxidants on our skin and in our bodies by scavenging the free
radicals produced at our cell membranes. It is thought (meaning there aren't enough
studies or nothing conclusive) the flavonoids offer anti-inflammatory benefits by inhibiting
pro-inflammation mediators in our bodies, such as prostaglandins.

Catechins (a type of flavonoid) found in tea and chocolate can offer anti-biotic properties in
our products as they disrupt a stage of bacterial DNA replication. This isn't to say you can
use tea or chocolate (or extracts like cocoa butter or green tea butter) as a preservative for
your lotions, but that's a nice thing in a lotion! A type of catechin found in green tea is being
investigated for its role in preventing UV related skin damage.

Lignans behave as anti-oxidants and phytoestrogens in our body. We find the lignans in flax
seed (0.3 grams per 100 grams), sesame seed (29 mg per 100 grams), pumpkin, and soy
bean oil. The lignan sesamine found in sesame oil has been shown to be immuno-
suppressive in lab tests, but not on humans.

As a note, isoflavones, like those found in soy bean products, can behave as phyto-estrogens
as well. Neither the lignan nor the isoflavone phyto-estrogens behave this way when
applied to skin - they have to be ingested to get that effect. (But who knows what science
will discover next? Perhaps we're not applying them in high amounts?)

Tannins are water soluble phenolic compounds found in grapes, tea, and other botanical
ingredients. They tend to be very astringent and produce "dry" oils like grapeseed, hazelnut,
and camellia oil. (An astringent is defined as a substance that contracts the pores and
tissues and makes them smaller). Witch hazel and green tea extract contain high levels of
tannins, hence their notoriety for astringency.

The various polyphenols we use in skin care products are only just now being investigated
in any great depth - this is why you're seeing the ingredient of the month touted by all the
big companies and being good for x or wonderful for y! Polyphenols found in olive oil have
been studied extensively, and they have been shown to help repair sun damaged skin. And
studies coming out now about sea buckthorn oil show it may also have regenerative
properties.

Polyphenols tend to lend a bitter taste to their fruits and vegetables - and in skin care
products, they tend to produce oils that are "drier" than other oils and offer astringency.
There tends to be a correlation between the amount of polyphenols and that slippery
feeling in a lotion. Oils with high tannin levels - camellia oil, for instance - feel drier on our
skin and can be more astringent. As a result, we might not want to use high polyphenolic
oils as our primary oils if we want something glidy and slidy.

POLYPHENOLS: IT’S CHEMISTRY TIME!
From a chemistry point of view, what exactly is a polyphenol? A polyphenol is defined as
a compound that possesses a phenolic moiety. Okay, so what's a phenolic moiety? For our
purposes, we'll define a moiety as a functional group - the atoms within the molecules that
are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of the molecule (this isn't exactly
what a moiety is, but it works for now). So the OH part of an alcohol would be the functional
group that defines it as an alcohol.

A phenolic is a functional group. It has a benzene
ring (a ring of carbon that has 3 double bonds
within it) and a hydroxyl group (the -OH). (The
actual definition is a class of chemical compounds
consisting of a hydroxyl group (OH) bonded
directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group - the
benzene ring part.) Although they have the -OH of
the alcohol group, they don't behave like alcohols
because they are attached to the ring, not a nice
straight line of carbon atoms. They have higher pH levels than alcohol - 10 to 12 - and they
can be called a carbolic acid.

Phenols can have extra functional groups or can connect with other phenols
to create all kinds of interesting polyphenols (the word "poly-" means
many). This is hydroquinone - you can see a hydroxyl group has been added
to the ring (at the bottom) to create a new compound.

So why do we care? Because polyphenols offer all kinds of amazing benefits
to cosmetic products! The major categories are flavonoids, catechins, and
lignans, each of which brings something great for our skin! (I'll be mainly
focusing on the flavonoids over the next few days!) Flavonoids are classified
by their biosynthetic origin - those that are intermediates and end products
of biosynthesis, and those that are only end products.

Flavonoids behave as anti-oxidants on our skin and in our bodies by
scavenging the free radicals produced at our cell membranes. It is thought (meaning there
aren't enough studies or nothing conclusive) the flavonoids offer anti-inflammatory
benefits by inhibiting pro-inflammation mediators in our bodies, such as prostaglandins.

Some flavonoids have anti-biotic, anti-fungal, and anti-reddening qualities.

PHYTOSTEROLS
Phytosterols are plant based sterols like cholesterol that give structure to the plant's cell
membrane (the way cholesterol does for our cells).
Phytosterols can be converted into Vitamin D and
cholecalciferol, both of which have wonderful effects on
our skin. You'll find the sterols in the unsaponifiable
portion of the oils in fats - the part that won't turn to
soap when you add a base to them.

Phytosterols aid in helping our skin's barrier
mechanisms recover by penetrating into the skin, rather than occluding the skin, and our
body will synthesize some of these phytosterols as it would cholesterol. And it can help
cholesterol absorb better when we apply it! As our skin consists of about 25% cholesterol,
adding an oil high in phytosterols can go a long way in helping damaged skin recover from
the abuses we put it through every day (but don't go claiming you're healing anything!)

Phytosterols can have a huge effect on skin damaged or harmed by environmental
influences, such as wind chapping, sun damage, sun burn, and so on. They reduce
inflammation and itching. And, of course, they help to moisturize dry skin by reducing
transepidermal water loss (TEWL). In hair care products, they can offer softening of the
hair strand and reduction of electrostatic charges, so no more fly-away hair for you!

Studies done on the phytosterols and polyphenols (more about those tomorrow) in olive oil
show they can help repair skin damaged by the sun.

What does this mean to us as lotion makers? Adding oils high in phytosterols can increase
the efficacy of our lotions by preventing TEWL, by helping repair damaged skin, and reduce
itching and inflammation (again, remember you can't make these claims without significant
testing!). How awesome is that?

VITAMIN A
Vitamin A - what is it good for in bath & body products?
It's an oil soluble molecule that can improve skin barrier
function, increase cell proliferation, increase thickening
of the skin, and increase collagen production. It can also
help increase skin's water retention, and it may be
effective in preventing, retarding, or restoring changes associated with the aging process. It
is also effective in wound healing. It is the most abundant vitamin in our skin (in the form of
ester retinyl palmitate), which is hydrolyzed to form Vitamin A, which is then oxidized to
produce retinoic acid (the active form).

There are several forms of Vitamin A - the retinoids - we can use in bath and body products
- retinol, retinyl esters (retinyl propionate, retinyl acetate, retinyl palmitate), and
retinaldehyde. Each of these is ultimately converted into trans-retinoic acid, the active form
of Vitamin A in our skin, but the retinyl esters are less effective than retinol, and are less
stable in our products. We can find retinoic acid (tretinoin) in some of our oils.

Vitamin A is measured in International Units or IU. An IU of Vitamin A equals 0.3 µg retinol,
0.34 µg Vitamin A acetate, or 0.55 µg Vitamin A palmitate. It is classified as a drug by the
FDA, so please don't make any claims about including Vitamin A in your products!

Retinyl palmitate specifically has been found to help maintain skin's barrier properties by
stimulating the epidermal cells to produce glycolipids, which are important for the
formation of the intercellular lipid lamellar structure in skin.

In a study on hairless mice, a cream with 0.1% Vitamin A administered over 14 days
increased collagen content of the mice's skins by 88%. 0.5% Vitamin A palmitate uncreased
the collagen content by 10%. And in a study on rats, 10 µg Vitamin A acetate suspended in
0.2 ml water lead to an increase in cell proliferation four hours after usage. In a study on
human volunteers, aged 40 to 60, the application of Vitamin A palmitate to the temples
showed an increase in skin thickness of 14% in two weeks and 22% over 6 weeks.
Unfortunately, once you stop using products with Vitamin A, you return to your previous
pre-Vitamin A skin condition. (But this is the case for most things - stop using it, you don't
get the benefits!)

Retinol is the most effective form of Vitamin A in bath and body products. The effects of
retinol usage can be very quick - epidermal thickening can in a matter of a few hours, take
place in days, reduction of fine lines in a couple of weeks, and reduction of wrinkles in
weeks to months. And you only need to use 1%!

Vitamin A is touted as a great ingredient for after sun exposure. Our blood levels of Vitamin
A decrease when we are exposed to the sun for a short period of time, and the levels keep
dropping the longer we stay in the sun. (Isn't that fascinating? No, seriously. Why have I
never heard of this before?) A similar effect is noticed in our skin. So by adding Vitamin A to
our products (or using oils high in the retinoids or ß-carotene) we can increase the Vitamin
A content of our skin. Interestingly enough, scienticians still aren't sure of the exact
mechanism by which Vitamin A actually works on sun exposed or photo-aged skin!

Why do we care about how much Vitamin A is in our skin? Vitamin A diminishes the
appearance of fine lines due to increased skin cell production, which leads to increased
epidermal thickness. The thicker our skin, the less likely we are to see fine lines!

It increases the production of epidermal ground substance (glycosaminoglycans or GAGs),
which bind water in the skin. This results in increased hydration of skin and moisture
retention. But we don't want too much GAGs in our skin, and Vitamin A inhibits production
of too much ground substance! (Did that make sense? It increases the production but
inhibits the production, both of which are good things?) The GAGs are required in our skin
for normal collagen structure and function, but too much can lead to wrinkling in photo-
damaged skin. (Shar pei dogs have too many GAGs, hence the wrinkled look!) Water
retention is a great thing for skin - we want maximum moisturization!

It helps with wound healing by increasing the rate of cell proliferation so new cells can
come to the surface of our skin quicker. And it helps with skin thickening in this way as well.

An increase in collagen production is a mighty fine thing indeed. As we age, we lose about
1% of our collage per year, which leads to reduced elasticity of our skin. With the reduction
in the GAGs in our skin, we will appear less wrinkled.

Vitamin A is a good treatment for acne - it acts on the primary pre-acne lesion - and offers
anti-inflammatory benefits. You'll often find Retinol prescribed for acne.

Having said all of this, retinoids can be irritating to the skin! (Just ask someone like me who
used Retinol prescription cream for years! When I cried or my eyes watered, it actually
stung my cheeks!) Retinol and retinyl acetate are less irritating than retinoic acid, and
retinyl palmitate is the least irritating. Use retinol at less than 1%. Retinaldehyde at 0.05%
up to 1% - it's as irritating as retinol - but use retinyl palmitate at up to 2% in your
products!

Most of the retinoids come from our oils in the form of carotenoids or pre-cursors to
Vitamin A.

CAROTENOIDS
Carotenoids are tetraterpenoids, which are a large and varied class of hydrocarbons
produced by plants, particularly conifers (wow, that
sounded text-booky, eh?) They are either carotenes (oil
soluble) or xanthophylls (more polar, water soluble with
oxygen functional groups) with 40 carbon atoms.

There are three major groups of carotenes - lycopene, lutein, and ß-carotene - but we find
ß-carotene mostly in the oils and other ingredients we use. ß-carotene is oil soluble, and is
the pre-cursor to Vitamin A. The body will convert ß-carotene into Vitamin A if it needs it: If
it doesn't need it, then it just roams around as an anti-oxidant, free radical scavenging and
preventing lipid peroxidation in our bodies and on our skin.

Carotenes are strong anti-oxidants. They either quench the anti-oxidizing process or
chemically react with free radicals to form a carotenoid radical.

Carotenes have been shown to have photo-protective effects when we're exposed to the sun.
Studies have shown a reduction in thiobarbituric acid (shows up when we're in the sun!) if
our skin is pre-treated with creams including ß-carotene! Lycopene is the strongest in the
carotenoid photo-protective sweepstakes, with lutein and ß-carotene less effective.

What do carotenes offer to bath and body products? The pre-Vitamin A stuff is pretty
awesome, considering Vitamin A has such a great effect on our skin, and this is one of the
main reasons to seek out carotenes!

It also helps protect from UVB damage and behaves as an anti-
oxidant to retard rancidity! The one down side? The strong colour
from ß-carotene containing oils might your products a little on the
yellow or orange side.

Where can we find these wonderful tetraterpenoids? You can find it
in cranberry oil, rosehip oil, wheat germ oil (which also contains
xanthophylls, which have many of the same qualities as the
carotenes), calendula oil, and sea buckthorn oil. When you see a
really orange oil, chances are it’s full of lovely carotenoids!
RANCIDITY
What is rancidity? Rancidity is when our oils "go off" and smell horrible after being
exposed to light, heat, or beasties. You can smell when an oil is really off, but the process
starts the day the oil is pressed or extracted from the fruit. It is a chemical process during
which the double bonds in an oil are broken and a chemical reaction happens, such as the
insertion of oxygen in place of that broken bond.

Almost every chemical reaction speeds up when exposed to heat, and rancidity is no
exception. Why does this happen? Every chemical reaction has a rate of reaction or the
speed at which a reaction occcurs. When we heat up a chemical reaction, the molecules
bounce around more, which increases the number of collisions (this is called collision
theory). The more bouncing molecules, the more collisions, the faster the reaction. So when
we heat up an oil, even slightly, we increase the bouncing around of the molecules, which
means more possibility of colliding into a free radical, which can cause oxidation. Most
chemical reactions are rated at SATP - standard atmosphere (1 atm, or sea level) and
temperature (25C).

OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY
The double bonds of the fatty acid react chemically with oxygen. This turns the fatty acid
molecules into other molecules that smell awful! This can be a result of photo-oxidation or
auto-oxidation.

PHOTO-OXIDATION
The double bond interacts with a singlet oxygen (1O2), which is produced by the light. It is
highly reactive with unsaturated lipids. The process is even quicker when you introduce
sensitizers like chlorophyll and various other organic substances (like blood, bile, and
riboflavin, but those shouldn't be issues for lotion makers - I hope!)

This is why we try to keep our oils away from strong light - bright light can produce more
oxygen in the bottle, which can increase the process of photo-oxidation. This is a much
faster process than auto-oxidation. Various carotenoids in our oils can slow this process -
derivatives of lycopene, like lutein, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin, as well as beta-carotene -
and many oils contain these ingredients. These are natural anti-oxidants found in our oils,
and most of them contain at least a few to fight rancidity!

AUTO-OXIDATION
Even in the absence of air, we find oxygen. Oh oxygen, you are so necessary but so
annoying! Through the breaking of the double bonds, the oxygens helps the the fatty acids
break down into hydrocarbons (the H-C-H chains you see, which can be methane - 1 carbon,
4 hydrogens - or ethane - 2 carbons, 6 hydrogens), ketones, aldehydes, epoxides, and
alcohols, some of which are smelly ingredients!

This process is a slow one when anti-oxidants are found in the oils. When the anti-oxidants
are gone, it's a really fast process and takes very little time at all if the oil is heated as well.
(Which gives you a good reason to get some Vitamin E into your oils when you get them
from the supplier!)

Metal ions in the water at low levels can promote auto-oxidation. This is why we use
chelating agents (also called sequestering agents) like citric acid and EDTA to bind the
metals so they won't be a nuisance in our lotions. (And why we use distilled water that
should not contain these metals!) The main culprit is iron, and the process can be speeded
up by exposure to light.

HYDROLYTIC RANCIDITY
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which a molecule is cleaved into two parts by the
addition of a water molecule ("hydro" is water, "lysis" is splitting"). The fatty acids are split
away from the glycerol backbone, and the water is split into H (hydrogen) or OH
(hydroxide) ions. When this happens, our lovely fatty acid molecules are morphed into a
new molecule and we have rancidity.

MICROBIAL RANCIDITY
Yes, our little beastie friends can cause rancidity in our lotions! (Which is why you must
ALWAYS use a preservative!) Microorganisms use their little enzymes (usually lipases) to
break down the chemical structure in the fat. Which, again, results in rancidity.

Wow, when you consider how many ways a lotion can go wrong - between rancidity and
flocculation and separation and so on - it's a wonder we can make them at all. Fortunately,
we have anti-oxidants ready and waiting to stave off rancidity as long as possible!

USING ANTI-OXIDANTS
Anti-oxidants can stave off rancidity in our oils, giving them a longer shelf life in our
products. Nothing can make the possibility of rancidity go
away completely, but anti-oxidants are huge weapons in
our fight on ickiness!

Free radicals are constantly running around in our lotions,
seeking out electrons to fill its valence shell. When we add
an anti-oxidant, we provide that free radical with those
electrons. The radical is content with its electron shell and
bothers us no more! How awesome is that?

USING VITAMIN E
Vitamin E is one of the main lipophilic anti-oxidants you'll find for bath and body products,
and it's the most commonly used by homecrafters. It comes in four varieties of tocopherols
and four varieties of tocotrienols. We will be focusing mainly on the alpha tocopherol,
which is the one you're most likely to see in suppliers' shops.

Vitamin E is found in our stratum corneum and is secreted by our sebaceous glands to the
surface of our skin. Studies have demonstrated - at least on lab rodents - that it sinks readily
into our skin and can inhibit lipid peroxidation, which is like oxidiation of the oils on our
skin! It has also been shown to reduce sunburn irritation in mice (which just shows you
albino creatures and sunlight don't mix!).

The interesting thing about Vitamin E is it can lose its anti-oxidizing power, so it's unable to
contribute an electron to the free radical. But in an exciting redox process, it gets its
electron back, so the cycle continues again. Ah, you have to love chemistry!

Which one is best to retard rancidity of your oils? You’ll see Vitamin E called mixed
tocopherols and it’ll have a name like T-50 or Coviox 50. That’s the one you want for your
oils. Use at 0.05% to 0.1% at the most as higher levels can actually promote oxidation.
CAN OILS PENETRATE OUR SKIN?

From this article: Skin Research & Technology.
Aug2012, Vol. 18 Issue 3, p364-369. 5p.

Abstract: The aim of this study was the
investigation of the penetration behaviour of four
vegetable oils and of paraffin oil into the stratum
corneum by laser scanning microscopy. In addition,
the occlusion capacity of these substances was
assessed by transepidermal water loss (TEWL)
measurements. Petrolatum served as a positive
control for skin occlusion. The study was conducted
in vivo and included six healthy volunteers.

Results: Paraffin oil, as well as the vegetable oils, penetrated only into the first upper layers
of the stratum corneum. TEWL measurements indicated that the application of the
vegetable oils (except jojoba oil) as well as paraffin oil, led to a similar occlusion of the skin
surface. The most effective occlusion was found for petrolatum.

Conclusion: For the investigated oils, a deeper penetration than into the first upper layers of
the stratum corneum could be excluded. The decreased TEWL values indicate that the
application of the oils leads to a semi-occlusion of the skin surface as it is intended by the
use of oils to retain moisture in skin.

If you take a look through the study, you'll see that they used jojoba, soybean, avocado,
almond, and mineral oils as well as petroleum. Soybean and almond oil penetreated the
deepest, while jojoba, avocado, and paraffin oil penetrated only the first layers of our skin.
(The overall penetration of our skin was quite low, only the top layers of our stratum
corneum.) Interestingly, all the oils except jojoba oil reduced transepidermal water loss
(TEWL) because of occlusion.

Let's take a look at another study and see what it says...

Citation: Journal of Dermatological Science. May2008, Vol. 50 Issue 2, p135-142. 8p.

Summary: Background: Topical application of oils and oil-based formulations is common
practice in skin care for both adults and infants. Only limited knowledge however is
available regarding skin penetration and occlusive potential of oils and common methods
for measuring skin moisturization fall short when it comes to the moisturizing effect of oils.

Objective: In this study we used in vivo confocal Raman microspectroscopy to test the
efficacy of paraffin oil (mineral oil) and two vegetable oils in terms of skin penetration and
occlusion. Petrolatum was used as a positive control.

Methods: The products were applied topically on the forearms of nine volunteers and seven
infants and Raman spectra were acquired before and at 30 and 90min following application.
Depth concentration profiles for lipid and water were calculated from the Raman spectra.
Skin occlusion was assessed from the amount of stratum corneum (SC) swelling measured
from the water concentration profiles.

Results: The paraffin oil and the vegetable oils penetrate the top layers of the SC with
similar concentration profiles, a result that was confirmed both for adult and infant skin.
The three oils tested demonstrated modest SC swelling (10–20%) compared to moderate
swelling (40–60%) for petrolatum.

Conclusion: These data indicate that there is no statistical difference between the paraffin
oil and vegetable oils in terms of skin penetration and skin occlusion. The results for
petrolatum show that in vivo confocal Raman microspectroscopy is sensitive and specific
enough to measure both lipid uptake and skin occlusion events following topical application.

Again we see a result that says that the oils penetrate the top layers of the stratum corneum.

And from this book Dry Skin and Moisturizers: Chemistry and Function
edited by Marie Loden, Howard I. Maibach (page 261), we see that lanolin is able to
penetrate the upper or superficial layers.

So I think it's safe to say that oils can penetrate the top layers of our stratum corneum...but
does that mean anything? It's one thing to say that an oil can penetrate into our stratum
corneum, but what does it do there? Are there any benefits to having an oil penetrate our
skin?

Sure there are! The oils can help improve the barrier lipids found in our stratum corneum!
They make up about 15% of the dry weight of the stratum corneum, and contain about 40%
to 50% ceramides, 20% to 25% cholesterol, 15% to 25% fatty acids (those with C16 to C30
chain lengths, with C24 to C28 being the most common), and 5% to 10% cholesterol sulfate.
The lipids are arranged in a highly organized lamellar arrangement (fine layers alternating
between different materials) with small amounts of water present. This is considered to be
a very effective barrier to trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL). Water trying to escape the
through the stratum corneum would have to navigate a complicated maze through the
bilayer and the corneocytes to get to the surface of your skin - so the lipids and corneocytes
make this a much harder task!

STRATUM CORNEUM LIPIDS

If we think of the corneocytes in the stratum
corneum as "bricks", then the stratum corneum
lipids are the mortar. (The water soluble natural
moisturizing factor is found inside the
corneocytes; the lipid soluble stratum corneum
lipids are found outside the corneocytes.)

They make up about 15% of the dry weight of
the stratum corneum, and contain about 40% to
50% ceramides, 20% to 25% cholesterol, 15%
to 25% fatty acids (those with C16 to C30 chain
lengths, with C24 to C28 being the most common), and 5% to 10% cholesterol sulfate.

The lipids are arranged in a highly organized
lamellar arrangement (fine layers alternating
between different materials) with small
amounts of water present. This is considered to
be a very effective barrier to trans-epidermal
water loss (TEWL). Water trying to escape the
through the stratum corneum would have to
navigate a complicated maze through the bilayer and the corneocytes to get to the surface
of your skin - so the lipids and corneocytes make this a much harder task!

The ceramides in our skin are a major component of the structural organization of the
lamellar bilayers. There are nine different types offers something to the organization of our
stratum corneum and cohesion of the skin barrier. There is a subclass of ceramides called
acylceramides, which are ester linked to hydroxy fatty acids, specifically linoleic acid -
hence the concept that an oil high in linoleic or gamma-linoleic acid can help improve our
skin's barrier properties. In the winter, the ratio of the EOS-oleate increases which means
the EOS-linoleate decreases; this happens with dry skin as well. This has a dramatic effect
on lipid organization. (The EOS means it is linked to sphingosine.)

We need to treat the stratum corneum lipids well because without them, we end up with
really dry, perturbed skin. Particular solvents (hexane, toluene) can damage the lipids and
leave our skin defenceless. Harsh cleansers can also mess up the lamellar structure, leading
to serious changes in the health of our skin.

So again, mild cleansers for our skin with moisturizers and film formers are always a great
idea. Following up cleansing with some kind of lotion is also a good idea. Limit your use of
hand sanitizers - the alcohol is very dehydrating. If you really want to use anti-bacterial
stuff, try the new ones with benzalkonium chloride or use a really nice cold process soap
purchased from your local soap-maker. And follow up with a lovely lotion.

Oils with linoleic or gamma-linoleic acid are always welcomed by our skin (like sunflower,
sesame seed, borage, evening primrose, rice bran, and others), especially in the winter. And
any oil that creates an occlusive barrier is welcome! Keep your hands out of the toluene -
not really that hard to do! - and try to stay well hydrated by drinking lots of water and other
fluids.

CAN FREE FATTY ACIDS PENETRATE OUR SKIN?

We've established that studies have shown that some oils can penetrate the upper layers of
our stratum corneum and that this can be a good thing because it means those oils can help
improve the barrier lipids we find in the stratum corneum. So let's take a moment to see if
fatty acids we find in our oils can penetrate our skin and, if they do, what effect they might
have on our skin.

What are free fatty acids? They are fatty acids that aren't attached to the glycerol
backbone of the triglyceride, so they're just floating around in the oils. One of the benefits of
refining oils is the removal of these free fatty acids, so we end up with a tiny amount -
something like 0.05% - in our oils. It's a good thing to remove them as they can contribute
to "pro-oxidant" behaviour like our oils going rancid more quickly.

One study came to the conclusion that lauric acid (C12) and oleic acid (C18:1) could
penetrate the skin, with lauric acid shown to accumulate in the dermis. The authors put
forth that adding lauric acid might help with penetration of fatty acids. Capric (C10) and
linoleic acids (C18:2) penetrated, but not as much as the other fatty acids. This book -
Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers, By Eric Wane Smith, Howard I. Maibach, page 278 -
notes that medium chain length (like capric or caprylic acids), saturated fatty acids, and
unsaturated fatty acids are the most effective at penetration.

How do the fatty acids penetrate our skin? The pentration enhancers book puts forth the
idea that oleic acid (C18:1) disrupts the packed structure of the intercellular lipids in our
stratum corneum because it has a kinked structure thanks to that cis double bond, so it's
more effective at penetrating our skin than stearic acid (C18), a saturated fatty acid that
doesn't have that double bond so it lines up in a straight chain.

