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PPMXXX10.1177/0091026017730382Public Personnel ManagementLee et al.

Original Article
Public Personnel Management
1­–26
Evaluating Training for New © The Author(s) 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/0091026017730382
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Method

Chan Lee1, Dongwon Jeon2, Wooseok Kim2,

and Jaeeun Lee3

Abstract
This study evaluates the training program for newly appointed government officials
in Korea and presents the effectiveness of the success case method (SCM) technique
for such an evaluation. The training program chosen as the case study is administered
by the training institute for public officials of Korea. The SCM technique was used to
evaluate this program and to draw implications that could be applied to the design
of future training programs. A survey was conducted targeting 321 trainees who
completed the program for newly appointed government officials, and 12 trainees
were selected who showed a high level of training transfer measures for the
qualitative examination. Through the analysis of semistructured interviews, the study
deduced the factors that influenced effective training transfer. The results illustrate
that the factors that lead to successful application of the training are 15 success
factors categorized in the trainee’s individual characteristics, the training design, and
the trainee’s work environment. This study provides implications that can be useful
in the workplace, including the application of the SCM in evaluating training programs
in the public sector, and the factors that should be considered for effective training
transfer among newly appointed public officials.

Keywords
success case method, training transfer, training evaluation, public sector training, case
study

1SeoulNational University, Korea

2Dohow Consulting, Seoul, Korea
3Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea

Corresponding Author:
Jaeeun Lee, Konkuk University, 268, Chungwon-daero, Chungju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 27478, KOREA
Email: violet80119@gmail.com
2 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Introduction
A large number of organizations have recognized that developing employee talent is
the only way to maintain competitiveness, especially in environments of rapid and
dramatic change, and are thereby expanding investment in human resource develop-
ment (C. Lee, Lee, Lee, & Park, 2014). This emphasis on training does not exclude the
public sector. As the public sector workplace continues to confront a range of chal-
lenges, organizations must commit to the strategic development of employees’ knowl-
edge, skills, and abilities (Pynes, 2013). The discussion on the need for training has a
long history. About 40 years ago, Mikesell, Wilson, and Lawther (1975) noted that
training could improve many government activities and achieve better job perfor-
mance in a reasonably short period of time.
One of the important issues in training and development is to determine the effects
of training intervention. This means, it is critical to identify the effectiveness of the
training program as it provides the key information for decision makers around further
training investment (van Buuren & Edelenbos, 2013). Many scholars have discussed
the training effect and how to evaluate it. For example, Kirkpatrick’s (1976) four-level
evaluation has been used extensively in many training areas and several studies on
public sector training evaluations utilize it as well (e.g., Bjornberg, DellCioppia, &
Tanzer, 2002; Getha-Taylor, Fowles, Silvia, & Meritt, 2015; Olivero, Bane, &
Kopelman, 1997).
One of the most important concepts in evaluating the effectiveness of a training
program is training transfer, which is also a major concern in the Kirkpatrick model’s
behavior level. Generally, training transfer is defined as the application of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes learned from training on the job and subsequent maintenance of
them over a certain period of time (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Cheng & Ho, 2001).
Successful training transfer has been recognized as the means to reduce the gap
between employee training and actual performance (C. Lee et al., 2014). In a training
program for public officials, the evaluation goal for training transfer is the same—to
confirm the degree to which trainees apply effectively to their work after obtaining the
knowledge and skills in the training program—and is considered of great importance,
along with the need for a methodical approach and systematic analysis.
In this context, traditional training evaluation models, such as Kirkpatrick’s (1976),
have been criticized because they only focus on the performance of the “training pro-
gram” and not on various environmental factors impacting performance. Bates (2004)
pointed out that the Kirkpatrick model excluded and simplified the various environ-
mental factors surrounding the training program, resulting in popularity; however, it
failed to systematically explore the various factors that affect the effectiveness of a
training program. To address a general frustration with such traditional evaluation mod-
els, the success case method (SCM) was developed. SCM is a process for evaluating the
business effect of training that is aligned with and addresses the organization’s strategy
(Brinkerhoff, 2003). The SCM identifies the critical success and failure factors of train-
ing transfer for the overall analysis, and has been useful in qualitatively estimating and
validating the effectiveness of many training programs (Choi & Lee, 2011).
Lee et al. 3

Although the SCM technique has been applied to a wide range of areas, there are
scant cases where it is used to evaluate training programs in public sector. One reason
for the difficulty in applying SCM to public sector training programs was that SCM
focuses on specific business outputs. However, recently, research has been conducted
on educational officers applying the SCM process in the public sector in Korea (Lee,
Choi, & Park, 2013). Research has also been conducted on U.S. health care officials
(Medina et al., 2015) and on nonprofit social service organizations (Coryn, Schröter,
& Hanssen, 2009).
This study utilizes the SCM technique to examine a case study of a specific training
program for public servants. The study aims to evaluate various aspects of this training
program and explore the factors that influence the effectiveness of it for newly
appointed government officials in Korea. Through this research, the study attempts to
increase the applicability of SCM to the evaluation of training programs for public
servants and to suggest various ways that can improve training transfer.

Literature Review
Training Program Evaluation in the Public Sector
A training program evaluation is the process of assessing the value of the program, and
this can be done by evaluating the program’s results, namely, the program’s perfor-
mance, and by evaluating the program’s whole process that involves the program’s
intention, content, and implementation, or by using both methods simultaneously. In
the existing literature, the specific definition of “training program evaluation” may
vary among researchers, but there is a shared concept of the training program evalua-
tion as the process of identifying the program’s value, achievement of objective, and
effectiveness.
The evaluation includes collecting information such as the human and material
resources involved and analyzing the data needed for the training plan. In judging the
usefulness of the collected information, the validity of the overall training plan can be
examined, the improvement or elimination of the program explored, and the need for
the quality improvement of lecturers or educational administrators assessed. In addi-
tion, the evaluation validates the legitimacy of the educational investment and pro-
motes its usefulness. Thus, the significance of the training program evaluation can be
understood more clearly through the need for the evaluation.
In looking at the public sector, Sims (1993) explained that the evaluation of the
training program contributes to improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the pro-
gram, increasing the reliability of the activities of the training officers, providing
important information for the decision-making process, and increasing the commit-
ment level of decision makers regarding training. Accordingly, numerous training
institutes for public servants utilize various practices to assess the effectiveness of
their training program (Bjornberg et al., 2002). For instance, Broward County in
Florida used pre- and posttraining surveys targeting participants and their supervisors
to conduct three-level behavior evaluations. However, the method that continues to be
4 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

used most often in training program evaluations for public servants relies on the tradi-
tional Kirkpatrick’s four-level evaluation model; yet, this model only focuses on the
quantitative aspects and leaves out various other factors that could influence the effec-
tiveness of training.

