Hort. Sci. (Prague) Vol.

44, 2017 (4): 201–212

doi: 10.17221/36/2016-HORTSCI

Agricultural practices, biology and quality of eggplant

Abstract
Caruso G., Pokluda R., Sekara A., Kalisz A., Jezdinský A., Kopta T., Grabowska A. (2017): Agricultural practices, biol-
ogy and quality of eggplant cultivated in Central Europe. A review. Hort. Sci. (Prague), 44: 201–212.

The eggplant is a warm-climate crop of high economic importance. In many Asian and Mediterranean countries, eggplants
are essential components of everyday dishes, while in Central Europe they have become popular only in recent years.
Eggplants are harvested at an immature stage and have low storage value; therefore, the sale of fruits in local markets
requires an appropriate production strategy. In Poland, consumer demand for eggplants is currently met by imports
and domestic production, which, until recently, has been carried out only in greenhouses, ensuring the availability of
fresh fruits but resulting in high selling prices. The demand for eggplants is growing among Polish consumers, and, ac-
cordingly, field production is expected to gradually gain in importance due to the fruit’s profitability. Accordingly, the
biology and farming practices of this warm-climate crop remain in the investigation phase in temperate climate. This
review aims to report the status of current knowledge regarding the technologies affecting the biology, cultivation, and
nutritional value of eggplant grown in temperate climatic zone.

Keywords: farming management; fruit quality; Solanum melongena L.; temperate climate

History and economic aspects of eggplant eggplant is cultivated mainly in Turkey (827,000 t),
cultivation in Central Europe Italy (220,000 t), Spain (206,000 t) and Romania
(123,000 t/year). Interestingly, eggplant cultivation
The eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a fruit has now also extended to more northern parts of Eu-
of major economic importance throughout the rope. The FAO (2015) has reported that both Ukraine
world, and is mainly grown in Asian subtropical re- (96,000 t in 2013) and Lithuania (2,000 t in 2013) now
gions (94% of world production), where its popular- also grow this crop. However, there are still no data
ity has earned it the title of ‘the king of vegetables’. available for Poland and other neighbouring Europe-
According to the Food and Agriculture Organisa- an countries, where this species is increasingly being
tion of the United Nations (FAO 2015), China and grown in open fields and under unheated tunnels.
India are the world’s largest eggplant producers Eggplant is the most widely used English-lan-
(28 and 13 Mt per year, respectively). In Europe, the guage term for this species and dates from the time

This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland.