Do we want fatty acids to penetrate our skin? Is there value in it? In a study I can’t find
a link for any more, study. they noted that although capric acid (C10) penetrated the skin, it
didn't cause re-arrangement of lipids. And in the above mentioned book, it is noted that
oleic acid may penetrate the stratum corneum, but doesn't mix with the lipids. If something
penetrates but doesn't have an impact, do we care? (Just a thought...)

Here's the abstract of a study that just came out. It's quite interesting and raises a ton of
questions for me. (Experimental Dermatology. Jan2014, Vol. 23 Issue 1, p39-44. 10p.)

Plant-derived oils consisting of triglycerides and small amounts of free fatty acids
(FFAs) are commonly used in skincare regimens. FFAs are known to disrupt skin
barrier function. The objective of this study was to mechanistically study the effects
of FFAs, triglycerides and their mixtures on skin barrier function. The effects of oleic
acid (OA), glyceryl trioleate (GT) and OA/GT mixtures on skin barrier were assessed
in vivo through measurement of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and fluorescein
dye penetration before and after a single application. OA's effects on stratum
corneum (SC) lipid order in vivo were measured with infrared spectroscopy through
application of perdeuterated OA (OA-d34). Studies of the interaction of OA and GT
with skin lipids included imaging the distribution of OA-d34 and GT ex vivo with IR
microspectroscopy and thermodynamic analysis of mixtures in aqueous monolayers.
The oil mixtures increased both TEWL and fluorescein penetration 24 h after a
single application in an OA dose-dependent manner, with the highest increase from
treatment with pure OA. OA-d34 penetrated into skin and disordered SC lipids.
Furthermore, the ex vivo IR imaging studies showed that OA-d34 permeated to the
dermal/epidermal junction while GT remained in the SC. The monolayer
experiments showed preferential interspecies interactions between OA and SC lipids,
while the mixing between GT and SC lipids was not thermodynamically preferred.
The FFA component of plant oils may disrupt skin barrier function. The affinity
between plant oil components and SC lipids likely determines the extent of their
penetration and clinically measurable effects on skin barrier functions.

Okay, so what this is saying is that free fatty acids, like those we might find in our plant
derived oils might actually disrupt skin barrier function? ("The oil mixtures increased both
TEWL..." and "The FFA component of plant oils may disrupt barrier function.") Are we
making things worse by applying plant derived oils to our skin? I'm worried most by these
sentences - "FFAs are known to disrupt skin barrier function..." and "The FFA component of
plant oils may disrupt skin barrier function."

I did some searches and wasn't able to find anything about free fatty acids disrupting skin
barrier function other than a few "it is known" kind of things, which is frustrating because
you'd think something that is known would be more easily findable, but it is something to
think about. I found a reference in this book - Skin Moisturization, edited by James J. Leyden,
Anthony V. Rawlings, page 233 - that if we add only one type or two types of lipids found in
our skin (cholesterol, free fatty acids, or ceramides) it "impedes or rather than facilitates
barrier recovery". If we add all three, we see "normalized rates of barrier recovery".

So how do I interpret this? What I see this saying is that free fatty acids, like oleic acid, could
have a negative impact on our skin by disrupting barrier function that could increase
transepidermal water loss. However, refining those oils should bring us down to 0.05% free
fatty acids, which is a really tiny amount in our oils, so I think we're just fine given that we
are using so many things that will have a positive impact on skin's barrier functions, but
that's only my interpretation and opinion, and I'll keep on looking for more information.

HEATING, HOLDING, FREEZING & THAWING
If we heat oils, will they go rancid quicker? Are we destroying the
goodness in them? The quick answers are no and no…

Heat won't ruin our lovely oils because we aren't heating them up to a
temperature where they will start smoking or burning or oxidizing.
(For instance, coconut oil has a smoke point of 180˚C or 350˚F.)

Yes, heat will increase the rate of oxidation of our oils, but only by a bit, and we can
compensate for that by including Vitamin E or another anti-oxidant. It's not going to speed
up the rate of rancidity so much that a 1 year shelf life lotion becomes a three month shelf
life lotion. It's more like making a 1 year shelf life lotion a 11.5 month shelf life lotion. And
besides, if you don't heat and hold, you're not going to get a great emulsification anyway,
which severely limits the shelf life of every product to "the moment it fails", which could be
shortly after creation.

Can we heat delicate oils - like evening primrose, borage, squalane, and so on - in the
heat and hold phase of our products or should we leave them for the cool down
phase? There is no chemical difference between what we call exotic oils and carrier oils.
They both contain fatty acids, phytosterols, polyphenols, and all kinds of vitamins and
minerals. The concept of one oil being a carrier oil and another being an exotic oil has no
basis in chemistry - it's a designation we've given the oils based on availability and cost.
Wheat germ oil might or might not be an exotic oil depending upon the section of the store
your supplier puts it in and how common it might be in your part of the world. Don't get me
wrong...there are differences between something like borage oil and sunflower oil (for
instance) - borage feels drier, it contains GLA, it has a different fatty acid make up - but they
aren't so different that we have to treat borage with great delicacy and sunflower oil with
reckless abandon!

Every carrier or exotic oil we use should go into the heated oil phase to ensure it emulsifies
into the product. If you put them in the cool down phase, you are risking an epic lotion
failure, which is doubleplusungood and to be avoided! There is no need to put our exotic
oils into the cool down phase because we aren't heating them up to the point of smoking,
which is really the only way we can damage them. 70˚C or 158˚F is not that high a
temperature in the grand scheme of things. Vitamins can handle high temperatures as can
our fatty acids, polyphenols, phytosterols. In this study, phytosterols were heated for either
50˚C for several weeks or 100˚C for an hour, and the oils "did not show any significant
variation in the phytosterol content." (The study is called Effect of storage and heating on
phytosterol concentrations in vegetable oils determined by GC/MS.)

On the blog, Tara asked: Is there some validity in the point that it is the CHANGES in
temperatures that help to destroy our oils? I like to freeze most of my oils, but they need to be
brought to room temperature before I can use them. I then refreeze them and thaw them
again the next time I use them. Is this more destructive than if I just leave them at room
temperature (or slightly below, as my work area is in the basement)?

It's a good question, and yes, there can be some changes in
ingredients when they go from being frozen to heated, but there
doesn't seem to be so big a difference when it comes to oils, butters,
and exotic oils. The changes of concern are when we have to worry
about ice crystals ruining something - say veggies or meat - or when
we have a lotion that goes from being in my freezing car after a week
of snow days into my too warm office. I regularly freeze and thaw my
oils without problem.

Can you freeze and thaw then re-freeze your oils? Yes. It's fine.

Can you leave your oils at room temperature? Sure. There's no problem there either!

If we can freeze our oils and butters, can we freeze our anhydrous products? In theory, yes.
It would depend what product you're freezing. If you want to freeze a bath oil - sure, go
ahead. Bath melts? Why not? Your sugar scrub base (without sugar)? Sure! A balm or lotion
bar? Why not? And so on. And don't worry about the bottles - when oil freezes it contracts,
unlike water, which expands! (Click here for more on water and freezing!)

You cannot freeze products that contain water. Emulsified products are especially fragile
when it comes to freezing as are products that might contain water soluble ingredients (like
conditioner bars that might have hydrolyzed proteins and panthenol, for instance).

CUPUACU BUTTER (INCI: Theobroma grandflorum seed butter)

Cupuacu butter is a relative of cocoa butter, with a less greasy skin
that leaves a less shiny appearance. Its melting point is more like
refined shea butter at 32˚C to 36˚C. It can be used anywhere you
might wish to use another butter, such as anhydrous whipped butters,
lotion bars, or balms, as well as in emulsified products, like lotions or
creams. It will thicken products thanks to the lauric, myristic, palmitic,
and stearic acid.

Fatty acid profile:
Lauric acid (12:0): 20 to 25%
Myristic acid (14:0): 8 to 12%
Palmitic acid (16:0): 7% to 11%
Stearic acid (18:0): 16% to 25%
Oleic acid (18:1): 25 to 35%
Linoleic acid (18:2): 3% to 9%
Linolenic acid (18:3): 3.5% to 6.5%
Arachidic (20:0): 4.0% to 4.5%
Behenic (22:0): up to 1%

Shelf life: 1 year, possibly 2
Melting point: 32˚C to 36˚C, depending on refinement
SAP: 188 to 198
Iodine value: 40
Suggested usage rate: 1 to 10%, although it can be used at up to 100%

It might be a nice addition to hair care products as it contains arachidic acid, a saturated
fatty acid otherwise known as eicosanoic acid. Our hair contains 18-methyl eicosanoic acid,
which is the primary lipid on the hair surface. The addition of as little as 5% in a
conditioner could help replenish 18-MEA.

It’s considered a vegan alternative to lanolin as it a support up to 440% of its weight in
water (100 grams to 440 grams when stirring), which is 240% higher than lanolin.

It contains 2% to 3% unsaponifiable matter, including polyphenols and phytosterols, such
as kaempferol, which has strong anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Phytosterols are plant based sterols like cholesterol that give structure to the plant's cell
membrane (the way cholesterol does for our cells). They can be converted into Vitamin D
and cholecalciferol, both of which have wonderful effects on our skin. They aid in helping
our skin’s barrier mechanisms recover by penetrating into the skin, rather than occluding
the skin, and our body will synthesize some of these phytosterols as it would cholesterol.
And it can help cholesterol absorb better when we apply it! As our skin consists of about
25% cholesterol, adding an oil high in phytosterols can go a long way in helping damaged
skin recover from the abuses we put it through every day (but don't go claiming you're
healing anything!) Phytosterols can have a huge effect on skin damaged or harmed by
environmental influences, such as wind chapping, sun damage, sun burn, and so on. They
reduce inflammation and itching. And, of course, they help to moisturize dry skin by
reducing transepidermal water loss (TEWL). In hair care products, they can offer softening
of the hair strand and reduction of electrostatic charges, so no more fly-away hair for you!

Catechins (a type of flavonoid) offer anti-biotic properties in our products as they disrupt a
stage of bacterial DNA replication. A type of catechin found in green tea is being
investigated for its role in preventing UV related skin damage.

Tannins are phenolic compounds that tend to be very astringent and produce “dry” oils like
grapeseed, hazelnut, and camellia seed oil. (An astringent is defined as a substance that
contracts the pores and tissues and makes them smaller).

Another flavonoid, quercetin is an anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and (possible) anti-viral
found in a number of different fruits and vegetables - apples, tea, onion, citrus, tomato,
broccoli, cherry, raspberry, cranberry, sea buckthorn, gingko biloba, olive oil, St John's Wort,
mango, and grapeseed oil. It offers anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting both the
release and maintenance of histamine and other allergic mediators.

Cupuacu butter contains caffeine, found as theophylline and theobromine, which behaves as
an anti-oxidant on our skin, and can offer anti-inflammatory properties. (It’s great in an
under eye cream as it helps constrict blood vessels which appear smaller and can reduce
dark circles.) It’s been studied for reducing cellulite, although they’re using much higher
percentages than we can get even with cupuacu butter neat.

And, very interestingly, it contains two newly identified flavonoid glycosides, theograndins I
(1) and II, which are powerful anti-oxidants.
KOKUM BUTTER
Kokum butter (INCI: Garcinia indica) has a much high melting
point than other butters - 38˚C to 40˚C - and will make your
lotions or other creations much thicker than with other butters.
The fatty acid profile is similar to the other butters - 5 to 8%
palmitic acid (C16), 40 to 45% stearic acid (C18), 40 to 50% oleic
acid (C18:1), and 2 to 4% linoleic acid (C18:2) - but it is
considered an astringent butter, on par with mango butter. Its
shelf life is listed as between 1 to 2 years.
SAL BUTTER (INCI: Shorea robusta)

Purpose: Lovely emollient butter that has a high melting point, thickens products.

This butter as a melting point on par with cocoa butter - 34˚C to 38˚C - but the fatty acid
profile is different. With 2% to 8% palmitic acid (C16), 35% to 48% stearic acid (C18), 35 to
42% oleic acid (C18:1), and 2% to 3% linoleic acid (C18:2), it has a fatty acid profile closest
to kokum or shea butter. Sal butter also contains 6% to 11% arachidic acid (C20, also
known as eicosanoic acid), which you'll also find in coconut and sesame seed oils to far
lesser extents. It has a shelf life of up to 2 years, which is awesome!

The interesting thing about arachidic or eicosanoic acid is the role it plays in hair care. Our
hair has a fatty layer on the shaft and 18-methyl eicosanoic acid (18-MEA) makes up about
40% of that layer. Can adding something with eicosanoic acid help this layer? It can, and
that’s why we generally use coconut oil in our hair conditioners and masks.
ARGAN OIL
Argan oil contains 12% palmitic acid (C16), 6% stearic acid (C18), 42% oleic acid (C18:1),
and about 36% linoleic acid (C18:2), which makes it very similar to pumpkin or sesame oil.
It has about 56 mg per kilogram polyphenols and between 480 and 620 mg/kg tocopherols,
with about 69% of that amount found in the form of alpha tocopherol (Vitamin E). This
means it has a nice long shelf life, although no one will tell me exactly how long, I'd be
comfortable with it having about 9 months to a year.