The SCM
There is no doubt that Kirkpatrick’s model has made valuable contributions to training
evaluation theory and practice. This model poses the need for training evaluation
experts, intuitively presents the four results obtained through training, and simplifies
the complexities involved in evaluating the training program (Bates, 2004).
Nonetheless, this model has received much criticism in terms of insufficient evidence
of causal relation and lack of consideration of contextual factors surrounding training
programs. In particular, the Kirkpatrick model has been criticized as unsuitable
because it excludes inquiry beyond the “training alone” and has no focus on the larger
performance environment.
The SCM is a process for evaluating the business effect of training that is aligned
with and fulfills the organization strategy (Brinkerhoff, 2003), and was developed to
address frustration with more traditional evaluation approaches. The SCM, on the con-
trary, is intended to produce concrete evidence of the effects of training (or the lack of
it) that senior managers and others find highly believable and compelling. Specifically,
the evidence relates verifiable incidents of actual trainees who use their training in
specific behaviors that can be convincingly shown to lead to worthwhile organiza-
tional results.
Moreover, SCM is based on the assumption that the evidence of training effects is
always a function of the interaction of the training with other performance system fac-
tors. For example, “Whether their manager helped them prepare for the training and
mutually set objectives”; “Whether the new commission structure was being faithfully
applied in all sales transactions as per the new policy”; “Whether the training was
provided within three months of new product introduction in the district” (Brinkerhoff
& Dressler, 2003, p.8). The SCM seeks out and identifies such factors so that credit
can be given and feedback provided to the parties involved.
The SCM approach involves two major steps. In the first, a brief survey is sent to a
large representative sample of all the trainees who participated in the training. In
essence, this survey asks one key question: “To what extent have you used your recent
training in a way that you believe has made a significant difference to the business?”
From the survey, small groups of exceptionally successful and unsuccessful trainees
are identified. In the second step, each of these groups is examined more closely
through in-depth interviews. The success case study produces two immediate results
of in-depth stories of documented positive training outcomes and the knowledge of the
factors that enhance or impede the effects of training on work-site results.
The SCM was originally designed for evaluating training programs in the private
sector; however, it can contribute to the evaluation of public sector education pro-
grams also. Finding ways to increase the effectiveness of educational programs in the
Lee et al. 5

public sector has always been important. The SCM is well worth applying, as it can
explore various factors that make training programs effective. How to define success
is the key to the problem of applying public sector programs (Coryn et al., 2009). It is
possible to collect successful cases and identify their reasons for success by defining
what “success” is through the training program. This is because the SCM collects
empirical cases of training transfer and performance (Brinkerhoff, 2005), and seeks to
find the cause of such positive results from a systematic viewpoint.

Factors of training transfer.  Transfer of training is mentioned as a concept that directly

relates to reducing the gap between training and performance. There are various mod-
els for training transfer that reflect the different points of view of the scholars. Baldwin
and Ford’s (1988) transfer process model was a primary model on early research on
transfer, acknowledging the factors of trainees’ personal characteristics, training
design, and work environment as the three categories of training input factors that
affect the performance and transfer of training. This research is recognized as provid-
ing the framework distinguishing types of factors that influence the transfer of train-
ing. Moreover, this model has had a continuous effect on subsequent studies, and thus,
there has been research on the effects of variables that can be subsumed under these
categories (Burke & Hutchins, 2007).
Gegenfurtner, Veermans, Festner, and Gruber (2009) presented an integrative
model of motivation on the training transfer. This model describes the transfer of train-
ing in terms of individual, training-related, and organizational factors, illustrating that
the motivation to transfer, with a mediating effect on all variables, has an effect on the
transfer of training. They made a distinction between pre-, mid-, and posttraining peri-
ods when looking into factors influencing training transfer.
Choi and Lee (2011) proposed an integrative model of training transfer for out-
standing performers with a high level of training transfer, explaining the influence of
key success factors on the whole process of learning and the transfer of training
through in-depth interviews with such performers. This model illustrates that such
performers had high expectations on improving their performance through the training
before they attended the program, and acknowledged high relativity between the train-
ing content and their work. Such individual and organizational characteristics influ-
enced their motivation to learn, which in turn influenced their training transfer
motivation, leading to the prediction of successful training transfer.

Method
Case Study Description
The Training Institute is the representative organization that trains public servants in
Korea and takes an essential role in sharing the direction of government operations,
raising the level of the nation’s talented individuals. This study examines the training
program for newly appointed government officials, they are generally in charge of
policy plans, policy implementation, and management tasks within the administrative
6 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

organization. Specifically, the trainees take on the following roles: an information

manager who collects and analyzes the information necessary for policy planning; a
policy planner who identifies the existing policy’s problems and needed improve-
ments, plans policy, and writes reports; and of a mediator who is an intermediary
manager of an organization and conducts the effective cooperative relations and com-
munication between upper and lower management groups.
The newly appointed government official program is a long-term training program
(27 weeks, 1,048 hr) that aims to establish a desirable public servant image, develop
creative job competence, and grow global competence in the era of globalization.
More specifically, the training is generally composed of six modules: development of
the value of public service, development of job competence, development of manager
competence, development of global competence, experience in the field of public
administration, and development of basic fundamentals. As this study attempts to
evaluate training transfer, it selected the module of development of job competence
taking into account the fact that it must be possible to estimate whether what is learned
is used at work. The training hours for the job competence module are 27.9% (292 hr)
of the total training hours, and it consists of critical tasks of the government officials
including policy planning and implementation and the knowledge and skills needed to
accomplish the monitoring role. More specifically, it consists of policy planning prac-
tice, research on policy cases, and fundamental job training. It also includes highly
applicable content that allows the trainees to work in small groups to practice writing
legislation and budget proposals based on the actual policy planning process. It also
enables the trainees to learn in detail the fundamental job competency that is essential
for accomplishing responsibilities such as human resource affairs, security, adminis-
trative procedures, and national accounts, and to write different reports on the basis of
what they learn.

