the individual vitamins found in foods on various physical, mental, and emotional

conditions. The discoveries made by Pauling and other scientists form the basis of
orthomolecular medicine, a contemporary scientific nutritional practice that recom-
mends individualized whole food diets and high doses of vitamins instead of drugs to
heal disease and create optimum health.
In the 1960s a growing number of people became increasingly disillusioned with the
use of pharmaceutical drugs. Some people felt, as many feel today, that the drugs are cost-
ly, increasingly ineffective, and that they often produce as many side effects and compli-
cations as they appear to cure. For these reasons many individuals, and eventually the U.S.
government through the National Institutes of Health, began to reconsider nutritional and
dietary practices as a safe and effective means of disease prevention and health care.

Eating to Maintain the Body’s Natural Chemical Balance

The basic theoretical foundation of all dietary and nutritional practices is the belief
that whatever we take into our bodies will affect our bodies. If we eat a diet that main-
tains the natural chemical balance of our cells and provides for extra vitamins and min-
erals in times of stress or high demand, we will remain healthy. However, if we don’t eat
a balanced diet we may create an imbalance in our cellular chemistry. This may lead our
organs and systems to malfunction and eventually may lead to disease and illness.
Many scientific studies conducted by the National Institutes of Health and private
foundations such as the National Cancer Institute have pointed to a strong connec-
tion linking diets high in fats, especially saturated fats, and low in fiber to diseases and
conditions such as coronary artery disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure,
and breast and colon cancer. Conversely, changes in diet or eating specific herbs and
nutrients seem to activate the body’s natural defenses, enabling it to heal itself. Today
scientists are looking at whole foods, specific vitamins, and herbs to discover, in sci-
entific terms, how diet can prevent and cure illnesses. Among the things they have dis-
covered are that orange and dark green vegetables like carrots, sweet potatoes,
pumpkins, spinach, broccoli, and kale, which all contain high levels of beta carotene,
seem to help prevent certain kinds of cancer. High doses of vitamin B3 (niacin) have
been used with positive results to help people suffering from a variety of mental and
emotional symptoms often diagnosed as schizophrenia. And Hypericum perforatum,
more commonly known as St. John’s wort, seems to be a safe and effective remedy
against mild to moderate depressions.

Nutritional and Dietary Methods in Practice

Many different nutritional and dietary practices are in use today. Naturopaths, tra-
ditional Chinese medicine doctors, ayurvedic physicians, osteopaths, chiropractors,
and bodyworkers may prescribe or suggest nutritional or dietary practices during a
course of treatment. Herbalists and orthomolecular physicians are two types of prac-
titioners who focus specifically on dietary or herbal practices as a means of maintain-
ing health and curing disease.
A visit to one of these practitioners can be like a visit to a general practitioner. Both
will want to know about the nature of your problems and information about your diet.
The orthomolecular physician may make use of tests, whereas the herbalist may rely

55
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

who have lived with these peoples and learned their age-old wisdom. The diets of these
peoples invariably include a variety of fruits, vegetables, grains, and sometimes animal
products native to their area. These locally produced diets create a chemical balance
within each person’s body and between the people and their environment.
Nutritional practices and herbal medicine form an integral part of all classical healing
systems. Both ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine doctors diagnose patients, in
part, by knowledge of their dietary preferences and cravings. Both systems prescribe
dietary changes and herbal medicines to balance the body-mind disharmonies they per-
ceive through their diagnostic methods. Like those of indigenous peoples, both of these
highly developed healing systems are based on a belief that disharmony of body and
mind, or of the body-mind complex and the surrounding environment, is the root cause
of disease.
In classical Greece, where the modern Western healing system originated, the
physician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 BCE) also believed in health as a balance between
the individual and his or her environment. Discussing the prescription of food as
medicine, Hippocrates is believed to have said, “Food or drink which is in itself slight-
ly inferior, but more pleasant should be preferred to that which is better in itself, but
less pleasant.” In this recommendation Hippocrates seems to affirm not only a belief
that food could be used as medicine, but that the human organism has the innate
ability to direct its own healing, in part at least, through the sense of taste.
Throughout European history people continued to rely on their sense of taste to
develop a varied, balanced, moderate diet that made use of local fruits, grains, and ani-
mal products. They also used various herbs and foods to heal specific conditions. For
example, garlic has been used by people in many European countries for centuries to
heal infections. Chamomile tea has long been recommended to calm the nerves.
The French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was the first person to see bacteria
under a microscope. This momentous discovery led to many innovations in Western
health care including sterilization of surgical instruments, hygienic standards of
cleanliness in hospitals, and the process known as pasteurization of milk and other
liquids. It also led to the development of the germ theory of disease in which all dis-
ease was believed to be caused by outside organisms invading the human body.
In order to fight the outside invaders, biochemists developed an arsenal of antibi-
otics and other pharmaceutical germ-killers. These medicines appeared to work more
quickly and to be more effective than the traditional dietary and herbal cures. Doctors
began to pay less and less attention to the diet of their patients. Instead they began to
rely more and more on a growing stockpile of synthesized drugs to relieve painful and
uncomfortable symptoms.
Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries there were many voices of
dissent against this shift away from natural whole-food diets and toward dependence
on pharmaceutical drugs for healing. Some of those voices, such as that of American
doctor Sylvester Graham (1794–1851), were dismissed as alarmists by allopathic, or
conventional Western, doctors. Other individuals such as Japanese doctor Michio
Kushi, a leading proponent of macrobiotics, were dismissed as exotic and extremist.
In the mid-twentieth century scientists such as two-time Nobel Prize winner Linus
Pauling (1901–1994) began using Western biochemical methods to study the effects of

54
PART III: NUTRITIONAL AND
DIETARY PRACTICES
Herbal Medicine • Orthomolecular Medicine

Nutritional and dietary

practices are body-mind
disciplines that adhere to
the popular adage, “You
are what you eat.” Advo-
cates of these practices
believe that everything you
ingest becomes a part of
you, affecting your physical
health, mental abilities, and
emotional outlook. Nutri-
tional and dietary practices
are some of the oldest body-
mind disciplines known to
humankind. Although there
are many specific practices
Photo: George Ancona / International Stock

popular today, this section

examines one ancient and
one modern practice cur-
rently used to maintain
wellness, prevent disease,
and treat specific condi-
tions, both chronic and
acute.

The Development of Herbs are the primary ingredient in many commercial pharmaceuticals.
Nutritional and Dietary
Practices
The roots of nutritional and dietary practices are firmly planted in the deepest bio-
logical and psychological instincts of the human race. When ill, humans and many
other animals instinctively fast, which cleanses and rests the digestive system. In
addition, animals have been observed in their natural environments searching out
and eating specific plants for medicinal purposes.
Indigenous peoples also use plants from their surrounding environment for medici-
nal purposes. Much of our knowledge of herbal medicine comes from anthropologists
53
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

ever uncomfortable or “hurts bad,” the where a medical opinion is mandatory.

client should notify the ZBer. ZBing is not meant to delay or replace
standard medical care, but rather is an
Why Practice ZB? adjunct to high-level function and feel-
Zone Balancing’s major strength arises ings of well-being.
from the ability to balance and integrate
a person in terms of his or her own body —Fritz Smith, M.D.
energy and body structure. This ability
comes from integrating Eastern con- Resources:
cepts of energy as working principles
and tools into the practice of body han-
Zero Balancing® Association
dling. ZB is extremely effective in reliev-
P.O. Box 1727
ing stress and assisting a person as he or
Capitola, CA 95010
she is going through stressful periods in
Tel/fax: (408) 476-0665
life. When a person is well balanced
e-mail: zbaoffice@aol.com
between energy and structure, the Web site: www.zba.com
vibration of stress passes through the Conducts training programs throughout North
body more easily and has less tendency
America. Continuing education credit is granted
to become stuck, to cause tension pat-
for most programs by the Board of Nurses (Califor-
terns, and to progress to physical or
nia), Acupuncture Committee (California), and the
emotional dysfunction. ZB also has a
National Certification Board for Therapeutic Mas-
particularly important place in relieving
sage and Bodywork [NCBTMB].
pain and suffering if they are the result
of blocked energy.
Of course, like any system of balanc- Further Reading:
ing or healing, it is not always the
appropriate therapy for a given situa- Smith, Fritz Frederick, M.D. Inner Bridges: A Guide
tion. The ZBer is schooled as to where to Energy Movement and Body. Atlanta:
ZB is of particular value, as to specific Humanics New Age, 1990.
risks for the use of ZB, and to situations

52
 Zero Balancing®

In addition to being intimately permission to use the registered trade-

involved with energy forces in the body, mark of ZB. It is not designed or intend-
these joints have several other charac- ed to give the student any specific legal
teristics that make them especially recognition or permission to work in
important in energy medicine. They the health care field. ZB is practiced
have small ranges of motion, and when under the umbrella of other health care
they become compromised in function studies.
the body tends to compensate around
the dysfunction rather than resolve it ZB in Practice
directly. The compensatory patterns The Zone Balancer assesses the body by
that result impact not only the physical testing and evaluating the currents
body but the mind, emotions, and spir- and/or stagnation of energy within
it as well. This means that these joints bone, within the foundation joints of
(and other tissues that hold vibration) the skeleton, and within certain soft tis-
can lock imbalances within the whole sues of the body. In places where the
person. Many of these imbalances are at energy and structure are not well bal-
first subtle and do not come to the level anced, the ZBer uses touch to create a
of a person’s awareness until symptoms fulcrum or balance point in the tissue.
(such as muscle pulls, increasing irri- When this balancing field of tension is
tability, stress burnout) have ensued held stationary for a few seconds it
and magnified the problem. The struc- allows the two variables—energy and
tural/energetic work of ZB can release structure—to reorganize in terms of
these patterns while they are still hid- each other. Improved function, move-
den from awareness and before they ment of energy, and feelings of well-
create symptoms. ZB can also improve being ensue. By repeated use of fulcra,
the fundamental imbalance after a per- placed properly and where necessary,
son develops symptoms and create a the skilled Zero Balancing practitioner
climate in which nature can improve or can balance a person in terms of the
heal the person’s complaint. person’s own energy and structure.
ZB is taught as a postgraduate stud- A typical ZB session requires about
ies program for the health care practi- thirty to forty minutes and is done with
tioner. It is not designed as a start-up a person fully clothed. It is done in two
program for the beginning student of positions, with a person first sitting and
health care. A program of training has then lying on his back, comfortably, on a
been established; the graduate of the massage table. Everything in ZB should
program receives in-house recognition either feel good to the client or “hurt
as a certified Zero Balancer and is given good.” If any of the Zero Balancing is

Another Way to Consider ZB

ZB has been conceived of as analogous to wind (energy) and the sail (structure) of a sail-
boat—knowing that somewhere the wind meets the sail. A well-functioning body is one
in which the body and its parts are well tacked into the movement of energy as it passes
through the system. The person is well tacked into his or her life. Clinical experience has
shown that if the relationship of energy and structure within the body is discordant, it
can be improved and aligned through touch, which results in enhanced performance
and feelings of well-being.