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of British colonial rule in India, a period during in Poland as an annual crop from seed. The fruit
which many eggplant varieties that give white egg- was described to be egg-shaped, yellow or red, and
shaped fruits were imported into Europe. Interest- intoxicating, but this was not confirmed by the au-
ingly, only in the United Kingdom did the name thor’s own experience. Kluk noted that eggplant
‘aubergine’, derived from the French language, gain fruits were eaten as a salad component with vin-
widespread use. The most popular name in India aigrette or with vine and sugar (Kluk 1786). Until
and Africa is ‘brinjal’, whose roots are in Sanskrit the end of the twentieth century, the eggplant did
(Daunay, Janick 2007). The name ‘eggplant’ cur- not enjoy popularity in Polish gardening and was
rently refers to three crops belonging to the genus described in the horticultural literature of that time
Solanum, subgenus Leptostemonum, derived from as a warm-climate species with high temperature
the Old World: Solanum melongena L. (eggplant), requirements.
S. aethiopicum L. (scarlet eggplant), and S. macro- In the 1960s, amateur Bulgarian cultivars of
carpon L. (Gboma eggplant). Solanum aethiopicum the eggplant were popularised in Poland by
and S. macrocarpon are native to Africa, where they Doruchowski (1965), who recommended plant-
are grown locally for their edible fruits and young ing alternating fields of eggplant and corn as a
leaves (Lester 1998; Macha 2005; Sękara et al. windbreak in southern-facing locations. Research
2007). The S. melongena complex exhibits a series conducted on this species from the late 1980s on-
of morphological intermediates, from small-fruit- wards led to the development of cultivation guide-
ed spiny plants to large-fruited non-spiny plants. lines for both cold greenhouses and heated tunnels,
Weese and Bohs (2010) used DNA sequence data allowing consumers to benefit from the first-ever
to show that eggplants arose in Africa and were dis- locally produced fruits. Technology that reduces
persed throughout the Middle East to other regions the production costs of protected crops has in-
of Asia, where they have been cultivated and bred creasingly been adapted to Polish horticulture in
for 2,000 years (Wang et al. 2008). The long history order to accelerate the production efficiency of,
of breeding resulted in a wide range of cultivars inter alia, nutrition, grafting methods and plant
with edible fruits of different sizes, shapes and col- pruning systems. Currently in Poland, the eggplant
ours. The species was introduced to Europe during is mostly grown under unheated plastic tunnels,
the twelfth century, when the Arabs initiated egg- which requires less energy in comparison to both
plant cultivation in the Iberian Peninsula (Daunay, greenhouses and heated tunnels. Increased inter-
Janick 2007). Later, this plant was introduced to est in the cultivation and consumption of eggplants
Italy and France as well as to Poland during the fif- in Poland has led to studies on the farming prac-
teenth century, but it was initially grown for orna- tices of this species grown both in the greenhouse
mental and medicinal purposes only. A number of and under foil tunnels. Among recent reports,
ethnobotanical sources describe the first trials with Kowalska (2003, 2008), Buczkowska (2010)
eggplant cultivation and usage in Poland. Szymon and Michałojć and Buczkowska (2008, 2011,
Syrenius included this species in his well-known 2012) conducted comprehensive studies to develop
‘Zielnik Herbarzem Zwany’ herbarium, printed in farming technologies for growing eggplants under
Krakow in 1613. Syrenius described this species unheated tunnels and to expand the knowledge re-
using the name Melongena or Mala insana. He de- garding the pollination biology of this species. Ce-
scribed the various methods of preparation of the bula (2003) and Ambroszczyk et al. (2007, 2008a,
eggplant (baked, fried in olive oil) but also attribut- 2008b) developed optimal methods of eggplant
ed to it a long list of harmful effects (i.e., indigestion, pruning in greenhouse cultivation and specified
ulcers, headache and bad mood) (Syrenius 1613). the effects of pruning on vegetative plant growth
The horticultural and botanical literature from the as well as on fruit yield and quality. Markiewicz
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries mentions the and Golcz (2007) and Markiewicz et al. (2008)
eggplant as a fruit grown under an annual cycle for evaluated the effects of thermal conditions, sub-
fruits that are either yellow or red at the stage of strate type and plant nutritional status on eggplant
physiological ripeness. The Polish herbalist Krzysz- yield. In recent years, breeding of hybrid cultivars
tof Kluk described the eggplant in his ‘Dykcyonarz resistant to environmental stresses in conjunction
Roślinny’ (‘Plant Dictionary’), published in 1786. with air temperature increases have enabled field
According to this author, the eggplant was grown cultivation of eggplants in some regions of Poland

