13 Dil Kuma Limbu - 1336385427cmlb
13 Dil Kuma Limbu - 1336385427cmlb
13 Dil Kuma Limbu - 1336385427cmlb
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Unavailable
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Fig. 4.1 Availability of medicinal plants in Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC (2007)
The bar diagram (Fig. 4.2) gives an overall knowledge status of the interviewees on
medicinal properties of the plants tabulated in Table 4.1. The bar diagram may require
a brief explanation here. The x-axis gives the grouping of interviewees based on the
yes response in percentage (out of 25 interviewees). The y-axis gives the
corresponding % of medicinal plants from Table 4.1.
0
5
10
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25
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1-10 11-20 21-20 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100
% Agreement on medicinal use (25 respondents)
%
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(
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Fig. 4.2 Intensity of the use of plants for medicinal purpose
Thus, there is 91-100% agreement on the medicinal importance of about 30% of
plants in the list. From the same graph, it can be seen that only 1-10% of the
respondents agree on the medicinal importance of about 2.5% of plants in the list. The
lower degree of agreement does not necessarily imply that the plants in question have
lower efficacy or are of dubious value. It could as well mean that knowledge about the
medicinal use of these plants have eroded overtime. In the same light, higher degree
of concordance does not necessarily mean that the plant in question is highly
medicinal. The popularity could merely be due to ready availability, or even rarity.
For instance, everyone knew about yarsagumba (Cordycep sinensis), which is not
available in region.
51
4.3 Statistical Analysis
It has been found in similar work that abundance (ready availability) of plants in the
vicinity is correlated with the frequency of use for medicinal purpose (Casagrande,
2003). However, the present study did not show such an association between the
variables in the underlying population (r
s
= -0.261, df = 117, adjusted for ties = -0.414,
P < 0.001, t Approximation = -4.91). Table 4.1 was used for correlation analysis
utilizing Spearmans ranked correlation (Payne et al., 2006). The table shows that
people have significant information on unavailable plants also. This indicates to the
possibility that rarity of the plant is associated with medicinal value.
The same analysis for knowledge on food use showed some degree of association
(r
s
= 0.206, df = 57, adjusted for ties -0.06, P = 0.615, t Approximation = -0.51).
Medicinal plants with no known food use were omitted in the test, thereby giving only
61 pairs of samples.
As will be discussed in the subsequent section, people often tend to associate
particular appearance and other sensory attributes of plants to medicinal properties.
For instance, bitterness is associated with febrifuge property (e.g., chiraito and
bikhma). Alkaline and sour tastes are associated with stomachic property. These
findings are in accordance with those of Casagrande (2003) and Pieroni and Torry
(2007). The latter workers mention that taste retains an importance in determining
emic medicinal perceptions of the botanicals.
Murcha plants generally tend to be sweeter in taste. The sweet taste is due to simple
sugars. It is explicable at this point that murcha plants support the growth and
proliferation of yeasts and molds by providing readily assimilable sugars. This implies
that only select plants can serve as a habitat for murcha flora. This assumption is also
supported by the earlier works (KC et al., 1999) that there are only select plants that
can serve as habitat for murcha flora.
4.4 Knowledgebase on Biodiversity and Ecology
It is known that floral diversity in any particular location depends on habitat
manipulation, endemism, and microclimatic conditions. Sharp variation in elevation
over short distance also has a material influence on the floral diversity.
The knowledge on biodiversity and ecology was found to be eroding slowly. Most
informants had only a feeble memory of what their predecessors would do or say in
times of natural disasters.
The key informants of Chokmagu VDC remember planting plenty of banana trees in
the kitchen garden as a precautionary measure against fire. Throwing chopped banana
stems over the conflagration is considered a very effective means of controlling the
fire, especially in places where water is scarce. The practice of keeping hay and dried
fodders (which catch fire easily) at some distance from the house is another
prophylactic measure. It was relieving to find that the natives do not remember any
fire disaster in the recent years.