51
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

———. Philosophy of Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO: years. The son of a prominent chiro-
privately printed, 1899. practor, Smith trained as an osteopath
and medical doctor in the 1950s, and
———. Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of later as a five element acupuncturist
Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO: privately printed, with Professor J. R. Worsley. He was also
1902. a student of shakti yoga as taught by
Swami Muktananda, a massage thera-
———. Osteopathy: Research and Practice. pist and certified Rolfer (while he was
Kirksville, MO: privately printed, 1910. studying with Ida Rolf he was her model
for seven of the ten-hour sessions). Out
Still, Charles F., Jr. Frontier Doctor, Medical Pio- of these various experiences he formu-
neer: The Life and Times of A.T. Still and His lated his own distinct set of ideas and
Family. Kirksville, MO: The Thomas Jefferson techniques that later became known as
University Press, 1991. Zero Balancing.

Sutherland, William Garner, and Ann L. Wales,

eds. Teachings in the Science of Osteopathy. Fort The Basic Principles of ZB
Worth, TX: Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foun- According to Dr. Smith, Zero Balancing
dation, Inc., 1990. draws from Eastern concepts of energy
and yet is fully consistent with contem-
Trowbridge, Carol. Andrew Taylor Still: 1828–1917. porary quantum physics and the view-
Kirksville, MO: The Thomas Jefferson Universi- point that matter is composed of both
ty Press, 1991. particle and wave. In ZB the practition-
er considers both of these components
Ward, Robert C., ed. Foundations for Osteopathic as they are found in the body—particle
Medicine. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1997. is represented by structure or matter,
and wave by energy or vibration. If we
compared the body to a sailboat, the
sail would represent the structure and
the wind the energy. ZB focuses on the
ZERO BALANCING ® interface and relationship of where the
wind meets the sail—where the energy
meets structure within the body and

Z
ero Balancing® (ZB) is a hands-on mind—knowing on another level that
body-balancing and integrating all these aspects are forms of energy.
approach that aligns body energy Smith postulates that the strongest
fields with body structure. ZB is based fields of energy are in the bones of the
on the Western understanding of anato- skeletal system. This is the densest tis-
my and physiology but is distinct in that sue in the body and therefore entraps
it uses Eastern concepts of energy as the densest energy of the body. Whereas
working tools as well as guiding princi- ZB also addresses soft tissue, its main
ples for the integration of the whole focus is on the skeletal system. Within
person. Alignment through ZB balances the skeletal system its main focus is on
body energy and structure, creates the foundation and semi-foundation
clearer fields of vibration throughout joints of the body—those joints that
the body, releases tension patterns from have more to do with the transmission,
the body tissue, the mind, and the emo- absorption, and equalization of energy
tions, and allows the vibration of stress in the body than with locomotion or
to pass more freely through the person. movement. Examples of these joints are
the sacroiliac joints, the tarsal and
The History of Zero Balancing® carpal joints of the feet and hands, and
Fritz Frederick Smith, M.D., developed the inter- and costo-vertebral articula-
the system of Zero Balancing over several tions of the spine.

50
 Osteopathy

for areas of somatic (body) dysfunction, Resources:

that is, impaired or altered functioning
of parts of the musculoskeletal system. American Association of College of Osteopathic
The dysfunction may lie in bone, joint, Medicine (AACOM)
fascia, and muscle, or in related vascu- 5550 Friendship Blvd. Suite 310
lar, lymphatic, cerebrospinal, and neur- Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7231
al elements. Once a diagnosis is made, Web site: http://www.aacom.org
treatment can begin. The entire body Promotes the study of osteopathic medicine. Pro-
may be treated with a wide variety of vides information on the seventeen osteopathic
natural techniques, using varying schools in the United States.
degrees of force according to the nature
of the problem and the patient. Any American Osteopathic Association (AOA)
point on or within the body that can be 142 E. Ontario St.
reached with the hands can be treated Chicago, IL 60611
osteopathically. Tel: (800) 621-1773, ext. 7401
The treatments are given on a Fax: (312) 280–3860
padded table to a patient wearing com- Web site: www.am-osteo-assn.org
fortable, loose-fitting clothing (although Offers educational and professional support to
the patient may have to undress partial- osteopathic physicians.
ly for the initial screening examination).
If it is performed properly, there is no
contraindication for osteopathic manip- Further Reading:
ulative treatment.
In osteopathic hospitals treatments Gevitz, Norman. The D.O.’s: Osteopathic Medicine in
are given to patients in intensive care America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982.
units, emergency rooms, labor and
delivery rooms, and newborn nurseries, Hildreth, Arthur Grant. The Lengthening Shadow
as well as in general medical and surgi- of Dr. A.T. Still. 3rd ed. Kirksville, MO: Osteo-
cal units. After the first session the pathic Enterprise, 1988.
patient’s condition and treatment plan
are discussed. Return visits are sched- Magoun, Harold Ives, Sr. Osteopathy in the Cra-
uled based on the individual’s response nial Field. 3rd ed. Kirksville, MO: Journal Print-
to the first treatment and not on a fixed ing Company, 1976.
or routine schedule.
Still, A. T. Autobiography. Kirksville, MO: privately
—Dr. Domenick Masiello printed, 1897.

Popularity of Osteopathy

There are currently around 35,000 osteopathic physicians in the United States, yet only
about 500 osteopaths practice the original healing art, as many use manipulation tech-
niques merely as an adjunct to their conventional practices. Nevertheless, the original
osteopathic concept has made a lasting impression on medicine throughout the world.
Osteopathic and conventional forms of research have validated and confirmed many of
Still’s original ideas. Today even the conventional medical world has many manual med-
icine societies, and the specialties of psychiatry and rehabilitation medicine benefit
from Still’s pioneering work. The osteopathic concept has also spread worldwide. There
are colleges in England, Canada, and continental Europe. To date, thirty-two countries
have granted osteopathic physicians unlimited practice privileges, with an additional
nine countries granting privileges limited to manipulation techniques.

49
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

As the osteopathic curriculum improved osteopathic manipulation could relieve

over the years, it became more like con- the restrictions to the free flow of blood
ventional medicine. Today there are and nerve power by removing the bony
approximately 35,000 osteopathic physi- dislocations and easing muscle con-
cians in practice in the United States. tractions. Moreover, Still revealed to one
Only about 3 to 5 percent of osteopaths of his students toward the end of his life
practice the original healing art as envi- that he was able to see the human aura,
sioned by Still. Yet the original osteopath- the human energy field.
ic concept is powerful and has made a Modern doctors of osteopathy take a
lasting impression on medicine through- holistic approach to the human body and
out the world. Chiropractic, Rolfing, and mind and, accordingly, take a patient’s
CranioSacral therapy borrow heavily from emotional and mental states into consid-
much of Still’s pioneering work. eration, as well as his or her physical con-
The osteopathic concept has also dition. Osteopaths emphasize the
spread worldwide. There are colleges in interaction between the brain and ner-
England, Canada, and Europe. To date, vous system and the musculoskeletal sys-
thirty-two countries have granted tem, paying particular attention to the
osteopathic physicians unlimited prac- musculoskeletal system, which they
tice privileges, with an additional nine believe influences all other organs and
countries granting privileges limited to systems. They contend that physical and
manipulation. emotional disease is brought about by
interrupted nerve flow caused by muscle
Holistic Approach to the Body spasms, injury, or improper alignment of
In many ways osteopathy was Still’s the spine and other bones. By applying
unique synthesis of his personal experi- hands-on manipulation, palpation, and
ence and several major intellectual and other physical therapies to the spine,
philosophical movements that were bones, muscles, and connective tissues,
making their way across America dur- D.O.s (doctors of osteopathy) treat a vari-
ing his lifetime. He viewed disease as an ety of disorders.
effect of derangement from the
anatomical perfection intended by God, Experiencing Osteopathy
the divine architect. A typical office session with an
Still was most influenced by Herbert osteopath begins by taking a history of
Spencer, a nineteenth-century British the current problem, including all med-
philosopher who coined the term “evo- ications or other therapies being used.
lution” and influenced the thinking of This is augmented to include all past
Charles Darwin. In Still’s philosophy of medical and surgical treatments and,
osteopathy one can find many of especially, any physical or emotional
Spencer’s ideas—the concepts of cause traumas. Family and occupational his-
and effect, the relationship between tories are also obtained. In the case of
structure and function, the holistic an infant or child, the medical history
nature of humans, and the interrelated- includes the details of the pregnancy,
ness of parts. The fascinations with labor, delivery, and perinatal period for
phrenology, spiritualism, and Mes- that individual, and questions about
merism, prevalent in the nineteenth developmental milestones are asked.
century, also had an influence on Still. Next comes a physical exam based on
These systems theorized the exis- the patient’s history, and laboratory and
tence of the flow of certain healing and imaging studies (X rays, CT scans) may
self-regulating electromagnetic and be ordered if appropriate.
spiritlike fluids in the body, and Still In addition, the osteopathic physi-
incorporated these concepts into his cian performs either a regional (focus-
notion of the healing effects of an unim- ing just on the problem area) or a
peded flow of blood. According to Still, complete body examination, searching
48
 Osteopathy

movements making their way across and Still was later reported to have said
America during his lifetime. that he thought women made better
Over the years Still continued to osteopaths than men.
practice conventional medicine— Still was assisted in his teaching by
including service as a surgeon in the William Smith, M.D., an 1889 graduate
Union army during the Civil War—and of the University of Edinburgh. After
to develop his unique healing methods. one year Still determined that for the
He devised a system of manipulation most part his attempt to teach osteopa-
and spinal reflexes with which he treat- thy was a failure. He issued certificates
ed all types of conditions. but beseeched the graduates to return
Despite his therapeutic successes he for another year of instruction. Some
was viewed as a medical heretic, a grave did not return.
robber, and a “crazy crank” because of However, in 1893, Still did receive
his unorthodox views, study of corpses, some confirmation that his method
long hours of solitary study, and casual could be successfully learned when two
dress. His methods obtained results of his sons saved many lives during a
that were seemingly inexplicable, so black diphtheria epidemic in Minneso-
some viewed his practice as the work of ta. Graduation for those members of the
the devil. In 1873, while living in first class who had returned was held on
Kirksville, Missouri, Still saved many March 4, 1894. Slowly, the curriculum
lives during an epidemic of infectious improved, more and better students
diarrhea, without the use of any drugs. graduated, and an infirmary was built in
Despite this success, his reputation as 1895. In that year Still and his students
an eccentric followed him and he was performed thirty thousand osteopathic
shunned by most until he cured a treatments. By the late 1890s his school,
prominent Presbyterian minister’s crip- infirmary, and new surgical hospital
pled daughter. were increasingly successful, both acad-
In 1874 Still severed his ties to con- emically and financially.
ventional medicine and announced the In its struggle for acceptance, orga-
founding of his new medical science, nized osteopathy had to battle the pow-
which he called osteopathy. This new erful American Medical Association,
school of medical thought was con- which sought to maintain its control of
ceived as a reformation or improvement the practice of medicine in America.
of conventional medicine, not an alter- Denied the right to serve as physicians
native system. During the 1880s he con- in the military and other government
tinued to refine his science and made jobs, the osteopathic profession lobbied
several attempts to train others. hard for inclusion.
Although he initially had trouble train- It wasn’t until the Vietnam War that
ing others in the practice of osteopathy, osteopaths were allowed to serve their
Still hoped to establish an osteopathic country as physicians. Today there are
school. During this time patients seventeen osteopathic colleges. Some are
flocked to Kirksville from all over Amer- state-supported schools where faculty
ica for his treatment. Hotels were built and facilities are shared with students of
in the town to house the many patients allopathic medicine. Osteopathic physi-
arriving daily, and several railroad com- cians can now practice in all medical and
panies advertised train service to surgical specialties and serve in all
Kirksville. branches of the military and government
On November 1, 1892, the American health service organizations.
School of Osteopathy was opened. The The curriculum at osteopathic schools
first class of eleven students consisted is identical to its allopathic counterpart
of former patients, family friends, and with the exception that D.O.s learn osteo-
five of Still’s children. Five women were pathic philosophy and manipulation.
among the members of this first class, However, with equality comes paradox.
47
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Still National Osteopathic Museum, Kirksville, MO