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and neighbouring countries and, accordingly, have netic development, which was described by Dig-
lowered both production costs and fruit prices. gle (1997). Notably, the eggplant is characterised
Detailed recommendations for eggplant cultiva- by flower heteromorphology, abundant flowering
tion in the field are now available for the climat- and frequent dropping of flowers or fruitlets. These
ic conditions of Central Europe (Sękara 2010; phenomena are caused by different stresses, such
Želísková, Jezdinský 2015). as temperatures that are either excessive or too low,
drought, light shortage or lack of pollination or fer-
tilisation (Kikuchi et al. 2008). The heteromor-
Plant biology and environmental phology of eggplant flowers which consists in pistil
requirements length diversity was described by Krishnamur-
thy and Subramaniam (1954), who distinguished
The eggplant (S. melongena L.) is a diploid spe- long-style pistils with a large ovary, medium-styled
cies (2n = 24), and is cultivated as a vegetable that pistils with a medium-sized ovary, and short-style
yields immature edible fruits. It is perennial but is pistils with a rudimentary ovary. Moreover, Chen
typically grown as a frost-susceptible, warm-sea- (2001) reported that the short-style pistil flowers
son annual. Plants are 0.4–1.5 m tall and branched, were not completely sterile, while in the medium-
with large, broad leaves, and the stem is often spiny. and long-pistil flowers the proximity of the stigma
The flowers are perfect, self-pollinating, purple or to anthers enhanced self-pollination; notably, pol-
on rare occasion white, with a spiny calyx, five- len remained viable for 8–10 days at 20–22°C and a
lobed corolla and yellow stamens. Eggplant fruits relative humidity of 50–55%. In hot and humid cli-
are sometimes white or green in colour, but the mates, fruits produced through cross-pollination
most popular fruits exhibit different intensities of can constitute up to 20% of yield (Chen 2001). The
purple; fruits can be whitish to dark purple, even influence of genetic, agronomic, and environmental
black or combinations of these colours in stripes. factors on phenotypic displays of heterostyly and
Physiologically ripe fruits are brown or yellow. The flower fertility has been selectively reported in the
shape range includes spherical, oblong, ovoid, oval, literature. Passam and Khah (1992), Passam and
long and many intermediate shapes. Fruits range Bolmatis (1997), and Kowalska (2003) stressed
from 4–45 cm in length, and 2–25 cm diameter. the genetic diversity of this phenomenon. Accord-
The mean fruit weight is in the range of 200–300 g. ing to Kowalska (2003), the flower set was more
Newer Asian types have weights of 20–40 g (Swa- effective as a result of self-pollination and flower
rup 1995; Hassan et al. 2015). hormonisation as compared to pollination by bum-
The eggplant is photoperiod neutral (Chen et al. ble-bees. Regardless of the way of pollination and
2002). Kürklü et al. (1998) recommended a tem- flower hormonisation, eggplants with long pistils
perature of 30°C for optimal vegetative growth and yield the highest number of flowers, while those
22°C for reproductive phases based on the number with medium and short pistils yield much fewer
and size of fruits produced. Pessarakli (1999) flowers. Based on experiments of eggplant cultiva-
showed that damage caused by the 10−15°C tem- tion under field conditions in southern Poland per-
perature range may occur at any stage of eggplant formed over a period of three years, Sękara (2010)
growth and development. Eggplants can toler- suggested that heterostyly in this species repre-
ate both slight drought and excessive rainfall, but sents a transition stage to andromonoecy, which
high temperature and abundant rainfall promote physiologically prefers male flowers during periods
the vegetative phase (Chen et al. 2002). Eggplants when early-set fruits ripen. Sękara and Bieniasz
produce a strong root system in soil that is deep, (2008) investigated flower phenotype, fruit set, and
fertile, well drained and high in organic matter with seed number per fruit in the eggplant during the
pH values of 5.5–6.8. High clay content and water- flowering period under field conditions in Poland.
logging should be avoided due to the build-up of The authors did not observe any growth incompat-
root rot (Chen et al. 2002). ibility in pollen tubes for any of the eggplant flower
Climate and soil factors affect eggplant flowering styles, though short-styled flowers were charac-
and fruit set as well as the commercial production terised by lower numbers of pollen tubes, ferti-
outcome. At the same time, flower morphology lised ovules and seeds as a direct consequence of
and functionality are dependent upon the ontoge- small-sized stigmas and spatial separation between