Flash floods and erosion are the major abiotic problems facing farmers in upland
slopes of hills. Attempts are made to control them by constructing stone dikes on the
banks of the rivulets in a traditional way. Terracing and mini dike construction is
widely practiced to conserve topsoil and increase fertility, and these have been in
practice from eons past. They are fully aware that landslides and erosion can be
controlled by planting shrubs and trees, especially bamboo (Bambusa and
52
Dendrocalamus spp.) and simali (Vitex negundo). Planting amliso (Thysanolina
maxima) is more popular these days but had been in practice from ages.
The use of simali, bamboo and amliso for controlling erosion is well documented. In
addition, simali has a number of medicinal and insecticidal uses (Chadha, 1976). This
plant is generally a host to sunlahara (Cuscuta reflexa). The leaves of simali are
aromatic and are considered tonic and vermifuge. The extracts from the leaves contain
2 alkaloids (nishindine and hydrocotylene) and many other bioactive components that
endow the plant with medicinal properties (Chadha, 1976). The plant is also
considered analgesic. Leaves are applied externally to reduce arthritic pain. A leaf
decoction brings the uterus to normal size after delivery. The seeds are used to correct
skin disorders (IRRI, 1994).
In the recent years, Chokmagu VDC is experiencing unprecedented landslides at some
places. We observed the some lengths of kaccha road (motorable in the winter)
leading to the VDC slowly sliding down. In some places, the condition is very severe
(the road has dropped down by as much as 10 m). There is very little the villagers can
do to prevent this because the whole ridge seems to be spontaneously inching its way
downward. Most probably, the construction of the road might have destabilized the
most sensitive spot of the ridge, which catalyzed the landslide.
Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on an
integration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rational
use of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. The natives have an average farm size
of 0.5-0.75 ha and family members carry out most farm operations. They have
adopted mixed farming, crop rotation, and planting multipurpose trees. In some
places, swidden agriculture is also followed but this is being restricted because of the
emergence of community forests. Maize, rice, and millet are the major cereals. We
came to know that only the local varieties of maize, millet and rice are being used.
More than 1836 varieties of rice germplasms have been registered in Nepal. There are
4 wild types of rice. Nepal is the only place where rice plantation is carried out in
places that are from 70 m to 2850 m masl. In Nepal, more than 50 improved rice
varieties have been released but only about 20 varieties are widely grown in the
country. Rice varieties that have been developed for the hills need to be introduced in
these areas also. Maize is the major crop, with its usage in food, beverage, feed and
seed approximately 54, 24, 16, and 1%. The rest (4%) is sold or bartered. Maize
contributes to about 46% of food grain. Maize is planted in bari (slopes) as well as
khet (terraced plots for rice) with pre-monsoon rains. Maize planting in bari is
usually relayed with millet, potato and other crops.
The modern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.
Although they seem to understand how environment is being constantly degraded by
human activities, they could not relate biodiversity with environment and
sustainability. Although oblivious of the far-reaching consequences of biodiversity,
the villagers were found doing things their own way to conserve the local
environment. They set up religious forests such as Raniban and sacred places such
as Devithan (altar for worshipping deity). They have a very strong belief that these
religious areas should not be defiled. According to some of the informants, the natural
drinking water source is guarded by nag (serpent God). Anyone who defiles the
water source (e.g., by defecating, urinating, etc.) will not escape the wrath of the
serpent God. This belief, be it a superstition, is serving a good purpose by guarding
the water source against contamination. Drying up of drinking water sources was
53
observed in several wards of both Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC. People believe that
this is due to cemented (concrete) structures (reservoir). How natural ponds are more
sustainable than the cemented structures is still unclear but the natives believe that
paniko mool (water source) tends to shift upon such interventions.
During the interviews, particularly in Chokmagu VDC, women were found to possess
an astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal plants and their use, often
surpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the patrilocal residence system has a
role to play in the transmission of traditional knowledge by women. It is known that
women very avidly distribute/share among themselves plant seeds and knowledge.