Data Collection Procedures

The data collection process was conducted based on the steps suggested by Brinkerhoff
(2005), illustrated in Figure 1. First, among the 19 trainees in the development of job
competence module, the subjects that could estimate the training transfer were
selected. Second, the training effect model for the subjects and then, third, the training
transfer measurement tool were developed. The fourth step was the estimation of the
level of training transfer and, the fifth, the in-depth interviews with those trainees with
outstanding levels of training transfer. The final step was the deduction and analysis of
the critical success factors of training transfer.

Selection of subjects.  In selecting the subjects that could estimate the training transfer,
criteria were designed based on classification standards of evaluation steps as sug-
gested in existing literature (Keller, Morrison, & Ross, 1994; Phillips & Stone, 2002).
The training transfer—namely, the evaluation of work applicability (Level 3 evalua-
tion)—was categorized into four classification standards: value of work application,
degree of training course development that takes into account work application, degree
Lee et al. 7

Figure 1.  Illustration of SCM steps.

Note. SCM = success case method; FGI = focus group interviews.

of support acquisition of work applicability evaluation, and the feasibility of measure-

ment of work applicability. Subsequently, the study identified each subject’s learning
objective and core learning materials and categorized them according to the classifica-
tion standards of evaluation steps. The draft of the classification of each subject’s
evaluation steps was then revised and supplemented from interviews with professors
who have lectured on the subject. This was ultimately confirmed through focus group
interviews (FGI), in which administrators, professors, and decision makers partici-
pated. As a result, five subjects were selected as relevant for evaluating work applica-
bility: policy planning practice, research on policy cases, and practice writing reports
by type, legal work, and budget work.

Development of training effect model.  Three procedures were implemented to develop the
training effect model. The first involved reviewing the learning objective and core learn-
ing materials established in the training planning process; the draft of the training effect
model was then deduced from the textbook content. The second involved interviewing
8 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

the administrator and professor of the training course and revising the draft of the training
effect model appropriately. This was to confirm that the content of the training effect
model was aligned with the learning material. After the interview, (a) any differences
between the textbook content and the budget work lectures were amended, and (b) parts
of the critical actions and key results that were inappropriate for the work-site were
revised. Last, the third procedure involved three PhD students, who majored in HRD
(Human Resource Development), verifying the supplemented training effect model. This
expert verification was implemented to check whether the training effect model was
developed appropriately to facilitate the measurement of training transfer and whether it
was developed in accordance with the procedures of the SCM. After the examination by
the experts, (a) the verbs for critical actions were revised, and (b) any ambiguous expres-
sions of each factor were deleted and revised from the training effect model draft. Ulti-
mately, the training effect model was confirmed on the basis of the interviews with the
course administrator and professor and the examination by the experts (see Table 1).

Development of measurement tool of training transfer. The measurement training

transfer tool was developed by categorizing general transfer items and each subject’s
transfer items. The general transfer questions were developed on the basis of exist-
ing literature (Holton, Bates, Seyler, & Carvalho, 1997). For the measurement of
each subject’s transfer factors, the draft of a behavior index of work applicability
was developed examining the subjects’ learning objectives and core learning materi-
als. The behavior index was then revised and supplemented through the FGI with the
professors of each subject. Through this process, four general transfer items and five
training transfer measurement areas per subject were developed. For example, these
included statements such as “I actually applied knowledge and skills obtained from
the training program to the job” and “When I plan a policy, I follow the four policy
planning steps.” The results of analyzing the reliability of the developed measure-
ment tool illustrated that the Cronbach’s alpha was statistically significant at .879
for the general transfer items, and for each subject’s transfer items, the Cronbach’s
alpha was .785 for policy planning practice, .769 for research on policy cases, .724
for writing different types of reports, .767 for legal work, and .846 for budget work,
all of which were statistically significant. All items were measured on a 5-point
Likert-type scale.

Estimation of training transfer.  The online survey to estimate the training transfer
was conducted over 10 days and was sent to 321 trainees in the newly appointed
Government Officials Training Program. The estimation of the training transfer
was assessed about 12 months after the completion of the program. By this time,
the trainees had been assigned to their jobs and were at work after having com-
pleted 6 months of on-the-job training (OJT). Of the 321 trainees, 198 responded,
with a final count of 139 valid responses used in the analysis (valid response rate:
43.3%). In terms of the general characteristics of the respondents, 59.7% were
male, 49.6% were general administration workers, 53.2% were between the ages of
 Table 1.  Training Effect Model: An example of policy planning practice.

Key knowledge and skills Critical action Key results

Concept and steps of policy To progress in accordance with the procedure of the policy plan Production of systematic reports
planning To systematize the report focusing on situation, problem, and that follow the policy planning
Comprehension of the policy improvements when writing policy planning reports steps
problem and method of To identify whether the improvements resolve the real-life problems Improvement of solvability of real-
cause analysis either partially or wholly life problem of established policy
Participants of policy course To understand the demands of major stakeholders and participants, Increase in the satisfaction of major
and participation pattern and prepare for expected questions when planning a policy stakeholders of policy
Major steps of policy work To implement policy work by distinguishing the steps Systematic accomplishment of
Concept and steps of policy To perform based on the checklist for policy quality management policy work
quality management To forecast and prepare for the reports necessary for each task Improvement of writing skills for
Types of report by policy To find similar reports and refer to them when writing reports different types of reports
work and its necessity To prepare and utilize the templates of reports that have been often Production of accurate amendment
Steps for writing reports and written for the relevant tasks legislation
their content To write the legislation draft in accordance with either whole or Production of budget proposal
Concept of legislation and the partial amendment forms of the legislation draft for the particular business based
basic principles of drafting To review the legislative progress on details of calculation, reason
Legislative procedures of To suggest the particular business’s requirements, details of for support, and the necessity of
government and national calculation, reason for support, and necessity of support when support
assembly writing the budget report for the particular business Accurate production of budget
Methods of enactment, To write the reference that proves the necessity of business support proposal’s supporting evidence
amendment, and rescission when writing the budget report for the particular business for the particular business
of legislation

9
10 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Table 2.  Characteristics of the Study Participants.