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anther pores and stigmas, which makes pollination while ‘Classic’ F1 and ‘Black Beauty’ plants yielded
difficult. half as much. In other research (Adamczewska-
Sowińska, Kołota 2010), marketable yields of
field-cultivated eggplants fell within an 8–18 t/ha
Genetic resources with emphasis on range. According to Donzella et al. (2000), the
cultivation in temperate climatic zone use of parthenocarpic eggplant cultivars (e.g., ‘Ta-
lina’, ‘Galine’) is a good cost-effective solution for
The number of eggplant cultivars has been ex- improving fruit set and growth under environ-
panded significantly as a result of intensive se- mental conditions not favourable for pollination.
lection and breeding performed over the course The advantages of parthenocarpy include efficient,
of several hundred years. Cultivars with purple, marketable production of fruit under adverse tem-
oval fruits are commonly produced in Europe peratures; savings in energy, phytohormones, and
and the Americas, while in Southeast Asia there labour costs during off-season and open-field cul-
is a wide diversity of berry colours, shapes and tivation; and enhancement of fruit quality (Acci-
sizes (Doganlar et al. 2002). Eggplant cultivars arri et al. 2002). Moreover, seedless fruits have
are conventionally grouped as ‘Occidental’, which a consumable flesh which is larger in mass than
are preferred in North Africa, Europe, and the that of seeded ones, so they are more attractive for
Americas, and as ‘Oriental’ eggplants, which are consumers (Daunay 2008); however, the utility of
grown in East and Southeast Asia (Cericola et natural parthenocarpic cultivars in cultivation in
al. 2013). Other desirable characteristics include temperate climate needs further investigation.
high productivity, disease resistance, early matu-
rity, fast growth habit and tolerance to environ-
mental stresses (Chen et al. 2002). Global trade Cultivation techniques and farming practices
has focused on increasing the number of elite F1 to improve eggplant yield and quality
hybrids that are characterised by attractiveness for
breeders, seed suppliers, and growers, owing to Seedling production. An eggplant crop is usual-
heterosis for fruit yield and quality (Ali et al. 2011; ly started by growing seedlings in polystyrene al-
Cericola et al. 2013). Modern eggplant cultivars veolar containers in greenhouses filled with peat;
have been shown to have ecological plasticity, so these seedlings are then transplanted into the field
it is possible to select the most favourable variet- (Sękara 2010). The optimum temperature for seed
ies of eggplant for growing in particular geographic germination is 24–29°C (Chen et al. 2002), and
areas. Poşta et al. (2012) successfully introduced the use of multi-pot alveolar containers allows for
four foreign genotypes to broaden the cultivation both nursery mechanisation and the maintenance
assortment in western Romania, and, according of root integrity during transplantation of seed-
to them, the yield potential should be more than lings to the field. Seedling stage is a critical con-
30 t/ha for satisfactory economic profits. Notably, sideration in the vegetable production chain, and
Sękara (2010) recommended the ‘Epic’ F1 hybrid seedling quality and vigour are fundamental req-
for field production in temperate climatic zone, as uisites for future plant performance in the field.
this cultivar achieved a mean marketable yield of Commercially produced eggplant seedlings should
40 t/ha: the early production (first four harvests) be genetically and morphologically uniform, visu-
accounted for 13.5% of the total yield and was rep- ally attractive and healthy, with high physiologi-
resented by first- and second-class fruits (86% and cal potential and resistance to stressful storage,
10%, respectively). Other authors (Markiewicz transport and transplanting conditions (Costa et
et al. 2008) had previously reported 40–50 t/ha al. 2013). However, large-scale seedling produc-
average yield for ‘Epic’ F1 and ‘Solara’ F1 plants tion requires short-term storage to maintain the
grown under unheated foil tunnels. Moreover, quality needed for supply continuity. Kubota et
Adamczewska-Sowińska and Krygier (2013) al. (2002) recommended a temperature of 9°C and
showed that high temperature and sufficient rain- 5 μmol/m2/s photosynthetic photon flux for 24 h
fall significantly promoted eggplant development as the best storage conditions for eggplant seed-
in field conditions in western Poland: ‘Vernal’ F1, lings. As for the best acclimatisation to stressful
‘Epic’ F1, and ‘Avan’ F1 plants yielded 19–24 t/ha, field conditions, De Grazia et al. (2008) proposed