These days, cardamom- and tea plantation are growing very popular in Chokmagu and
Ranitar VDC, According to personal communication with the head master of a local
school, Ranitar VDC was the first to carry out tea plantation in Panchthar district on a
commercial scale. Cardamom plantation is more intensive in Ranitar VDC and this
has been a major source of cash income for these people. Shady ravines and gullies
that would otherwise have no use are being intensively used for cardamom farming.
Dikes have been constructed to control the flow of water, which in turn have helped
control landslide and erosion. We did not observe any ecological imbalance due to
cardamom farming. The respondents said that they not yet observed ecological
disturbances due to tea and cardamom plantation. It may be too early to say that
things will remain this way for a long time, given the expansion of cardamom and tea
plantation still taking place. At this time, tea, cardamom, ginger, lemongrass and
cinnamon produced in these areas (under Kanchanjungha Tea Estate) have been
certified by National Association of Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA) as
organic. This implies that a very heavy emphasis is being given in indigenous
methods of plant nutrition.
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used in modest amounts (when available) in
other crops. When used appropriately, this will contribute to intensive farming,
without much environmental effects. Indiscriminate use must be discouraged, as this
will not only degrade the environment but also affect the entire trophic levels. Some
forms of integrated pest management do exist but this has to be intensified further to
reduce the chemical inputs.
Integrated pest management is widespread in both the VDCs. People use biopesticides
such as titepati (Artemisia indica), bojho (Acorus calamus), stinging nettle or sisnu
(Urtica dioica), neem (Azadirachta indica), etc., to protect their seeds during storage.
Wood ash and cow urine or dung slurry is sometimes used on the standing crop. Most
grain storage structures they use have a remarkable scientific basis. Storage of maize
cobs in thankro (stacks), for example, has been scientifically proved to be more
efficient than any other methods available in the rural setting. This is a very good
method to prevent grains from going moldy. Moldy grains have the risk of developing
aflatoxin, a potent carcinogenic toxin that brought a death toll of 106 people in India
in 1974.
Acorus calamus has been used worldwide in the form of medicine (for cough, motion
sickness, ulcer, etc.). However, recent researches on Acorus calamus of the Indian
subcontinent have shown that it contains -asarone, a component that can cause
cancer. The FDA (Food and Drug Association) has therefore put a ban on the use this
plant (or its parts) as food additive. The plant (rhizome) can be used in the
preservation of grains (e.g., wheat, maize), particularly against the weevils, Sitophilus
54
species in particular (Paudyal, 2005). Given the carcinogenic property of the plant, its
use should be limited to the preservation of seed grain only (not food grain).
The effects of titepati on caterpillars have been studied by Yamazaki et al (2004) and
the results are encouraging. In fact Japanese have been doing work on titepati in
Nepal since the establishment of Titepati Promotion and Research Center (TPRC) in
2001 (Anon, 2003). Chanphen et al (1998) have shown the presence of several
bioactive compounds (e.g., exiguaflavone A and B, mackiain, and benzofuran
derivatives). Exiguaflavone A and B have antimalarial properties.
The use of neem as a pesticide is well established. Its extract has been shown to be
active against some 65 worms. The mode of action is very varied. Depending on the
worm, it inhibits molding (of larva), mating, chitin (exoskeleton) formation, and
swallowing. A range of bioactive components have been isolated from neem but the
most potent component is azadirachtin A (Laura and Martin, 1996).
The effects of Urtica extracts on aphids have been studied (Gaspari et al., 2007) but
the effect of sisnu (Urtica dioica) in particular is not very encouraging. The traditional
use of sisnu in grain protection might have stemmed from the sting that this plant
gives. The painful sensation in the sting has been attributed to the presence of formic
acid, serotonin, choline and histamine. Today, this plant is being used in commercial
medications for the treatment of a range of illnesses such as seasonal allergies,
rhinitis, sinusitis, arthritis, high blood pressure, and hair loss (Anon, 2008).