The first class of the American School of Osteopathy in Kirksville, Missouri, winter term (1892-1893).

(1828–1917), the son of an itinerant of a disease with such agents, a doctor

Methodist preacher who supported his should attempt to discover the cause of
family by farming and practicing medi- the disease itself. He originated the con-
cine. It was during the time spent with cept of wellness and developed princi-
his father tending to the medical needs ples of proper exercise and diet to
of Native Americans that Still decided to prevent disease. He also created a sys-
take up medicine himself, under the tem of manipulating various joints and
guidance of his father. He studied the tissues to realign the bones and muscles
standard medical texts of the time, and thereby increase blood circulation
including ones on anatomy, physiology, and nerve functioning.
pathology, surgery, and other topics. In the 1870s, in America, this holistic
Early on, Still became aware of the perspective was heresy. Still’s early life
limitations of the medical practice of his provided many unfortunate opportuni-
day, particularly the almost total preoc- ties to witness the shortcomings of con-
cupation of conventional, or “allopath- ventional medicine. He lost his first
ic,” medicine that focused on wife and six children to infectious dis-
identifying symptoms and suppressing eases of one kind or another. He saw
them. Still thought that this under- the impotency of medical care during
standing of disease was crude at best his service as an Army field surgeon and
and was based on vague notions of when he cared for Native Americans
“physiological tension” that needed to during epidemics. He had pneumonia
be relieved by such devices as purging, for three months and took three years
bloodletting, and the administering of to recover from typhoid. In many ways
large doses of morphine, opium, alco- osteopathy was Still’s unique synthesis
hol, and mercury. Still believed that of his personal experience and several
rather than treating only the symptoms major intellectual and philosophical
46
 Osteopathy

Resources: Journals:
Journal of Vertebral Subluxation Research, Vol. 1,
Association for Network Chiropractors No. 1 (1996).
444 North Maine Street
Longmont, CO 80501
Tel: (303) 678-8101
Professional organization of network chiroprac-
tors. OSTEOPATHY

O
International Chiropractors Association steopathy is a holistic and drug-
1110 North Glebe Rd. less approach to health and dis-
Suite 1000 ease. It is based on the idea that a
Arlington, VA 22201 human being is not merely a collection
Tel: (703) 528-5000 of parts but a totality imbued with spir-
Provides information on practitioners. it. The human body functions as a unit
and possesses self-healing and self-reg-
World Chiropractic Alliance
ulating mechanisms. Osteopathy main-
2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1
tains that there is a reciprocal
Chandler, AZ 85224
relationship between structure and
Tel: (800) 347-1011
function, that is, an alteration in struc-
Promotes the practice of network chiropractic.
ture (the musculoskeletal system)
through injury, will result in a change in
function (in internal organs), namely,
Further Reading: disease. Likewise, a diseased internal
organ will result in an alteration in the
Books: musculoskeletal system. The osteo-
Epstein, Donald, and Nathaniel Altman. The pathic physician, by his or her intimate
Twelve Stages of Healing: A Network Approach knowledge of human anatomy, can rec-
to Wholeness. San Rafael, CA: Amber-Allen Pub- ognize even subtle deviations from nor-
lishing, 1994. mal bodily functioning and by the
application of various techniques can
Maynard, Joseph E. Healing Hands: The Story of restore the proper structure and func-
the Palmer Family, Discoverers and Developers tion and assist the inherent self-healing
of Chiropractic. Fourth edition. Woodstock, GA: powers of the body.
Jonorm Publishers, 1992.
A Rejection of Conventional Medicine
Woodham and Peters. Encyclopedia of Healing The practice of osteopathy was devel-
Therapies. New York: DK Publishers, 1997. oped by Andrew Taylor Still, M.D.

Health and Well-Being

The largest study of health and wellness benefits of a chiropractic method was per-
formed at the University of California–Irvine. Patients evaluated their own improve-
ments through a wide range of health and wellness indicators. The study showed
evidence of significant improvement in the areas of physical symptoms, emotional and
mental state, stress evaluation, life enjoyment and overall quality of life.

45
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: courtesy of Dr. Donald Epstein

Dr. Donald Epstein, founder of network chiropractic, demonstrates the light pressure tech-
niques he developed to release tension.

A chiropractor’s office usually con- emotional tension occurs. The practi-

tains a special device called an adjust- tioner will reassess the patient regularly,
ing table, which allows patients to sit or perhaps every two months, until the
lie in the optimal position for receiving desired improvement has been made.
care, whether that be faceup, facedown,
seated, or on the side. Time spent on the BeneÞts and Risks
adjusting table is often ten minutes or Network chiropractic is one of the most
so—not an extended period. nonaggressive types of adjustment
Rather than addressing the structur-
available. Adjustments are not given in
al misalignment as a primary distortion,
the areas of maximum tension, fixation,
the network practitioner views it as a
swelling, or pain. Most adjustments are
protection for a spinal cord under ten- very gentle. The practitioner is not seek-
sion. The doctor begins with light pres- ing to inhibit the body or alter pain;
sure applied to the tissue around the instead, the objective is to enhance the
spine. Precise touch adjustments and body’s own self-corrective, self-healing
touches are used to release tension in mechanism. For these reasons, network
the spinal cord and to assist the body in is considered a very safe application of
recognizing the distortion and generate chiropractic.
self-correction.
It is common that as tension is relieved
from the spine a spontaneous release of —Donald Epstein, D.CA.
44
 Network Chiropractic

NETWORK CHIROPRACTIC using the hands to apply leverage and

thrust to a joint to restore function to
the joint or muscles, nerves, and tissue
around the joint. This therapy relies on

N
etwork chiropractic is a branch of
chiropractic, a health care the body’s ability to recover without
method that views all health as a surgery or drugs.
result of the body’s inability to express, Network shares the historical philos-
relay, and distribute energy and infor- ophy of chiropractic, which is based on
mation through the nervous system. the concept that the information the
Chiropractors aim to enable the brain body needs to function is conveyed
and the body to better communicate through oscillation, or vibration. The
through the elimination of disruptions nervous system coordinates all vibration
in the central nervous system, which is through the body, relaying energy and
housed in the protective bones of the information to all body parts, and
spinal column. To do this, they use gen- influencing all body functions. Tension
tle manual pressure and adjustment to on the spinal cord or the nerves exiting
reduce muscular tension, skeletal tor- from the spinal cord causes an energy
sion or twisting, and compression of the disturbance. Network chiropractic seeks
spinal cord or the nerves branching to enhance communication between
from it which may result in a disruption the brain and the body through the cor-
of the body’s essential energy and infor- rection (adjustment) of vertebral sub-
mation highway. luxations.
Network chiropractic is a form of Network practitioners believe that
chiropractic that seeks to develop the subluxations are caused by physical,
body’s self-corrective mechanism. It is emotional, mental, or chemical stress-
believed that this improvement will es. In network care it is common for the
enhance a person’s health, wellness, body to express the energy unavailable
and quality of life. to the body as spontaneous muscular
movement, stretching, or the outward
Establishing a Network expression of emotion such as laughter
Donald Epstein, D.CA., a 1977 graduate of or crying. This liberates the spine from
New York Chiropractic College, devel- the interference caused by the inability
oped this method of chiropractic, which to effectively “move the energy” and cir-
has been researched through the Depart- culates the body’s information.
ment of Anatomy and Neurobiology and
Sociology at the College of Medicine at The Practice of Network Chiropractic
the University of California–Irvine, and at Before beginning sessions, the chiro-
the University of Southern California, practor will request that individuals
Department of Engineering. Epstein’s complete a questionnaire that discusses
method resulted from his efforts to incor- the individual’s physical, emotional,
porate many different approaches and mental, and chemical stresses and histo-
theories into a single “network” of estab- ry. The spine will be evaluated for pos-
lished chiropractic techniques. Also ture, muscle tension patterns, tension in
known as network spinal analysis, the the extremities that may be related to
system has been evolving since 1982 and spinal cord tension, range of motion, or
is currently practiced by chiropractors the involvement of spinal motion with
under the trade name network chiro- respiration. Some practitioners may uti-
practic. lize various noninvasive instrumenta-
tion to further assess the functioning of
Enhancing Communication the nervous system. Spinal X rays are not
Adjustment is a central technique of chi- routine, however, and are taken as indi-
ropractic doctors. Adjustment means cated on an individual basis.

