Expanding Earth
Expanding Earth
Expanding Earth
by Degezelle Marvin
December 2018
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EXPANDING EARTH
INDEX
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Age of the oceanic lithosphere
2.1 Paleomagnetism
2.2 Isochron map of the ocean floor
3. Expanding Earth concept
3.1 History
3.2 The basics of the theory
3.3 Primitive size
3.4 The orange peel effect
3.5 Relief map
3.6 Biogeographic evidence
3.7 Fish fossils on mountains
4. Plate tectonics problems vs Expanding Earth
4.1 Driving force mystery
4.2 No adequate explanation for how plate tectonics began
4.3 The subduction enigma
4.3.1 The Pacific Basin
4.3.2 Plates cannot subduct in an arc
4.4 The Africa enigma
4.5 The Antarctica enigma
4.6 No possible Atlantic tectonic closure
4.7 The enigma of India’s drift
4.8 The ‘Pacific Triangle’
4.9 The extraordinary coincidence of maximum floor ages
4.10 Volcanic chains
4.11 Mountain formation
5. Mechanism for Earth expansion
5.1 Revision of geophysics of Earth
5.2 Potential mechanism for increased mass
5.3 Potential mechanism for increased volume with conservation of mass
6. A call for a new gravity theory
The Expanding Earth and implications on the geophysics of Earth
Subject classification:
Earth expansion, isochrons fitting, geophysics of the Earth, gravity
ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION
In the early 1900s, a major debate emerged when German geo- The expanding or growing Earth hypothesis has already been
physicist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed his con- widely discussed within the scientific community; however, the
tinental drift theory. He noticed that Earth’s major landmasses general consensus is that Earth maintained its radius for at least
could be fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle and stated that the 4.5 billion years. Even though most scientists reject the Earth
continents had once been joined together in a single landmass, expansion theory, it’s a very interesting and complex problem
Pangaea, and that they had later drifted apart. He could not pro- that can have major consequences for the current understanding
vide a mechanism so his work was derided and ignored for dec- of the geophysics of the Earth.
ades until they provided proof of seafloor spreading that resulted
in the plate tectonics theory. Even though Wegener had a limited Modern geotectonics has been dominated by the plate tecton-
amount of data or available technology compared to the present ics theory since the publication of several papers between 1961
time, his theory was not changed dramatically. and 1970 (Dietz, 1961; Hess, 1962; Isacks et al., 1968; Le Pichon,
1968; Morgan, 1968; Le Pichon et al., 1976). This theory is based
Various combinations of geodynamic hypothesis like contrac- on much older hypotheses like continental drift (Wegener, 1915,
tionism, expansionism or mobilism on a fixed-dimension planet 1924) and subcrustal currents (Ampferer, 1906). Ampferer (1906)
have been proposed but most physicists and geologists now suggested that vertical movements of the Earth’s crust might
accept Earth’s radius had remained constant. However, present be the result of subcrustal currents as a result of differences in
studies of the isochron map of the ocean floor demonstrates that subcrustal density and temperature. He suggested that verti-
Earth started expanding 180 million years ago. There are numer- cal movements cause secondary movements. Convergence of
ous indications of the growth or expansion of the Earth. The subcrustal currents could cause the formation of mountains and
expanding Earth hypothesis is mainly supported by paleontology, their divergence could cause rift valleys.
paleomagnetism, paleoclimatology, and geology data. Isochrons
of the ocean floor do not fit on a same sized Earth. The analysis Alfred Wegener provided evidence in 1912 that the continents are
will show that the isochrons only fit on a smaller Earth with cal- in motion, but could not explain what forces could move them.
culated radius. Surprisingly, mountain formation is shown to be Wegener referred to the paper of Ampferer so he took his idea.
the result of the Earth expansion. This paper will also provide a He mentioned: “Probably it will be wise for now, to consider
physical mechanism to explain Earth expansion and implications the continental displacements as the consequence of irregular
of the geophysics of the Earth. Problems and flaws in the theory currents inside the Earth” (Wegener/Jacoby, 1912b/2001, part
of plate tectonics will be revealed and explained. II: 47-48). He did not provide proof for this statement. He also
Plate tectonics has survived for decades because its proponents writes that the depth variation appears to suggest that the Mid
have increasingly detached their theory from reality by system- Atlantic Ridge should be regarded as a zone in which the floor of
atically rejecting or overlooking any contrary evidence, and the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open
selectively picking only the data that support plate tectonics. The and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima from
consensus that Earth does not change in mass or volume has depth (Wegener/Jacoby, 1912b/2001, part III:55) .
been maintained for almost a century, so new theories like “sub-
duction” has been invented to explain the mystery of vanishing In 1910, Alfred Wegener had noticed on a world map that the
oceanic lithosphere. east coast of South America fits exactly against the west coast of
Africa, so they must have once been joined, he thought.
The history of the plate tectonics theory on an equal-sized Earth He looked for further evidence, found it and published it in his
is an example of how falsified scientific hypotheses can survive book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (1915). By his third edi-
their own failure, gradually shifting towards and beyond the lim- tion is his book (1922), Wegener was citing geological evidence
its of scientific investigation until they become pseudoscientific that some 300 million years ago all the continents had been
beliefs. joined in a supercontinent stretching from pole to pole. He called
it Pangaea and said it began to break up around 200 million years
ago when the continents started moving towards their current
positions. He also cited the fit of South America and Africa,
ancient climate similarities, fossil evidence and similarity of rock
structures.
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Ring of Fire
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Fig 1.4 - The tectonic plates of the World
The force that moves the plates is thought to be convection cur- Earth expansion has been the subject of specific symposia organ-
rents in the mantle under the Earth’s crust. The mantle is solid in ized by major scientific institutions (Carey, 1983a; McKenna,
the short term but flows very slowly over geologic timescales. 1983; Scalera et al., 2012). Finally, the Earth expansion theory has
Where the edges of the plates meet, several things may hap- found some credit among biogeographers (Ager, 1966; Glasby,
pen. If both plates carry continents, which are lighter than the 1999; McCarthy, 2003, 2005a, b, 2007; McCarthy et al., 2007)
ocean floor, they may collide and cause high mountains to rise. because of some in-triguing biogeographic transpacific correla-
If one plate is heavier, it may go under the other or subduct. Or tions.
the plates may move sideways, grinding against each other. This
grinding produces cracks or faults in the plates, also called “trans- The Earth expansion hypothesis is definitely not entirely baseless.
form plate boundaries.” It has many parallels with plate tectonics and continental drift
theory, which is now well-established. According to the major-
Contractionism is one of the other hypotheses that have been ity of scientists, continental drift is happening as tectonic plates
proposed. The basis of this hypothesis is the cooling of the Earth move and subduct with earthquakes and volcanoes occurring
from its early red-hot condition to the present cooled condition. around their edges. A new scientific revolution is needed to
During the cooling, the Earth contracted. Those who contributed understand the current position of the continents and even more
to this hypothesis are Lapworth and Love, Gregory, Sues and important, a revision of the geophysics of Earth will be neces-
Argand, Chamberlain, Kober Jeffreys, etc. All these scholars sup- sary.
posed that due to slow cooling, its upper layers cooled faster than
the inner ones. They stated that contractions caused folding of
the upper layers that resulted into mountains.
The contraction hypothesis has been totally rejected when the age
of the oceanic lithosphere was mapped.
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2. AGE OF THE OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE
Fig 2.3: History of the position of the magnetic pole in Europe and
North-America
Fig 2.1: Earth’s magnetic field and inclination This either suggested that (1) the Earth has had more than one
magnetic pole at various times in the past (not likely) or (2) that
Earth has a giant magnetic field that causes a compass needle to the different continents have moved relative to each other over
point toward the North magnetic pole, currently located near the time. Studies of ancient pole positions for other continents con-
rotation pole. The magnetic lines of force intersect the surface firmed the latter hypothesis and seemed to confirm the theory of
of the Earth at various angles that depend on the position on Continental Drift.
the Earth’s surface. This angle is called the magnetic inclination.
The inclination is 0° at the magnetic equator and 90° at the In the 1940’s, geologists employed by the military carried out
magnetic poles. Thus, by measuring the inclination and the angle topographic and magnetic studies of the seafloor. The data from
to the magnetic pole, one can tell position on the Earth relative their magnetometers showed magnetic anomalies on the sea
to the magnetic poles. In the 1950s, it was discovered that when floor. Parallel stripes of alternating high and low magnetism on
magnetic minerals cool below the Curie Temperature, areas either side of the oceanic ridges were found.
within the magnetic mineral take on an orientation parallel to the
external magnetic field present at the time they cooled below this Studying piles of lava flows on the continents, geophysicists
temperature. found that over short time scales the Earth’s magnetic field
undergoes polarity reversals, this means that the north magnetic
pole becomes the south magnetic pole and vice versa.
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By dating the rocks using radiometric dating techniques and This data led to one of the most important maps for geologists
correlating the reversals throughout the world, they were able to and geographers: the crustal age map of the ocean floor.
establish the magnetic time scale.