Application of farmyard manure (FYM) is the most important soil fertility
management practice farmers use. They make considerable effort to increase FYM
by collecting jungle foliage and composting it with dung. Green manuring (directly or
indirectly) by sowing local legumes and botanicals is also carried out. Kalo dal (Vigna
mungo), bhatmas (Glycine max), masyam (Vigna umbellata), etc., are intercropped
with rice by planting them on the mini-dikes. Ghansi (Sesbania aculeata) is also
grown for green manuring. Moisture conservation and weed control are achieved by
mulching, hoeing, etc., in a traditional way. Intensive farming has not reached its limit
and there is ample scope for improving the output. Encouraging intensive farming,
coupled with integrated pest management is required to avoid ploughing of additional
hectares of land for feeding the ever-growing population (McNicoll, 2000). This is not
only sustainable but also environment-friendly and thus has to be encouraged. As
Bhowmik (2000) puts it, the economic losses (in developing countries) account for
33% of the total losses due to pests, followed by 26% by pathogens, and 20% by
insects. Recent estimates show that average crop yield reductions (worldwide) due to
weeds vary from 12% to 72% depending on the crop. Much can therefore be done
through integrated pest management.
Depending on the crop, farmers in the study site were also found to adopt minimum-
tillage and no-tillage cropping. This system, called conservation tillage, has been
considered very effective in saving top soil from erosion elements. Besides protecting
the top soil, this method also saves rivers and water supplies from vast amount of
pollution by natural contaminants and chemical inputs.
Chokmagu has no community forests but planting and nurturing of essential trees (for
fodder, fruits and a host of other purposes) is very common. In Ranitar VDC, there are
2 community forests and some Community Forest User Groups (CFUG). Although
the concept of community forest has an element of modern science, the traditional
management practice has been greatly emphasized and respected.
55
The contribution of plants to rural economy is obvious. Plants provide food, fodder,
building materials, medicines, and cash. Cardamom, tea, fruits, ginger, vegetables,
and jadibuti are the major source of plant-based income. Their trade provides both
wage and self employment. Some of the important jadibuti that are commercially
traded in these sites are majito (Rubia majitha), pakhanbhed (Bergenia ciliata),
chiraito (Swertia chirayita), and bojho (Acorus calamus). Details regarding their
contribution to the rural economy could not be assessed because of the lack of data.
Middlemen still operate as the necessary evils between the farmgate and the large
scale collectors.
The natives are also involved in many value-addition activities (of agricultural
produce). Preparation of sinki and grundruk (fermented vegetable products) in the
glut season, preparation and sale of local alcoholic beverages (jand and raksi,
described elsewhere), collection and sale of murcha plants, preparation and sale of
murcha, etc., are some of the important value-addition activities that have
significantly contributed to the rural economy. Murcha trade is a very lucrative
business. The collection, use, and sale of murcha plants (plants that are used as an
ingredient in murcha making) are taking an unsustainable form these days.
Overharvesting has occurred in some places, putting at stake the floral diversity of
murcha plants (there are some 40 species of murcha plants) as well as the livelihood
of the dependents. A serious study is needed to address this problem.
4.5 Use of Botanicals is Traditional Medicine
The responses on the use of different plants or their parts for the treatment of diseases
are as follows:
Stomachache
Stomachache is the most common ailment in the region. Two informants had no idea
about what to do in stomachache. A few respondents said that they used chimphing
(fruit part of Heracleum wallichii, Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.3). Most of the
respondents said that they resorted to dhami-jhankri (witch-doctor). The knowledge
gap in the treatment of stomachache is explicable because stomachache results from
various reasons and no single medication is applicable in all cases. Under such
circumstances, the trial-and-error used by the natives cannot be expected to produce
results that can be easily generalized.