Number Average Average

of working of general of job
Classification Sex Department months Age transfer transfer
A Female Finance and economy 5 25 4.14 4.67
B Female General administration 5 31 4.21 4.00
C Female General administration 4 26 4.00 4.00
D Male Technology 4 32 4.25 5.00
E Male Technology 6 35 4.69 4.50
F Male Finance and economy 4 25 4.36 4.33
G Female General administration 3 29 4.00 4.00
H Male Finance and economy 4 28 4.86 5.00
I Male Technology 4 31 4.00 4.00
J Female International trade 3 24 4.27 3.67
K Male General administration 5 26 4.00 4.00
L Male General administration 4 31 5.00 5.00

25 and 29, and 75.5% worked at the central department, a relatively high percent-
age. In addition, these ratios were similar with those for the total population of the
training program for the newly appointed government officials, thereby confirming
that the study sample had a similar component ratio with the program’s total
population.

In-depth interviews with trainees with a high degree of training transfer.  Based on the
results of the survey, the study selected the outstanding trainees who represented a
high level of training transfer. The outstanding trainees were categorized as the top
10% according to Pareto’s law, which is the SCM’s basic assumption. These 14
outstanding trainees, who represented 10% of the 139 valid respondents, were then
chosen as the appropriate targets for the first interviews. Moreover, looking at the
ratio of participants in the training program for each job among the newly appointed
government officials, the outstanding trainees were from the following depart-
ments: three in the finance and economy department, seven in the general admin-
istration department, three in the technology department, and one in the
international trade department. Subsequently, based on the training transfer survey
results, only the respondents with an average level of training transfer above 4.0
were selected. This step eliminated two trainees from the general administration
department, reducing the number of trainees from that department to five. The
numbers of trainees from the other departments remained as stated above (see
Table 2).
To conduct in-depth interviews, two researchers visited the outstanding trainees in
person and conducted in-depth interviews lasting about 2 hr each. The content from
the in-depth interviews was recorded with the prior consent from the interviewees, and
Lee et al. 11

the records were transcribed to increase the accuracy of the content. The accurate
recording is a method used to maintain the qualitative research validity (Wolcott,
1990). This study not only described the interviews but also included all the detailed
information about the interview progress, including the interview date, interview
hours, interview place, and interviewees. The semistructured interview questionnaire
developed for the study was sent 7 days ahead of the interview for the interviewee to
prepare responses in advance. Moreover, to conduct the interview under natural set-
tings, the research objective and information about the interview were first explained,
and the interviewer began with open-ended questions about the interviewee’s work
experience (see Table 3).

Data Analysis
To analyze the level of training transfer, this study calculated the descriptive statis-
tics that include minimum value, maximum value, average, and standard deviation.
The results of the analysis were used in evaluating the level of training transfer and
in selecting outstanding trainees. Each in-depth interview that targeted the outstand-
ing trainees was analyzed through content analysis. Frankfort-Nachmias and
Nachmias (2002) defined content analysis as the method of systematically and
objectively identifying and inferring the detailed characteristics of the messages and
explained that objectivity could be ensured by conducting the analysis according to
explicit rules where many researchers participate in the analysis process. The con-
tents of the recorded interviews were documented according to the guideline sug-
gested by Hycner (1985); when the researchers’ interpretations differed, the content
was reanalyzed and appropriate meanings added through further detailed verbal and
nonverbal investigations to reveal the interviewee’s intention, the interview content
was then categorized into major themes through a meeting of the minds of the
researchers, and the literature for each categorized theme was examined and orga-
nized. The contents of the recorded interviews are first documented according to the
procedure mentioned above, categorized according to each factor, and recategorized
within each factor to systematize the interview content. The study analyzed the
statements of the interviewees, and those that were repeatedly emphasized or men-
tioned were noted separately to interpret the interviewee’s intention. When one sen-
tence, without being finished, occasionally digressed from the point and continued
with a different idea, a separate statement was written for the analysis purpose. The
data first analyzed by one researcher were reconfirmed by coresearchers who con-
ducted the interviews together to secure the validity.

Results
Levels of Training Transfer
The results from the estimation of the training transfer for all the trainees (N = 139)
who participated in the program reveal an average training transfer of 3.52. In terms of
12 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Table 3.  Semistructured Interview Questionnaire for SCM.

Classification Key questions

Success case applying Could you tell us a specific example of applying what
training program into you learned through the training program?
practice •• When and under what circumstances?
•• How did you apply?
•• How has that case helped your teams and
organizations achieve their goals?
What do you think is the ultimate value of participating
in the training program?
•• Why do you think the result is important?
•• How valuable is the result?
Influencing factors for training transfer
  Individual characteristics What are some of the characteristics you have, such as
your personality, that help you apply what you have
learned in the training program to your work?
What are some of the environmental characteristics
of your environment, such as your family
environment, life history, and so on, which help you
apply what you have learned in the training program
to your work?
  Training design Which of the lessons you learned in the training
program could relate to your current work?
Which of the lessons you learned in the training
program could apply directly to your current work?
What are some of the activities offered in the training
program that helped you apply them in your current
work?
  Work environment At the time of your participation in the training
program, did your supervisor, colleagues, and
organization help you participate in the course?
How did your supervisor, colleagues, and organization
help you apply what you learned in the training
program to your work?
Did your organization provide you with the
opportunity or situation to apply what you learned in
the training program to your work?
  Other factors What other factors have been the driving forces
in applying what you have learned in the training
program to your work?