2.2. Isochron map of the ocean floor
Morley and Larochelle (1964); and Vine and Matthews (1963) put
this information together with the bands of magnetic stripes on The first digital age grid was created in 1997 (Müller, Roest,
the seafloor and postulated that the bands represents oppositely Royer, Gahagan, and Sclater) from paleomagnetic data, geo-
polarized rocks on either side of the oceanic ridges, and that new logical data and published plate models. The map had an error
oceanic crust and lithosphere was created at the oceanic ridge by rate between 0.5 My and 10 My. An isochron map is a type of
eruption and intrusion of magma. As this magma cooled it took geological map that has a better readability. It has what is called
on the magnetism of the magnetic field at the time. When the isochron lines on an isotope or ratio diagram showing a suite of
polarity of the field changed, new crust and lithosphere created at rock or mineral samples which were all formed at the same time.
the ridge would have a different polarity. This hypothesis ulti- This map (Fig 2.6) is showing isochrons of the entire world. The
mately led to the theory of seafloor spreading. colored stripes are representing a certain age of rock or mineral.
The red is representative of the youngest (0-5 My) and the blue
the oldest (180 My). Except for the Mediterranean Basin, all
ocean floors of Earth do not exceed 180 million years of age.
This is a shocking discovery, even for an open-minded scientist.
If new oceanic lithosphere is continually being created at the
oceanic ridges, the oceans should be expanding indefinitely, un-
less there was a mechanism to destroy the oceanic lithosphere.
If subduction is questioned and cannot fully answer this enigma,
Earth expansion must be considered as a potential fact and this
option may not be excluded. If Earth expands from the interior,
it could explain the continental drift and the current position of
the continents.
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3. EXPANDING EARTH CONCEPT many textbooks of the history of science. It was during this
symposium that Carey proposed abandonment of the subduc-
3.1. History tion concept and put forward step by step the concept of Earth
Expansion. In 1976, Carey publishes the book “The Expanding
It’s important to notice that the original idea of a continental drift Earth”, where he explains the subject in detail. He also stated,
came from the Italian Mantovani and not from Alfred Wegener. and he is not the only one that came to this conclusion: “If all the
Roberto Mantovani was a defender of the continental drift and continents were reassembled into a Pangaean configuration on a model
planetary expansion. He was a violinist and scientist, born in representing the Earths modern dimensions, the fit was reasonably
Parma on March 25, 1854. He was part of an orchestral team precise at the center of the reassembly and along the common margins
reaching the volcanic Réunion Island in 1878. During his stay on of north-west Africa and the United States east coast embayment, but
the island, Mantovani had the occasion of observing the huge vol- became progressively imperfect away from these areas”.
canic fractures on the Indian ocean shore near the town of Saint
Denis. He was arguing that the volcanic fractures observable on Scientists tell us that the universe is expanding. But also suns
the island’s shore might have undergone, on a minor scale, the are expanding. According to plate tectonics, there is one very
same process of breakup of the continents. The global fractures special and magical place in the universe that is not expanding
are today the oceans. Later in France, he gave public conferences and that maintains a constant size: Earth. Robert Stern, profes-
on the idea of planetary expansion. His ideas, published in 1889 sor Geoscience stated: “Earth is the only planet with plate tectonics.
and 1909, together with a ‘Pangea reconstruction’. In the paper of That means it’s special in space, and it’s probably special in time, too.
1909, he drew a map of the opening Pacific with dotted lines to There must have been a time when the Earth didn’t have plate tectonics.
show the points on the opposite side of the oceans that were once The Earth had a very different tectonic, geologic style. There were no
in contact. He concluded that the size the Earth must have been mid-ocean ridges with continents moving apart. There were no subduc-
smaller in the geologic past than today. tion zones where oceanic crust would have been going down.” Earth
is the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Without
subduction, plate tectonics could not exist. Samuel Carey had an
answer on the question of why plate tectonics only occurs on
Earth: “Subduction exists only in the minds of its creators”
(Carey, 1976)
He said that scientists believe in subduction like a religion. He
had taught subduction for more years than any of the present
generation of people had been with it. “When they have been
in it as long as I have they’ll abandon it too”, he stated in 1981.
“If 50 million believe in a fallacy, it is still a fallacy” is a famous
quote of him about plate tectonics. ‘The father of modern Earth
Expansion theory’ died in 2002, but Dr. James Maxlow took over
Fig 3.1 : Mantovani’s map of the expansion of the Earth (1909) with his book Terra Non Firma Earth in 2005.
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3.2. The basics of the theory
4
Volume V = πR³
3
4
Fig 3.3: The age of the Oceanic Lithosphere (Muller, 2008) V= π 4174,6³ = 0,3047 ×1012 km³
3
If we go back in time and eliminate all the oceanic crust, the con- Current physical characteristics of Earth:
tinental crust neatly encloses the whole earth on a globe a little
less than two-thirds of the diameter of the current globe. Radius = 6371km. Volume = 1,08321×1012 km³
Since there is no data available of primitive oceanic crustal age, This means the current volume of the Earth is 355.5% greater
there can be assumed that the radius of the Earth remained con- than the primitive volume over a time period of 180 million
stant until 180 Ma, when Earth’s volume started to increase. All years. The mean radius of the Earth is 152.6% greater. The aver-
continents were connected at that time, probably mostly covered age rate of the growth of the Earth’s radius is 1.22cm/year.
with oceans, so continental crust broke apart randomly to create
the first continents. Oceanic basins were filled with seawater and To analyze the growth rate of the expanding Earth, each total
sea levels dropped during Earth’s expansion. Seawater prob- surface area of the isochron strips were compared in time.
ably was initially fresh water and when it came in contact with
subcrustal salty layers when the crust broke apart, it turned into
salt water. Continents started to rise above sea level and were
spreading apart at a speed depending on the spreading rate of
mid-ocean ridges. Earth is still expanding today, so it is highly pos-
sible that continents will break further apart in the future.
Fig 3.4: Various polygons for surface area calculation (Google Earth)
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Google Earth is a useful software tool to measure the surface of The main difference is that Earth’s expansion theory can explain
urface (km²)
drawn areas. Polygons were drawn over the isochrons that cover a the young Pacific Ocean. Just like the Atlantic closure, there is
time interval of 30 million years. evidence for a smaller, completely-enclosed Pacific Basin in the
mA Surface (km²) Late Cretaceous.
0-30 91 896 786
30-60 66 187 317
60-90 51 182 792
90-120 40 387 661
120-150 27 117 551
150-180 14 284 247
2000
2000
1000
1000
0 0
180mA150mA
180mA 150mA120mA
120mA90mA
90mA60mA
60mA30 mA
30 mAnow now
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Fig 3.10: Radial growth of the African Plate
Fig 3.7: Van Hilton’s (1963) “orange peel effect” model for Earth expan-
sion. Van Hilton suggested that, during expansion of the Earth from A The spreading of the continents due to the expansion of the
to B, the continental lithosphere would distort and displace by forming Earth is not entirely symmetrical. Although there is symmetri-
radial tears. (From Owen, 1983b) cal spreading in the Atlantic and around Antarctica where the
spreading ridges are located in the center, the Pacific Ocean
South America had to separate from the main body of Antarctica shows an asymmetrical spreading.
by a minimum of 7 latitudinal degrees and most likely between
12 and 20 since the Cretaceous; and if over the same period of
time, North America and its Bering bridge has had to drift slightly
away from South America then North America has had to move
north with respect to Antarctica since the Cretaceous. This entails
that the Pacific Ocean Basin has increased in length north to
south since that time. (McCarthy 2005)
Fig 3.8: North–south expansion of the Pacific Basin since the Creta-
ceous. The Americas have separated slightly since the mid-Cretaceous,
and South America has drifted away from Antarctica, requiring north–
south expansion of the Pacific Basin. (McCarthy 2005)
The age of the oceanic lithosphere of the Antarctic plate and the Fig 3.11: Asymmetrical spreading of the Pacific
African Plate obviously expose their radial growth.
The reason for this is that some continents are more attached
to the subcrustal layer than other continents. Places with more
friction have more earthquakes. A simple experiment can explain
this. If you attach a piece of paper (that represents a continent)
to a half inflated balloon with superglue and you inflate the bal-
loon, the non-covered part of the balloon will stretch and you
will hear no sound. But if you attach the piece of paper with a
glue stick and let it dry, you will hear a cracking noise from the
friction of the balloon with the paper that is not well attached.
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3.5. Relief map India and Madagascar were also joined together. The direction of
the scars also shows that Australia was connected to Antarctica.
The relief map of the ocean floor reveals some important proof The same reasoning can be applied to the Pacific. First, the west
for the Expanding Earth. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge can be easily coast of North America broke apart from Asia, Zealandia, and
spotted by its scar-like feature in the center of the Atlantic Ocean. South America in a later stadium. The fit between the northern
There are stripes of oceanic lithosphere that are running perpen- edge of Zealandia and the continental edge of South America
dicular to the oceanic ridges like scars that show the direction of that is respected by the Andes is nearly perfect.
the spreading continents. The same type of features can be seen
in the Pacific Ocean. It is remarkable that those ‘scars’ can be seen
on aerial imagery in Google Earth. These ‘paths’ reveal the old
position of the continents.
Fig 3.14 : The almost perfect fit of Zealandia and South America
(Mestan, 2017)
This relief map (Fig 3.13) proves that 180 million years ago, all
Fig 3.12 : ‘Scars’ in the Pacific (a) and Atlantic Ocean (b) (source: Google Earth)
continental crust were attached to each other in one giant conti-
nent, Pangaea.