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a reduction of nitrogen fertilisation, Bozokalfa land with the use of living and synthetic mulches:
(2008) proposed irrigation with low-temperature black foil provided the best results, but white clo-
water, Faltenovich and Welbaum (2008) the use ver intercropped with eggplant also resulted in
of mechanical stress, and Sękara et al. (2015) the significantly increased yield in comparison to the
treatment of germinated eggplant seedlings with controls. Waterer (2010) evaluated biodegrad-
various abiotic stressors in order to induce stress able mulch applications in warm-season vegetable
memory, improving the low temperature tolerance. crops, including the eggplant. The clear and wave-
Production timing. Eggplants need a long grow- length-selective mulch types typically produced
ing season of about 120 days for successful produc- beneficial effects on yield through enhancement
tion (Chen et al. 2002). As in temperate climatic of soil temperature, especially early in the grow-
zone, the favourable season for field-grown egg- ing season. Waterer (2010) also reported incom-
plant development is short; seedling production plete pollination in plants grown on biodegradable
in greenhouse nurseries should start by the end mulches, causing abnormalities in eggplant fruit
of February/beginning of March in order to pro- shape. Moreover, the foil broke down too quickly,
long the crop cycle. Advanced-age seedling plugs leaving the crop unprotected and requiring con-
(9–10 weeks after sowing) should be set in the field siderable amounts of additional hand weeding. The
after the last frost (about May 15) to minimise the concept of degradable mulch is attractive, but some
risk of frost damage occurring below the –0.1°C problems associated with its use in eggplant culti-
critical temperature (Potop et al. 2014). Such vation need further investigation and elucidation.
production timing was described to contribute to Plant density and pruning. Optimum spacing and
significant yield increase, because plants entered proper pruning increase yield substantially and im-
the generative phase faster, and the fruiting period prove fruit quality in the eggplant (Pessarakli,
was long enough to obtain early and high yields Dris 2003). The eggplant is characterised by strong
(Sękara 2010). Standard acclimation to stressful vegetative growth; thus, the recommended spacing
external conditions, which is reached by subjecting in field cultivation is two plants per square metre
seedlings to a hardening off process, is sufficient to for non-pruned plants. Pruning and staking are not
mitigate the negative effects of low temperature af- applied for managing plant development in Poland,
ter transplanting into the field. The length of the although they are typically applied for plants under
cultivation period is limited by the first autumn air tunnels and greenhouses. Pruning enhances either
frost, though the final fruits are collected in early fruit colour or quality, and usually 3–4 branches per
October due to the ripeness delay caused by de- plant are maintained. Buczkowska (2010) dem-
creasing photoperiod and temperature. An analysis onstrated the positive effect of eggplant pruning
of field-grown eggplant production in Poland pro- that leaves 2–4 branches per plant on yield quantity
vides evidence that the above-mentioned timing of and earliness; however, single topping performed
seedling production and transplanting guarantees after the first fruit harvest did not affect market-
stable yields, comparable to those obtained under able yield under unheated tunnels. Additionally,
unheated tunnels (Sękara 2010). Michałojć and Buczkowska (2012) reported
Microclimate modifications and mulching. Some that improving light conditions in the plant profile
common farming practices have been recom- by pruning increased leaf phosphorus and calcium
mended to improve the microclimatic conditions contents in eggplant. More research is needed to
for field-grown eggplants. Using sweet corn as a identify the proper balance between plant density
wind barrier to shelter eggplant fields led to tem- range and pruning to allow for intensification of
perature and humidity changes; although the mean eggplant field production.
temperature did not increase, the daily and night Fertilisation and plant protection. Eggplant de-
temperature fluctuations were reduced (Sękara velopment is affected by nutrient availability, es-
2010). Moreover, such climate modifications re- pecially that of nitrogen and phosphorus. Fertiliser
sulted in better prediction of either the flowering rates depend mainly on soil fertility and texture
or the fruiting phase and, accordingly, of the berry as well as on plant requirements, and in this re-
harvest. Adamczewska-Sowińska and Kołota spect a soil analysis is strongly recommended. In
(2010) assessed the possibility of eggplant culti- sandy loam soils at the Asian Vegetable Research
vation in field conditions in south-western Po- and Development Centre, typical fertiliser rates for