Where argan oil is very interesting in is in the unsaponifiable portion of the the oil, which
makes up about 1% of the oil. It has about 37% carotenes, which accounts for its yellowish
colour, 20% triterpenic alcohols, 20% phytosterols, and 5% xantophyls.

The phytosterols are very interesting - schottenol and alpha-spinasterol are not often found
in vegetable oils. Schottenol may have some anti-tumour effects and alpha spinasterol has
some cell stimulation activity. As with all phytosterols, they are also helpful for reducing
inflammation.

It may help suppress sebum production, and it is supposed to protect our skin and
strengthen our hair, but I haven't been able to find any studies confirming these last two
claims. (And what does "strength hair" or "protect skin" really mean, anyway?)

What about using it in hair care products? Sure. Seems like a nice oil to me. Any oils will
offer a decrease in friction and an increase in lubricity, both of which can prevent damage to
our hair. Is there anything special in it specifically for our hair? I don't know. There's simply
not enough information out there to make that kind of statement.
BAOBAB OIL
This cold pressed oil is compared to avocado oil, although I find it
is more viscous with a silkier and drier feel than avocado oil. (If
you're familiar with kukui nut oil, I find that it is similar to that oil
in silkiness.) This is a very thick oil, thanks to the palmitic acid we
find in it at 18 to 30%, which is an awful lot for a liquid oil.
(Compare this to avocado's 10% or sweet almond oil's 2% to 6%.)
It also contains 2% to 9% stearic acid, 30% to 42% oleic acid, 20%
to 35% linoleic acid, and 1% to 3% linolenic acid.

Baobab oil (INCI: Adanasonia digitata oil) contains quite a lot of unsaponifiables* at 2.8% to
3.8%, and that's where we find our lovely phytosterols! Phytosterols can be converted into
cholecalciferol and Vitamin D, and they offer anti-inflammatory and skin barrier mechanism
repair properties to our skin. Baobab oil contains 3457 ppm phytosterols, with the main
ones being ß-sitosterol at 75%, avenasterol at up to 13%, and campesterol at 6%. You'll
also find quite a lot of squalene in this oil, which penetrates our skin quickly and offers
great moisturizing.

*Unsaponifiable matter is the part of the oil that won't turn to soap when you saponify it.

Baobab oil contains some Vitamins, with Vitamin E being found at 678 ppm. It contains
Vitamin A in the form of ß-carotene. I have seen it said that it contains Vitamin D, but I
wasn't able to confirm this. I've also seen it said that it contains Vitamin F, which isn't a
Vitamin but the essential fatty acids of omega-3 (linolenic fatty acid) and omega-6 (linoleic
fatty acid). It contains polyphenols in the form of catechins, which might be why it feels a bit
drier than other oils.

As I mentioned above, it's a thick oil with a specific density of 0.937 g/ml. (Water is 1 g/ml.)
If you are wishing to soap with this, check with your specific supplier of baobab oil because
I've seen all kinds of saponification values and iodine values for this oil and I would hate to
give you the wrong information for the oil you have in your workshop.

So what do we have here? We have a drier, silkier feeling oil that is quite viscous and
might be described as medium to heavy in weight. It contains a lot of wonderful
phytosterols and vitamins, including Vitamin E and Vitamin A, and squalene.

How to use baobab oil? Anywhere you might use any other oil. Use it anhydrous products
(those without water) or those with water like lotions, conditioners, and so on. It's not an
inexpensive oil - 125 ml or 4.2 ounces is $11.40 at Voyageur Soap & Candle or $13.50 for 4
ounces from From Nature with Love (not affiliated with either company, just offering
examples), so you might want to reserve it for things where the oils really make a huge
difference, like a facial moisturizer or lotion with fewer oils.

Summary of baobab oil
INCI: Adansonia digitata seed oil
Palmitic acid: 18% to 30%
Stearic acid: 2% to 9%
Oleic acid: 30% to 42%
Linoleic acid: 20% to 35%
Linolenic acid: 1% to 3%

BLACKBERRY SEED OIL

Blackberries are one of those berries that you can only really seem
to get from picking them fresh from the bush yourself. We have so
many bushes growing around our house, but they seem to be filled
with thorns intent on protecting those luscious berries from my
grasp! But I shall endure the pokes and stings to get my berries!

Blackberry seed oil (INCI: Rubus Fruticosus (blackberry) seed oil
or Rubus Villosus (blackberry) seed oil) has an interesting fatty acid
make up with around 3% in palmitic acid (C16:0), around 2% in
stearic acid (C18:0), 14% to 17% in oleic acid (C18:1), a whopping
61% to 70% linoleic acid (C18:1), and around 17% in linolenic acid
(C18:3). All this linoleic acid means it can oxidize quickly and has a
shelf life of 6 months, possibly up to 9 months. It would be great for skin that needs some
help repairing skin's barrier mechanisms thanks to all that linoleic acid!

Blackberry seed oil has some great levels of tocopherols (Vitamin E) at 1639 ppm, which is
why it might have a slightly longer shelf life than all that linoleic and linolenic acid might
indicate. It has tons of phytosterols at 4037 ppm. It contains about 170 ppm squalene,
which will penetrate the skin to offer moisturizing and softening. It contains some
polyphenols in the form of ellagic acid.

In all the listings about blackberry seed oil, I see things about it having high levels of
Vitamin C. Unfortunately, I couldn't confirm this with any studies I could find. This doesn't
mean it isn't true, it just means none of the studies or information I found mentioned the
Vitamin C levels of this oil. It does contains carotenoids at 33 ppm, which is evident by the
yellow colour of the oil.

What do I think of this oil? I would consider this to be an exotic oil based on the cost. The
Formulator Sample Shop offers it at $9.00 for 80 ml, Lotioncrafter at $6.75 for 30 ml, and
From Nature With Love at $10.01 for 15 ml. Gracefruit in the UK offers it for 4 pounds for
30 ml.

Summary for blackberry seed oil:
INCI: Rubus Fruticosus (blackberry) seed oil or Rubus Villosus (blackberry) seed oil
Suggested usage: 1% to 5%
Shelf life: 6 months to 9 months
Tocopherols: 1639 ppm
Phytosterols: 4037 ppm
Free fatty acids (FFA): 3.5%
HLB: 7

BLUEBERRY SEED OIL

Blueberries are my favourite fruit - I can eat them by the handful
in the summer until my tongue and lips are purple and we freeze
over 20 pounds to make sure I can make it through the year! It's
also gained a reputation as a superfood, something filled with
anti-oxidants. Does it stand up to the hype?

Blueberry seed oil (INCI: Vaccinium corymbosum (blueberry)
seed oil) contains some interesting compounds and fatty acids! It
has 1% to 5% palmitic acid (C16:0) and 1% to 3% stearic acid
(C18:0), around 12% to 22% oleic acid (C18:1), 43% to 53%
linoleic acid (C18:2), and 29% to 32% linolenic acid (C18:3). It
has a shelf life of 6 months to a year - I wasn't able to confirm this,
but it seems more likely with all that oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids that it will be more
like 6 months.

Blueberry oil contains quite a lot of phytosterols - 580 mg per 100 grams or 5800 ppm -
which behave as anti-inflammatories, help our skin repair after damage, reduce trans
epidermal water loss, and offer moisturizing. This is a ton of phytosterols, and is amongst
the highest of the oils. (Higher than soybean oil, which is considered to have a lot of them,
but not as high as sesame oil, which is really high.) It also contains about 110 ppm
tocopherols, which isn't very high. The anti-oxidizing power of this oil comes from the
polyphenolic compounds like anthocyanins. And check out the squalene in this oil! With
1781 ppm, it's got quite a lot, which might help chapped and cracked skin, prevent UV
damage to skin, and offer cell regenerating properties.

Blueberry oil has about 1.3 ppm carotenoids, which isn't very high, and we can see that
from the very light colour of the oil. (Raspberries have 230 ppm and we see that in the
yellow colour of the oil.)

How does it feel and appear? I thought it felt like a very light oil going on - I'd compare it to
being slightly heavier than fractionated coconut oil or more on par with our esters - but it
was a little draggy on my skin. I expected it to feel like the other light oils, so it'd go on quite
smoothly, but I found it seemed to sink in really quickly but was a little harder to apply.
Weird. An hour later, it feels like the oil has been absorbed quite well with no greasy after
feel. There is no odour, unfortunately.

I'd consider blueberry seed oil an exotic oil due to its price, which varies from supplier to
supplier quite a bit. Formulator Sample Shop carries it for $9.00 for 2 ounces. Lotioncrafter
has it for $5.95 per ounce. From Nature with Love carries it for $16.25 for 1/2 ounce.

Summary of blueberry seed oil:
INCI: Vaccinium corymbosum (blueberry) seed oil
Suggested usage rate: 1% to 10%
Shelf life: 6 months, possibly up to a year
Tocopherols: 110 ppm

Squalene: 1781 ppm
HLB: 7
CHIA SEED OIL

Chia seed oil is a light to medium, non-greasy oil derived from the
seeds of the salvia hispanica flower, a member of the mint family.

Is it wrong that all I can think about it is "Ch-ch-ch-chia!" when I'm
formulating with this oil?

It contains 5% to 8% palmitic acid 1% to 4% stearic acid, 6% oleic
acid (Omega 9), 17% linoleic acid or Omega 6, and 57% alpha-
linolenic acid (Omega 3). The latter two will help speed up skin's
barrier repair mechanisms.

This oil will moisturize, soften skin, help with wind or cold chapping, and reduce dryness
for all skin types.

It has more than 4100 ppm phytosterols, which can reduce inflammation and itching as
well as a ton of other benefits for our skin, with almost half in the form of ß-sitosterol at
around 49%, and a little less than a third as stigmasterol. (Click on the link to learn more
about phytosterols.) It contains some tocopherols - about 446 ppm - which will help slow
down rancidity and soften skin and hair.

As you can see from the picture, chia seed oil is yellow in colour and can have a nutty taste
and smell. And it has a one year shelf life, although you should always keep your oils in a
cool, dark place or the fridge to retard rancidity.

I've found this to be a very rich feeling oil with a viscosity a little thicker than rice bran oil.

EMU OIL
A lot of people have used emu oil (INCI: emu oil) in my classes lately, so I thought I’d take a
look at this oil to see what’s so great! It's reported to be a good anti-inflammatory, skin cell
regenerator, anti-bacterial, and non-comedogenic oil. Are these claims all true?

Interestingly enough, there haven't been a ton of studies on this oil and those that have
been done have mostly been performed on mice. It is anti-inflammatory for mice, but this
hasn't been proven for humans.

We do know its fatty acid profile...sort of. There have only been a few studies, and each
batch of oil can be vastly different from the last one depending upon the conditions in which
the emus lived and ate and how the oil was processed. (These are all mean scores. Some oils
may contain different ratios of fatty acids.) It contains about 22% palmitic acid (C16:0),
3.5% palmitoleic acid (C16:1), 9.6% stearic acid (C18:0), 47.4% oleic acid (C18:1), 15.2%
linoleic acid (C18:2), and 0.9% linolenic acid (C18:3). Emu oil contains sterols in the form of
sitosterol, amongst others, and we know sterols make for good anti-inflammatories, but the
amount is quite low - about 750 ppm. Compare this to something like macadamia nut oil
with about 1613 ppm or 3270 ppm in soy bean oil and you can see there are oils with
higher levels of sterols.

As a note, the sterols in emu oil aren't phytosterols because "phyto" means plant and emu oil is
from an animal.

What does this mean? Oils containing oleic acid are great for softening skin, regenerating
skin cells, moisturizing, and behaving as an anti-inflammatory. Oils containing linoleic acid
are good for helping to restore skin's barrier function and reducing transepidermal water
loss (TEWL), but what does palmitoleic acid do for our skin?

Palmitoleic acid is found in our skin's fatty acid profile and is a building block to prevent
burns, wounds, and skin scratches as well as the most active anti-microbial in our sebum. It
can be used on our skin to treat damaged skin and annoyed mucous membranes. Studies
have shown it can prevent adhesion of Candida albicans (yeast) to pig skin, and one study
showed it had the same effect on babies' bottoms! You can find palmitoleic acid in sea
buckthorn oil and macadamia nut oil.

Apparently emu oil is non-comedogenic, but I can't find any research to confirm this. It
contains a lot of oleic acid, which tends to be more comedogenic than other oils, and it
seems like the only people who are touting it as non-comedogenic are on-line retailers who
are selling the product. So I can't say whether this is confirmed or not.

Joe Schwarcz notes in his book Dr Joe & What You Didn't Know that emu oil contains
terpenes, sapogenins, and flavones, but I wasn't able to find specifics of each of these
categories. He notes it is a good emollient and "penetrates skin smoothly". And therein lies
the appeal of emu oil.

If you're wanting to make a product with some active ingredients that you want to
penetrate the skin, emu oil is a good choice, but then again, it's looking like any oil with
oleic acid might work in this fashion. It is not vegan friendly - they don't squeeze the emus
for the oil and let them go on their merry ways - and it is an expensive oil, even compared to
sea buckthorn oil (which is the most expensive oil I buy). It’s a thick oil – I have to melt it to
get it out of the container – which is what we kinda expect from animal fats thanks to all the
straight fatty acid chains.