In the Atlantic Ocean, the east coast of North America was joined
with Africa (Fig 3.13), South America joined with Central/South
Africa. Madagascar was part of Kenya and Somalia.
a’ e
a
e’
h
b’
b g
g’ h’
f’
c f
d c’
d’
Fig 3.13 : Topography map of the sea floor merged with the age of the oceanic lithosphere
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3.6. Biogeographic evidence
Mesosaurus
Fig 3.16: The Fiji banded iguana and the closest relatives in the Americas.
One of the hundreds of examples is the Fiji banded iguana. The Taxa that are able to cross large marine gaps are wide-ranging
closest relatives occur in California and Mexico. No other iguanas and appear on other oceanic islands. For example, all species of
inhabit any other island in the Central or West Pacific. (see fig plants on Pitcairn are from wide-ranging ancestors, distributed
3.16). To solve this migration problem may be that there was a throughout the Pacific. Pitcairn, unlike New Zealand, does not
smaller or completely‐enclosed Pacific basin in the past. This is exclusively share any plant with South America, even though Pit-
exactly what the Expanding Earth theory predicts. cairn is roughly half as far away from S. America as New Zealand.
Quite simply, taxa that can reach remote oceanic islands can reach
Ager (1988) analyzed distributions of Early Mesozoic brachio- nearer ones too. This empirically challenges hypotheses of cross-
pods. There are multiple links between Western Americas and ocean dispersal currently used to explain narrow-range, trans-Pa-
East Asia. (Fig 3.17 A). More examples: the shallow marine taxa, cific biotic disjunctions. In other words, if the poor-dispersing taxa
like pistosaurs and thalattosaurs (Fig 3.17 B), the Fiji banded shared by South America and New Zealand, New Caledonia, and
iguana (Fig 3.17 C) Fiji really are capable of cross-ocean dispersal, they should appear
on at least a few of the 25,000 other islands in the Pacific, and they
do not. (McCarthy, 2003)
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Of more than 25,000 islands in the Pacific, only three are old
enough to have once been in proximity with South America ac-
cording to expanding Earth paleographical maps: New Zealand,
New Caledonia, Fiji. All problematic disjunctions of narrow-
range taxa occur on those three islands - or the more ancient
continental regions of Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia.
None of the other islands in the Pacific boast problematic disjunc-
tions of poor-dispersing taxa with the Western Americas. Hawaii,
which is merely 3900 km from the nearest continent, has no
native, non-volant terrestrial vertebrates at all - let alone all from
one particular narrow region 7000 km away.
During the late Cretaceous, the Pacific allowed some taxa to cross
the South Pacific and many other taxa. There were four bridges Fig 3.20: World distribution of Petaluridae
that were needed for biotic interchange. The Austral-Asian Bridge
(Carnosaurs, Protoceratopsians, Oviraptorosaurs,.. ) and Ameri- cross the existing Panthalassa. The Expanding Earth model seems
can Bridge (Sauropods, Hadrosaurs, Caimans,..) perfectly fit into to fit better for this family as it forms evidence of the zipper effect
the expanding earth theory. proposed by McCarthy (2003).”
Before the Earth expanded, the sea level must have been much
higher even when we do not take into account the melting of the
polar ice caps. Geologists have found fossils of sea creatures on
every continent, from immature to fully grown, in rock layers
well above sea level; such as in the Grand Canyon rim at 2000m
above sea level. Its Redwall Limestone is home to brachiopods,
corals, crinoids, gastropods, trilobites, and other various marine
fossils. Even in the Himalayas, the ‘rooftops of the world’, marine
fossils have been found. Marine cephalopod fossils are found in
Fig 3.18: The four bridges for biotic interchange limestone beds in Nepal’s mountains; and it is agreed that ocean
waters carried them there and then receded. However, it’s true
The vanished Panthalassa hypothesis fails paleomagnetic, sedi- that mountain chains like the Andes and Himalayas had experi-
mentary, geological, and, most importantly, biogeographical enced huge upthrusting during the last 180 million years and that
analyses. Despite frequent radical transformations, conventional sea levels were lower in comparison with the altitude were the fish
paleographical maps have become the sole guide to distributional fossils were found. But this explanation is inadequate. American
explanations for those who favor extreme dispersal. And the geologist Dr. John Morris estimates that as much as “95% of all
paleographical have more than just biogeographical problems. fossils are marine invertebrates, particularly shellfish” and they are
found all over the continents at high altitude.
Fig 3.19: Conventional paleographical maps; Upper Triassic (McCarthy Fig 3.21 : Fossils of fish and sea creatures
2003)
Another paper of 2016 by Milen Marinov, The seven “oddities” of It is also a well-known fact that dinosaurs lived in a swampy
Pacific Odonata biogeography, discusses some of the problems of environment. Professor Brian J Ford even claims that dinosaurs
the dispersal of ancient insects like the dragonfly around the Pa- were too big and heavy to support themselves on dry land and
cific Ocean and then considers expansion as a plausible answer to must have lived in water. He believes their tails were too large and
the problem: “A closed Pacific Ocean in the geological past would cumbersome for them to hunt or move with agility. “Just imagine
explain the disjunction of the ancient family Petaluridae. In the that the landscape was water – it suddenly makes sense. This huge
plate tectonic model the recent members of this family become tail is buoyant, floating in the water. It becomes a swimming aid. I
very wide apart which would take an extreme dispersal power to argue that they must have evolved in shallow water.”
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4. PLATE TECTONICS PROBLEMS vs EXPANDING
EARTH
4.1. The driving force mystery It’s very controversial to suggest that a gravitational pull on the
oceanic lithosphere at the subduction zones causes the plate
Plate tectonics requires a mysterious subcrustal mechanism movements. The average thickness of the oceanic crust is 5km
that makes continents drift for thousands of miles at least over a while the continental crust has an average thickness of 35km.
period of 180 million years, since the breakup of Pangaea. The
theory of mantle convection was proposed to provide a driving Even though the density of the oceanic crust is higher, there
mechanism for continental drift (Schubert 2001;Bercovici, 2007) should be subduction of continental crust in this reasoning.
According to plate tectonics, the thin oceanic crust at the Peru–
Thermal convection in the Earth’s mantle, the rocky layer be- Chile Trench is sliding under the much thicker continental crust
tween core and crust, is supposed to be caused when material at a of South America. There should be a piling up or folding of
deeper level is heated to the point where it expands and becomes oceanic lithosphere at the trench. Try to push a tablecloth under
less dense than the material above it. When this occurs, the hot a thin magazine, it won’t work because there will be folding. It’s
less dense material rises. Rising hot material will eventually cool very paradoxical that subduction in the Atlantic Ocean is non-
and become denser than its surroundings. This cool dense mate- existing. If the same mantle convection mechanism is pushing
rial must then sink again and thus creates convection cells, with oceanic lithosphere, it’s a mystery why it is pushing the entire
hot rising currents and cool descending currents. If the astheno- continent South America on one side and slides under the conti-
sphere is in fact moving as a result of convection, then convection nent at the Pacific side.
could be the mechanism responsible for plate tectonics. Hot rising
currents would occur beneath oceanic ridges.
Magma intruding into the ridge would push lithosphere apart
at the ridge. As the new lithosphere cools, it will slide off the
topographic high that results from the upwelling of the mantle
and will eventually become cold and dense. This dense lithos-
phere will tend to pull the rest of the lithosphere downward. A no subduction
combination of dragging the lithosphere along the top of the no subduction
convection cell, ridge push, sliding, and slab pull all appear to be
contributing factors to the cause of plate tectonics. subduction
There is still some debate as to whether asthenospheric convec-
tion drives the plates or the plates themselves drive plate tecton-
ics. This alone should question the convection theory itself.
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In 1982, the assessment was: “At the present time the geometry of Because this subcrustal layer is exposed, it is logic that the density
plate movements is largely understood, but the driving mecha- is higher than continental crust because of the higher compres-
nism of plate tectonics remains elusive”. By 1995 we find that: “In sion by gravity. The average density of continental crust is about
spite of all the mysteries this picture of moving tectonic plates has 2.7 g/cm³ while the density of the oceanic crust is about 3.0 g/
solved, it has a central, unsolved mystery of its own: What drives cm³.
the plates in the first place? That has got to be one of the more
fundamental problems in plate tectonics,” notes geodynamicist The oceanic lithosphere that is torn apart because of the expan-
Richard O’Connell of Harvard University. sion, so the thickness decreases. However, at the mid-ocean
ridges new crust is being created and mantle upwelling results
“Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift died in 1926, prima- in various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley
rily because no one could suggest an acceptable driving mecha- known as a rift running along its spine.
nism. In an ironical twist, continental drift is almost universally
accepted, but we still do not understand the driving mechanism in To illustrate this, imagine an old and thick rubber band that is be-
anything other than the most general terms”(Alvarez 1990). ing stretched. The outer, discolored rubber breaks but the inner
rubber is still intact and stretches, hence deeper, until the point
In 2002 it was said that: “Although the concept of plates moving that it is going to snap.
on Earth’s surface is universally accepted, it is less clear which
forces cause that motion. Understanding the mechanism of plate The driving force for the spreading of the continents is the
tectonics is one of the most important problems in the geo- expansion of the Earth itself. No mysterious forces are needed
sciences”. A 2004 paper noted that “considerable debate remains that push continents thousands of km, just the mechanism for
about the driving forces of the tectonic plates and their relative the expansion needs to be explained. The continents do not re-
contribution”. ally move away from each other, that’s an illusion. It’s the space
between them that is increasing because of that stretching of the
The debate over the driving mechanism of plate tectonics has oceanic lithosphere.
continued since the early 1970s, with increasing sophistication
but still no general solution. One of the most uncomfortable
contradictions in current plate tectonic theory is the protracted
collision between India and Asia. That the two continents should
collide by subduction of the intervening ocean is reasonable;
that India should continue to drive northward into Asia for some
38 million years after the collision is not. In fact, the protracted
continental collisions in the Alps, Zagros, and the Himalayas,
which have continued to deform continental crust since the early
or middle Cenozoic, are therefore anomalies in standard plate
tectonic theory. In plate tectonic theory, the collision between
two continents should quickly terminate because of continental
buoyancy. Buoyancy considerations predict that shortly after such
a continent-continent collision, a new subduction zone should
form (Alvarez, 1982).