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eggplant are 170 kg/ha nitrogen, 70 kg/ha phos- Because of the intensive development of the bi-
phorus pentoxide (P2O5) and 180 kg/ha potassium ostimulant market and of biostimulant utilisation
oxide (K2O) (Chen et al. 2002). The crop showed in horticulture, such techniques can be applied
different reactions to fertiliser applications of 75– successfully also to eggplants grown in the open
300  kg/ha nitrogen, 30–224 kg/ha phosphorus, field in order to improve plant viability and stress
and up to 80 kg/ha potassium, depending on the tolerance.
agro-climatic conditions (Sharma, Brar 2008). The eggplant grows slowly and cannot compete
Prabhu et al. (2006) studied the effects of different with aggressive weeds; it is also sensitive to damag-
nitrogen and phosphorus application rates on egg- ing insects and diseases. In this respect, black plas-
plant cultivation and found that the crop yield per tic mulching effectively controls weeds and reduces
hectare was raised significantly by increasing ni- the need for labour, and natural organic mulch is
trogen and phosphorus doses to 200 and 100 kg/ha also recommended to preserve moisture and add
of nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. organic matter to the soil. The effectiveness of
Adamczewska-Sowińska and Krygier (2008) chemical weed control varies, mainly depending
found that eggplant fruit chemical composition on weed species present, soil type, and air and soil
did not depend on nitrogen fertilisation method; temperatures at time of application (Chen et al.
fruit nitrate accumulation was determined solely 2002). Eggplant diseases and pests were described
by nitrogen dose increases from 100 to 150 and to in detail by Daunay (2008). In temperate climatic
200 kg/ha. Furthermore, extra nitrogen fertilisation zone, the eggplant is infected by several diseases,
caused shoot/root mineral ratio modifications, soil in particular, fusarium wilt and verticillium wilt.
mycorrhizal induction disturbances, reductions Szwejda and Rogowska (2011) described phy-
in root activity, nutrient imbalances and delays in tophagous entomofauna occurring on eggplant
flowering (Aminifard et al. 2010). This study also crops in Poland and noted Thrips tabaci Lind., My-
showed that application of low amounts of nitro- zus persicae Sulz. and Leptinotarsa decemlineata
gen (50–100 kg/ha) is to be recommended for egg- Say as species spread throughout all regions that
plant production and should be implemented by can potentially cause significant economic losses.
growers. According to Kamili et al. (2002), the ap- There are many reports on modern, ecologically
plication of Azotobacter and Azospirillum micro- friendly techniques for disease and pest control,
bial inoculants can result in 25% chemical nitrogen which can be recommended for eggplant cultiva-
savings without affecting eggplant yield. Moreover, tion in temperate climates as either alternative or
the effectiveness of sulphur application in increas- supplementary to chemical control. The main rec-
ing macro- and micronutrient uptake, plant growth ommended management methods against the wilts
and total fruit yield was underlined by Abdel- include crop rotation, resistant varieties, solari-
Mouty et al. (2011). Based on the results of these sation, soil chemical disinfection, and fungicides
investigations, and depending on the farming prac- (Yucel et al. 2007). The application of select soil
tices used and the environmental conditions, it is amendments (i.e., poultry waste, coco-dust, vermi-
recommended to follow proper fertiliser guidelines compost, ash, sawdust, Trichoderma harzianum
with high-yielding F1 hybrids. T22) could be an eco-friendly approach, and their
Organic manures, biofertilisers, micronutrients use may be advised to farmers for both wilt disease
and biostimulants have been reported to improved prevention and to maximise the profitability of
eggplant productivity. Notably, in recent years eggplant production (Faruq et al. 2014).
many assessments have been performed on crop Increased eggplant resistance to pathogens is
development, yield and quality as affected by bi- typically achieved by grafting, which was first per-
ostimulants, the latter exhibiting environmentally formed commercially in the 1950s in Japan (Kubota
friendly features that fit well with sustainable and et al. 2008). Currently, grafted transplants account
ecological agriculture. Majkowska-Gadomska for 65% and 75% of total eggplant production in
and Wierzbicka (2013) reported that application France and the Netherlands, respectively (Lee et al.
of the synthetic biostimulant Asahi SL significantly 2010). Moncada et al. (2013) reported that graft-
decreased total nitrogen but increased potassium ing onto Solanum torvum improved the fruit col-
and copper contents in two eggplant cultivars our in four eggplant cultivars but decreased the to-
grown under unheated tunnels in northern Poland. tal phenolic content. Grafting ‘Tsakoniki’ eggplant