43
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

body. Experienced practitioners are able Resources:

to feel the craniosacral rhythm any-
where on a patient’s body. They can Kenneth I. Frey, PT, Diplomate CST
quickly gain valuable information by Director, Institute of Physical Therapy
palpating the craniosacral motion for 30 W. 60th St., Suite 1BC
rate, amplitude, symmetry, and quality. New York, NY 10023
Lack of craniosacral rhythm or an Tel: (212) 245-1700
asymmetrical craniosacral rhythm is World recognized for its clinical services and as a
used to locate problems throughout the educational resource center in New York City dedi-
body. The problem may be any type that cated to the application and development of
causes loss of natural physiological advanced holistic physical therapies. Treatment inte-
responses, pain, trauma, adhesions, neu- grates whole body evaluation and advanced manual
rological and orthopedic disorders, sys- therapies, clinical sciences, and therapeutic exercise.
temic disease processes, and others. The
therapist’s job is to restore the symmetri- The Upledger Institute, Inc.
cal craniosacral motion to problem areas. 11211 Prosperity Farms Rd., D-325
As the asymmetry is eliminated and nor- Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410-3487
mal physiological motion is restored, the Tel: (800) 233-5880 ext. 9283
problem is being or has been alleviated. An educational and clinical resource center that
integrates the best of conventional health care with
BeneÞts of CranioSacral Therapy advanced complementary techniques. Dedicated to
CranioSacral therapy has been used to the natural enhancement of health, it is recognized
improve the functioning of the brain and worldwide for its continuing education programs,
spinal cord, to alleviate pain and the clinical research, and therapeutic services.
effects of stress, and to enhance general
health as well as resistance to illness and
Further Reading:
disease. It has been especially effective
for conditions such as migraines, hyper-
Claire, Thomas. Bodywork. New York: William
activity, chronic neck and back pain,
Morrow, 1995.
TMJ pain and dysfunction, chronic
fatigue, eye difficulties, stress and ten-
Sutherland, William. Teachings in the Science of
sion-related problems, scoliosis, emo-
Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Rudra Press, 1990.
tional difficulties, motor-coordination
impairments, central nervous system
Upledger, John E., and Jon D. Vredevoogd. Cran-
disorders, learning disabilities, child-
ioSacral Therapy. Chicago: Eastland Press, 1983.
hood developmental disabilities, and
many others.
Upledger, John. Your Inner Physician and You.
—Kenneth I. Frey, PT, Diplomate CST Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1991.

The Growth of CranioSacral Therapy

Dr. Upledger is credited with introducing CranioSacral Therapy to a broad spectrum of

the world’s health care professionals representing diverse specialties. In 1985 he founded
The Upledger Institute to educate the public and health care practitioners about the ben-
efits of CranioSacral Therapy. To date, this health care resource center and clinic based in
Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, has trained more than 25,000 health care practitioners
worldwide in the use of CranioSacral Therapy. Alumni include osteopaths, medical doc-
tors, psychiatrists, psychologists, dentists, physical therapists, occupational therapists,
acupuncturists, doctors of chiropractic, nurse practitioners, massage therapists, and
bodyworkers.

42
 CranioSacral Therapy

University. There he supervised a high- One unique feature of CranioSacral

level team of anatomists, physiologists, therapy is its emphasis on very delicate
biophysicists, and bioengineers to test palpation. Therapists are taught to use,
and document the influence of therapy appreciate, and develop profound
on the craniosacral system. insights through applying a very light,
This team developed the theoretical gentle touch—generally the pressure is
PressureStat Model to describe how the equal to the weight of a nickel. It is
craniosacral system functions. Dr. believed that this light touch allows the
Upledger’s continued work in the field therapist to receive as much informa-
resulted in the further development of tion as possible from the patient’s body,
CranioSacral therapy, including a ten- and to interact in a respectful, highly
step protocol used to alleviate a range of therapeutic manner.
conditions. Another distinction of CranioSacral
therapy relates to its facilitation of the
body’s self-corrective ability. Cran-
Insights Through Touch ioSacral therapists believe engaging
The craniosacral system consists of the
body restrictions with a gentle touch can
central nervous system, brain, and
break down tissue, emotional, and ener-
spinal cord, as well as the membranes
getic blocks to self-release. CranioSacral
and cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds
therapy is not a manipulative therapeu-
and protects the cord. The central ner-
tic modality in which therapists impose
vous system interconnects with the con-
what they think should happen on their
nective tissue that surrounds it, which in
patients. Rather, therapists are trained to
turn interconnects with all other bodily
follow their patients’ bodies to facilitate
structures. Functionally there is one
their own healing process.
uninterrupted tissue sheath from the
CranioSacral therapy aims to be very
top of your head to the tips of your toes.
direct yet highly respectful of the
Therefore, CranioSacral therapists are
patient. A gentle touch directed toward
highly trained in sensing through touch
a patient’s primary restrictions is
a restriction in your system and deter-
believed to provide profound access to
mining how it affects other areas in your
the very fabric of an individual’s being.
body. For instance, practitioners believe
This respect for the patient’s own heal-
a restriction in your leg might have a
ing abilities reflected through touch cre-
profound effect on your lower back,
ates a safe environment for people to
shoulder, neck, or even head. Cran-
frequently access deep, non-conscious
ioSacral therapists are highly trained in
parts of themselves they may have
sensing through touch to track, identify,
blocked or simply couldn’t access by
and release root restrictions affecting
themselves.
the person.
The training of a therapist’s touch by
How does CranioSacral therapy
the CranioSacral therapy technique is
work? First, as cerebrospinal fluid filters
recognized as a profound foundation
into the craniosacral system, pressure
for advancement in manual therapies,
builds. As the amount of fluid increases,
massage, and therapeutic bodywork.
the increased pressure forces the fluid
to travel down the spinal cord. As the
fluid moves, the membranes surround- Practicing CranioSacral Therapy
ing the fluid and the interconnected fas- A typical session of CranioSacral thera-
cial tissue of the entire body pulse in a py lasts forty-five minutes to an hour.
rhythmic fashion, normally at a rate of The client is fully clothed and lies on a
six to twelve cycles per minute. It is this comfortable, padded table. In a very
rhythm that the therapist monitors gentle manner, the therapist evaluates
when evaluating and performing a the patient by testing for craniosacral
CranioSacral therapy session. motion in various parts of the patient’s

41
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

International Chiropractors Association a twenty-year period by Dr. William

1110 North Glebe Road Sutherland, an osteopathic physician
Suite 1000 intrigued by the movement of different
Arlington, VA 22201 bones in the skull. He discovered that by
Tel: (703) 528-5000 exerting gentle pressure on selected
A professional organization dedicated to chiro- areas of the skull or the rest of the body,
practic. a craniosacral therapist can effectively
treat chronic pain, lowered vitality,
World Chiropractic Alliance recurring infections, and dysfunctions
2950 N. Dobson Road, Suite 1 affecting the head, spine, and whole
Chandler, AZ 85224 body.
Tel: (800) 347-1011
Fax: (602) 732-9313
Web site: worldall@ix.netcom.com
Origins of CranioSacral Therapy
A professional support group that provides refer-
CranioSacral therapy developed from
rals for chiropractors nationwide.
cranial osteopathy, the origin of which
dates back to the 1890s, when Dr.
Andrew Still founded the osteopathic
Further Reading: profession. Distraught by the death of
his wife and two children from meningi-
Coplan-Griffiths, Michael. Dynamic Chiropractic tis and not knowing whether the disease
Today: The Complete and Major Guide to This or the mercury used to treat them was
Major Therapy. San Francisco: Harper-Collins, responsible, Dr. Still began an intensive
1991. study of anatomy and non-drug-based
healing ways. He realized everything in
Gevitz, Norman. Other Healers: Unorthodox Medi- nature was ordered: that the body func-
cine in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins tions as a unified whole; structure and
University Press, 1988. function are interrelated; the body has
an inherent self-corrective mechanism;
Martin, Raquel. Today’s Health Alternative. and that drugs can be harmful. Based
Tehachapi, CA: American West Publishers, 1992. upon these principles, Dr. Still founded
the first osteopathic college.
Moore, J. Stuart. Chiropractic in America: The His- Dr. Still’s star student was William
tory of a Medical Alternative. Baltimore: The Sutherland. Dr. Sutherland was
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. intrigued by the idea that the bones of
the skull were structured to allow for
Palmer, Daniel D. The Chiropractor’s Adjuster. movement. For more than twenty years
Davenport, IA: Palmer College Press, 1992 (first he explored this concept, eventually
published 1910). developing a system of treatment
known as cranial osteopathy.
In 1970 osteopathic physician John
E. Upledger observed the rhythmic
movement of the craniosacral system
during surgery. Dr. Upledger and his
CRANIOSACRAL THERAPY colleagues could not find an explana-
tion for this mysterious movement.
After studying the work of Dr. Suther-

C
ranioSacral therapy is a gentle land, Dr. Upledger worked to scientifically
form of bodywork based on releas- confirm the mobility of the cranial bones
ing restrictions in the craniosacral and the subsequent existence of the cran-
system to help people achieve their high- iosacral system. From 1975 to 1983, he
est levels of physical, mental, and emo- served as clinical researcher and a profes-
tional well-being. It was developed over sor of biomechanics at Michigan State

40
 Chiropractic

malfunction likely to start in vertebral often described as relaxing, relieving, lib-

misalignment: aberration of muscu- erating, or energizing. Length and fre-
loskeletal development, or kine- quency of the sessions are established by
siopathology; abnormality in the the chiropractor and patient and depend
muscles proper, or myopathology; irri- on the nature of the problem.
tation of the nerves, or neuropathology;
inflammation indicative of abnormality The BeneÞts of Chiropractic
in the blood cells, or histiopathology; A wide variety of health problems
and deterioration of the sense of mental respond favorably to chiropractic treat-
and physical well-being, or pathophysi- ment. It is beneficial for musculoskele-
ology. The misalignments themselves tal disorders, particularly whiplash
are attributed to any of several causes, injuries, neck and back pain, scoliosis,
such as injury, mental or physical stress, sciatica, arthritis, and bursitis. It can be
and genetic defect or predisposition. effective in alleviating migraine
headaches and other organic condi-
Experiencing Chiropractic tions, sinusitis, gastrointestinal disor-
Chiropractic treatment begins with the der, bronchial asthma, high blood
taking of a thorough case history and a pressure, and heart trouble. Spinal
physical examination that includes adjustment is also regarded as a drug-
analysis and touching of the spine to free means of releasing nervous tension
determine imbalances and subluxations. that contributes to the formation of
X rays of the spine are sometimes made mental and physical disability. Exten-
to get additional information. Recom- sive research today is also testing the
mendations for rest, physical therapy, or efficiency of chiropractic in the treat-
diet may be made as part of a therapy ment of addictions.
plan that generally entails spinal adjust-
ments carried out over a series of ses- —Dr. Trina Marx
sions. The adjustments are done through
hands-on contact that varies from gentle
touch to firm pressure depending on the Resources:
needs of the patient and the orientation
of the chiropractor. Some advocate a American Chiropractic Association
maneuver in which the joint is stretched 1701 Clarendon Boulevard
to just beyond its normal range of Arlington, VA 22209
motion and makes an audible click. Oth- Tel: (703) 276-8800
ers rely upon a repertory of “non-force” Provides a myriad of information about chiroprac-
techniques to manipulate the vertebrae. tic, including monthly publications, newsletters,
The adjustments are not painful and are and clinical councils.

Chiropractic Training

Chiropractic education consists of a four-year, postgraduate program similar in overall

structure to medical school. Graduates receive the degree, Doctor of Chiropractic (DC),
and are required to take courses basic to Western health care during the first two years of
training. Study in the third and fourth years is devoted to the diagnostic and therapeutic
tools specific to chiropractic. Work with patients at clinics affiliated with the chiroprac-
tic school is a standard part of advanced training.