Fever
Most informants said that they use chiraito (Swertia chirayita) infusion (obtained by
boiling in hot water). This treatment is effective against headache also. A few them
said that they use timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) oil. This finding suggests that there
exists a void in the transmission/dissemination of traditional knowledge. The different
views regarding the treatment are natural because fever results from different reasons,
ranging from food poisoning to flue. People seemed to relate persistent bitterness of
plants to cure for fever. An informant at Chokmagu VDC showed me a plant called
budhi okhana (Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.1) whose extract could cure fever. The plant
is very bitter in taste. The scientific identification of the plant could not be possible.
Today, several literatures on the active components of these plants are available.
Chiraito is credited with tonic-, febrifuge-, laxative-, stomachic, anthelmintic-, and
hypoglycemic properties. This plant contains several bitter principles like ophelic
acid, chiratin (glucoside), amarogentin (glucoside), and swerchirin as the active
56
component (Anon, 2002). The preparations from this plant are under GRAS
(Generally Recognized as Safe) list of the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). In
Nepal, this plant (unprocessed) is used for the treatment of fever and malaria (Anon,
2006). Timur (bark, fruit and seeds) is extensively used in indigenous system of
medicine as a carminative, stomachic and anthelmintic. It can also be used in fever
and dyspepsia. Essential oil of the fruit contains linalool, linalyl acetate, citral,
geranoil, methyl cinnamate, limonene and sabinene, which probably account for its
antiseptic properties (Chadha, 1976).
Fracture
A number of items were named by the respondents for the treatment of fracture, viz.,
mahuwa /mauwa (Engelhardia spicata) bark, honey, eggs, milk, mistletoe or
hadchoor (also spelt harchur, hadchud, Fig. A-IV.3) (Viscum album), pakhanbhed
(also spelt pakhanved or pasanabhed, Fig. A-IV.2) (Bergenia ciliata), horsetail or
sallibisalli/ghodpuchre (Equisetum sp.), bhuinchampa (Kaempferia rotunda),
chamlayo (?) bark, and snails. The information given by the respondents were based
on hearsay. They were not themselves bone setters. As can be seen from the case
study (Section 4.5) with the bone setters, the ingredients mentioned by the informants
of Focus Group Discussion do not necessarily match with those mentioned by the
bone setters themselves. This shows that the distribution of knowledge is not uniform
among the natives. The consumption of milk can be related to supply of calcium
necessary of the regeneration of bone tissue.
Information on active ingredients from some of the above plants is available.
Sallibisalli (ghodpuchhre) is known to contain salicic acid, nicotine, palustrine,
palustridine, sterols and malic acid. These ingredients have antimicrobial, antiseptic,
and anti-inflamatory effects. These properties become important in the treatment of
bone fracture.
Researches show that pakhanbhed rhizomes contain an active principle, bergenin. It
also contains gallic acid, glucose, mucilage/wax, -sitosterol and four flavonoids. The
drug is reported to possess astringent tonic-, antiscorbutic-, and laxative properties. It
is given in pulmonary infection, dysentery, ulcers, dysuria, spleen enlargement, cough
and fever. It also helps dissolve kidney stone (Anon, 2002). A recent research by
Rajbhandari et al (2007) has shown that methanolic extracts of Bergenia ciliata
rhizomes have antiviral properties (against influenza virus A). There relevance of
these properties in the treatment of fracture is not very clear.
Traditional medicinal uses of hadchoor bark have been mentioned by various authors
(Widmann et al., 203; Bishokarma et al., 2001) but details on its chemical
composition and active ingredients are not available.
Bhuinchampa tubers are used as local application in tumors, swellings and wounds.
They are also stomachic and given in stomach complaints. Rhizomes and leaves are
used for flavoring (Chadha, 1976).
Dental problem
All the interviewees named clove oil and timur oil as the most effective treatment.