Note. SCM = success case method.

each subject, the average of “writing different types of report’” was 4.09, which
showed the highest level of transfer. The averages for “policy planning practice” and
“legal work” were 3.94 and 3.67, respectively (see Table 4).
Lee et al. 13

Table 4.  Average Values for Training Transfer by Subject.

Classification Minimum value Maximum value Average SD

General transfer 2.00 5.00 3.52 0.706
Transfer for each subject
  Writing different types of report 2.00 5.00 4.09 0.662
  Policy planning practice 1.00 5.00 3.94 0.780
  Legal work 2.00 5.00 3.67 0.746
  Budget work 1.67 5.00 3.53 0.755
  Research on policy case 1.67 5.00 3.40 0.698

Critical Success Factors for Training Transfer

The study investigated the factors that influence training transfer and facilitate the
process of training transfer through interviews with the outstanding trainees who suc-
cessfully apply the skills they learn to their work. The results illustrated that the critical
success factors of training transfer can be categorized mainly into individual charac-
teristics, training design, and work environment (see Table 5).

Individual characteristics.  The individual characteristics that affected the training trans-
fer for the outstanding trainees were identified as follows: the trainee’s learning will-
power, adding meaning to the training material content, a long-term perspective
regarding the effects of training, active participation in task activities, the trainee’s
transfer willpower, and on the job utilization of learning materials.
First, these trainees reported that an equally high level of motivation to learn facili-
tated the training transfer. Various forms of effort for learning were recalled. Among
them, these trainees had the will to directly study the materials that they were given.

People often fall asleep while taking courses because numerous classes are conducted in
the form of lecture. I was the one who did not fall asleep because I was accepted through
passing the examination after working as a salaryman for about 4 years. One of the things
that I desired the most was to listen to the information that is not relevant to my field,
such as this course. So I often make an effort to concentrate when I listen. (Research
Participant E)

Second, these trainees motivated themselves by adding further meaning to the

training content they studied. They could have more achieving and enthusiastic atti-
tude by thinking the training content is significant, creating new association among
other training materials, and understanding the training experience in a long-term
perspective.

I eventually thought that it is important to understand the background because it is a

smaller field than I expected. Nevertheless, it will be meaningless if I miss these learning
materials that are highly related to the governmental philosophy. Hence, I thought that the
education related to governmental philosophy was important. (Research Participant I)
14 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Table 5.  Critical Success Factors of Training Transfer.

Category Subcategory Concept

Trainee Trainee’s learning •• Engaged in the training with the attitude to
characteristics willpower enjoy
•• Attempted to concentrate on lecture contents
Adding meaning to •• Tried to understand one’s work context such
training content as governmental philosophy
•• Applied additional interpretation of the
learning to one’s work background or the
overall context
•• Engaged in the training with the thought that
writing a report is an important part of the
work
Long-term •• Thought that what they learn would be
perspective helpful some time in future despite no direct
toward the effect connection
of training •• Experience from overseas training would be
helpful for policy planning in future
•• Considered the fieldwork such as country
pilgrimage to be helpful in the long term
Active participation •• Active participation in projects within a group
in task activities helped in improving practical skills
•• Various experiences could be obtained by
actively participating in all tasks
Trainee’s transfer •• Attempted to begin with searching or
willpower referring to rules when performing work after
completion of training
•• Attempted to utilize what they learned,
whatever they obtained from the training
•• Attempted to reduce the work hours by using
training content
•• Attempted to put the procedures learned
from the training into practice
Utilization of •• Searched the learning materials first when
learning materials establishing a new legislative system
•• Consistently used the materials from policy
planning or information system course
Training design High work relevance •• Frequently utilized policy planning or report
of training writing because it is highly related to work
contents •• Writing policy report about economy, highly
related to current work, was helpful
•• Frequently applied writing specific budget
proposals as was highly work relevant
•• Frequently used the content from policy
planning practice when establishing the
report’s table of contents

(continued)
Lee et al. 15

Table 5. (continued)
Category Subcategory Concept
Suggestion of real- •• The experience and real-life examples from
life example work-site were helpful
•• Frequently used the tips from director’s
lecture, including the manners of supervisors
and the reporting method
•• The outstanding report examples were helpful
when performing work
Education through •• The process of facing difficulty during the
practice policy planning practice was used when
performing work
•• Frequent utilization of basic report template to
write a report was helpful
•• Role-playing was helpful in mediating conflicts
•• Practice of writing reports including research
on policy cases was frequently utilized
Voluntary task •• The experience of direct participation to
execution complete a report improved the specific skills
•• Selecting the regions to visit and subjects for
country pilgrimage increased the effects of
training
•• Overall planning, liaising, and meeting through
visiting the actual institutes and conducting
interviews during the overseas training were
very helpful
•• The content that was studied through direct
research per project remained relevant for a
long time
Experience in •• Experience of the whole process of actual
overall process overseas business trip through overseas
training was helpful
•• A series of processes including establishing,
implementing, and executing plan through
group projects was helpful
•• Learning the work process during the local
government training was helpful
•• Learning the procedures of national assembly
and budget work was helpful
Interaction and •• Improved the teamwork through country
networking among pilgrimage
trainees •• Helped mutually after the program through
interactions among trainees
•• Cooperated based on network formed among
colleagues from training institute
•• Utilized the network obtained from other
regions

(continued)
16 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Table 5. (continued)

Category Subcategory Concept

Work Opportunity to •• There are many opportunities to utilize
environment utilize at current the learning content because there are
work numerous works involving training Hangul/
PowerPoint(software) or searching overseas
cases
•• There are many opportunities to write a
report because he or she is performing
planning work
•• The trainee was able to utilize relevant
learning content because the trainee currently
works as an intermediary manager
•• The work involves writing a report almost
every day
•• Skills from overseas training are frequently
used because the current work involves
contacting departments, suggesting concept
notes, forming consultative groups, and writing
reports
•• Understanding of administrative procedures
was helpful in establishing different standards
because the trainee is currently conducting
investigation work
•• Manners and greetings learned from training
are frequently used because the trainee
performs work that involves meeting many
different people
•• It could only be utilized in writing a report,
meeting people, and holding a meeting
•• Training content was well utilized when
systematic planning work was given
Change- •• It was easy to apply the content because the
oriented work work changes rapidly
characteristics •• It is possible to conduct numerous attempts
because many new ideas are planned and
suggested
•• Due to work characteristics, we have no
choice but to continue studying the latest
technology
Learning-oriented •• Supervisors and colleagues are open to
culture learning and applying new skills
•• Supervisors think that it is important to
acquire new skills
•• Supervisors complement when new skills are
applied
•• There are many academic groups within the
organization, and training is conducted regularly
Lee et al. 17

Third, the outstanding trainees took a long-term perspective toward the training
content to motivate themselves. In particular, they had a positive attitude, thinking that
what they learned would help them in their public careers sometime in the future even
though it could not be immediately applied to their work.