The expanding Earth theory offers a reasonable solution to the Fig 4.4: Experiments to show the spreading continents.
discrepancies and paradoxes of convection cells and plate tecton-
ics. The expansion of the inner Earth volume made the conti-
nental crust to break apart and created the oceanic lithosphere
between them.
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4.2. No adequate explanation for how plate tectonics or sub- The first and most common explanation for subduction is that
duction began. as the oceanic lithosphere ages and cools, its density increases so
that an instability arises and the plate sinks spontaneously in the
Nowhere in the literature does any scientist adequately address mantle under its own weight” (Gurnis et al., 2004).
how the observed “plates” came into existence in the first place.
Perhaps more perplexing is how subduction commenced. The It’s very hard to believe that oceanic lithosphere suddenly sinks
scientific community seems to concur that plate tectonics began into the mantle when it has a certain age, in this case it is 180 Ma
at some point in Earth’s history, yet no one seems to know how old. You cannot find oceanic crust that is 200 Ma old because it
such a process could possibly begin. Various dates in the history would have sunk? What about the continental lithosphere that is
of Earth had been proposed. The lack of proof is reflected in the much thicker and older?
disparity of proposed dates that vary between 0.85 Gya (Hamil-
ton 2011) and >4.2Gya (Hopkins et al. 2008). From Rodinia to Pangaea to Pangea Ultima: how can plate
tectonics explain the forward and backward movements of large
continents explain? Do convection cycles suddenly turn in op-
posite directions? It doesn’t make sense.
Fig 4.6: Impossible geostatic pressures must be conquered during subduc- Fig 4.8: Empirical Cumulative Surface Areas
tion
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4.3. The subduction enigma to the African Plate. This means a minimum subduction rate of
67 to 85mm/y since the Nazca Plate and South American Plate
4.3.1 The Pacific Basin are moving towards each other.
“I had taught subduction for more years than any of the present
generations of people had been with it. And when they have been
in it as long as I have they’ll abandon it too.” -- Samuel W. Carey,
geologist, 1981
There are vast amounts of new seafloor being added around Ant-
arctica that are causing Antarctic Plate to increase in total surface
area and expand radially outward. Also, the African Plate is radi-
ally growing that it is, in turn, part of the growing Atlantic basin.
Every single km² newly created oceanic crust at those plates must
be subducted at the Ring Of Fire in order to maintain the same
Earth’s radius. Not only that but also the East Pacific Rise (EPR)
also generates new oceanic seafloor, from 80 to 160mm/yr that
must be subducted. How can the East Pacific Rise, that is located
in the middle of the supposed subduction area, add seafloor to
the Pacific at a rate that is the highest in the World (4x normal)
and simultaneously subduct a greater amount elsewhere around
its perimeter to compensate all that new seafloor at the rest of
the planet? This is a valid reason to doubt the credibility of sub-
duction.
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2000km 3000km
Fig 4.11 : The East Pacific Rise and the created oceanic crust in the last
30 million years.
Then why is the official speed of the Nazca Plate only 40-51mm?
The funny thing is, if we compare the official subduction rate
(max 85mm/y), with the 90mm/y created at the EPR, there
is still no explanation for the missing 5mm/y and all the other
created ocean floor at the rest of the planet. Is there really is sub- Fig 4.12: Subduction of the Pacific Plate at Zealandia and subduction
duction, where are the measurements showing the Pacific Ocean of the Nazca Plate at Chile
basin is decreasing in width?
If Africa is set as a fixed point, we learn that Australia and
Why is there no physical evidence of seamounts or soft sedimen- Zealandia has moved 8050km or 67mm/y and South America
tary debris filling the deep ocean trenches, semi-liquid debris that 5600km or 46mm/y towards the Pacific. The East Pacific creates
would easily have been scraped off the top of any subducting on average 70mm/y on western side and 80mm/y on eastern
ocean floor? The amount of fish fossils or residues should be side, which means we should see a staggering 137mm/y and
overwhelming at subduction zones. These soft sediments make 126mm/y of subduction. Since the data shows us only a subduc-
an unconsolidated top layer of ocean floor ~10 meters thick. tion of max 67mm/y at the Tonga Trench, there is a missing
Massive amounts of sediments should be piled up against conti- 70mm/y recycling of litho-sphere.
nental shores, or in the deep ocean trenches off the eastern coasts
of Asia and Australia, the western coasts of North and South Another source (see Fig 4.12) shows a subduction speed of the
America, or in the Aleutian Trench. The sediments just aren’t Nazca Plate at Chile of 66mm/y. So there is a missing 60mm/y
there; the ocean trenches are relatively free of sediments and recycling of lithosphere at the coastline of South America.
there are no mountains of soft sediments piled up against any Pa-
cific shore. As noted by Roger Revelle in 1955, material recovered This poses a serious question for the subduction theory. How
from even the deepest trenches “resemble in many ways deposits can worldwide seafloor growth in oceans outside the Pacific be
laid down in shallow water.” vectored smoothly into the Pacific basin where the EPR is gener-
ating a prodigious volume of new seafloor in the middle of the
A section along the Tropic of Capricorn reveals the real prob- Pacific subduction area?
lem of subduction. According to plate tectonics, the Panthalassa
ocean shrank after the breakup of Pangaea 180 million years ago
until it became the Pacific Ocean as we know today.
Pangaea, 180 Ma
67mm/y 46mm/y
8050km 5600km
70mm/y 80mm/y
Africa Australia Zealandia S America
0 Ma
137mm/y 126mm/y
recycling recycling
Fig 4.13: Section of the subducting lithosphere along the Tropic of Capricorn according to Plate Tectonics.
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4.3.2 Plates cannot subduct in an arc EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
Fig 4.15: The small relative motion of South America to the Nazca Plate
Fig 4.14: The Mariana Trench is a perfect example of a volcanic arc. Fig 4.16: Left: natural model of a peony bud; Right: orange peel on a
larger grapefruit (Jan Koziar, 2017)
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A B
Pacific Atlantic
Pacific Atlantic
Fig 4.17: A) Symmetrical expansion, minor ‘false’ subduction B) Asymmetrical expansion, for example South America with fast
spreading Pacific basin that causes a greater ‘false’ subduction.
With exception of the Peru-Chile Trench, it can be stated that Carey’s Arctic Paradox
most continents retained their positions relative to the expand-
ing mantle. Some scientists see this as important evidence: Carey (1976) noticed that all plates except for the Antarctic move
northward. Carey checked this motion in the northern hemi-
“Although never mentioned by most geologists these days, sphere by northward shifting of paleoclimatic zones and paleo-
there is a plethora of evidence in favor of Earth Expansion. For magnetic latitudes. On an Earth of constant dimensions, such a
example: one of the most compelling pieces of evidence is that northward motion of the plates should result in convergence in
the paleomagnetism of the continents seems to show that they the Arctic zone. However, the dominating structure in this region
have retained their relative positions over geological time-scales is the Arctic Ocean which is of divergent origin. This structure
and had common polar wandering paths. In other words, they attests to a general southward motion of plates beyond the Arctic
are in the same relative position today as they were in the most area. The dual opposite movement is precisely what creates the
remote geological times, something that is impossible if sub- Arctic Paradox (but only on a constant size Earth). The only solu-
duction occurs.” Stewart, AD, “The Expanding Earth” Nature. tion of this paradox is the expanding Earth. Carey demonstrated
the solution on his model of a schematic opening flower bud.
Fig 4.18: In this flower bud model of the Arctic Paradox all of the young post-Paleogene lithosphere together with the whole Antarctic plate
is removed; all northern plates form one huge megaplate, a) motion of the expanding mantle relative to the megaplate, b) apparent motion of
parts of the megaplate relative to the expanding mantle (Jan Koziar, 2017)
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4.4. The Africa enigma
If all the proposed movement directions are combined on one Fig 4.21: Missing subduction at the east coast of Africa.
map there are major contradictions. Arrows are pointing in every
direction. The theory of plate tectonics suggests that the Afri- EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
can Plate together with the Arabian Plate is colliding with the
Eurasian Plate. Probably a new, miraculous convection cell has It’s obvious that the African Plate is growing in size, as expected
recently formed to break apart the African continent at the Red with the expanding Earth theory. The spreading ridges in the Red
Sea. Also, it’s a mystery why the spreading ridge in the Gulf of Sea and in the East African Rift Valley indicate that Africa will
Aden that extends in the Arabian Sea isn’t affected lateral by the break apart in the future.
simultaneous movement of the 2 tectonic plates in the past 120
million years.