Other options included latex from saruwa kadam (Jatropha curcas), extracts from
kaalo unyu rhizome (Tectaria macrodonta), neem, pakhanbhed, pire jhaar (Spilanthes
acmella), tulasi (Osimum sanctum), and guava bark. Additional details on medicinal
aspects of these plants have been mentioned earlier in Section 2.2.1 Some informants
mentioned of tantrik (casting spells) treatment also. Traditionally, it is believed that
57
toothache is due to worms and the latter can be removed by a combination of tantrik
method and medication. However, people of this region do not have much dental
problem.
Epistaxis (nosebleed)
This condition occurs occasionally, and there are several reasons leading to this
condition. Minor irritation and rupture of small veins of the septum of the nose are the
main reasons. These veins may rupture spontaneously, or the rupture may be caused
by a cough or sneeze that raises the blood pressure inside the veins of the nose. People
drop extracts from dubo (Cynodon dactylon) or titepati (Artemisia indica) into the
nostrils for stopping the nosebleed. It is common to plug the nostrils with rolled leaves
of titepati to clot the blood. Some informants mentioned that they rub soot from the
mud (or stone) tripod of traditional firewood stove on the forehead. The details of
reactions that may/may not take place when plant extracts are administered are a
subject of further study (except that they have proven antiseptic property) but the use
of soot appears to have a psychological role. It is obvious that plugging of the nostril
with rolled leaves provides counter pressure and stops bleeding. The components of
titepati have been mentioned earlier (Section 4.4).
The use of dubo in cuts and wounds by Bantar community of Morang district of Nepal
has been mentioned by Acharya and Pokhrel (2006), which shows that this plant can
be used for other purposes also. Chopra et al (1986) have mentioned that a decoction
of the root is diuretic. The infusion is also useful in stopping bleeding from piles and
treatment of fresh cuts and wounds.
Scabies
People use juice squeezed from titepati (Artemisia indica), bojho (Acorus calamus), or
angeri (Lyonia ovalifolia) shoots. Angeri is a very potent medicine but it gives an
intense burning sensation. For the sensitive ones, treatment with angeri can be very
agonizing and therefore care must be taken during its administration. According to the
people, angeri is simply an absolute medicine for scabies. Scabies is a contagious skin
disease caused by itch mite (Sacroptes scabiei). The disease is characterized by
intense itching. To counteract this itching, people resort to the above mentioned most
painful phytochemical alternatives. Modern treatments of scabies involve topical
application of lotions containing permethrin and lindane.
The active components bojho and the associated implications have been mentioned
earlier (Section 4.4). The use of angeri buds in the treatment of skin diseases and
external parasites have been mentioned by Chadha (1976), Manandhar (2002) and
Chopra et al (2005) also but the active components responsible for this are still
elusive. According to Chadha (1976), the leaves contain a toxic substance,
andromedotoxin, and are insecticidal, and this may be responsible for the antiparasitic
property.
Wart
Wart is a benign tumor caused by papilloma virus. In modern treatments, it can be
removed by surgical method, burning with electric needle, etc. People of the study site
use juice obtained by crushing kagekira (potato leaf hopper). A small lesion is made
around the wart and the juice applied. Within a few days, the tissue supporting the
wart gets septic and the wart subsequently falls off. The principle here is the decaying
of tissues at the foot of the wart. However, care must be taken not to aggravate the
58
sepsis. Some people mentioned using murcha. When scientifically viewed, this also
does the same work of bringing about sepsis.
Burns
Many natives have heard about use of ghiu kumari (Aloe vera), and some of them use
it. Babari (Ocimum basilicum) juice, harro (Terminalia chebula) oil, Ghoda khori
(Lyonia ovalifolia) oil and ranikhel or saruwa kadam (Jatropha curcas) sap are also
used. A few informants told that they dip the affected portion in raksi (a local,
distilled alcoholic beverage). Tantrik method is also used to speed up the recovery.
The use of Aloe vera is prevalent in other regions of Nepal also and it appears that the
practice is not indigenous to the study site. These medicines may have chemicals the
topical application of which may lessen the pain or hasten the healing but this needs
further study to validate it. The dipping in alcohol may serve two functions, viz., as a
pain reliever (local anesthesia) and disinfectant.