In terms of the country pilgrimage, it emphasized the numerous opportunities to meet the
citizens. What I interviewed and heard would not be immediately helpful, but I think that
they would be helpful in the long term. (Research Participant L)

Fourth, the outstanding trainees attempted to actively participate in the group activ-
ities to maximize the training effect. Active participation in various tasks appeared in
the form of taking an important role in a group and trying to obtain various experi-
ences through task activities.

Every group has different task activities, leading to cause a situation in which certain
people take on the majority of tasks. I tried to be active in participating in every given
task. It was personally tiring, but I could obtain various experience by participating in one
thing and another. (Research Participant F)

The trainee’s learning willpower, further interpretation of the training content,

long-term perspective toward the effects of the training, and active participation in the
task activities all relate to the trainee’s motivation to learn. Motivation to learn refers
to the persistence and concentration of the effort to implement improved activities
based on what they learned before, during, and after the training (Tannenbaum & Yukl,
1992). Of the numerous studies that reveal the factors that affect training transfer, this,
in particular, has been considered as the most important variable.
Thus, the outstanding trainees generally attempted to apply what they learned or to
continuously utilize the learning materials from the training. This then relates to the
trainees’ motivation to transfer the training. Motivation to transfer is defined as the
trainee’s intended effort to use the knowledge and skills they learned from the training
in real-life work situations (Noe, 1986; Noe & Schmitt, 1986).

Before taking the program for the newly appointed government officials, I did not try to
search for laws or did not even have the concept of referring to laws. After taking the
course for 6 months, I began to search the relevant laws or confirm with guidelines. I feel
that I am trying to apply what I learned in this case. (Research Participant I)

Making the connection with the government project when establishing a policy or having
the opportunity to listen to the expert’s opinion was the steps that I attempted to take in
order to put what I learned from the government project or policy planning course into
practice. (Research Participant C)

I am still using the learning materials obtained from the policy planning course or
information system course. I have not thrown them away, and I think they are really
useful. (Research Participant L)
18 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

The critical success factors for training transfer in terms of the individual character-
istics identified in the in-depth interviews could be summarized as motivation to learn
and motivation to transfer. Motivation to learn and motivation to transfer have often
been mentioned in the literature as the individual characteristic variables that affect
training transfer. Moreover, they have been verified to be the precedence factors of
training transfer in empirical studies (e.g., Axtell, Maitlis, & Yearta, 1997; Chiaburu &
Marinova, 2005). An existing study (C. Lee, Choi, & Park, 2013) that investigates
Korean teachers to reveal training success factors also demonstrated that the trainees
needed the motivation to learn the knowledge and skills provided through the training
as well as the motivation to apply them. Specifically, they revealed that the trainee’s
interest in the training content and his or her passion toward learning affected the
motivation to transfer in the future.
This study also illustrated that the participants who responded that they had a
high motivation to learn generally also exhibited the will to apply what they
learned. This corresponds with the results from another study (Chiaburu &
Marinova, 2005) that the motivation to learn will affect the training transfer
through the motivation to transfer. This study was additionally significant in that
it revealed that the internal process of the trainee inspired the motivation to learn.
In particular, it illustrated that the trainees motivated themselves by further inter-
preting the training content and having a positive long-term expectation of the
effects of the training.

Training design.  The training design factors that affect the training transfer among the
outstanding trainees were identified as follows: the high work relevance of the training
content, suggestion of a real-life example, voluntary task execution, experience in
overall process, education through practice, and interaction and networking with other
trainees.
First, these trainees reported that the level of training transfer was high for the sub-
jects where the training content was highly related to their jobs. They explained that
the content from the real-life examples that they saw and heard during the training was
helpful for them in their work.

Despite the difference depending on departments assigned to trainees, writing and

submitting the policy plan or individual reports practically had the highest work relevance
for government officials since they generally write numerous reports. So I thought that it
was very helpful. (Research Participant A)

Maybe it is because I saw the same template when I was practicing policy planning at the
training institute that it did not seem unfamiliar. It was definitely harder when I was learning,
but I thought that it was a good experience. When I wrote the previous year’s business
performance report, I often applied the method I learned to specifically suggest the support
basis and necessity of support for writing the budget proposal. (Research Participant J)

I thought that the real-life examples from the lecturers who came from the work-site
were most helpful for me. I thought it was most effective to hear real-life examples such
Lee et al. 19

as how the work is progressed at the work-site and what they experience. (Research
Participant G)

The outstanding trainees reported that education through practice was also very
helpful. In particular, the opportunity to experience the tasks or situations that could
arise at work led to training transfer when the similar situation did arise at work.

It is actually really important to cooperate and work as a team at work. For instance,
programs such as role playing and mediating conflicts were helpful for competence
education . . . Ultimately, it is the teamwork among which trainees often had to
accommodate and mediate between different opinions, and this experience (through
practice) was helpful. (Research Participant F)

At the same time, the outstanding trainees reported that they could accumulate the
skills they needed at work through the experience of completing the projects assigned
to each training group and that they could often use these afterward during the perfor-
mance of similar work. Furthermore, they explained that the experience of exposure to
the process, including establishing, implementing, and executing the plan or the com-
prehension of work procedures, was helpful in accomplishing their jobs.