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Africa does not really move; there is only spreading. We could The reason for this rare continental crust rupture is the stretch-
use the term ‘expansion tectonics’ instead of plate tectonics. ing of the border of the continent due to expansion. Only in
This term was introduced by Dr. James Maxlow, a prominent certain cases when the continent covers a large part of the Earth
supporter of the Earth Expansion theory. The further breakup both longitudinal as latitudinal, this phenomena can occur.
of Africa in multiple parts is predicted as Earth expands continu- An exaggerated example of this is a spherical cap that is put on a
ously in time, like a balloon plastered with wet paper or plasticine sphere with lower curvature or with larger radius. The base circle
that is being inflated at a constant rate until its maximum volume is stretched, so cracks will appear in the spherical cap.
is reached.
Fig 4.28: Rubber disc experiment with the African plate (Koziar, 1980)
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4.5. The Antarctica enigma
of the Cretaceous Period, when the mass extinction of dinosaurs
Antarctica is almost entirely surrounded by divergent plate occurred. The two types of dinosaur species identified by the
boundaries. Plate tectonics cannot explain why the boundaries research group were iguanodontia and hadrosaurus. Along with
are not at the coastlines unless they have mysteriously moved the dinosaur bones, 34 different leaves identified as Nothofagus,
away from them. Antarctica is not shrinking nor is there evidence a family of a tree from which ten species can be found in modern
of subduction. Only the South Shetland Islands in the Bransfield day Chile. This type of tree is no more than 50 million years old.
Basin are believed to have formed from a period of subduction Other scientists also have doubts about the timing:
that occurred between the Phoenix plate and the Antarctic plate “Developing a more complete floristic and faunistic fossil record
starting roughly 200 million years ago during the Mesozoic. from other intervals and areas will provide critical informa-
(Schreider et al 2014). The Bransfield Strait is an example of a tion for reconstructing the biogeographical history of the final
basin that formed by rifting within a continental volcanic arc breakup of Gondwana.” (Reguero et al, 2014)
(Lawver et al 1995). However, the basin extends no more than The relative pre-drift positions of the Antarctic Penin-
500 kilometers and can never be accounted for all the miss- sula and Patagonia continue to be subjects of controversy. Miller
ing oceanic crust within the Antarctic Plate. Studies even show (2007) concluded that contradictory opinions remain over the
that no or little subduction is active. “Regional tectonics of the relative paleo-position of the Peninsula as a more or less straight
Antarctic Peninsula support the hypothesis that little or no active prolongation of the Patagonian Andes, versus a position parallel
subduction is occurring beneath Bransfield Strait and the South to Patagonia along the Pacific coast. He said: “as in the past, for
Shetland Islands. What little subduction that may be occurring solving those remaining queries, new facts, close discussion with
would be equal to the amount of extension in Bransfield Strait.” scientists from all branches of geosciences, and new fantasy are
(Lawver et al 1995). There should be noticed that every km² of needed.” Indeed, fantasy is also needed to explain plate tectonics
newly created oceanic lithosphere between the boundaries of the on the Antarctic Plate. Mysterious convection cells are sup-
Antarctican Plate should be subducted or recycled somewhere posed to be the driving force for the drifting of Australia, South
else on Earth. America, and Africa. If Antarctica is considered to be at a fixed
The Antarctic Peninsula fits perfectly with the southern- position relative to the surrounding continents, a few possible
most tip of South America, at the Drake Passage. The isochron explanations could be hypothesized.
map shows that South America and Antarctica were connected 30
million years ago. However, there is still a debate going on about 1. Divergent ridges at the coastlines
the timing of the Antarctic breakup. Floristic and faunistic fossil
records can give some answers about the timing. Even though it would be logic to suggest that the divergent
ridges are fixed and the continents moved away from Antarctica,
it contradicts the seafloor data. In this case, the divergent ridges
should be at the coastlines where the new seafloor is added.
?
Au
a
stra
ic
Afr
lia
st
rali
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Divergent Antarctica Divergent
Ridge
Ridge
? coastlines
2. Divergent ridges move away from EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
In order to match the data from the isochron map of the Antarc- The theory of the Expanding Earth offers a perfect solution to
Au
ica
st
tic region, the divergent boundaries must have moved away from the problems that are occurring with plate tectonics and convec-
rali
Af r
a
the coasts at the same speed new oceanic crust is being added. tion cycles. The Antarctican Plate is simply growing because the
The idea is very controversial because this would mean that Aus- Earth grows/expands. The continents around Antarctica were
tralia is pushed twice as fast without any subduction or mountain joined together on a smaller Earth.
formation. In a period of 90 million years, Australia has drifted
around 3000km thus the average speed is Vavg = 16.6mm/y.
n
tio
mo Antarctica
mo
tio
n
Divergent
Ridge Divergent
Ridge
?
Au
ica
st
rali
Afr
Fig 4.33: The expanding Earth as a cause for the growing Antarctican
a Plate
Au
forms below. In this process, new oceanic lithosphere is being
s
tra
ing rate, it can explain the isochron map but it still cannot explain created.
lia
ca
Antarctica
Afri
you will need to move it in the same direction of the rotating belt
and at the same speed! Does this sound plausible?
BEFORE EXPANSION
Antarctica
Divergent
Ridge Divergent
Ridge
Antarctica
Au
Divergent
ica
stra
Ridge Divergent
Afr
Ridge
lia
Au
AFTER EXPANSION
ica
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Isochron length analysis proves Earth expansion is occurring. On
a globe of modern dimensions, isochrons would have the same
length as the corresponding coastlines of the drifting continents.
But the data shows that the length of the isochrons increases
the closer they are located at the divergent ridge. This is a direct
result of the expansion of the Earth, as expected. While the Earth
expands, the isochrons must stretch. However, most isochrons
show elongated zigzag lines that seem to have been squeezed.
Antarctica
Australia
Fig 4.35: Current isochron map shows that the length of the isochrons
increases the closer they are located at the spreading ridge
Antarctica
Australia
Fig 4.36: Fictional isochron map if the Earth had a constant radius.
Fig 4.37: The rubber disc experiment with the Antarctic plate
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4.6. No possible Atlantic tectonic closure
There should be noticed that these efforts to try to join the
The approximate fit of the coastlines of South America and continents in the Atlantic based on Mercator’s projection still
Africa is the main part of the evidence used by Wegener (1912, has an error rate. A projection on a flat map distorts the real
1924) to support the continental drift hypothesis. However, the measurements of a continent, so more accurate results must be
real boundaries of the continents are located at large distance obtained with a three-dimensional model of the Earth. Modern
from the current coastlines, mostly at several hundreds of kms. 3d software like Gplates offers a novel combination of interactive
plate-tectonic reconstructions, geographic information system
(GIS) functionality, and raster data visualisation.
continent ocean
Fig 4.38: The location of the coastlines would be very different at a lower
sea level
The real edge of the continent is the continental slope where the
sea floor runs down steeply from a few hundred meters to a few
kms. This deeper seafloor is much younger than the continental
seafloor and is not older than 200 million years old. Wegener
noticed that the fit should be made at the continental edge, but
did not investigate the matter in detail. Carey (1958) was the first
to show that the fit of Africa and South America is much closer at
the continental edges than it is at the coastline. But Jeffreys (1964) Fig 4.40: Age of ocean floor. Isochron map (Muller et al 2008, DOI:
has expressed a total disbelief in the reality of the fit. ‘I simply 10.1029/2007GC001743) applied on a globe with GPlates software
deny there is an agreement.’ he said. Others concluded it is im-
With Gplates software, isochrons can be left out to reconstruct
possible to get any reasonable fit without some distortion of the
the relative position of continents and tectonic plates in the past.
continents (Bullard et al 1965). There are gaps and overlapping
According to plate tectonics, the radius of the Earth didn’t
parts of the continents when the coastlines of Africa and South
change over time, so the primitive radius was approximately
America are brought together.
6371 km. This means the isochrons of the same age should fit
perfectly together like a jigsaw puzzle. A tectonic reconstruction
at -60 Ma is made by removing the seafloor younger than 60 Ma
and closing back the conjugate margins.
Fig 4.39: The fit of Africa and South America, Mercator’s projection.
Overlaps in red, gaps in blue (Bullard et al 1965) Fig 4.41: No possible Atlantic closure at -60 Ma, starting from the Arctic
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It is shown that it is not possible to achieve a good fit from the
Arctic to Antarctic oceans. Considerable distortion of the Atlantic
ocean floor to obtain a better fit is not possible because it would
violate the plate tectonics fundamental principle that each side
of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge behaves as a rigid lithospheric plate. If
we start to match the isochrons from the bottom at the Antarctic
Ocean, we get similar results. There is a large gap at opposite po-
lar region, so in both cases, there is no possible Atlantic closure.
Fig 4.44: No possible Atlantic closure at -90 Ma, starting from the
Antarctic Ocean
A = 4 π R²
R= A
4π
R = 5356 km
Fig 4.43: No possible Atlantic closure at -90 Ma, starting from the Artic
So the radius of the Earth at -60Ma was 5356 km.
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The isochrons fit almost perfectly on a smaller globe with a radius 4.7. The enigma of India’s drift
of 5356 km, as expected. There are no huge gaps or overlapping
lithosphere, so the 3d experiment can be called successfull. According to many proponents of the plate tectonics theory,
the Indian Plate that was part of the supercontinent Gondwana
during Permian till the late Cretaceous, drifted northward and
collided with Asia, around 10 million years ago. Some scientists
believed it has begun colliding with as early as 55 million years
ago.