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onto S. torvum and S. sisymbriifolium decreased quality for longer when stored at 10°C; in contrast,
flesh firmness and vitamin C content (Arvanitoy- ‘baby’ eggplants performed better at a storage tem-
annis et al. 2005). Interspecific hybrids represent perature of 0°C (Zaro et al. 2014). Short fruit shelf
an alternative to the commonly used S. torvum Sw life and sensitivity to transport limit eggplant use
rootstock, which is a wild species with irregular for the processing industry and reduce fruit attrac-
germination. Gisbert et al. (2011) demonstrated tiveness to fresh vegetable markets. In fact, fruit
that grafting eggplant onto interspecific hybrids, enzymatic browning occurs following mechanical
especially onto S. incanum × S. melongena hybrids, trauma or the temperature stress to which the ber-
proved advantageous for eggplant production, ries are subjected at temperatures of below 10°C
as the high vigour and good compatibility of the (Concellon et al. 2004; Zubini et al. 2005). This
rootstock with scion resulted in earlier and higher phenomenon is, in turn, caused by the enzymatic
yield with no negative effects on fruit organoleptic hydroxylation and oxidation of phenols to qui-
qualities or composition. Grafting eggplant onto nones, catalysed by polyphenol oxidase in the pres-
disease-resistant rootstocks, such as the ‘Beau- ence of molecular oxygen. In fresh eggplant fruits,
fort’ interspecific tomato hybrid (S. lycopersicum browning was found to be dependent on both
× S. habrochaites), may be an effective strategy for phenolic content and polyphenol oxidase-specific
managing verticillium wilt (Johnson et al. 2014). activity, whereas total phenolic content played a
There are conflicting reports concerning the effect major role in stored fruit browning (Mishra et al.
of grafting on different parameters associated with 2013). Gramazio et al. (2013) demonstrated that
plant stress susceptibility, growth and yield. Ac- selection of eggplant varieties with high chlorogen-
cording to Fallik and Ilic (2014), rootstock/scion ic acid content and low browning is feasible. This
combinations need to be selected carefully for spe- enables evaluation of genetic eggplant resources
cific climatic and geographic conditions. Commer- with increased added value, i.e., those that harbour
cially available rootstocks have been selected espe- significant pro-health phenolic content and exhibit
cially for disease resistance and vigour, so breeding reduced browning susceptibility.
programmes are needed in order to identify suit-
able combinations that result in high fruit quality
attributes under various growing conditions. Eggplant as a functional food
Fruit storability and browning. Eggplant fruits
can be harvested at a range of immature stages be- Against the background of raw vegetables and their
fore full seed development, depending on market by-products, eggplant is distinguished by flavour,
requirements. In traditional distribution channels, taste and dietary value as well as by fruit and plant
fruits are harvested mostly at intermediate devel- decorativeness. Raigón et al. (2008) reported the
opmental phases, and ‘baby’ eggplants are increas- quantities of phenolics and mineral salts that eggplant
ingly in demand with consumers (Zaro et al. 2014). provides for the human diet. The global mean values
Regardless of developmental phase, eggplant fruits were the following (in mg/100 g fresh weight (FW):
have a short shelf life; therefore, the development 48.26 phenolics, 26.6 phosphorus, 198.5 potassium,
of production methods needs to be tailored to local and 0.062 copper. Moreover, landraces exhibited
markets. higher contents of phenolics (16.4%), phosphorus
The protopectin fraction is responsible for main- (34.6%) and zinc (30.0%) compared to commercial
taining eggplant fruit texture, and its content in- varieties. Eggplant field cultivation in temperate cli-
creases until the physiological maturity stage, after matic zone makes it possible to obtain high biologi-
which it drops, causing fruit softening. This occurs cal fruit values, including 7.62 g/100 g FW dry weight
due to the hydrolytic decomposition of protopectin (DW), high insoluble fibre content (0.97 g/100 g
to soluble pectins, the latter being more represent- FW) and the following chemical element contents
ative in ripening fruits (Esteban et al. 1993); how- (in mg/100 g FW): 227.0 potassium, 20.2 phospho-
ever, fruit quality and shelf life are also determined rus, 20.6 calcium, 12.1 magnesium, 0.44 iron, 0.11
by the wax layer covering the skin (Bauer et al. manganese, 0.10 copper and 0.23 zinc (Sękara
2005). With respect to fruiting management, late 2010). In this respect, Adamczewska-Sowińska
harvesting increases yield leading to soft fruits that and Krygier (2013) reported no significant differ-
exhibit lower respiration rates but which maintain ences in the chemical composition of five eggplant