39
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Martha Tabor / Impact Visuals

Chiropractic techniques manipulate the spine to aid the healing process in any part of the body.

laws in all the states. More recently chiro- study of symptoms generally overlooks
practic has benefited from a swing the true cause of the crisis. Ninety-five
toward natural medicine that stimulated percent of all disease, he contended, is
broad interest in its history and potential attributable to vertebral misalignment
as an alternative mode of health care. that interferes with the transmission of
Because of the experiments of “mixers,” information from the “innate intelli-
chiropractic is rapidly becoming more gence” to the spinal nerves.
diversified and offers nutritional coun- Contemporary chiropractors are
seling, massage, and an increasing use of more apt to speak of an inborn switch-
mechanical devices. board than of “innate intelligence,” but
they adhere to Palmer’s belief that ill-
Finding the True Cause nesses are often caused by subluxated
Palmer believed the human being is vertebrae and in numerous instances
born with an ever vigilant “innate intel- are misdiagnosed because the symp-
ligence” or “innate mind” that superin- toms do not point directly to back trou-
tends all the body’s functions and seeks ble. For example, chronic bladder
to achieve homeostasis, a state of bal- infection may be the result of a mis-
ance that extends “to every individual alignment of the lower vertebrae that
cell in the living organism.” Thus in chi- irritates the nerves leading to the blad-
ropractic, much as in therapeutic touch der. Palmer performed his most famous
or osteopathy, virtually unlimited pow- cure, restoring the hearing of a man
ers of self-healing are imputed to the deaf for seventeen years, by correcting a
person, and drugs are seen as detrimen- subluxation of the upper spine.
tal to the workings of the body’s own Diagnosis and treatment in chiroprac-
defense mechanisms. Palmer also tic are therefore organized, not around
taught that diagnosis of disease through disease, but around signs of systemic
38
 Chiropractic

CHIROPRACTIC “done by hand,” evokes ancient Hippo-

cratic teachings, virtually all its princi-
ples and techniques are late nineteenth
century in derivation. Manual “bone-

C
hiropractic is a mode of bodywork
that promotes self-healing by setting” was accepted practice, and
manipulating the spine so as to irregularities in the nervous system
remove blocks in the transmission of were commonly viewed as the cause of
nerve impulses from the brain through illness. The third major component in
the spinal nerves and out to all parts of chiropractic, the use of the hands to
the body. It postulates that malfunction harmonize the circulation of nervous
in any aspect of the individual can be energy, came from Palmer’s experience
attributed to subluxations, misalign- as a magnetic healer, or Mesmerist. In
ments of the vertebrae that disturb the Mesmerism the hands are passed over
spinal nerves in their mediation of the person’s field of electromagnetic
mind and body. Further, chiropractic energy with the aim of correcting imbal-
subscribes to the basic principle that ances regarded as the cause of illness.
the immune system will function per- Palmer advanced beyond Mesmerist
fectly and maintain the person in concepts as his work progressed, but he
robust, good health as long as misalign- never relinquished its vision of a treat-
ments of the spine do not constrict the ment that bypasses drugs and surgery
nervous system. Other therapeutic in favor of direct contact between the
methods such as nutritional counseling hands of the healer and the life force of
may be included in chiropractic, but the person. By 1895 he had put together
treatment always focuses upon detec- the basic principles of chiropractic and
tion and adjustment of vertebral mis- was winning renown throughout the
alignments. Chiropractic is the second- Midwest for “miracle cures” of appar-
largest primary health care field in the ently irreversible problems.
world. Proponents credit it with a wide Palmer’s son, Bartlett Joshua Palmer
range of benefits, from relief of chronic (1881–1961), transformed chiropractic
back pain to successful treatment of into a profession with a following that
asthma and depression. was devoted but rocked by persistent
controversy. Doctors of medicine were
A Long History generally opposed to the growth of a
There is strong evidence that adjust- competing system of health care and
ment of the spine has been used as a led efforts to make chiropractic illegal.
form of medical treatment since civi- Attacks on its lack of scientific rigor
lization first began. A Chinese manu- intensified debate about the interpre-
script of 2700 BCE records details of soft tation of Palmer’s legacy within the chi-
tissue manipulation, and the Greeks are ropractic community. “Straights”
known to have developed similar prac- argued that chiropractic should consist
tices around 1500 BCE. In a treatise of the solely of hands-on vertebral adjustment
fifth century BCE, Hippocrates encour- and condemned as traitors those who
aged his patients to “get knowledge of “mixed” spinal adjustment with other
the spine, for many diseases have their forms of therapy or used mechanical
origin in dislocations of the vertebral devices in lieu of their hands.
column.” Present-day chiropractors continue to
David Daniel Palmer is responsible identify themselves as either “straights”
for developing the form of spinal or “mixers,” but the struggle to win public
adjustment used today. Born in 1845, respect and authority for chiropractic is
Palmer was an American who worked as largely over. During the 1930s John J.
a healer through most of his life but had Nugent started a movement that gradual-
no formal medical training. While its ly raised the standards at chiropractic
Greek name, chiropractic, meaning schools and set up chiropractic licensing
37
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

the alignment of the skeleton and the state of the muscular system. In this way they
are able to treat a spectrum of chronic and acute health problems.
Each of these disciplines has its standard techniques for manipulating the skele-
ton. Chiropractors focus on the manipulation of the spine itself. They see the flow of
information from the central nervous system housed inside the spine as the primary
self-regulating system of the body. CranioSacral therapists focus on the relationship
of the bones of the skull to each other to monitor the wavelike flow of cerebrospinal
fluid, which they believe to be a barometer of healthy functioning throughout all the
systems of the body. Zero Balancers focus on special joints, called foundation joints,
which they believe are the primary regulators of energy throughout the body.
Osteopaths may manipulate the spine, including the skull, or any other joint of the
skeleton where they feel skeletal misalignment is negatively affecting the whole per-
son. Although in their original and most pure forms osteopathy and chiropractic
used only manipulation techniques, today many D.O.s and DCs add other tech-
niques to treatment plans, including recommendations of specific exercises, dietary
or lifestyle changes, and in some cases herbal or pharmaceutical remedies.

Providing Relief for Millions of People Each Year

Skeletal manipulation methods are reported to help more than 15 million people
each year who are suffering from a variety of physical and emotional problems. They
have been found to help with problems that have not responded to conventional
Western medical practices. Whether you are looking for a comprehensive health
modality or relief from a specific pain or condition, these methods may offer unique,
drug-free, holistic approaches to healing and maintaining optimum health of body
and mind.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

Resources: Fax: (312) 280-3860

Web site: www.aacom.org
American Chiropractic Association Offers educational and professional support to
1701 Clarendon Boulevard osteopathic physicians.
Arlington, VA 22209
Tel: (703) 276-8800
Further Reading:
Provides information about chiropractic, including
monthly publications, newsletters, and clinical
Montague, Ashley. Touching: The Human Signifi-
councils.
cance of Skin. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1986.
American Association of College of Osteopathic
Medicine (AACOM)
5550 Friendship Blvd. Suite 310
Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7231
Tel: (800) 621-1773, ext. 7401
36
psychotherapeutic theory with gentle chiropractic techniques; and Zero Balancing®,
which integrates Eastern concepts of energy with skeletal manipulation.

Using the Body’s Inborn Healing Potential

All the methods described in this section believe that the body has an inborn heal-
ing potential. This potential is called by many names, such as “energy,” “spirit,” or
“innate intelligence,” by the practitioners of these methods. Andrew Taylor Still
believed this energy was transmitted primarily through the blood, whereas Daniel
David Palmer postulated that it moved primarily through the nervous system. In
either event, both methods, and all the methods derived from them, when practiced
in their most pure form, are drugless, concentrating on releasing structural misalign-
ments in the skeleton and thereby allowing the body’s own internal healing and bal-
ancing systems to work freely.
Practitioners of skeletal manipulation methods see the relationship between struc-
ture and function in the body to be interdependent. Just as the wooden or steel frame
of a building supports its heating, plumbing, and electrical systems, practitioners of
skeletal manipulation methods see our bones as the supporting framework of all other
systems of our body. If the framework is faulty or collapsing at any point, it is likely to
cause damage to the interior systems. Likewise, if there is a problem in an interior sys-
tem such as a leaky pipe, which on a body level might correspond to a diseased organ
such as kidney, liver, or heart, that malfunction will eventually cause a structural
defect in the building such as a bulge in a wall with peeling paint, or buckling wallpa-
per. On a body level these changes in structure will appear as misalignments in the
skeleton and as pain caused by muscles responding to the skeletal changes.
Furthermore, skeletal manipulation methods view the systems of the body as
interrelated. A common everyday activity such as reaching high for something tucked
away on a closet shelf or vigorously swinging a baseball bat could initiate a series of
systemic changes that begin as a small change in the alignment of the upper spine. If
left unchecked this dislocation could cause localized muscular pain in the shoulder or
upper back area, and then shortness of breath as muscles between the ribs in the
upper torso contract in response to the structural change. Restricted breath may in
turn lead to any number of complicated health problems, including bronchitis, asth-
ma, heart conditions, and even depression.
In a like manner, emotional problems such as a traumatic experience, phobias, and
even addictions, which can cause chemical toxicity, are seen as possible causes of
structural changes in the body. These structural changes then initiate a chain reaction
in the interdependent systems of the body, which stimulates further emotional or
physical cravings. Many practitioners of skeletal manipulation methods extend this
holistic view of the causes and effects of alterations to skeletal alignment to every
aspect of a person’s life including genetic inheritance, diet, exercise, daily activities,
and stress from work and personal relationships.

Experiencing Skeletal Manipulation

Practitioners of skeletal manipulation methods rely predominantly on the use of
the hands, physical contact, and knowledge of anatomy to diagnose patients. Touch-
ing and physically moving the patient in various ways allows the practitioner to feel
35
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

and spirit, possessing its own innate healing and balancing mechanisms that guide
communication between the interrelated systems of the body. The goal of all of these
drugless methods is to remove any structural alterations to the natural skeletal align-
ment that may impede the operation of these innate healing and balancing mecha-
nisms. The older methods, osteopathy and chiropractic, are used by millions as
primary health care modalities for treating a wide variety of health problems. The
younger methods derived from them are generally used to treat specific problems or
to enhance general physical health and emotional well-being.