The direct experience of accomplishing the project was most helpful for me. When the
subject was given as a project, the entire group autonomously conducted the various tasks
ranging from researching data to contacting institutes . . . There were more things we
learned through conducting research by ourselves rather than through the cramming.
(Research Participant H)

Our general tasks involved getting the legal or budget consideration, and the fact that I
learned the procedure through national assembly work or budget work course was very
helpful when I was allocated this at work. Here, no one tells you how the procedure
works from the beginning. (Research Participant J)

Moreover, the fact that the training was designed to establish the interaction and
network among trainees was said to be helpful in terms of mutual support when they
performed their work.

I think that the biggest benefit I gained during the training was my colleagues at each
department. Whenever I have a question or a task to cooperate with the ministry of
strategy and finance, I obtain better cooperation when I first look for my colleague. So
my reasoning is based on this. (Research Participant K)

The training design factors that facilitate the training transfer are significant in the
fact that the HRD managers can be directly involved. With regard to this, existing
studies have also revealed the training design factors that facilitate training transfer. As
in this study’s results, the earlier literature suggests that the content relevance is the
important factor that facilitates the training transfer (Axtell et al., 1997; Burke &
Hutchins, 2007; Yamnill & McLean, 2005), along with the appropriate practice and
20 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

feedback (Lee & Kahnweiler, 2000; Salas, Rozell, Mullen, & Driskell, 1999), and
active learning (Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006). Moreover,
Burke and Hutchins(2008) indicated that ‘coaching and opportunities to practice’, ‘use
of interactive activities to encourage participation’, and ‘making the content relevant
to actual job duties’ were the most frequently reported strategies for fostering training
transfer through analyzing the best practices reported by training professionals.
This study reports training design factors not observed in earlier literature; they are
the opportunity to experience the overall process of work and the ability to establish a
network with other trainees. These additional factors could have appeared due to the
job characteristics of the government officials, specifically, applying similar processes
to various projects, as well as the specific training characteristics of this program such
as its length (6 months).

Work environment.  The work environment factors that affect the training transfer for
the outstanding trainees were identified as follows: the opportunity to utilize the train-
ing in relevant work, change-oriented work characteristics, and a learning-oriented
culture.
First, the outstanding trainees generally reported that the transfer was facilitated as
they received more opportunities to apply the training content at work. This could be
similarly interpreted in terms of the degree of performance depending on the connec-
tion between the training content and the work. In other words, when there is a greater
opportunity to apply what they learn from the training to real-life work, they exert
more effort on the transfer.

I write one report in two days on average. I mean, I write a report almost every day . . . I
had an experience of writing the four different types of reports at the training institute.
Without this experience, I would have been confused about what to do on my arrival. It
is because I did not know what to do after opening Hangul, but this experience was very
helpful. (Research Participant E)

The overseas training experience was extremely helpful for me. In my department, I have
to make direct contact with foreign organizations or departments in order to form a
consultative group, and I have to write reports after business trips. Hence, the overseas
training was extremely helpful, more than other subjects. (Research Participant F)

In addition, the trainees explained that it was easy to apply the training content to
work when they took into account characteristics of their work that were sensitive to
change. Also, they emphasized that not only work characteristics but also supervisors
or colleagues within the organization generally encouraged learning and were sup-
portive of adapting to change.

My work is related to international cooperation, of which the trend changes rapidly, and
I have to learn new information in order to keep abreast of the trend. So I think our
department is positive towards applying the learning materials to work. Also, since I am
newly appointed, they want something fresh from me . . . (Research Participant A)
Lee et al. 21

Due to the job characteristics, we have no choice but to continue studying the latest
technology. So the center manager and the section chief think that learning and acquiring
new technology is very important, and they complement more when we bring new
information and apply to our center. (Research Participant E)

We hold seminars internally and autonomously once per week or two to three times per
month. Employees write a report or PowerPoint about what they felt and learn from the
work-site, and they lecture and discuss in front of all employees. (Our supervisors)
encourage all of us to participate and be well-informed. (Research Participant H)

The critical success factors of training transfer related to work environment charac-
teristics from this study seem to be generally identical to those from existing literature.
Numerous studies have investigated the direct effect of work environment characteris-
tics, which is the environmental factor that facilitates training transfer. Specifically,
the studies about the organization’s transfer climate (Kontoghiorghes, 2001; Lim &
Morris, 2006) explain that the support from the organization, manager, or coworkers
has a direct effect on the effectiveness of the training. Baldwin and Ford (1988) indi-
cated that the manager’s support and the opportunity to apply the training content to
work are the important factors that support the trainees in maintaining their skills.
Moreover, researchers have consistently illustrated that there is a limit to positive
training transfer when trainees are not provided with the opportunity to apply their
new skills at work (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995; Gaudine & Saks, 2004; Lim &
Morris, 2006). In particular, a lack of opportunity to use the training materials from the
program was considered the biggest obstacle to training transfer (Lim & Johnson,
2002). This study had some respondents who said they did not utilize the skills learned
from the training on certain subjects because they did not have any opportunity for
utilization. The lack of opportunity to use the training content at work due to reasons
such as lack of time or a supervisor’s unilateral decision appears to be an important
factor that hinders training transfer.

Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this study can be classified into two main objectives. First, it aims to
represent the effectiveness of the SCM by using this methodology to evaluate the
effects and effectiveness of a case study training program in Korea in which training
for the public sector was analyzed using the SCM. Second, it aims to identify the fac-
tors that facilitate the effectiveness of training on the basis of the training transfer
factors analyzed through the SCM. To accomplish this goal, the critical success factors
of training transfer were derived by interviewing outstanding trainees from the newly
appointed Government Officials Training Program of Korea after following and
reviewing Brinkerhoff’s SCM procedure. The findings of this study are as follows.
First, this study aggregated the earlier literature and identified the suggested proce-
dures to implement the SCM. More specifically, the procedures of SCM are as fol-
lows: the selection of subjects, the development of the training effect model, the
22 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