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cultivars grown in open-field conditions in western cyanidins, flavonoids, steroid saponosides (melon-
Poland: 9.62 g/100 g FW DW, 2.51 mg/100 g FW re- gosides) and glyco-alkaloids (primarily solasonine
ducing sugars, 5.54 mg/100 g FW L-ascorbic acid, and the main nitrogenic aglycone, solasodine) are
and, in terms of mineral elements (in g/100 g DW), responsible for the reported antioxidant, anti-carci-
0.28 phosphorus, 3.70 potassium, 0.18 magne- nogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, cardiopro-
sium, and 0.13 calcium. Želisková and Jezdin- tective, neuroprotective and analgesic effects of the
ský (2015) determined the chemical composition fruit (Daunay 2008; Friedman 2015). Moreover,
of six eggplant cultivars in the Czech Republic and solasonine and melongosides are the compounds
noted contents of 6.8–9.4 g/100 g FW DW, 0.5 to responsible for the bitter taste of the fruits, the in-
3.7 mg/100 g FW L-ascorbic acid and 11.6 to tensity of which depends mainly on cultivar, with
17.8 g/100 g DW insoluble fibre. These values are important additional contributions from cultivation
comparable to those of eggplants grown in warmer and harvest methods (Daunay 2008). Eggplant fruit
climates, in the open field or under heated green- crude extract may be effective for long-term treat-
houses (Ambroszczyk et al. 2008b; Raigón et al. ment of asthma (Bello et al. 2005), atherosclerosis
2008). (Han et al. 2003) and hyperlipidaemia (Odetola et
The importance of eggplant as an antioxidant al. 2004), and for inhibition of the development of
source lies in the fruit’s relatively high content of blood vessels that feed tumour tissue (Matsubara
these substances, which is comparable to that of et al. 2005). Due to these health benefits, eggplant is
many berry species consumed around the world. considered a model for vegetable quality improve-
Delphinidin and nasunin were identified as the ment (Gramazio et al. 2013; Plazas et al. 2013).
anthocyanins contained in eggplant skin with the The National Diabetes Education Programme, led by
greatest antioxidant potential (Sadilova et al. both the National Institutes of Health, USA, and the
2006). Anthocyanin content was found to decrease American Diabetes Association (ADA), recommend
during fruit ripening and storage (Gajewski et al. eggplant as a component of the diet for individuals
2006), and eggplant fruit antioxidant properties are with type 2 diabetes (NIH 2008; ADA, 2015).
also associated with high phenolic acid contents
(Hanson et al. 2006; Prohens et al. 2008), especial-
ly N-caffeoylputrescine, 5-caffeoylquinic acid and CONCLUSION
3-acetyl-5-caffeoylquinic acid (Kowalski, Kow-
alska 2005; Luthria et al. 2010). Luthria et al. The increase of vegetable species/cultivar bio-
(2010) evaluated the influence of organic and con- diversity in the agroecosystems of Central Europe
ventional farming practices on total phenolic con- has the potential to lead to remarkable profits. The
tents in two eggplant cultivars, ‘Blackbell’ (Ameri- eggplant exhibits high biological plasticity, predis-
can eggplant) and ‘Millionaire’ (Japanese eggplant). posing it for cultivation in the stressful conditions
The authors showed plant-to-plant variation in phe- of temperate climatic zone. The introduction of this
nolic content and concluded that multiple repetitive species into the spectrum of field-grown vegetables
analyses of plant products collected from different at high latitudes is made possible by the availability
cultivars, grown during various seasonal times at of F1 hybrids that are tolerant to stress conditions
particular locations, should prove unambiguously and exhibit high yield potential as well as phenotypic
the impact of growing conditions on phenolic con- stability. Many modern farming techniques can be
tent or antioxidant activity. Fruit colour and maturi- applied to the eggplant in order to improve the fi-
ty stage at harvest also influence the bioactive com- nal effects on both field production and biological
pound contents: ‘baby’ eggplants exhibited higher value. In this review, we discussed the historical
antioxidant capacity and higher concentrations of background of eggplant cultivation in Poland, and
chlorogenic acid, carotenoids and ascorbic acid than described the state of the art with respect to growing
late-harvested fruits (Zaro et al. 2014). Moreover, practices for field crop management. We also out-
Tateyama and Iragashi (2006) suggested that the lined those genetic resources and worldwide tech-
antioxidant activity of fruit extracts collected from nological trends for the species which could poten-
multi-coloured eggplant varieties depends mainly tially be applied for cultivation in temperate climatic
on the chlorogenic acid content. Several classes of zone. Currently, the main topic deserving further
bioactive eggplant compounds, including antho- investigation is the detailed medium-term schedul-

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doi: 10.17221/36/2016-HORTSCI

ing of each cropping aspect, such as fertilisation and to different rates of nitrogen under field conditions Journal
plant protection. However, the growing practices of Central European Agriculture, 11: 453–458.
used in unheated tunnels can be adapted for field Arvanitoyannis I.S., Khah E.M., Christakou E.C., Bletsos
cultivation of particular cultivars. The development F.A. (2005): Effect of grafting and modified atmosphere
of accurate guidelines for eggplant field cultivation packaging on eggplant quality parameters during storage.
in temperate climatic zone will be beneficial for both International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 40:
growers and consumers. 311−322.
Bauer S., Schulte E., Their H.P. (2005): Composition of the
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Accepted after corrections January 31, 2017

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