MEADOWFOAM SEED OIL

Meadowfoam flowers are found on Vancouver Island in Canada and northern California and
southern Oregon, which makes it a local product for me! The
INCI is Limnathes alba (meadowfoam) seed oil. It's made by
crushing the seeds, which give up 20% to 30% oil. It has a shelf
life of a year because of its weird fatty acid make-up, and it is
said it can extend the life of other oils when we combine them
with meadowfoam seed oil. Being an oil, it is soluble in other
oils and oil soluble things, and not soluble or mixable with
water or water soluble things.

It's a funny oil with its fatty acids found as eicosenoic acid
(C20:1) at 61% to 63%, docosenoic acid or erucic acid (C22:1)
at 12% to 16%, with other C20 and C22 acids making up about
27%.

We also find eicosenoic acid in jojoba oil and a bit in borage oil, but I'm still not sure what it
brings to our skin. If you want an ingredient that is cheaper than jojoba with a lighter feel
and less waxiness, meadowfoam is a great choice.

It has about 2% unsaponifiables, which is where we find the phytosterols and polyphenols
of an oil.

With all those double bonds, why is this a stable oil? "The stability is due to the fact that the
double bonds are not conjugated and the to the presence of natural anti-oxidants in the oil"
unlike something like linoleic acid, which can have conjugated bonds if it's a conjugated
linoleic acid.

How does meadowfoam seed oil feel? I compared it to soy bean, evening primrose, and
kukui nut oils. I found it felt as light as those oils, was less oily feeling than the soy bean oil
but more oily feeling than the evening primrose and kukui nut oils, and it offered more rub
in time than the kukui nut oil but less than the soy bean and evening primrose. I found that
my skin felt like the oil was still on it an hour later, while the kukui nut oil and evening
primrose oil didn't feel like it was still there in any significant quantity. I would classify this
as a light feeling, medium greasy feeling oil in my own categorization. (Your opinion may be
different than mine.)

As an aside, I didn’t like this oil as it felt like it squeaked on my skin, the way corn starch feels
when you put your hands into it.

It's a slightly more expensive oil - on par with evening primrose and kukui nut at my local
supplier - so you might want to use it at lower levels. It seems like most people are using it
as an oil extender than for its inherent qualities, and you can use it at up 5% for that
purpose. For any other purpose, you can use it up to 100%.

Quick summary about meadowfoam seed oil
INCI: Limnathes alba (Meadowfoam) seed oil

Shelf life: 1 year (possibly longer)
Iodine value: 89 to 105
Saponification value: 160 to 175
Specific gravity: 0.90 to 0.92
Suggested usage rate: up to 5% for anti-oxidant properties, up to 100% otherwise
Not heat sensitive

PEAR SEED OIL (INCI: Pyrus communis (pear) seed oil)

Suggested usage: 1% to 10%
Fatty acid profile:
Palmitic acid (C16:0): 6.93% to 8.5%
Oleic (C18:1): 29% to 38%
Linoleic (C18:2): 50% to 63.7%

Tocopherols: 120.5 mg to 216.1 mg in 100 grams oil, y-
tocopherol pre-dominant at 55.6 mg/100 grams oil
Carotenoids: 0.69 to 0.99 mg/100 grams oil
Squalane: 25.5 to 40.8 mg/100 grams oil
Phytosterols: 276 to 600 mg/100 grams oil, with ß-sitosterol making up 83% to 87.6%
Polyphenols:
Procyanidins 96%
hydroxycinnamic acid 2%
arbutin 0.8%
catechins 0.7% of which 99% is -epicatechin

Wow, what’s not to like about pear seed oil? This light, quick absorbing oil has a ton of
linoleic fatty acid, which helps speed up skin’s barrier repair mechanisms, and oleic acid,
which helps soften and moisturize skin, along with loads of anti-inflammatories, and nice
anti-oxidants in this oil, including the tocopherols, carotenoids, proanthocyanins, and
hydroxycinnamic acid.

In the unsaponifiable part of this oil, we find all kinds of lovely things, like squalane,
phytosterols, and carotenoids.

Squalane makes up about 12% of our skin's sebum, so our skin identifies it as "ours" and
soaks it up quickly. Squalene is a vital part of cholesterol, steroid, and Vitamin D synthesis
in our bodies. It penetrates the skin quickly offering softening and moisturizing to even
really chapped or cracked skin, helps prevent UV damage to skin, offers cell regenerating
properties, and can be anti-bacterial. We find it at 25.5 to 40.8 mg in 100 grams of pear seed
oil.

Carotenoids are strong anti-oxidants, and offer photo-protective effects when we’re in the
sun. They can also help to retard rancidity of the oil. (This is why the oil is so yellow:
Carotenoids contribute to a yellow-orange colour.)

This is high in phytosterols, and the main one, ß-sitosterol can have a huge effect on skin
damaged or harmed by environmental influences, such as wind chapping, sun damage, sun
burn, and so on. It reduces inflammation and itching, and moisturizes skin by reducing
transepidermal water loss, as well as softening hair and reducing the electrical charges. It
can also reduce redness.

Proanthocyanidins are colourless molecules also called oligoflavonoids, condensed
polyphenols, or hydrolyzable tannins. They called the latter because they can be hydrolyzed
(the molecule is split by water into different compounds) in an acidic environment to
produce anthocyanidins, which are coloured. They play a role in the stabilization of collagen
and maintenance of elastin in the skin. They are being studied as water retention reducers,
and capillary protectors. They can help the body to produce histamine to prevent allergic
reactions. And they are powerful anti-oxidants - they are about 20 times more powerful
than Vitamin C and 50 times more powerful than Vitamin E.

Procyanidins are part of the proanthocyanidins group, and occur as esters of gallic acid in
green and black tea and grapes. They are quite unstable, reacting chemically in acid or base
solutions, reacting thermally, and oxidizing easily. They are considered to have anti-viral,
anti-microbial, and anti-HIV properties, as well as anti-oxidizing through free radical
scavenging.

PLUM KERNEL OIL

I admit it, I'm in love with plum kernel oil (INCI: Prunus domestica seed
extract). It's light, non-greasy, and smells absolutely of almonds,
although I think it's more like marzipan, which I adore! On top of all of
that, it has a richness I generally only find with thicker oils. (It reminds
me of pomegranate oil as it has an unctuous silkiness!)

It has a lovely fatty acid profile - 4% to 9% palmitic acid; 70% oleic acid
(Omega 9), which softens and moisturizes skin; and 20% linoleic acid
(Omega 6), which helps speed up skin's barrier repair mechanisms.

It's a little low on the phytosterols at up to 125 ppm and it has around 180 ppm beta-
carotene, the pre-cursor to Vitamin A. It has 0.5% unsaponifiable matter with around 800
ppm squalane. It contains around 700 ppm tocopherols to behave as anti-oxidants, which is
quite a lot, hence the longer shelf life.

Use at 1% to 10% in any product you wish in which you could include oils. I'm loving it in
light lotions as well as facial sera as it sinks in fast and feels less greasy! It has a shelf life of
two years - I know, right, incredible! - but always keep it in a cool, dark place or fridge. (The
version I have from Lotioncrafter is cold pressed.)

PUMPKIN SEED OIL

This is one of my favourite all time oils, and I always get litres of the stuff
every year to use in all kinds of products, from balms and whipped
butters to scrubs and body butters.

Pumpkin seed oil contains tocopherols (Vitamin E), but the amount can
differ with the time of year the pumpkins grew, where the pumpkins
grew, and how the oil processed. It can range from as low as 150 ppm -
not much - to 1575 ppm, which is quite a lot!

The darker colour of pumpkin seed oil comes from the carotenoids - a
type of flavonoid - at about 15 ppm. It isn't a lot, but it behaves as a
Vitamin A precursor and free radical scavenger. We also find caffeic acid,
also found in coconut oil and mango butter, which is a great anti-oxidant.

The phytosterols in pumpkin seed oil - ß-sitosterol at about 249 milligrams per kilogram of
oil - offer help with reducing redness and inflammation as well as soothing dry and itching
skin.

The oleic acid in pumpkin seed oil offers skin softening and moisturizing properties, as well
as cell regenerating and anti-inflammatory benefits. The linoleic acid helps with skin's
barrier repair and reduction of transepidermal water loss. The tocopherols offer anti-
oxidizing effects with softening, and the carotenoids offer free radical scavenging. And the
phytosterols can help with dry and itchy skin, as well as anti-inflammatory features.

Pumpkin seed oil can have a shelf life of 6 to 12 months. (The reason for the variability is
the variable amount of tocopherols.) I would stay on the safe side and call it 6 months
unless you add up to 0.5% Vitamin E to the bottle the moment you open it.

I'd compare pumpkin seed oil to rice bran oil or sesame oil. It's a medium weight oil with a
nice balance of oleic and linoleic acids. Try using it where you might use those two oils. As
well, try it in a facial moisturizer or serum, anywhere you want some Vitamin A free radical
scavenging.

RASPBERRY SEED OIL

I’m a big fan of being local - shopping at local stores, using local
ingredients, supporting local crafters - and I was so excited to see
raspberry oil on sale at some of our suppliers! I live in the Fraser Valley,
and we're known for our berries - raspberries, blueberries, strawberries,
and others - and it was exciting to see that a lot of this oil comes from
Abbotsford, the town next to ours!

What's the deal with this raspberry seed oil (INCI: Rubus ideaus
(raspberry) seed oil)? It can be used at 1% to 10% in our products,
has a saponification value of 191, and a peroxide value of 8.25 mg/kg.
It contains about 2.7% palmitic acid (C16:)), 12% oleic acid (C18:1), 54% linoleic acid
(C18:2), and 29% linolenic acid (C18:3). With all that linolenic acid with its three double
bonds, this should be an oil with a short shelf life...but it isn't, thanks to a ton of Vitamin E in
the form of various tocopherols with the equivalent of 97 mg per 100 grams of hexane
extracted oil (970 ppm) and 61 mg per 100 grams in the cold pressed oil (610 ppm). When
we include the tocotrienols - we find 2,133 ppm in this oil, which is freakin' amazing!

It also has about 3.5% phospholipids, which behave as anti-oxidants in the oil. It contains
about 2.7% free fatty acids. It contains carotenoids at 23 mg per 100 grams (230 ppm). It
contains great levels of phytosterols at 4220 ppm, which is higher than most of our carrier
oils. Phytosterols, you might remember, are fantastic anti-inflammatories that can help with
skin's barrier repair mechanisms, as well as increasing our skin's moisture levels. It
contains very little squalene, at 84 ppm.

When it comes to the polyphenols in raspberry oil, we're talking mostly about ellagic acid
and ellagitannins. A study found that using ellagic acid reduced the destruction of collagen
and the inflammatory response, both of which are partially responsible for aging skin. It
also shows promise in helping regenerate skin cells and helping to thicken skin. We're not
saying raspberry oil will do all these great things, but it's nice to know there's a chance, eh?

It has about a six month shelf life, but it could be more thanks to the anti-oxidants found in
it.

Part of why it's growing in popularity right now is due to the fact that it might work as a
sunscreen as it has some level of SPF, but there's no way to know how much SPF your
product has and there are too many factors that go into determining the SPF of something,
so you don't expect any kind of coverage from it.

How does raspberry oil look and feel? It's a yellowy coloured oil that has a light feeling. It
is slightly greasier than something like hazelnut or macadamia nut oil - I'd say it's on par
with sweet almond or apricot kernel oil - and I think it goes on my skin very nicely. Not too
draggy and not too greasy. It is less occlusive than something like mineral oil because it's a
light oil. I think it would be very nice in just about anything you'd choose to include it in,

I'd consider raspberry seed oil an exotic oil due to the price - at the Formulator Sample
Shop it's $8.50 for 2 ounces, $7.75 for 2 ounces at Lotioncrafter, $11.67 for 1 ounce at From
Nature With Love, and 7.30 pounds for 100 ml at Aromantic. I'd consider it a good
substitute for something like rosehip oil or carrot tissue oil because of all the carotenoids, a
good substitute for the higher linoleic acid oils like rice bran, sesame seed, or soy bean oil
because of all of those lovely tocopherols, or a good substitute for a greasier feeling oil like
those I just mentioned. It's a nice feeling oil on its own, so it'd be suitable for any anhydrous
or water containing product.

Summary of raspberry seed oil:
INCI: Rubus idaeus (raspberry) seed oil.
Suggested usage rate: 1% to 10%
Shelf life: 6 months, maybe one year
Vitamin E equivalent: 970 ppm
Carotenoids: 230 ppm
HLB: 7
ROSEHIP SEED OIL

Rosehip seed oil (INCI: Rosa rubiginosa (rosehip) seed oil) is a light,
non-greasy feeling oil that not only moisturizes our skin but promotes
a more even skin tone and may help with reducing the appearance of
age spots or scars thanks to the beta-carotene, which is a pre-cursor to
Vitamin A. It may also speed up wound epithelialization (increased
formation of cells to help close the wound) and improve skin texture.