The Development of Skeletal Manipulation for Health

The practice of manipulating the skeleton for optimal health is ancient and wide-
spread. Some medical historians report that the Egyptians used such techniques. The
earliest written record of skeletal manipulation comes to us from China, where meth-
ods of bodywork were developed several thousand years ago as part of a complete
health care system. The Asian bodywork methods practiced today that are derived
from these ancient practices are similar to the skeletal manipulation methods
described in this section in that both of them manipulate the physical body with the
goal of influencing a vital life force. There is no evidence that these Eastern practices
directly influenced the development of the earliest skeletal manipulation methods.
But it is very likely that the philosophy upon which these Eastern practices are based,
which was introduced into American cultural discourse in the late nineteenth centu-
ry, indirectly influenced the founders of chiropractic and osteopathy.
Hippocrates (c. 430–377 BCE), the father of modern Western medicine, is reputed to
have said that dislocations of the spine are the origin of many ailments, but it is
unclear how this belief affected his medical practice. The recorded history of manip-
ulating the skeleton as a means of treating disease and creating optimum health
begins in the West with the work of Andrew Taylor Still (1838–1917). A controversial
figure in American medical history, Still rebelled against the medical practices of his
day, which included heavy use of drugs, purging, and bloodletting. He formulated the
gentle, drugless, noninvasive principles and techniques of osteopathy and estab-
lished its first school in Kirksville, Missouri, in 1892.
Unlike Still, Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), the founder of chiropractic, had no
formal medical training, but practiced various forms of energy healing popular at the
end of the nineteenth century. Chiropractic was formally introduced as a healing
modality in 1895. Some medical historians report that Palmer was treated by Still in
Kirksville in 1893. Whether or not this particular treatment occurred, given Palmer’s
lifelong interest in unconventional healing techniques, it is certainly probable that he
was familiar with Still’s groundbreaking work.
Both osteopathy and chiropractic have had long, arduous struggles for accep-
tance within the conventional medical establishment. Today doctors of osteopathy
(D.O.s) and doctors of chiropractic (DCs) are licensed to practice throughout the
United States and Canada. In recent years a number of D.O.s and DCs have added
their own insights to these century-old healing modalities to create more personal-
ized approaches to healing the whole person through manipulation of the skeleton.
These new methods include CranioSacral therapy, which focuses primarily on
manipulating the bones of the skull; network chiropractic, which blends Western
34
 PART II: SKELETAL MANIPULATION
METHODS
Chiropractic • CranioSacral Therapy • Network Chiropractic • Osteopathy
• Zero Balancing®

Skeletal manipulation
methods are a group of
healing practices that focus
on the form of the skeleton
to improve the functioning
of the whole person. They
are part of a larger group of
practices that have come to
be known collectively as
bodywork. Bodywork is a
general term describing a
wide variety of methods
that use touch to improve
awareness of feelings and
Photo: Still National Osteopathic Museum, Kirksville, MO
sensations in the body and
improve physical function-
ing. Bodywork methods are
also used to relieve pain
and encourage relaxation.
There are many disciplines
in this book included in the
bodywork category. They
can be found in the sec-
tions entitled Acupuncture
and Asian Bodywork, Body-
Oriented Psychotherapies,
Massage, Movement Ther- Dr. Andrew Taylor Still, founder of osteopathy, championed the idea
that a thorough knowledge of the human skeleton could be the basis
apy Methods, Somatic for a complete health care method.
Practices, and Subtle Ener-
gy Practices.
The oldest methods in this section, chiropractic and osteopathy, developed in
response to the conventional medical practices prevalent in America in the mid- to
late nineteenth century. The other skeletal manipulation methods evolved from these
seminal practices. In addition to their historical roots, these methods also share a the-
oretical framework. They view the human being as an integrated whole of body, mind,
33
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

The BeneÞts of a Wellness Approach National Wellness Institute

1045 Clark St., Suite 210
to Health Stevens Point, WI 54481-0827
Wellness programs focus on reaching
Tel: (800) 243-8694
higher levels of wellness as well as pre-
Fax: (715) 342-2979
venting illness. Many patients are moti-
Founded in 1977, this is a full resource center for
vated by the energy and vitality that
wellness practitioners and those interested in well-
result from a holistic approach to life,
ness programs.
especially when they realize that the
benefits could continue and allow them
to feel good for many years. Further Reading:

—Brian Luke Seaward, Ph.D. Edlin, Gordon, Eric Golanty, and Kelli McCormack
Brown. Health and Wellness. Sudbury, MA:
Jones and Bartlett, 1996.
Resources:
Travis, John, and Regina S. Ryan. The Wellness
National Wellness Association (NWA)
Workbook, Second Edition. Berkeley, CA: Ten
1045 Clark St., Suite 210
Speed Press, 1988.
Stevens Point, WI 54481-0827
Tel: (715) 342-2969
Fax: (715) 342-2979
e-mail: nwa@wellnesswi.org
Web site: www.wellnesswi.org/nwa.html
A nonprofit professional membership organization
that disseminates information and provides ser-
vices to professionals working in wellness areas.

32
 Wellness

Wellness Programming

When evaluating the dynamics of wellness applications, there are many programs
and services that need to be considered. Below is a partial list of wellness program
services, by their respective holistic components. Keep in mind that a service listed in
one area has a crossover effect in all the other areas.

Physical Well-being: Spiritual Well-being:

Aerobic Fitness Values Clarification and Assessment
Cholesterol Screenings Journal Writing
Blood Pressure Screenings Dance Therapy
Blood Sugar Screenings Meditation
Weight Training Communing with Nature
Nutritional Assessments Inner Resource Development
Biofeedback Human Potential Development
Massage Therapy Community Service Projects
Hatha Yoga Social Support Group
T’ai Chi

Mental Well-being: Emotional Well-being:

Meditation Humor Therapy
Mental Imagery Music and Art Therapy
Stress Management Aromatherapy
Time Management Codependency Therapy
Creativity & Creative Problem Solving Grieving Therapy
Communication Skills Communication Skills
Dream Analysis Creative Anger Management
Stress Management

31
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

Spiritual Emotional
Well-being Well-being

Mental Physical
Well-being Well-being

The wellness model of a complete human being.

four components are always present in years. As Kübler-Ross and others note,
the human condition, each component there are many people who never move
dominates in our lives as we journey into this phase of development because
through the life cycle. The first compo- of laziness, mistrust, or fear.
nent is the emotional, in which we
experience the array of human emo- How Wellness Works
tions. During this time, we may be con- With the help of a thorough personal
ditioned by parents, guardians, or even history and open discussions between
society to suppress our feelings, which the patient and practitioner, the practi-
could likely result in emotional dys- tioner will be able to recognize an
function later in life. The influence of imbalance or problem in one of the four
physical development begins to domi- areas. He or she will then be able to
nate at puberty and continues well guide the patient to a program or ser-
throughout the teen years. The mental vices that address the patient’s needs.
or intellectual aspect kicks in during the The wellness professional has a whole
college years and endures well into mid- range of programs to choose from and is
life, as we exercise our mental capabili- aware of how these services and pro-
ties through the thinking processes of grams interact and affect the patient.
the right and left brain and the con- Wellness professionals work in partner-
scious and unconscious minds. The last ship with their patients and recom-
section of the wellness paradigm, the mend treatments that support the
spiritual, emerges during the mid-life body’s natural healing system.

30
 Wellness

WELLNESS entities. Descartes’ premise, known as

the Cartesian Principle, led to the mech-
anistic paradigm, which eventually led
to the belief that the human body acts

W
ellness programs are based on
holism, sometimes called holis- like a machine and the way to treat dis-
tic wellness, a philosophy of ease and illness (the opposite of health)
health that believes well-being is not just was through medications and surgery.
a condition of physical health or the The wellness paradigm holds that
absence of disease and illness. Rather, there is no separation between mind,
health is a balance of elements that body, spirit, and emotions. All aspects of
include the mental, emotional, spiritual, the human condition are so tightly con-
and physical aspects of the human condi- nected that it is impossible to distin-
tion. In other words, wellness is the inte- guish one from the other. An ancient
gration, balance, and harmony of mind, theory that is supported by many
body, spirit, and emotions, where the experts in several disciplines suggests
whole is thought to be greater than the that each aspect of the human condi-
sum of the parts. Wellness professionals tion is comprised of energy, with the
believe that the lines separating the men- most dense energy being the most obvi-
tal, physical, emotional, and spiritual ous and tangible: the physical body.
aspects exist in theory, but not in actuali- Here then are definitions for each
ty. Research in the field of psychoneu- aspect of the wellness paradigm:
roimmunology (the relationship between • Emotional well-being is best defined
emotions and the body) reveals that there as the ability to feel and express the
is no division between these aspects, and entire range of human emotions
they should be regarded as one. from anger to love, and to control
them, not be controlled by them.
History of the Wellness Approach • Physical well-being is defined as the
Although the concept of wellness is optimal condition of each of the
thousands of years old, the word well- body’s physiological systems. These
ness was introduced into the American include pulmonary, cardiovascular,
vernacular in the 1960s. Thought by nervous, immune, reproductive, uri-
many to be an expansion of the fitness nary, endocrine, musculoskeletal
movement of the late 1970s and early and digestive.
1980s, wellness is considered to be a • Mental well-being is understood as
more comprehensive approach to opti- the ability to gather, process, recall,
mal health than standard health educa- and communicate information. Like
tion programs that treated specific a computer, the mind can gather and
symptoms or were used to prevent dis- store mass quantities of information.
ease. Addressing more than physical ail- • Spiritual well-being is defined as the
ments, wellness programs integrate, maturation of higher consciousness
balance, and harmonize the physical, as developed through the dynamic
mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects integration of three facets: relation-
of the wellness paradigm. Today pro- ships (internal, how you relate to
grams are offered in corporate, commu- yourself and a higher power, however
nity, hospital, and fitness club settings. you conceive this to be; and external,
how you relate and interact with all
people in your life), a personal value
The Basic Principles of Wellness system, and a meaningful purpose in
It may seem as if mind, body, spirit, and
life.
emotions are separate aspects—a
premise proposed by the French philoso- An important figure in the wellness
pher René Descartes (1596–1650) stated area, Dr. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross, outlines
that the mind and body are separate a theory that suggests that although all
29
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

4. Listening and smelling : This aspect certification through the National Com-
of the four examinations involves mission for Certification of Acupuncture
listening to the patient’s voice, and Oriental Medicine (NCCAOM) is
noticing any strange odors (which one clear way to be sure that a practi-
could, for example, indicate infec- tioner is at least competent. It is quite
tion), and otherwise gleaning infor- possible, however, to find master-level
mation that a patient does not practitioners who have not chosen to get
actually report to the practitioner. such a credential.
Once the assessment is clear, the doc- —Cindy Banker
tor of herbal medicine writes out a pre-
scription to be filled with exact dosages of Resources:
each herb. Some prescriptions call for
bags or batches of herbs, which are often American Association of Acupuncture and Orien-
packed in wrapped paper. For such pre- tal Medicine
scriptions, dosage is determined by the 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201
number of bags to be cooked and used Raleigh, NC 27607
within a specified time frame. Patients Tel: (919) 787-5181
who are unfamiliar with their formulas Offers information on TCM.
need to be instructed on how to cook their
prescription into a tea or soup. Some- National Commission for Certification of
times one or two herbs need to be added Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine
separately to make their cooking time (NCCAOM)
longer or shorter than other ingredients. 1424 16th St. NW, Suite 501
For less serious problems, experienced Washington, DC 20026
customers are able to use the herbal store Provides certification for practitioners of acupunc-
as a pharmacy, buying familiar, simple ture, Chinese herbal medicine, and Oriental body-
remedies without a prescription. work therapy.