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The formation of the Himalayas is believed to have started when Several basins in India have also yielded a rich assemblage of
India collided with Asia. Since the initial encounter, the subcon- Gondwana vertebrate fauna of Permian-Middle Jurassic age from
tinent of India supposed to have moved 2,000 kilometers farther nine different horizons, showing that India was clearly a part
north at a rate of 5 centimeters a year, sliding beneath Asia as of the Pangean domain (Bandyopadhyay, 1999). Colbert (1973)
it moves. Consequently, the crust has become unusually thick, noted the abundance of Early Jurassic and Late Cretaceous dino-
reaching a maximum of 78 km beneath the Tibetan plateau. saur fossils in India and commented that there had to be overland
This thick, light crust rides atop the denser mantle, adding to the communication between India and other continental regions
Himalayas’ great height. throughout these times. Similarly, the discovery of mammals,
dinosaurs, and crocodiles of Madagascar in Late Cretaceous that
are closely related to forms in India, and South America (Krause
et al., 1999), also negates isolation of India and points to overland
communication.
Fig 4.47: The formation of the Himalayas according to plate tectonics Sarwar and Khalil concluded in a recent paper that there is no
evidence that India collided with Asia after all: “The application
Biotic evidence against isolation of India of PT model to the dispersal of Gondwana fragments has been
controversial in that India’s incredibly long drift, both in space
The long-term isolated drift of India between its rift and collision and time, has not been backed by any credible field, stratigraphic,
with Eurasia is not supported by the fossil evidence. In Indian am- paleontologic, paleogeographic or petrochemical data. Instead,
ber, 50 million year old insects (arthropods) were found that are the whole story of India’s northward drift and collision with the
close relatives of species found in Eurasia at the time, indicating Eurasian blocks is based on various aspects of the controversial
that there may have been island chains linking India and southern PT model and other wishful constructs such as land bridges,
Asia by 50 million years ago, or better said, that is was connected plate rotation and Pangaean reconstructions based on a globe of
all this time (Rust, 2010). Gondwana type Permo-Triassic (250 present-day Earth volume.” (Sarwar 2017)
Ma) vertebrate fossils have been reported in the Xinjiang province
of northwestern China (Sun Ai-Lin, 1972). EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
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4.8. The ‘Pacific Triangle’ Christopher Scotese, a geologist who makes paleogeographic
maps, believes the triangle was formed from ridges propagat-
The oldest oceanic floor of the Pacific is located at 1750km east ing from the tiny triangle. The maps of fig 4.51 show the Pacific
of Guam and lines of equal age (165-170 million years old) forms Triangle appearing in the Pacific Ocean, but gets divided between
the ‘Pacific Triangle’. The ocean floor gets younger in three direc- the lower right and left in this projection. There it is, starting
tions from the dot in the center of the purple triangle. out rather too large at 170mya, but infilling properly with older
material at 160 and 150mya. Scotese actually believes the ridges
propagated from a tiny triangle and fills almost the whole Pacific
today! In fact, the Pacific Triangle IS the Pacific Plate in this
viewpoint.
7000km
Fig 4.52: The migration of the Pacific ridges, the remnants of the original
Pacific Triangle
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any evidence and at least one spreading ridge did subduct and
disappear in an unexplainable way.
Fig 4.53: Plate tectonics explanation for the young Pacific basin and Pacific
Triangle. Age and bathymetry of the Pacific Ocean for the last 140 million years
(Müller et al, 2008)
Fig 4.55: The problem of the younger oceanic lithosphere between the Pacific
Probably the most radical statement is that spreading ridges can Triangle and the Mariana Trench
slide under continents or even subduction zones. As seen in Fig
4.53, the southern ridge of the primitive triangle slides under EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
Australia at 50 Ma to move just to the center between Australia
and Antarctica at present time. The northwestern ridge moved The young Pacific Ocean and Pacific Triangle can be perfectly ex-
to the Japan trench and Kuril trench, in line with the coastline of plained by the Expanding Earth theory. When the Earth started
East Asia where it mysteriously disappeared. The eastern ridge to expand 180 Mya, the continental crust of Pangaea broke apart
similarly moved to the North and South American West Coast and Pacific lithosphere was being created that started as a small
where it stayed aligned with the Cascadia subduction zone. area.
? 180 Ma
?
0 Ma
?
Fig 4.56: Creation of the Pacific Ocean due to the expansion of the
Earth
Fig 4.54: Possible explanation for the disappearance of spreading ridges makes
no sense at all
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4.9. The extraordinary coincidence of maximum ocean floor ages existed in the center of this triangular plate 140 million years ago
because spreading occurred from 3 different sides. If a spreading
According to the plate tectonics theory, there was a superconti- ridge can push giant continents thousand of km away like the
nent called Pangea surrounded by the Panthalassan Ocean, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, why isn’t there any folding of oceanic crust
superocean that occupied almost 70% of Earth’s surface during or even subduction within these boundaries? What mechanism
the Paleozoic-Mesozoic transition. Around 180 million years ago, can be invented to explain subducting divergent ridges? A lot of
Pangea started to break apart until the continents were in the fantasy is needed.
positions we recognize today. Plate tectonics existed much earlier,
so the age of the Pathalassan Ocean floor must have been greater
than zero which seems evident. On the current ocean age map
however, not a single km² is older than 180 million years.
Fig 4.58: The maximum age of the seafloor in all the oceans is 180 mil- The idea that not only the Atlantic Ocean, but also the Pacific
lion years old. Ocean did not exist roughly 180 million years ago, is confirmed
by the analysis of the age map of the ocean floor. The same
A huge amount of oceanic lithosphere must have subducted maximum age of the Atlantic and Pacific is perfectly explainable
during Post-Triassic times that seems too difficult to imagine. It if the Earth was smaller in the past with only a supercontinent
seems pretty clear that it is a major coincidence that no oceanic (mostly covered with water) that broke apart 180 million years
floor is left from during Pangean times. The oldest Atlantic and ago. Although there is an inequality of the spreading rate of
Pacific ocean floor have exactly the same age. A spreading rate in oceans, the expanding Earth theory doesn’t have to explain the
the Pacific Ocean that is only a little less than the actual should disappearance of 70% of the ocean floors because they simply
have been sufficient to expose that older oceanic crust from the didn’t exist.
Triassic and Early Jurassic. The Pacific spreading rate is up to 5
times the Atlantic one, so any other spreading rate would have re-
sulted in different maximum floor ages of the Pacific and Atlantic.
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4.10. Volcanic chains
When oceanic plates move over a hotspot, the volcanoes formed motion quickly. But the age ocean map does not confirm this.
over the hotspot form a series of volcanoes that increase in age in
the direction of plate motion. The presumption of plate tectonics EXPANDING EARTH VIEWPOINT
was that the hotspot is stable and stays in one location.
Similar to plate tectonics, volcanic tracks are explained by the
The most interesting volcanic chain is the Hawaiian–Emperor Expanding Earth theory as a result of stretching of the upper
seamount chain. The volcanic islands of Hawaii represent the mantle basement over the mantle plume. The mantle plumes
youngest end of an 80 million years old and roughly 6,000 kilo- which form at the mantle boundary are not necessarily in a fixed
metres long mountain chain on the ground of the Pacific Ocean. position relative to the Earth’s center, but move relative to the
oceanic or continental lithosphere.
Midocean
ridge
Fig 4.61: A cutaway view along the Hawaiian island chain showing the
inferred mantle plume that has fed the Hawaiian hot spot on the over-
riding Pacific Plate.
otion
plate m
29°
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Fig 4.66: Locations of the apparent polar wander path (Smethurst 2002)
Fig 4.65: Table with hot-spot pair separations within the same plate and
on different plates (Ian Stewart, 1976)
The tables above show the present surface separations and those
inferred for the 50-My paleo-patterns for a number of hotspot
pairs within the same plate and on different plates. The ratio
past vs present size of the Earth clearly indicates Earth was
HOTSPOT
smaller. It has to be noticed that the volcanic chain of the Azores
even crosses the Mid-Atlantic ridge, which cannot be explained
with plate tectonics.
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4.11. Mountain formation
Fig 4.69 : Geological profile across the Himalayas of Nepal and Tibet construct-
ed from cross sections by Cattin and Avouac (2000), DeCelles et al. (2001 and
2002), and Hauck et al. (1998).
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When the balsa board is bent, the outside is stretched and the In previous calculations, we learned that Earth’s original radius
inside is shortened while the center of the board has its original was 4175km.
length. In this experiment, the outer segment radius is +1mm,
with L= 1016mm. When the balsa board is brought back to its
original, folds and ripples appear on the tape because it has shor-
tened 16mm. R = 4175km
360 . 4000
α1 = = 54.89°
2π . 4175
54.89
Lb = 2π(4175-50) = 3952 km
360
So 3952 km is the segment length of the inner circle of the conti-
nent on an expanded earth with R= 6371km
This experiment is a perfect illustration of mountain formation
on an expanding Earth. While the Earth is expanding, continents
are shortening with a certain distance and folding is occurring.
FORMULA
R = 6371km
The distance D that a continent is shorting in lateral or longitudi-
nal direction while Earth is expanding is found by: 360 . 3952 = 35.82°
α2 =
α2 2π(6371 - 50)
D = Lc - 2πR2 35.82
360 Lshortened = 2π 6371 = 3983km
360
360 Lb 360 Lc
with α2 = α1 = D = 4000 - 3983 = 17 km
2π(R2 -T) 2πR1
α1 So the continent has shortened 17km in longitudinal direction,
Lb = 2π(R1-T)
360 which would result in a large amount of mountain formation.