It has an interesting fatty acid profile with 15% oleic acid (Omega 9)
to help soften and moisturize skin; 45% linoleic acid (Omega 6) to help speed up skin's
barrier repair mechanisms; and 35% linolenic acid (Omega 3) and gamma-linolenic acid to
help reduce inflammation and repair skin's barrier repair mechanisms. It has 0.5%
phytosterols to help with inflammation, and 0.1% tocopherols to act as anti-oxidants.

The thing we like about rosehip seed oil is the tretinoin or all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) at
0.335 ppm, which converts into retinol, which helps increase skin thickness, which can
reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles.

You can use it at up to 100% or neat on your skin, but given how orange it is thanks to that
lovely beta carotene, I generally suggest no more than 10%. If you wish to use more, do a
patch test somewhere on your body to see if it will stain. It is suitable for all skin types

It has a shelf life of 6 months, so keep it in the always popular cool, dark place or the fridge.
The version I used from Lotioncrafter* is cold pressed and unrefined.
SQUALANE
I’m such a huge fan of squalane, and I’m sure you’ll be, too, after you
read this!

Squalane makes up about 12% of our skin's sebum, so our skin
identifies it as "ours" and soaks it up quickly. Squalene is a vital part of
cholesterol, steroid, and Vitamin D synthesis in our bodies. It
penetrates the skin quickly offering softening and moisturizing to even
really chapped or cracked skin. You can use it neat or in a lotion. But
it's highly unstable with all those double bonds. So instead we use squalane, a hydrogenated
version with no double bonds that offers us a lot of stability, such as a shelf life of over 2
years!

Squalane has the same great qualities we find in squalene. It can help chapped and cracked
skin (in fact, try it neat!), helps prevent UV damage to skin, offers cell regenerating
properties, and can be anti-bacterial. (Remember, though, you can't make claims about the
UV protection or anti-bacterial properties.)

Try it in a facial moisturizer (replace the oils in this recipe with squalane and something
filled with linoleic acids!) or in an eye cream. It is incredible for a foot lotion for really
cracked and and dry feet. And an intense hand lotion or cuticle cream for cracked hands or
finger tips would be an ideal application for squalane. In fact, you can substitute squalane
for any light oil. The HLB is 12 to 12.9, so if you're using the HLB system to create an
emulsifier, you'll have to reformulate for any substitutions (for instance, sunflower oil is 7,
so if you exchange that for squalane, you'll have to re-calculate!)

Squalane and fractionated coconut oil in a lotion will give you an amazingly long shelf life -
up to 2 years - because there are very few double bonds - if any - in both oils. Both are non-
staining and sink in quickly, making it an ideal oil combination for a post shower body
moisturizers!

WALNUT OIL
Walnut oil (Juglans regia oil) is high in unsaturated fatty acids with a fatty
acid profile of palmitic acid (C16:0) at 5% to 11%, stearic acid (C18:0) at 2%
to 5%, oleic acid (C18:1) at 16% to 28%, linoleic acid (C18:2) at 48% to 59%,
and linolenic acid (C18:3) at 5% to 16%. We know oleic acid is great for
softening skin, regenerating skin cells, moisturizing, and behaving as an
anti-inflammatory. Linoleic acid helps restore skin's barrier function and
reduces transepidermal water loss (TEWL).

Walnut oil has 1.8 to 3.0 mg per gram phytosterols (1.8 grams to 3.0 grams to 1 kg of oil),
with most of it composed of sitosterol. It contains between 268.5 ppm to 436 ppm Vitamin
E. I couldn't find anything about the polyphenols in the oil, but there are phenolic acids and
tannins in the nuts, which might be why walnut oil is a drier feeling oil.

It has a fatty acid profile like hempseed oil and as much linoleic acid as grapeseed oil. This
means, unfortunately, it's going to have a short shelf life, something like 3 to 6 months
maximum. (I'd consider it at 3 months).

I need to make a comment about the shelf life. I have seen references to walnut oil having a
shelf life for a year, but from a chemistry perspective, I can't see this working. It has a ton of
linoleic acid but not a lot of Vitamin E, so it'll go rancid pretty easily. This study shows it has a
shelf life of less than grapeseed oil, which is 3 to 6 months maximum. ("...the predicted shelf-
lives were significantly lower than that of the storage times, especially, walnut oil (very prone
to oxidation) gave 15-20 times lower shelf-life than the best-before storage life.") I've seen a
variety of shelf lives discussed, including up to a year, but there was the suggestion that the oil
be kept in a cool dark place or the fridge to get a year, and we aren't going to be doing that
with our lotions, so I feel very comfortable in saying that we should consider it to have a shelf
life of 3 months.

I tried it neat on my skin and it felt as if it had sunk in pretty quickly. I'd say it feels like
grapeseed oil, hazelnut oil, or macadamia nut oil, but with more linoleic acid than the latter
two. It's a very very pale yellow, and it's got a watery consistency, very thin.

It has a nutty taste - not applicable for our bath & body products, but significant when
you're making a nice oil and balsamic vinegar dip for your foccacia bread - and a bit of a
nutty smell.
WATERMELON SEED OIL

Watermelon seed oil (INCI Citrullus lanatus (watermelon) seed oil) is
a pale yellow, light to medium weight, slightly greasy feeling oil that
comes from the watermelon seed. The version I have is cold expeller
pressed, but you can find solvent extracted versions.

It contains 11% palmitic acid (C16), 10% stearic acid (C18:0), 15%
oleic acid (C18:1), and 63% linoleic acid (C18:2).

It has low tocopherol or Vitamin E content at 63 ppm (solvent) or 73
ppm (expeller), but high phytosterol amounts at 8140 ppm, with the main one being
stigmasterol. (It has 1.5% unsaponifiables, which is where we find the phytosterols.) It has
an iodine value of 115 to 125 and a saponification value of 190 to 198, although I saw it
listed at 183, so please check with your supplier before soaping with it. Its specific gravity is
0.85. It contains lycopene, which is a very powerful anti-oxidant.

I've seen it listed as having a two year shelf life or "stable", but with high unsaturated fatty
acids and low Vitamin E, I'm a little dubious about this. It does have lycopene, which is a
better anti-oxidant than tocopherols, but I couldn't find how much. In my workshop, I'm
considering it to have a six month shelf life until I see something more solid.

I've seen this oil called a cleansing oil because it can dissolve sebum, but I've been unable to
confirm this property. I've also seen water melon oil listed as a non-greasy oil. If we
consider soy bean oil or sunflower oil as very greasy oils, and hazelnut oil or macadamia
nut oil as non-greasy feeling oils, I would say this is not as non-greasy as hazelnut oil but
not as greasy as soy bean oil - let's call it "slightly greasy". I thought it felt like it formed a
nice moisturizing layer on my skin that was still there an hour later. I definitely wouldn't
describe it as "sinking in" to my skin, but that’s not a bad thing!

CREATING NEW AND FUN THINGS WITH THESE OILS

As I said on page 4, in most of the formulas I create, you
can substitute oils for oils, but there’ll be a difference in
skin feel or viscosity, but the chemistry will still work. Let’s
take a look at a few formulas and see what they’ll feel like
with different oils and butters.

Oh, as a quick point of interest – there’s rarely a point in
using 10 different oils at 1% or 2%. It’s better to use higher
amounts of a few oils to get the skin feel and benefits you
want. I generally plan to use at least 5% to 10% of each oil,
except when I have an oil with a very strong colour, like
the green/brown of unrefined hemp seed oil or the
yellow/orange of rosehip seed, sea buckthorn, or carrot
tissue oil. In general, I’ll start with 3% to 5% of those oils
to ensure I don’t end up looking like I’ve been fake tanning
all year.

This lovely yellow lotion contained 3% very very orange sea buckthorn oil. It went white on
your skin after a few seconds of rubbing it in, but you can see that a little goes such a long
way!
HAND, BODY, AND FACIAL LOTIONS!

I know when I think of using oils and butters, I think of making lotions! Here are a few basic
formulas you can make even more awesome by creating new and interesting combinations
of oils.
BASIC HAND & BODY LOTION FORMULA USING POLAWAX OR NATRAGEM EW

HEATED WATER PHASE
60% distilled water
3% glycerin
2% sodium lactate
2% panthenol (powder, liquid goes into the cool down phase)
2% hydrolyzed protein or amino acid blend of choice
0.5% allantoin

HEATED OIL PHASE
15% liquid oil
5% butter of choice
3% cetyl alcohol
6% Polawax or Natragem EW

COOL DOWN PHASE
0.5% liquid Germall Plus
0.5% fragrance or essential oils
0.5% powdered extract of choice, like chamomile, green tea, or sunflower

BASIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING A LOTION...
1. Weigh your water phase into a heat proof container and put into a double boiler.

1a. Weigh your total water phase on a scale - jug and all - so we can compensate for the lost
water before mixing. And set some water in a separate container to heat. A pot with water
on the stove or boiling up the kettle works well. You don't need to boil it the whole time -
bring it to boiling now and you'll have some less-than-boiling water for step 3a.

2. Weigh your oil phase into a heat proof container and put into a double boiler.

3. Heat both phases to 70˚C and hold for 20 minutes. This ensures both phases are the same
temperature when we mix them together. (This is part of the emulsification process - the
heating part of emulsification.)
3a. Remember how we measured the water phase in step 1a? Measure it again - zero your
scale and measure the jug and all. Add enough of the warm water to get you to the total
weight from step 1a.

4. When both phases reach 70˚C, pour the water phase into the oil phase or the oil into the
water phase and mix very well with a stick blender or hand mixer (or Kitchenaid if you're a
lucky person!). Mix periodically as the temperature drops.

5. When you reach 45˚C, add your cool down ingredients and mix very well.

6. Allow the lotion to come to room temperature before bottling. If you are using jars, just
glop in what you have made. If it's a lighter lotion, you could probably pour it into the bottle
with a funnel. For thicker lotions, I have found using a piping bag (disposable, from the cake
or chocolate decorating store) is the easiest way to get things into bags.

What combinations could you use in this lotion? Let’s take a look and consider the viscosity
and skin feel!

Sal butter is less greasy feeling than cocoa butter, and thickens lotions quite a bit.
Pumpkin seed oil is about as greasy feeling as rice bran oil, and it’s considered light.
This combination will give us a thicker, medium greasiness oil.

Sal butter is less greasy feeling than cocoa butter, and thickens lotions quite a bit.
Chia seed oil is about as greasy feeling as rice bran oil, and it’s considered light, but it can
feel like a thicker oil at times.
This combination will give us a thicker, medium greasiness oil.

Cupuacu butter is less greasy feeling than cocoa butter, and thickens lotions nicely, but not
as much as sal, kokum, or cocoa butter.
Baobab is a thicker oil thanks to all that palmitic fatty acid.
This combination will give us a slightly thinner lotion than those above with a less greasy
skin feel. It might be a bit heavy, more suitable for winter months or as a night cream.

Cupuacu butter is less greasy feeling than cocoa butter, and thickens lotions nicely, but not
as much as sal, kokum, or cocoa butter.
Argan is a light, less greasy feeling oil (when compared to sunflower, for instance), that has
a nice balance of linoleic and oleic acids as well as a lot of phytosterols.
This combination will give us a slightly thinner lotion than those above with a less greasy
skin feel suitable for all year ‘round as a hand and body lotion.

Shea butter is a greasy feeling butter that will melt on contact with your skin.
Pumpkin seed oil is about as greasy feeling as rice bran oil, and it’s considered light.
This will produce a thinner lotion than those with the harder butters with a greasy skin feel.
If you wanted to make this feel less greasy, you could choose another butter, or you could
substitute up to 5% of the liquid oil amount with an ester, like isopropyl myristate (IPM),
isopropyl palmitate (IPM), or C12-15 alkyl benzoate.

If you want a very light feeling lotion, substitute a light to very light oil like meadowfoam
seed oil or squalane for the butter. In my classes, we’ve made a version of this with 10%
squalane and 10% meadowfoam or raspberry seed oil and people really loved it. This
would be suitable as a facial moisturizer, day or night.

If you want a very very light feeling lotion, on par with a facial moisturizer, substitute a very
light oil for the butter and leave out the cetyl alcohol, meaning you have 23% liquid oils in
the oil phase instead of 15% oil, 5% butter, and 3% cetyl alcohol.

MODIFYING THIS FORMULA WITH INCROQUAT BTMS-50

If you want a less greasy product with a powdery skin feel, substitute Incroquat BTMS-50
for the Polawax, which will result in a thicker lotion. Try using a less greasy butter – sal,
kokum, cupuacu, or mango butter – along with a less greasy feeling oil – kukui nut,
macadamia nut, evening primrose, plum kernel, meadowfoam, watermelon, or rosehip, to
name a few.

Or try some that have a greasier skin feel as the lotion is already very dry and powdery. I
like to use babassu oil with pumpkin seed oil in an Incroquat BTMS-50 lotion, and
sometimes I get very decadent and use soy bean oil as my liquid oil for a very greasy, but
very moisturizing formula.