The New Center for Wholistic Health, Education

BeneÞts and Risks and Research
The three disciplines of traditional Chi- 6801 Jericho Turnpike
nese medicine have evolved over thou- Syosset, NY 11791
sands of years and are considered to be Promotes the study and practice of TCM.
safe for almost anyone who wishes to
try them. Many schools for TCM have
adjusted their programs to incorporate Further Reading:
more training in modern Western sci-
ence. More medical schools, such as Cheng, Xinnong, editor. Chinese Acupuncture and
Harvard Medical School, are including Moxibustion. Beijing: Foreign Language Press,
courses to help Western physicians to 1987.
refer to and work with alternative medi- Enqing, Dr. Zhang, editor. Practical English-Chi-
cine. For this reason, anyone thinking nese Library of traditional Chinese medicine.
about choosing a full program of TCM Shanghai: Publishing House of Shanghai Col-
should consult with both TCM and lege, 1990.
Western doctors to understand the
strengths and shortcomings of each. Kaptchuk, Ted J. The Web That Has No Weaver.
As with all health programs, choosing New York: Congdon & Weed, 1983.
a therapist is a crucial decision. To decide
Unschuld, Paul, editor. Introductory Readings in
whether your herbalist or therapist is
Classical Chinese Medicine. Dordrecht, Nether-
properly qualified, a prospective patient
lands: Kluwar Academic Publishers, 1988.
should carefully ask the doctor where and
how he or she learned this discipline. For Yubin, L. & L. Chengcai. Advanced Traditional Chi-
Chinese herbal medicine, national nese Medicine Series. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1996.
28
 Traditional Chinese Medicine

the liver meridian and will tonify the cian to create formulas that skillfully
water point. Understanding that the match the patient’s condition.
entire kidney organ system reflects the Chinese herbal medicine stores can
water element, a practitioner may also usually be found in any major city of the
choose to bring in more water or yin United States where there is a significant
quality using specific kidney meridian Asian population. Often these herb
points. shops are owned or run by practitioners
Just as the five essential substances or “doctors” of Chinese herbal medicine.
are all seen as part of one living whole, When this is the case “customers” have
the dynamic interplay of yin and yang the option of becoming “patients” when
energies and the five elements are they go into the store. Often a number of
understood as having a complex inter- practitioners in one area will refer all
active relationship with one another. their patients to one local herb store in
Extensive study of Chinese medicine is order to have their herbal prescriptions
needed to truly understand and effec- filled. In this way Chinese herbal medi-
tively direct these complex interactions. cine stores act as pharmacies.

Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine Four Examinations

Over the last two decades, the ancient TCM practitioners use a system called
arts of acupuncture, Chinese herbology, the “four examinations” to diagnose a
and Oriental bodywork therapy have patient and determine a proper course
emerged from the privacy of Asian- of treatment. The examinations include
American communities and into the the following steps:
greater American consciousness.
Unlike acupuncture and Oriental 1. Questioning : Starting with informa-
bodywork therapy, which use physical tion about a specific complaint or
pressure and manipulation to effect condition, the experienced practi-
changes in the way a patient’s body tioner asks about other symptoms
functions, Chinese herbal medicine and signs that can help point toward
counts on the properties of different a specific pattern. In the Ming
plants and foods to stimulate or calm dynasty Zhang Jie-Bin developed a
different parts of the body. In many set of ten specific questions, and
ways, this is similar to the drugs of modified versions of this are still
Western medicine, but because Chinese useful today.
herbal medicine employs “whole” natu- 2. Looking : The practitioner carefully
rally occurring food substances, the risk observes the patient’s appearance.
of causing harmful side effects is greatly This usually includes looking at the
reduced. person’s tongue, face, and body
Chinese herbal medicine must be structure.
studied as a distinct skill. Its practition- 3. Touching: The practitioner carefully
ers must learn the pharmacopiae, a feels the radial pulse in the patient’s
name for the knowledge of the names, wrist for a very specific assessment of
characteristics, and actions in the body the patient’s qi, blood, and other
of all the individual herbs. Dosage for- essences. Some practitioners can get
mulas must be memorized along with most of their information from this
various modifications for each. Knowl- one source. If the person’s complaint
edge of contraindications and hidden is a pain or injury, then the practi-
effects for specific herbs is an important tioner must examine the injured or
part of what must be studied. This painful area. A number of other sets
information can take years to assimi- of points and microsystems (the
late. Nevertheless, all this information hand, foot, ear) may also be used for
is necessary for the experienced clini- palpation.

27
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

in both the human body and in all the body can be treated as entirely sep-
nature. They viewed this movement as arate from the whole.
an interaction between two opposite but TCM uses the term resonance to
complementary energies that they describe the relationship between the
called yin and yang. In Chinese philoso- five essential substances and their role
phy these forces are understood to com- in our health. Resonance describes the
plement and help nourish each other. idea that certain qualities may be iden-
Neither can exist without the other. tified as similar within different spheres
Examples of dynamic interaction of existence. For example, the morning
between pairs of opposites can be seen time of day has a quality of energy that
in the constant interplay of day and is similar to or resonates with the spring
night, male and female, or hot and cold. time of the year. This quality of rising
All the organs and actions of the body energy identifies them as a particular
may be categorized as either yin or yang. stage in a cycle of change.
TCM identifies five “essential sub- Such stages of change are referred to
stances” at work in the human body: as elements or transformations. The
spring and morning are categorized as
1. Spirit (shen), which determines how
belonging to the wood element stage of
people direct and conduct them-
what is known as the five-element cycle.
selves in life.
This cycle is used to explain how energy is
2. Energy or electromagnetic force
constantly changing. It can be applied to
(qi ), a Chinese concept that cannot
the day, the year, the human body, or any-
be translated into just one English
thing else we want to understand.
word. Qi is how the spirit moves and
In TCM the five-element cycle has
becomes materialized in the body.
proved to be an exceptionally versatile
It describes both activity and a
frame of reference for explaining the
material substance. The concept of
patterns of dynamic change in our phys-
qi bridges the line of distinction
ical bodies. Each of our ten primary
that the English language makes
organs is correlated with one of the five
between energy and matter.
elements of nature: fire, soil, metal,
3. Blood is the same blood we refer to
water, and wood. Doctors of Chinese
from a Western anatomical view, but
medicine then correlate the ways in
from the TCM perspective, it is
which these elements interact in nature
imbued with the nutritional and
at large with the way these organs and
energetic qualities TCM attributes
the dynamic qualities of yin and yang
to qi. This aspect of blood is called
work together in the physical body. For
the ying qi and it circulates with and
example, an inflamed liver might be
in the blood, as it moves through
seen as having too much fire. The solu-
the vessels and performs its various
tion to the problem is best deduced from
functions.
the way nature cools fire with water. In
4. Body fluids ( jin ye), which include
the case of “liver fire,” a yang excess con-
sweat, tears, cerebral spinal fluid,
dition, the patient will naturally be very
and other fluids of the body.
thirsty and want to drink large quantities
5. Essence ( jing), which in English may
of cold water. The practitioner treating
be understood as potential. This
such a condition knows that the excess
includes our genetic potential as
“fire” needs to be dispersed or drained
well as the potential of any person or
and more “water” quality added to the
thing to take an action.
meridian in order to keep the fire in
These essential substances are under- check. Using either needles, acupres-
stood to exist as a continuum of each sure, magnets, or other techniques, a
other. None can be considered as skilled practitioner will choose to use a
entirely separate, just as no one part of dispersing technique on the fire point of

26
 Traditional Chinese Medicine

The third book is believed to have The introduction of Western culture

been written around 220 CE. Written by a in China began a period of slow decline
very famous physician and scholar for TCM. The obvious realities revealed
named Zhang Zhong-Jing, it is called through anatomical study made many
the Treatise on Harm Caused by Cold Chinese physicians and scholars feel less
(Shang Han Lun). This book deals with confident in some of TCM’s less tangible
how outside influences such as colds, theories. The Chinese government also
flu viruses, and plagues can attack and applied political pressures that affected
make people sick, and describes how to the publication of certain literature.
treat these problems with Chinese Eventually there began a trend to weed
herbal medicine. out the more “esoteric” ideas from Chi-
Zhang Zhong-Jing described six nese medical literature. While ideas as
specific layers of the body’s defense sys- fundamental as the qi and blood
tem and matched these with already rec- remained intact, references to the spiri-
ognized meridian pathways. He tual components became more and
described the qualities of illness as they more simplified. Under the Communist
invaded each layer and gave specific regime, many ideas came to be viewed as
herbal formulas that could be used for superstitious and unscientific. These
treatment. Using a wide variety of herbs ideas were disregarded and systematical-
given in specific dosages, he created for- ly eliminated from revised texts.
mulas that could match detailed patterns To this day very little of original TCM
of diagnosis. Zhang’s use of herbal medi- literature has been translated into West-
cine introduced a whole new level of ern languages. Subsequently, TCM is
sophistication within the possibilities of often described in terms of the clinical
TCM. While he cannot be credited with approach presently being used in hospi-
inventing Chinese herbal formulas, his tals in mainland China. While this sys-
ability to understand and match patterns tem offers very effective clinical
of illness with the herbs that will cure applications for the treatment of dis-
them place him as one of the founding ease, much of the broader perspective
fathers of Chinese herbal medicine. and theories remain buried in literary
Over the next 1,500 years, China con- Chinese characters.
tinued to develop and perfect the ideas
that originated in the Han dynasty. Many Guiding Principles
physicians and scholars continued to Influenced by its Taoist origins, TCM
practice and write about their ideas and views the human body as an image of the
results. Ideas that were originally used natural world. This is reflected in the ter-
by particular authors and schools of minology of TCM. Energy is said to flow
thought were eventually homogenized through the body in “rivers,” often to a
into guiding principles for one predomi- bodily “reservoir” or “sea.” A diagnosis
nant system of medicine. might describe an ailment as “liver fire,”
By the end of the Ming dynasty (1643 or an entire organ system as part of the
CE) another idea, now described as the water element. These terms do not
eight principles, began to emerge. This reflect a lack of sophistication on the part
model included all of the dynamics that of TCM, but rather a conscious decision
impact health. These are internal and to accept that the human body is a par-
external factors, hot and cold, yin and ticipating, not an isolated, part of the
yang, and excess vs. deficiency. This surrounding world. The language of
model was used to integrate many of the TCM reflects how the ancients tried to
previous models in TCM. The Ming was reconcile their observations of the
the last dynasty in which traditional human body with what they observed in
Chinese medicine continued to evolve nature.
and flourish without being influenced Continuous, dynamic movement is
by Western thought and medicine. something the ancient Chinese observed
25
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Bruce Hands / © Tony Stone Images