There has to be noticed that not only in longitudinal extends but
Lc = original length continent on surface also in latitudinal or other directions, shortening of the conti-
Lb = arc length continent on inner circle nents can occur.
R1 = Radius of the primitive Earth
R2 = Radius of the current Earth (= 6371km)
α1 = angle of segment on primitive Earth EXPERIMENT 2
α2 = angle of segment on current Earth
T = thickness continental crust Continental crust will buckle upwards and forming new moun-
tains mostly at the weakest zones of the continents. In this
When the continental crust was formed on a smaller Earth, it so- experiment a piece of foam board is cut into the form of Europe
lidified and had a greater curvature than the present. This means and bent in multiple directions. Cracks and folds begin to appear
that the inner circle of the continent, where there is contact with at the weakest points as predicted. In the same way, new moun-
the subcontinental lithosphere mantle, is the best candidate for tain formations like the Alps and Pyrenees have formed due to
remaining constant on an expanding Earth. the expansion of the Earth.
EXAMPLE
Fig 4.72: foamboard with the shape of Europe is bended to form ‘moun-
tains’ at the weakest zones
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-2000m
-100m
-2600m -2500m
a b
-1500m
-20m
-2500m
c -2000m
-3300m
-2800m
d e
Figure 4.73 : a. the Alps - b. the Pyrenees - c. The Caucasus and the Zagros Mountains - d. the Ural Mountains - e. the Himalayas
It’s important to notice that in many cases adjacent landmasses The Ural Mountains is a 2500km long mountain range that
below sea level are part of the continents. The seafloor of shallow runs from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and
seas like the North Sea make part of the continental lithosphere northwestern Kazakhstan. It splits the Eurasian continent basi-
and are sometimes no less than 100m deep. These ocean floors cally into two parts and it’s one of the longest continental uplifts
however cannot always be seen as ‘weak zones’ and must be due to Earth’s expansion. The Caucasus mountain range and the
taken account in the prediction of mountain formation as a result Zagros Mountains can also be assigned to Earth’s expansion and
of an expanding Earth. The most obvious example is perhaps the stretches roughly from the Black Sea to the Arabian Sea.
Pyrenees as a weak transition zone between Spain and France,
located between the deep oceanic floor of the Bay of Biscay and Other types of mountains like dome mountains, volcanic and
the deep waters of the Western Mediterranean Sea. plateau mountains are left out in this discussion because vol-
f the weak zone is less distinct, the mountain formation is typi- canoes and erosion are the main causes, not necessarily plate
cally building up deeper inland like the Alps and the Himalayas. tectonics or the expansion of the Earth.
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5. MECHANISM FOR EARTH EXPANSION
5.1. Revision of geophysics of Earth Earth’s expansion by increasing mass, because we know large
meteor impacts only happen every x million years and the size of
The reason why Wegener’s theory was not accepted by geolo- the meteorites almost never exceeded 5m.
gists and geophysicists in the 1920’s was that there was a lack of
a mechanism for continents to plow through the firm oceanic Cosmic dust
crust. When he published his theory, Wegener did not propose
a means by which the different land masses could break away Cosmic dust, also called space dust, are particles between a few
from each other. It wasn’t until the early 1950s when data from molecules to 0.1 µm in size. By estimate, as much as 40.000 tons
paleomagnetic studies started to support Wegener’s theory. In the of cosmic dust reaches the Earth’s surface every year. This con-
1960s, the seafloor spreading data supported even more the theo- tradicts the exponential growth of the Earth during the last 180
ry. So eventually, Wegener’s theory became a scientific consensus. million years. Moreover, about 95.000 tonnes of hydrogen and
1.600 tonnes of helium escape Earth every year. The rough result
When the Expanding Earth theory was proposed, it was also is -50.000 tonnes/year, which is about 0.000000000000001% less
rejected because there was no valid mechanism for the increased mass every year.
mass. But it is just a matter of time before a valid mechanism
becomes scientific consensus and the expanding Earth theory will Giant-impact hypothesis
be finally accepted. However, the most important thing to notice
is that the mass of the Earth not necessarily had to increase to It has been proposed that a large astronomical body has collided
increase in volume. with Earth in the past. This hypothesis, also called the Big Splash,
suggests that the Moon formed out of the debris left over from
There are 2 options to solve the Earth’s expansion enigma: a collision between Earth and an astronomical body the size of
- If the mass of the planet increased with its volume, a mecha- Mars, approximately 4.5 billion years ago, in the Hadean eon
nism to increase the mass must be found. about 20 to 100 million years after the solar system coalesced.
- If the mass remained constant while the volume increased, then (Canup & Asphaug 2001).
there’s the problem of explaining the consequent density change
or the cavities within. A collision with a large astronomical body could explain a huge
It can also be a combination of those 2 options. mass gain of the Earth, but it would occur almost instantly. No
evidence points to a similar event 180 million years ago when
5.2. Potential mechanisms for increased mass the Earth expansion started. There is also no explanation for the
exponential growth of Earth.
1. Aggregation of extraterrestrial material
2. Generation of mass in the core
Comets and meteorites
An alternative hypothesis is that new mass is continuously
Earth is being bombarded with comets and meteorites since the
generated inside the planet (Carey, 1988 ; Edwards, 2006; Betelev,
formation of Earth 4.5 billion years ago. But if there were con-
2009). This idea could find support in the hypothesis of Hoyle
stant impacts, Earth would have grown steadily in volume. The
(1948) and Hoyle et al. (1993) that matter is created in the uni-
increasing radius would even have slowed down.
verse to sustain the model of a steady-state universe. Not only
has evidence of this process never been found but the cosmic mi-
If we assume that Earth has been bombarded daily with one
crowave background radiation discovered by Penzia and Wilson
comet or meteorite with a radius of 1km and only in the last 180
(1965) is considered crucial proof against a steady-state universe
million years, what would be the resulting volume growth?
(Smoot, 2006). Any newly generated particles in the universe
must be in the form of elementary and stable particles, neutrons.
Vmeteorite = 4/3.π.1000³ = 4188790204 m³ Nucleosynthesis of heavier elements can only happen inside stars
and during supernova explosions through processes requiring
Total volume meteorites Vm = 180 . 106 x 365 x 4188790204 m³ physical conditions not existing inside planets (Wallerstein et al,
= 275 . 1018 m³ 1997). Even if newly created neutrons emerged inside Earth, they
Vm / Vcurrent earth = 2,75 . 1020 m³ / 1.083 . 1021 m³ = 0,25 = 25%
would soon decay to protons and electrons with the emission of
anti-neutrinos.
So Earth’s volume would be 25% less than current volume with
R = 5778km. (V = 0,808 .1021 m³)
The process of mass creation or pair production would not only
need an enormous amount of energy, so far there is no explana-
That’s still much more than the calculated radius of 4175km at
tion that it could happen inside Earth or in the core. And if it
180 mA. The largest meteorite ever found, the Hoba meteorite,
exists, there would be a continuous growth of the Earth’s mass
was only 2.7×2.7×0.9 metres. It can be said with certainty that
since its creation, 4.5 billion years ago.
comets or meteorites are not the cause of a possible cause of
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It’s very unlikely that Earth’s mass remained constant in combina- 2. Hollow Earth
tion with a similar geophysics of the Earth. If the Earth remained
solid and Earth’s mass has remained constant, the average density It is believed that planets in our Solar System formed because
would be nearly 40gr cm-3 when compressed in a planet with particles in the spinning disc or solar nebula began to clump
half of Earth’s radius. Osmium is currently one of the heaviest together as gravity attracted them to each other. This accumula-
elements found on Earth and it has a density of 22 gr cm-3. So it’s tion of material to form planets, also called accretion, is the main
unthinkable that 180 million years ago, Earth consisted of a mate- reason why scientists assume planets are solid with a dense core.
rial almost twice as dense. Planets have their own gravitational field that pulls every mass
towards the center. But what if this is only partially correct?
There is a need to find a mechanism for Earth’s expansion with- Similar to the life cycle of a sun, is there something dramatically
out increasing the mass. The most obvious theory is that there is changing in the dynamics of the core with a resulting expansion
conservation of mass after the creation of Earth until now. at the end of its lifetime? If a sun expels its outer layers after it
has become a Red Giant, the core contracts and will become
5.3. Potential mechanisms for increased volume with conser- a White Dwarf. It is believed that suns expand due to thermal
vation of mass expansion when it is starting to burn helium. But if the core has
the ability to repel mass, we should get a similar result but in this
1. Expanding atoms case, the Sun would be hollow.
Currently, our Sun is not expanding significant but it is expected It is a controversial idea, but the hollow Earth (and planets/suns)
that it will in about 5 billion years and turns into a Red Giant. The theory is probably the best candidate to explain our Expanding
Sun’s core is burning hydrogen until it is depleted. The collapsing Earth. Similar to suns, our Earth didn’t change in size the first bil-
core and its increasing heat will puff out the outer layers of the lion years of its lifetime. This doesn’t necessarily mean that Earth
star, which is what makes a star a red giant. Core collapse conti- was 100% solid during that first period. Perhaps a void already
nues until either it becomes hot enough to start fusion of helium. existed between the core and the outer shell. After the expansion
The size of the Sun will increase 30 times but almost never grows started, this void enlarged and the outer shell became thinner.
in mass during its life cycle.