Let’s take a look at making a facial moisturizer using Simulgreen 18-2 or Montanov 68 for
a more ECOcert, biodegradable product.
BASIC LIGHT LOTION USING SIMULGREEN 18-2 OR MONTANOV 68

HEATED WATER PHASE
61% distilled water
3% glycerin or propanediol 1,3
2% sodium lactate (powder or liquid)

2% panthenol (powder, liquid into the cool down phase)
2% hydrolyzed protein of choice
0.5% allantoin

HEATED OIL PHASE
22% liquid oils of choice
4% Simulgreen 18-2 or Montanov 68
2% fatty alcohol of choice – cetyl, cetearyl, or behenyl alcohol

COOL DOWN PHASE
0.5% fragrance or essential oil – as low as 0.1% if this is for your face
0.5% powdered extract, like green tea, sunflower, rosemary, or chamomile

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING A LOTION WITH MONTANOV 68 OR SIMULGREEN 18-2
1. Weigh the heated water phase into a heatproof container. Measure the weight of the
water phase and the container before putting it into your double boiler. (This is so
we can compensate for evaporation after the heating and holding phase.) Place the
container into a double boiler.
2. Weigh the heated oil phase into a heatproof container, then place into the double
boiler.
3. Both phases should reach 70˚C, then heat and hold for 20 minutes.
4. Remove the water phase from the heat, measure the entire amount, and add back to
the water amount some freshly boiled distilled or reverse osmosis water.
5. Pour the water into the oil phase, then mix with a stick blender for about 5 minutes.
Then switch to a hand mixer with beaters.
6. When the lotion reaches 45˚C, add the cool down phase and mix well.
7. Let come to room temperature, then package in lovely bottles.
8. Rejoice!

What combinations of oils could we choose here?

My first choice for a facial moisturizer is always squalane as
it’s very light with a non-greasy but silky skin feel that
absorbs quickly. It doesn’t leave you with a greasy shine on
your face, but a more dewy one. My best friend loves my
Simulgreen 18-2 lotion with 15% squalane, 5% rosehip seed
oil, and 2% dimethicone (in the cool down phase) .

15% squalane with 7% meadowfoam is a very light feeling
combination that absorbs very very quickly.

If you want to get very decadent, pair up 10% pomegranate
oil with 5% rosehip oil and 3% sea buckthorn oil to get all kinds of beta-carotenes, the pre-
cursors to Vitamin A. Into the cool down phase, I add a little oil soluble Vitamin C in the
form of tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate at 2% and tocopherol acetate at 1% to get all kinds of

vitamin-y awesomeness!

If you wanted to make this thicker, you could add a titch of butter here at 2% to 3%. I made
this formula with Simulgreen 18-2 into a non-greasy hand lotion for the mom of one of the
young women in my youth programs with 10% plum kernel oil, 9% baobab oil, and 3%
cupuacu butter as she wanted something non-greasy and moisturizing that wouldn’t get all
over her yarn and crochet hooks. I also used behenyl alcohol as my thickener, which makes
it even more powdery and silky feeling.

I love the combination of babassu oil at 10% with 10% plum kernel oil – such an amazing
smell! – and 2% dimethicone (in the cool down phase). I pair this with cetyl alcohol in a
Simulgreen 18-2 lotion to get a glidy, silky, marzipan scented lotion that I have been loving
this holiday season! This gives me a hand & body lotion consistency that melts on contact
with my skin.

If you wanted to turn this into a hand & body lotion, use a butter or solid oil at up to 5% to
thicken. To make this more like a body butter, you could use up to 15% solid butters or oils
with 7% oils. There are so many potential oil and butter combinations you could try here!

My new favourite body butter this winter is this baobab & babassu body butter (which was
on the blog in late November.) If you wanted this formula to be even thicker, use a butter in
place of the babassu oil.

BAOBAB & BABASSU BODY BUTTER WITH SIMULGREEN 18-2

HEATED WATER PHASE
36.5% distilled water
10% aloe vera extract or liquid
10% chamomile hydrosol
3% glycerin
3% propylene glycol
2% hydrolyzed baobab protein
2% sodium lactate (liquid) or 1.2% sodium lactate (powder)
0.5% allantoin

HEATED OIL PHASE
12% baobab oil
10% babassu oil
4% Simulgreen 18-2
3% cetyl alcohol

COOL DOWN PHASE
2% panthenol (liquid)
2% dimethicone (6 cs, which is very watery)
0.5% fragrance oil - vanilla bourbon FO from Voyageur Soap & Candle - or essential oil

Please follow the lotion making instructions for Simulgreen 18-2 on page 52.

MAKING LIGHT LOTIONS WITH COLD EMULSIFIERS
I’m honestly in love with cold emulsifiers, like Aristoflex AVC, RM-
2051, and Sepigel 305, as I can make a lotion quicker than I can get
the ingredients out of their storage boxes. Some are better for
facial moisturizers as they produce light lotions, while others are
good for everything up to body butters. If you have a formula you
like, just substitute an oil for an oil and so on to modify it.

I designed modified version of this formula for a class at Windy
Point Soap in Calgary in October using RM-2051/Emulthix™ (INCI:
Sodium Polyacrylate (and) Dimethicone (and) Cyclopentasiloxane
(and) Trideceth-6 (and) PEG/PPG-18/18 Dimethicone), a liquid
cold process emulsifier that is used at 3% to 6% to emulsify oil phases up to 50%! It's
effective with lotions at pH 5.5 to 11, so you won't be able to make anything with loads of
salicylic acid (BHA) or AHAs.

A few thoughts when using this...
1. You must use distilled water. This is not optional. I'm not talking about water filtered
in a Brita or other container. I'm talking distilled water or reverse osmosis water.
This is non-negotiable as it’s necessary to keep your products safe.
2. You have to follow the instructions the way they're written. This has a cool way of
emulsifying, and if you don't put the water phase into the oil phase in a slow stream
while mixing with an immersion blender, you could mess it up. At the very least, it
will be thinner if you pour oil into water.
3. Don't try to bring the pH too low. If you do, it will fall apart. Don’t add any proper
acids like glycolic, lactic, and so on as it will ruin the lotion.

4% niacinamide (Vitamin B3) and 2% n-acetyl glucosamine are an amazing combination.
A wonderful study showed that this combination could reduce the appearance of age spots
and hyperpigmentation to promote a more even skin tone.

N-acetyl glucosamine is a bio-identical ingredient that can reduce hyperpigmentation and
can increase hydration by increasing the production of hyaluronic acid in our skin, which is
a very powerful humectant and water binder found in the middle spinous layer of our skin.
As we age, our hyaluronic acid levels decrease, and by the time we’re 50, we have about half
the amount we had at 20.

Studies have shown that 2% niaciamide in a facial moisturizer can increase skin's keratin,
ceramides, and barrier lipids, all of which results in a reduction of transepidermal water
loss and an increase in collagen synthesis. For oily skin, 2% can result in a 23% reduction in
sebum production and pore diameter. It can reduce hyperpigmentation of age and sun
spots. And it can reduce the damage from environmental causes, which reduces the
irritation, inflammation, and skin redness from things like the sun, cold, or weather as well
as application of straight SLS.

Why did I say “almost all skin types” at the start of this? Because it’s really about what your
skin likes, and it might not be fond of oils. If it isn’t, then this may not be the product for you.
Use this as a thinner body lotion. Try using the 4% niacinamide and 2% NAG in a toner
instead.

SQUALANE & CHIA SEED OIL QUICK LOTION
OIL PHASE
12% squalane
10% chia seed or pear seed oil or 5% rosehip seed oil and 5% another oil

EMULSIFIER PHASE
5% RM-2051/Emulthix™

WATER PHASE WITH POWDERS
59% distilled water
4% niacinamide
2% n-acetyl glucosamine
2% panthenol (powder or liquid)
2% hydrolyzed silk protein
0.5% allantoin

REST OF THE WATER PHASE
3% propanediol 1,3 or glycerin

1. Weigh your oil phase into a larger container, as the water will be poured into the oil.
2. Add the RM-2051 to the oil phase. Mix for a few seconds with the immersion blender.
3. Prepare your water phase with powders in a separate container. You can add slightly
heated water to ensure the powders all dissolve. You don’t need to have boiling water:
45˚C or so is more than warm enough. Mix with the immersion blender for a few
seconds.
4. Add the rest of the water phase to the water phase with powders. Mix with the
immersion blender for a few seconds.
5. Pour the water phase into the oil phase in a slow stream while mixing with a stick or
immersion blender. (If you do this, your particles will be smaller and the emulsion will
be more stable.)
6. Increase the speed of the mixer as the lotion thickens. It should only take two or three
minutes at the most.
7. Pour into bottles with treatment pumps or an airless pump, label, and enjoy!

ANHYDROUS PRODUCTS YOU CAN MAKE WITH OILS & BUTTERS

EXFOLIATING SUGAR SCRUB BARS
One of my favourite products to make is this sugar scrub bar full of
lovely oils and butters that rinses away cleanly thanks to the
emulsifier. The sodium lactate is here as a bar hardener and
humectant. I consider it quite necessary in this formula. If you only
have the powder, you can dissolve it in a little water – maybe 5
grams for 4 grams of sodium lactate – then add it to the heated
phase. There’s an emulsifier in here, so it will mix in well.

The key to this bar is the emulsifier, so please don’t leave it out. You can use any emulsifier
you have in your workshop – I’ve tried almost all the ones I have in this formula, except for
Simulgreen 18-2, Montanov 68, and Olivem 1000 – and they were lovely. If you want a less
greasy feeling bar, use Ritamulse SCG or Incroquat BTMS-50. For a medium greasy bar, use
Polawax.

EXFOLIATING SUGAR SCRUB BAR
50% sal or cupuacu butter
16.5% mango or shea butter
10% liquid oil
8% Ritamulse SCG, Polawax, Incroquat BTMS-50
4% sodium lactate (liquid)
3% cetyl alcohol
3% wax of choice – I used sunflower wax, but beeswax is nice, too

COOL DOWN PHASE
2% cyclomethicone
2% dimethicone
1% fragrance or essential oil
0.5% liquid Germall Plus or other broad spectrum preservative of choice

Use up to 100 grams of sugar or salt for 100 grams of base. You could also use pumice here
– I like to use 80 grams pumice, 20 grams baking soda – for a foot scrub bar.

1. Weigh all the ingredients in the heated oil phase in a heatproof container, then place
into a double boiler.
2. Heat the heated phase until liquid, then hold for about 5 minutes to ensure all the
fatty acids have melted.
3. Remove from the heat, mix well with a hand mixer or fork until uniform.
4. Add the cool down phase. Mix well.
5. Glop into molds and place in the fridge or freezer. (Preferably the freezer). Allow to
completely set - up to a few hours, depending on the size of the bars - remove from
the freezer and unmold.
6. Allow to come to room temperature before using, about 24 hours.

This isn’t a product in which you want to use more expensive oils like squalane or rosehip
seed oil as most of it will be rinsed off.

I love a version I made with this using pumpkin seed oil with 25% sal
butter and 25% cupuacu butter with shea butter that I gave as
Christmas presents this year as a body scrub and a foot scrub. I
modified it to be the latter by using 3% menthol (or 1% peppermint
essential oil), 1% camphor essential oil, and 1% eucalyptus essential
oil.

If you want something lighter, choose babassu oil in place of the
mango or shea butter and use a lighter feeling oil, like watermelon seed or chia seed oil!

If you want something heavier, choose something like olive oil, avocado oil, or castor oil and
combine it with cocoa butter in place of either the sal butter or the cupuacu butter.

LOTION BAR WITH EMU OIL

As you probably know, I’ve been struggling with some serious arm pain since September,
and I'm finding this lotion bar is really helping soothe my
aching muscles. (As always, this is not a claim, just sharing my
experience.)
I used 2% of what I call my pain relief blend – but not making
any claims here – that contains essential oils that trigger
feelings of hot and cold on our skin. I mix together 2 parts
peppermint, 2 parts spearmint, 1 part cinnamon, 1 part clove
bud by weight, then use it at 2% in this product.

Make 25 to 50 grams of this product at the most as it lasts a
very long time and the ingredients are not inexpensive. Emu oil
runs something like $20 for 2 liquid ounces/60 ml, which is
around 54 grams, meaning you’re using 5 grams in a 50 gram
batch or $1.85, not including shipping and taxes. I think it’s worth it in this lotion bar, but
just be aware of that.

You could alter the other oils to be anything you want. I chose arnica (infused in sweet
almond oil at a 1:5 ratio arnica to sweet almond oil) and calendula (infused in sweet almond
oil at a 1:5 ratio) as both are good anti-inflammatories. In previous versions, I used comfrey
oil (infused in sweet almond oil), but it can sting on broken skin, and I would hate for any of
you to have the experience my best friend with it! You can use up to 10% in place of a liquid
oil, if you wish to try it.