While discussing a patient’s state of health, TCM doctors observe other indicators, including skin color-
ing, body structure, tone of voice, and scent.

impact on TCM. At the time of the Han The lines or pathways are usually called
dynasty there were many different kinds meridians. Places where the qi comes
of healers and teachers in China. Confu- right up to the surface are called acu-
cianism was the main political power in points. The qi is believed to circulate
court. During this time Ssu-ma Chien through this system connecting the
became the Grand Historian of the Court, deepest internal organs to places on the
and great importance was placed on skin where the energy can be influenced
organizing and recording written records. and treated. The points can be treated
During this time three books were with needles (acupuncture), heat (moxi-
written that are still considered the cor- bustion), or manipulation (acupressure).
nerstones of TCM. The first was called The qi system was described in more
the Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic detail in the second book, called the
(Huang di-nei Jing or simply Nei Jing). Classic of Difficult Issues (Nan Jing). The
The Nei Jing refers to both Taoist and Nan Jing is believed to have been written
Confucian concepts. The Taoist perspec- at least one hundred years after the Nei
tive of health emphasizes living in har- Jing. The Nan Jing refers to information
mony with nature and achieving in the Nei Jing and expands on those
longevity. The Confucian ideals describe ideas. The Nan Jing goes so far as to say
an integrated system within the human that a person’s health can be directly
body that reflected the orderly social analyzed just from carefully feeling the
structure finally made possible in one qi and blood as it moves through the
unified state. radial artery in the wrist. This is called
This organized structure was eventu- the radial pulse. Modern practices of
ally mapped into the specific lines and TCM still use this map of the qi system
pathways we see on acupuncture charts. to diagnose and treat their clients.
24
 Traditional Chinese Medicine

traces its mixture of herbal medicine,

The Foundation for Shamanic Studies acupuncture, and massage therapy back
P.O. Box 1939 to the origins of Taoism and Confucian-
Mill Valley, CA 94942 ism. With a heavy emphasis on under-
Tel: (415) 380-8282 standing the patient and his or her
Sponsors workshops on shamanic training. Call or needs, as opposed to focusing on the ill-
write for a catalog of their workshops. ness and its symptoms, TCM offers a
counterpoint and complement to the
Further Reading: bio-science of Western medicine.
TCM has been studied and practiced
Books: in many Asian countries such as Japan as
long ago as 600 CE. Some Asian countries
Andrews, Lynn. Medicine Woman. San Francisco:
such as Korea and Japan have developed
HarperCollins, 1981.
their own modifications to TCM. For this
Beck, P. V., Anna Lee Walters, and Nia Francisco, reason, the term Oriental medicine is
eds. The Sacred Ways of Knowledge, Sources of sometimes used instead of Chinese med-
Life. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Publishing Co., icine. However, all forms of traditional
1990. Oriental medicine are considered to have
originated from the work done in China
Bennett, Hal Zina. Spirit Guides. Ukiah, CA: during the Han dynasty.
Tenacity Press, 1997. Because of the sociopolitical climate
———. Zuni Fetishes: Using Native American
in modern China, a wide gap exists
Objects for Meditation, Reflection, and Personal
between current TCM theory and tradi-
Insight. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995
tional TCM. Unfortunately, English
translations of TCM have been avail-
Campbell, Joseph. Primitive Mythology. New York: able for only the past fifteen years, even
McGraw-Hill, 1978. then usually for a modern, officially
sanctioned version of TCM. Different
Castaneda, Carlos. The Teachings of Don Juan: A
translations often contain confusing
Yaqui Way of Knowledge. New York: Ballantine,
variations. For example, an important
1968.
word we will discuss later like qi may be
Harner, Michael J. The Way of the Shaman: A spelled chi (using an older translation
Guide to Power and Healing. San Francisco: system) or ki (Japanese). All three ver-
HarperCollins, 1980. sions have the same meaning. In this
essay, the modern Pinyin form of Chi-
Morgan, M. Mutant Message. New York: Harper- nese will be provided when possible.
Collins, 1994. Understanding these translation princi-
Journals:
ples can help you to read and under-
stand other books and articles on the
Shaman’s Drum: A Journal of Contemporary subject of TCM.
Shamanism.

The History of TCM

In China an extremely organized system
of healing developed during the period
TRADITIONAL CHINESE known as the Han dynasty (approxi-
mately 213 BCE–240 CE). At this time in
MEDICINE Chinese history the country was finally
reunited into one empire after hundreds

T
raditional Chinese medicine of years of fighting in the Warring States
(TCM) is an ancient approach to period (476–221 BCE). Both Confucian
health care. Still practiced today in and Taoist philosophies emerged from
one form or another by almost one the Warring States period, and both of
quarter of the world’s population, TCM these philosophies had an important
23
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

Other Shamanic Techniques

Vision Quests: In this practice, a person spends a day or more alone in the wilderness.
There he or she is able to fast and meditate without distractions. This can be used to
help people contemplate their own inner worlds, their fears, dreams, strengths, and
gifts. It can also be used to experience a oneness with nature.

Sun Dances: The sun dance was originally used to help warriors get in touch with their
inner strengths and to draw strength from the spirits of nature such as those found in
trees, rocks, clouds and sky. Usually over a period of several days, the young warrior
was prepared through fasting, meditation, and counsel with an elder. Then small
hooks or barbs were placed in the fleshy portions of his chest. Cords fastened these
hooks to a tree or post and the dancer leaned back against them, naturally causing
some pain. The dancers stood in this way from dawn to dusk, usually in the hot sun. It
was a test of one’s endurance and one’s ability to deal with his or her own fears and dis-
comforts. People who experienced the sun dance claimed to have gained dramatic
self-knowledge. Even today there are those who repeat the sun dance every year.

Drumming Circles: This practice uses drums for therapeutic purposes. Usually there is
a lead, or “mother,” drum with a deep voice that sets a simple rhythm based on the
heartbeat. People participate in these circles to help focus their energies, rather than
to perform or make music. During a drumming circle, there are many conversations
with the drums, which are used to teach participants how to listen and communicate
with one another. Some people look upon drumming circles as times of communion,
where people are brought together at a deep spiritual level.

Medicine Wheel: The medicine wheel is an important practice in most shamanic tra-
ditions; evidence of its use can be found in every part of the world. People form a
wheel by gathering in a circle to discuss a problem or to bring about a change that
affects them all. At the wheel, all people have equal status and an equal chance to
speak. The wheel is used to allow a joining of their “spirits,” that is, the inner worlds of
each participant. It is understood that no single person at the wheel ever has the ulti-
mate answer; rather, the solution is to be found as a community.

Sweat Lodge: A dome-shaped structure is constructed with willow branch poles, cov-
ered with hides or blankets. Prayers are offered and each participant is blessed upon
entering the lodge. Then rocks, which have been heated at a fire outside the lodge, are
brought inside and placed in the center. Water is poured over the rocks and the heat
inside the lodge rises. In this steamy, hot environment, the participants meditate and
contemplate their own lives or the lives of their community. The ceremonies and ritu-
als that are performed vary with each lodge. Some create a medicine wheel. Others
may sing. Still others may eat ritual herbs or peyote, a drug that produces hallucina-
tions. The purpose of the sweat lodge, as with most shamanic practices, is to get in
touch with the forces and energies of the invisible world in order to improve the qual-
ity of life.

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 Shamanism

reduce anxiety, manage chronic pain, and image clearly in the person’s mind, the
recover from an addiction. Mental visual- shaman or shamanic counselor begins a
ization is a process in which a person sets steady rhythm with a hand drum, a rattle,
a goal by imagining himself or herself or recorded music. He or she may use a
accomplishing it. For example, a person rhythm similar to the human heart
who wants to calm his or her anxiety beat—between fifty-five and seventy
before delivering a speech may imagine beats per minute. This rhythm puts the
getting up on the podium, confidently person into a light trance, allowing him or
delivering a successful talk, and receiving a her to relax and enter a dreamlike state.
standing ovation. For many people these Upon entering the trance state, the
images can replace the old memories that person might meet and work with an
caused the fear. While shamans helped inner guide or adviser. During the jour-
their communities by telling stories or per- ney, the person might ask his or her
forming rituals, today’s practitioners guide questions, listen for answers, and
sometimes use “guided imagery” to possibly carry on a dialogue for several
achieve a similar goal. minutes or more. Eventually, the
There is also an increasing number of shamanic counselor will change the
organizations teaching traditional rhythm of the drum to indicate that the
shamanic practices throughout the world. person should return to the “seen”
Courses are taught by anthropologists, world. After returning, there might be
psychologists, and shamans from Native further discussion with the shamanic
American, African, Hawaiian, South counselor to help the person interpret
American, Australian, or other traditions. the meaning of the journey.
Typical workshops might include lectures
about basic principles of shamanism,
drumming workshops, and experiences in
BeneÞts of Shamanism
Although many people still view the
the basic shamanistic technique of “jour-
practices of shamanism as more fiction
neying” into the unseen world.
than fact, a growing number of people
Shamanic counseling is available
value the emphasis these practices place
today in many parts of the United States.
on the unseen world of emotions,
It is used to aid a person’s physical, emo-
dreams, and spiritual forces to help heal
tional, or spiritual health. A typical session
illnesses and guide them in living a
may begin with a “smudging” ceremony.
healthy and fulfilling life. While shaman-
This consists of burning a small amount
ism rarely offers a quick fix for acute ill-
of dried sage, often mixed with other
nesses, many people have reported
herbs such as sweet grass and cedar.
profound physical and emotional relief
Smoke from the smudge pot might be
through contemporary shamanic prac-
wafted with a feathered fan over the per-
tices. With a history as long and enduring
son’s body, sometimes from head to toe.
as humankind itself, it is hard to find a
Shamans believe that the person is
more time-tested method for bringing
“cleansed” as the smoke lifts away dark or
harmony and comfort to body and mind.
negative influences and energies.
The smudging ceremony may be fol-
lowed by a “journey” in which the —Hal Zina Bennett
shaman enters the unseen world in
order to consult guiding spiritual forces.
Resources:
A person may also journey to the unseen
world for him- or herself. In this prac- Conference on the Study of Shamanism and Alter-
tice, the shamanic counselor may begin native Modes of Healing
by discussing the person’s problem. The Ruth-Inge Heinze, Ph.D.
person may then be told to close his or 2321 Russell Street, Suite 3A
her eyes, relax, and imagine the journey Berkeley, CA 94705
that he or she is about to make. With the Promotes shamanism as a healing practice.
21
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: © Anako

Traditional shamanic practices in Comalapa, Guatemala.

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