Fig 5.1 : Life cycle of the Sun Fig 5.3: Section of an expanding, hollow earth
If the core of the Earth is gradually heating and also burning Shell calculation
hydrogen like our Sun, is it perhaps possible that expanding
hydrogen gas builds up the pressure so extremely that Earth is
expanding? It’s rather contradictory. Compressing gas will reduce
its volume and turns into liquid. Scientists even turned hydrogen
gas into solid metallic hydrogen using immense pressures, above 4174,6km
325GPa. So the idea that expanding atoms inside the Earth is 6371km
the main mechanism for expansion is highly doubtful because it
violates the laws of thermodynamics.
4
Volume V1 = πR³
3
4
V1 = π 4174,6³ = 0,3047 ×1012 km³
3
Current Earth’s Volume:
V3 = 4 π 6371³ = 1,0832 ×1012 km³
3
V2 = V3 - V1 = 1,0832 ×1012 - 0,3047 ×1012 = 0,7785 ×1012 km³
R2 = 3 V2 = 5706,765 km
4π
Shell thickness D =6371 - 5706,765 ≈ 664 km
Fig 5.2: Matter (2-D) phase boundary diagram
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If the assumption is made that that Earth was solid after creation 6. A CALL FOR A NEW GRAVITY THEORY
and that there is no compression of matter during expansion of
the Earth, the thickness of the shell is maximum 664 km. The expanding Earth in combination with the hollow Earth theo-
ry does not only have a major impact on the current understand-
Psychological experiment ing of the geophysics of the Earth, but there is also a possible
need to review the concepts of gravity.
First, since there is currently no evidence that Earth’s mass has
increased drastically in the last 180 million years, we can assume Even a century after Albert Einstein showed that gravity is the
there is conservation of mass. Second, we can assume that atoms result of matter warping space and time around it, we still don’t
inside Earth did not increase extremely in size because that would know where gravity comes from. General Relativity remains just
violate the laws of thermodynamics. With these two assump- a description or graphical presentation of the force we call grav-
tions in mind, we can do a little psychological experiment. ity. It leaves unanswered the key question of exactly how matter
affects space and time.
1 2
Fig 5.5 : General Relativity by Albert Einstein
Fig 5.4 : Psychological experiment with a closed jar. As stated before, if cores of heavenly bodies have the ability
Situation 1: a foam ball is lying on the top of the sand to push mass or let’s call them ‘gravicores’, then there can be
Situation 2: the foam ball has disappeared, the sand level is higher assumed that this is the true origin of gravity. These gravicores
from which gravity emerges still have an unknown composition
Consider a closed jar filled with sand and a foam ball lies on the
and are shrouded in mystery. However, some researchers suggest
top it. Then the jar is shaken until the sand covers the foam ball
that the heat in the core is supplied by radioactive decay or by
so we don’t see the ball anymore. The sand level has increased
a nuclear georeactor (Fukuhara, 2016). At the Kamioka Liquid-
since the ball has taken the volume of the sand. If a person sees
Scintillator Antineutrino Detector (2005) and Borexino (2007),
the jar in the situation 1, leaves the room and when he comes
scientists detected signals of antineutrinos (i.e., “geoneutrinos”)
back and sees the jar in situation 2, he can be 100% sure the foam
produced inside Earth. Neutrinos, very light subatomic particles,
ball is hidden in the sand. He didn’t have to see the shaking of the
are generated by the nuclear fission and decay of radioactive
jar since he knows the jar was closed all the time.
elements as well as by nuclear fusion that occurs in the Sun and
stars. These infinitesimal small particles at lightspeed as well as
The same experiment can be extrapolated to the Earth. Since
possible other yet undetected particles could be the source of
there is evidence Earth’s volume has increased 356% its original
gravity.
size, we can be 100% sure Earth is filled with caves, holes or one
big void. At least, if the two assumptions, conservation of mass
White Dwarfs are probably the purest mass expelling celestial
and conservation of atom volume, are valid. Note that in this
bodies in the universe and can be called freed gravicores. Others
case, the foam would be the void or empty spaces.
have a dim veil of darkness or mass around their gravicores, like
planets. Others have a flaming outer shell like stars or in later
stadium Red Giants. Mass can block gravity coming from those
gravicores but it depends on the density of the surrounding shell.
A large planet with a very thin outer shell will only be able to
block a small part of the gravity coming from the gravicore.
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Physicists at one time were assured of the deceleration of the universe’s expansion, because
they assumed that after the Big Bang matter would slow down and attract each other so that
the expansion of the universe would eventually reverse and collapse again. (Big Crunch)
F F F F F
3F 2F 3F
4F 2F 0Ffig 5c 2F 4F
F 2F F
Figplanets
Cores of 5.6 : Principle of the
and suns have theexpansion of the
ability to push Universe
mass, lets call them ‘gravicores’ from which
gravity emerges. White Dwarfs are probably the purest mass expelling celestial bodies in the
outer so
universe and can be called freed gravicores.center outeror mass around
Others have a dim veil of darkness
F F F F F
their gravicores, like planets. Others have a flaming outer shell like stars or in later stadium Red
F F F F F F F F F F
Giants. Mass can block gravity coming from those gravicores but it depends on the density. A
large planet with a very thin outer shell will not be able to block all the gravity coming from the
F F F F F
gravicore. (However, the size of the planet or star is probably a decisive indicator to blockFig 5.9 : The closer planets get, the more they are pushed to each other.
grav-
Gravity as ‘mass attracts mass’ is an illusion.
ity.) 4F
3F
2F
F
2F
2F
0F
3F
F
2F 4F These renders with surrounding light particles are illustrating how
gravity particles are blocked by creating a darker shadow when the
planets are closer to each other. The left images show the density of the
Fatio-Le Sage
Fig 5.7 theory
: Horizontal section supposes
of the universe. The
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vAM31N2XY0 that
outer the
stars getapparent
the great- force of gravitational attraction between
shadows using white dots as a representation.
est resulting
Why Gravity asforce
‘massfrom themass’
attracts center of illusion.
is an the universe
rial objects might be due to an imbalance of repulsive
The Fatio-Le Sage theory supposes that the apparent force of gravitational attraction between
forces
Effect of light arising
on gravitational from the impacts of
attraction
corpuscles Why
moving
Gravity
material objects as ‘mass
might be dueatto anlightspeed
attracts mass’ is an
coming
illusion.
imbalance of repulsive from
forces arising from outer
the impacts
tiny corpuscles moving at lightspeed coming from outer space. Mass can block these particles
of space. Mass can block these particles so
LouissoRancourt was a professor at College Boreal in Sudbury
cts would objects tend
would
The Fatio-Le tend to
Sage shield
to shield othereach
eachsupposes
theory this other
from that shower from
of corpuscles,
the apparent forcesothis shower
they would
of be
who
towards each other. The strength of this effect would be inversely proportional to the square of
pushed of corpuscles,
conducted so understand
experiments to better they would beonepushed
gravity. In
gravitational attraction between material objects might be due to experiment, he wanted to see if a laser could interrupt the grav-
rds each other.ofThe strength
forces arisingof this
the distance between the objects, in accord with Newton’s law.
an imbalance repulsive from effectof would
the impacts tiny itybe
fieldinversely proportional
of an object. He to the
used a laser beam between square of
a pendulum
istance between the objects, in accord with Newton’s
corpuscles moving at lightspeed coming from outer space. Mass
can block these particles so objects would tend to shield each
law.
and mass to see if the laser could affect the gravity field of the
mass. The expected outcome was that the pendulum would
other from this shower of corpuscles, so they would be pushed swing away if it interrupted the gravity field or maintain the
towards each other. The strength of this effect would be inversely same position if it did not. To his surprise, the pendulum moved
proportional to the square of the distance between the objects, in toward the laser. He removed the mass and conducted the same
accordance with Newton’s law.
Similar to neutrinos, material objects are almost entirely transparent to the corpuscles and the
force of gravity depends strictly on the mass of an object. Between 2 expanding, hollow plan-
ets (figure x), there is a ‘shadow zone’ created because less particles are passing by. The closer
the planets, the stronger the shadow zone so the greater the planets are driven together. (+ afb
schaduwen).
This principle shows that the gravitational attraction between two masses is an illusion. Masses
do not attract each other, they are pushed towards each other.
Fig 5.8 : The principle of the illusional attraction between two expanding and hollow celestial bodies.
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The Expanding Earth and implications on the geophysics of Earth
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lar to neutrinos, material objects are almost entirely transparent to the corpuscles and the
experiment. He observed the same CONCLUSION
effect. After countless hours of ex-
perimenting with the laser and the New and radical scientific theories are likely to be dismissed
pendulum, he concluded that there by mainstream science at a certain time in history. It required
is a force acting on both sides of tens of centuries to pass from flat Earth to spherical Earth. The
the pendulum. The laser was inter- continental drift by Alfred Wegener has been ignored for decades
rupting one of the forces and this until it was finally accepted. Although the expanding or growing
caused the pendulum to move Earth hypothesis is still being dismissed in the mainstream sci-
toward the laser. entific world, there is geological, paleomagnetic, space geodetic,
geographical, biological and climatic evidence that supports the
theory. It just takes some time to be widely accepted.
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REFERENCES
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