Please note, I buy my infused oils pre-infused from my suppliers. It is not a good idea to make
your own at home as there could be all manner of spores and bacteria in the plant matter that
can spring to life when mixed with water, plus you’ll never know if you’re getting the goodness
from the herbs and other materials as you can’t test it.

This is most certainly not vegan friendly with the emu oil and beeswax, but they are
necessary in this formula. You could try using another wax, if you wanted, but you’ll have to
experiment with ratios. I have found that I use carnauba or candellia wax at ½ the amount
of the beeswax, and soy wax (pillar blend) at about 36% in a formula with babassu oil.

If you are finding this bar is too brittle for your taste, you can substitute up to 10% castor
oil for another oil as there’s a neat reaction that happens with it and beewax that plasticizes
the bar rather than making it super hard! (Most lipsticks have these two ingredients for this
very reason!)

LOTION BAR WITH EMU, CALENDULA & ARNICA OILS
HEATED OIL PHASE
30% beeswax
25% babassu oil
13% hard butter – I like cupuacu in this formula
10% arnica oil (infused in sweet almond oil)
10% emu oil
10% calendula oil

COOL DOWN PHASE
2% pain relief essential oil blend

1. Weigh the heated oil phase into a heatproof container, like a Pyrex jug, and place in a
double boiler until liquid.
2. Hold at that temperature for 5 minutes or so to ensure all the fatty acids are melted.
3. Remove from the heat, check the temperature. If it’s over 60˚C, wait until it reaches
that temperature.
4. Add the essential oil blend, mix, then pour into molds or deodorant containers.
Rejoice!

OILY GELS WITH CERA BELLINA

I’ve become a fan of oily gels over the last year or so that I can
apply after a bath or shower to get some super moisturizing
action! Because I don’t have a water phase here, I may need to
find some oil soluble versions of things I want to have, like
proteins or extracts.

This product is, by definition, greasy as it’s made of greasy
ingredients, like oils, butters, and cera bellina, but we can choose our oils carefully to make
it silkier, lighter, and less greasy. I want this to be thin enough to pump out of a bottle or
squeeze from a disc cap container, so I won’t use more than a titch of butters to thicken this
nicely.

I love love babassu oil as it offers a light, glidy, silky feeling, so I used it at 10%, along with
20% watermelon seed oil for all that lovely linoleic acid to help moisturize and repair skin’s
barrier repair mechanisms. I added 5% rosehip seed oil for the beta-carotenes, and 20%
plum kernel oil for the decadent almond fragrance and awesome oleic acid. I added baobab
oil to this to make it a little thicker for winter months; in the summer, I was using the
unrefined sweet almond oil from Lotioncrafter to give it a lighter feeling.

If you wanted to alter this formula, the cera bellina is the star of the show and completely
necessary, and I think the babassu makes for a lovely base. If you wanted to substitute the
babassu for coconut oil, you’ll get a similar consistency, but a more greasy skin feel. If you
don’t have the oil soluble extracts, just add more oil to the mix.

APRES BATH MOISTURIZING GEL WITH CERA BELLINA
HEATED OIL PHASE
20% watermelon seed oil
20% plum kernel oil
20% baobab oil
15% cera bellina
10% babassu oil
5% rosehip seed oil
5% green tea extract (oil soluble)
5% soy hydrolysate or multigrain (oil soluble)

1. Measure out the ingredients in a heat proof container and place into a double boiler.
2. Heat to 75˚C and hold for a bit - maybe 5 minutes - to ensure the cera bellina melts
properly. Remove from the heat and allow to cool until it turns into an oily gel, which
should be around room temperature.
3. When it's completely cooled, put into a container. I like to put this in a pump bottle
or squishy bottle with a disc cap. I also put the leftover little bits into a I put mine in
a 30 ml bottle with a decent sized orifice that I could squish.

If you don’t have cera bellina, this makes for a lovely oil anyway. Just
replace it with more liquid oils of choice!

This also makes a really nice eye gel if you substitute some of the heavier
oils for lighter ones. Substitute the baobab with squalane or fractionated
coconut oil, and the babassu for a light oil, like pear seed, one of the berry
oils, cranberry, or pomegranate oil.

CREATING A LOVELY FACIAL SERUM

This is almost the formula I teach at all my facial and eco skin care classes, and it always
evokes oohs and aahs!

I start every formula with squalane, a bio-identical oil from amaranth
or olive oil that we find in our skin as part of our stratum corneum
lipids. It is non-greasy feeling and absorbed very quickly. For the rest
of the oils, consider using mostly non-greasy feeling oils to avoid too
much of a shine on your skin.

To this, I’m adding a few oils that have different types of fatty acid
profiles to ensure I get a little bit of everything. I like evening primrose
or borage oil at 20% to get that lovely gamma-linolenic acid. (I think
borage has a weird smell, so I always use evening primrose oil.) We like kukui nut oil at
20% as it has a silky feeling, but you could use argan oil here to get a similar sensation with
a titch more greasiness.

I like to have rosehip seed oil for the great beta-carotenes, but at over 5%, it can make some
of us a little more orange than we’d like. You could use sea buckthorn oil at 3% or carrot
tissue oil at no more than 5% in its place, if you wished.

I have 0.1% T-50 mixed tocopherols in this formula to extend the life span to more than 6
months, but it is optional. Only make a 50 gram or ½ batch of this product as it lasts for
forever!

ARGAN & EVENING PRIMROSE FACIAL SERUM
35% squalane
20% evening primrose
20% kukui nut oil
20% argan oil
5% rosehip seed oil or sea buckthorn oil
0.1% Vitamin E, T-50 mixed tocopherols (optional, for rancidity)

Weigh all the oils into a small container or directly into your bottle. I like to use any bottle
with a treatment pump or a small pump with a thin tube. Use a few drops at a time for
moisturizing awesomeness!
I presented this next formula at the Handcrafted Soap & Cosmetic Guild
conference in May 2017 in Las Vegas. The feedback on this formula was
amazing – people loved it, and every few days I get another e-mail from
someone saying how much they adore this serum. I can’t tell you how
happy that makes me feel!
Make a 50 grams batch to start as a little goes such a long way! It’s a very
Collageneer (INCI: Helianthus Annuus (Sunflower) Seed Oil and Lupinus

Albus Seed Extract) is an oil soluble ingredient used at up to 2%, as an
anti-inflammatory and to help with the signs of aging by stimulating production of collagen.
I also have oil soluble Vitamin C and tocopherol acetate in this formula, but you can leave
any or all of these out and add 5% more oil to the product.
SWEET ALMOND & POMEGRANATE FACIAL SERUM

30% squalane
20% chia seed oil
15% sweet almond oil, unrefined
10% rosehip seed oil
10% plum oil
10% pomegranate oil
2% tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate (oil soluble Vitamin C)
2% Collageneer
1% Vitamin E (I’m using tocopherol acetate)

Into a container, weigh all the ingredients. Shake or mix lightly, then pour into a bottle with
an eye dropper or a small treatment pump.

WHIPPED BUTTERS
I don’t think sal, cupuacu, or kokum make good whipped
butters as the main butter as they’re just too hard, and you’ll
end up scraping the butter out of the container with your
nails, but they make an absolutely wonderful secondary
butter if you want to use something like babassu or coconut
oil.
WHIPPED BABASSU AND KOKUM BUTTER WITH PUMPKIN SEED
OIL
48% babassu oil
32% pumpkin seed oil
20% kokum or sal butter

Melt all the ingredients in a double boiler until they are just
melted, then pop into the fridge or freezer until they are
sludgy and thick. Add up to 1% fragrance or essential oil - check your chosen ingredient's
usage suggestions - then whip with a whisk attachment until it is light and fluffy. Put into
jars or metal containers and enjoy often!

EMULSIFIED SCRUBS
You know this is one of my favourite products, so I had to try a
few of these new butters in a scrub. I found kokum was a bit on
the hard side at 10%, so I reduced it to 7% to make it easier to
scoop. This version is quite interesting as the watermelon seed oil
is quite light, but very moisturizing, and the kokum is kinda heavy,
but still less greasy.

You can try this version with cupuacu butter as well for a lighter, less greasy feeling scrub.

EMULSIFIED SUGAR SCRUB WITH WATERMELON SEED OIL AND KOKUM BUTTER
59.9% watermelon oil or another light oil
10% Incroquat BTMS-50, Polawax, or other emulsifier of choice
10% cetyl alcohol
7% kokum butter
10% shea butter
1% Phenonip
0.1% mixed tocopherols, T-50 (to retard rancidity, optional)
2% fragrance oil

Heat all the ingredients except the Vitamin E and fragrance oil in a container until all the
ingredients are liquid. Put into the fridge or freezer to cool. You'll know it's time to take it
out when the mix is solid-ish but not completely solid. You want to be able to to mix it. Add
the Vitamin E and fragrance or essential oils. Add up to 140 grams of sugar for every 100
grams of scrub and mix until it is fluffy. Put into containers. Rejoice!

CONCLUSION
I hope you’ve had as much fun reading and making these formulas as I did formulating
them! I’m kinda obsessed with oils and have so many in my freezer, so it was time I shared
these with you! I have so many more you’ll see in the next few months as I write up my
experiments of the last 18 months.

MY BLOG – POINT OF INTEREST
I encourage you to check out my blog for information on the ingredients you’ve seen in this
e-zine. I’ve tried to link to some of those things, but I know at some point in time the links
will get all wonky and people will get mad at me because they don’t work, and that’ll cause
me a whole lot of stress, so I ask you to take a quick trip to the blog, Point of Interest, found
at http://swiftcraftymonkey.blogspot.com and see what you can find there! (After all, look
what happened recently when Dropbox decided its users couldn’t create public links and
hundreds of links on my blogs to the PDFs were lost!)

THANK YOU TO MY AMAZING PATREON SUBSCRIBERS
Every month I say it and every month I mean it – thank you for subscribing to make this e-
zine possible! Please continue to share your thoughts for future e-zines and feedback on
current ones.

HOW TO CONTACT ME
You can reach me at sjbarclay@telus.net to let me know what you think. Give me your
thoughts, suggestions, criticisms, and more. As I always say, I can only get better by
knowing what you think and what I can write about on the blog or on the Patreon site.

SUPPLIERS’ INFORMATION
I’m providing information on where to get these unique supplies as a courtesy to you, my
lovely readers, so you can get ingredients you need to make the products in this e-zine. I do
not benefit in any way if you purchase supplies from any of the companies listed below. You
can find ingredients elsewhere, so you please check the FAQ on my blog to see the lists of
suppliers wonderful readers like you from around the world have suggested.

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ADVENTURES IN

CHIA SEED OIL ...................................................................................................................................... 38

HOW TO USE THESE OILS?

GENERAL NOTES ON MAKING BATH & BODY PRODUCTS

For instance, it looks like this triglyceride is

HYDROGENATION AND FATTY ACID SHAPES

CIS AND TRANS FATS

GAMMA LINOLENIC ACID (GLA)

WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF SOMETHING IS AN ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID?

A GREAT QUESTION SOMEONE ASKED ON THE BLOG ABOUT FATTY

OTHER THINGS FOUND IN OILS

benefits by inhibiting pro-inflammation mediators in our bodies, such as prostaglandins.

CAN OILS PENETRATE OUR SKIN?

STRATUM CORNEUM LIPIDS

CAN FREE FATTY ACIDS PENETRATE OUR SKIN?

CUPUACU BUTTER (INCI: Theobroma grandflorum seed butter)

SAL BUTTER (INCI: Shorea robusta)

BLACKBERRY SEED OIL

BLUEBERRY SEED OIL

Phytosterols: 5800 ppm

CHIA SEED OIL

MEADOWFOAM SEED OIL

INCI: Limnathes alba (Meadowfoam) seed oil

PEAR SEED OIL (INCI: Pyrus communis (pear) seed oil)

PLUM KERNEL OIL

PUMPKIN SEED OIL

RASPBERRY SEED OIL

ROSEHIP SEED OIL

WATERMELON SEED OIL

CREATING NEW AND FUN THINGS WITH THESE OILS

HAND, BODY, AND FACIAL LOTIONS!

BASIC HAND & BODY LOTION FORMULA USING POLAWAX OR NATRAGEM EW

0.5% powdered extract of choice, like chamomile, green tea, or sunflower

MODIFYING THIS FORMULA WITH INCROQUAT BTMS-50

BASIC LIGHT LOTION USING SIMULGREEN 18-2 OR MONTANOV 68

2% sodium lactate (powder or liquid)

form of tetrahexyldecyl ascorbate at 2% and tocopherol acetate at 1% to get all kinds of

BAOBAB & BABASSU BODY BUTTER WITH SIMULGREEN 18-2

0.5% liquid Germall Plus

ANHYDROUS PRODUCTS YOU CAN MAKE WITH OILS & BUTTERS

LOTION BAR WITH EMU OIL

OILY GELS WITH CERA BELLINA

CREATING A LOVELY FACIAL SERUM

Collageneer (INCI: Helianthus Annuus (Sunflower) Seed Oil and Lupinus

SWEET ALMOND & POMEGRANATE FACIAL SERUM

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