development of the measurement tool for training transfer, the estimation of the level
of training transfer, in-depth interviews with the trainees with the highest degree of
training transfer (outstanding trainees), and the deduction of critical success and fail-
ure factors (the bottom 10% training scores) of training transfer. These six procedures
suggested in this study can provide a specific guideline for evaluating a training pro-
gram using SCM in the future.
Second, this study verified the critical success factors—largely classified into indi-
vidual characteristics, training design, and work environment—that facilitate the train-
ing transfer. From the perspective of individual characteristics, the trainee’s high
motivation to learn and motivation to transfer appeared to be the individual character-
istics that facilitate the work-site application of the training. The training design fac-
tors that facilitate the transfer included training content that is highly relevant to the
work, the real-life examples, opportunity to voluntarily execute tasks, education
through practice, and active interaction and networking with other trainees. This study
identified three work environment factors, which include whether the work that train-
ees perform includes change-oriented characteristics, whether the department culture
of the current work is learning-oriented, and whether the opportunity to apply the
training content to work is provided. The critical success factors of training transfer
are significant in that they provide evidence of the relationship between the training
transfer and antecedent training. This then provides various ideas to facilitate training
transfer in the future.
The study began with the following discussion on utilizing the procedures of the
SCM and its effectiveness. First, it is most important to define “success” in the begin-
ning of the SCM application on the evaluation of training programs in public sector. In
particular, the success of public sector training programs, unlike private companies, is
often not quantifiable. Therefore, it is necessary to specify “success” and utilize the
phase of development training effect model in the SCM process.
Second, assuming that the aim of the SCM is to estimate the training transfer, as it
is in this study, the possible estimate of the training transfer in the first step (selection
of subjects) of the SCM must be considered. For instance, questions as to whether the
subject is designed such that its content can be applied to work, whether the training
content will be utilized in actual work, whether there is enough budget to evaluate the
subject’s work applicability, and whether these evaluations are valuable would all be
the practical considerations.
Third, while existing evaluation methods of training programs have attempted to
obtain the information from average or mid-level trainee success by relying on typical
quantitative methods, the SCM is different in that it aims to obtain the implications
through the successful stories of outstanding trainees who complete the training pro-
gram. Hence, it is very important to establish the criteria of how to select these out-
standing trainees, as well as the decision-making process for this. After developing a
measurement tool for training transfer, this study surveyed trainees to estimate their
training transfer and then selected the top 10% of the respondents with the highest
training transfer grades as the first in-depth interviewees. Along with the training
transfer estimate, a consideration as to whether there is a “successful case” applying
Lee et al. 23

the actual training content to work is also helpful in selecting the outstanding trainees
to obtain specific success stories.
On the contrary, it is necessary to consider applying the following discussions in
training programs in the public sector taking into account the influencing factors of
training transfer found in this study. First, their effects, motivation to learn, and moti-
vation to transfer on training transfer have been suggested by other studies (e.g., Axtell
et al., 1997; Chiaburu & Marinova, 2005). However, this study presents specific
examples of these effects. In particular, the outstanding trainees reported that to moti-
vate themselves to learn, they pursue activities such as further interpreting the mean-
ing of the training content and considering the effects of the training over the long
term. Hence, officially including the time for such activities as part of future training
programs would be an alternative to facilitate this type of work application.
Second, this study reports that active involvement of trainees could be a critical
success factor in the transfer of training. Considering the lack of empirical studies on
active learning and training transfer (Burke & Hutchins, 2007), this study is significant
in that it reveals the training design factors that lead to trainee active participation. The
implication is that these variables should be consistently reflected when designing
future training programs. Moreover, these variables also need to be further validated
by additional quantitative studies in the future.
Third, this study did report training design factors that have not been observed in
earlier literature: the opportunity to experience the overall process of work and the
activity of establishing the network among trainees. These new factors could have
appeared in this study due to the job characteristics of the government officials, the
application of similar processes to various projects, and to the characteristics of the
training program, specifically its long term (6 months). This implies that the training
program (the target employees and the content) and the characteristics of the training
process could also affect the factors that facilitate the training transfer. This could be a
topic for additional research validation in the future.
Finally, the factors that were frequently reported to facilitate training transfer were
the opportunity for work application and the opportunities given by a supervisor or an
organization. To facilitate the training transfer in the future, trainees who complete the
coursework could notify the department head of what they learned, and the current
work department could attract more attention by using a survey or interview to collect
information about additional knowledge and skills necessary for newly appointed gov-
ernment officials.
This study is significant in that it provides a specific case application of the SCM
technique for the evaluation of a training program in the public sector in Korea.
Specifically, this study provides more detailed procedures and examples that can be
utilized in the training in the public sector than those provided earlier by Brinkerhoff
(2003). Through these procedures, qualitative analysis was conducted to deduce vari-
ous factors that could facilitate training transfer. Most of the critical success factors
found in this study were consistent with previous studies; however, some were derived
from the inherent characteristics of the training program. Therefore, rather than gener-
alizing the critical success factors found in this study, it will be necessary to focus on
24 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

how to derive critical success factors. In addition, the SCM procedure suggested here
must be validated by expanding its implementation to various targets and programs
and supplemented to consider the other study limitations in the future.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
This research was supported by National Human Resource Development Institute under the
Ministry of Personnel Management in Korea.

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Author Biographies
Chan Lee, PH.D. is an associate professor and academic program chair of Vocational Education
and Workforce Development at Seoul National University in Korea. His main research interests
are in strategic human resource development, social learning, entrepreneurship, coaching and
leadership development, performance management, job analysis, and structured on-the-job
training(S-OJT).
Dong Won Jeon, PH.D. is a vice-president at Do-How Consulting Corporation in Korea. His
research areas include Informal learning (70:20:10 model), strategic HRD, performance evalu-
ation, competency modeling, and development of competency-based curriculum.
Woo Seok Kim is a Senior Consultant at Do-How Consulting Corporation. His research areas
include Job satisfaction, performance analysis, and Informal learning (70:20:10 model)
Jaeeun Lee, PH.D. is an assistant professor at Institute for Innovative Education of Konkuk
University in Korea. She interests on the researches focused on evaluation of training effective-
ness, relationship between work experience and expertise, and employees’ career development
and success.