As such, the origin of Aloe vera is believed to be in the Mediterranean region. This
plant has a viscid gel in the interior of the leaf and a yellow liquid between the leaf
and the gel. In modern practice, the gel is used for skinburn and cuts, the yellow
portion is used as a potent laxative, and the leaf is used to prepare a range of
medicines.
There are more than 800 publications about the Aloe vera and research is going on to
this day. Among other things, carbohydrates termed veracylglucan B and C have been
found to be very bioactive. Veracylglucan B is anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic,
antibacterial and antiviral. Veracylglucan C is anti-inflammatory and cell proliferative
(Eusa, 2006).
Saruwa kadam seeds possess poisonous and purgative properties. However, they are
rarely used as purgative. The toxic principles of the seeds are curcine and curcasin (a
toxalbumin resembling ricine) with nauseating and purgative properties. The twig
yields a translucent sap and this is reported to relieve toothache and strengthen gums.
Rural people often use twigs from this plant for brushing teeth (Chadha, 1976).
Chadha (1976) has mentioned several uses of babari. The oil is used in food products,
perfumes, etc. It is also effective against mosquitoes, houseflies, and bacteria. The
plant is stomachic, anthelmintic, expectorant, and antipyretic. The infusion is used for
gargle for foul breath, nasal douche, throat irritation, and ringworm.
Jaundice
Jaundice results from various conditions, but all of which stem from the health of the
liver. The tantrik method of treatment is very rife. They also follow a strict diet
regimen. The patients are encouraged to drink black sugarcane juice and eat a lot of
papaya. This is justifiable because the liver is weak and easily assimilable forms of
foods are needed under these conditions. The functional ingredients found in these
foods may well play complex and synergistic role in speeding up the recovery. There
is growing interest in the scientific community on functional foods but the
information is still fragmentary. Besides diet regimen, they also administer juice of
sunlahara or amarlata (Cuscuta reflexa) and aqueous extracts of ban ghiraula
(Trichosanthes cucumerina) in modest doses. Some were found to be using totala
(Oroxylum indicum) bark. This item has also been mentioned by Ramdev (a yoga
guru from India).
59
Most parts of totala find use in traditional medicine (Chadha, 1976). Root bark is
tonic and astringent, and is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The stem and root bark
contain three flavones (oroxylin A, baicalein, and chrysin), which may be responsible
for the medicinal value. Tender shoots and flowers are considered a delicacy by some
people.
Sunlahara is a yellow-colored epiphytic plant that finds an important place in
ayurveda. It is used in bilious disorders (Chopra, 1986), protracted fever, and as
purgative (Chopra, 1986; Manandhar, 2002). The use of this plant in the treatment of
jaundice may have relation to the sensory property of this plant, namely, the golden
color. Recently, Muhammad Ali (2004) has carried out a very extensive study on the
components of sunlahara, in which 26 components were isolated (1 new and 25
known). The author has also discussed the anticancer properties of some of these
components.
The tantrik method is simply an illusion, as we saw some of the healers performing. In
practice, the healer takes a brass cup half-filled with cooking oil. He chants mantra
and swings a small bunch of dubo (submerged in the oil) until a lumpy mass is
formed. The healer considers formation of lump (which is nothing but an emulsion) as
the successful extraction of the jaundice (also called gayo). People mention of
occasional argument between the gayo healer and allopathic health personnel on the
tantrik method. Thus, the tantrik method is only a psychological one. However, one
must not forget that psychology has a very great effect on the well being of humans.
According to Chadha (1976) the root of ban ghiraula is used as a cure for bronchitis,
headache, and boils. Both root and fruit are considered cathartic. Leaves are used in
biliousness.
Dysentery
The natives, especially of Chokmagu VDC use budhi okhona (?) and pakhandbhed
(Bergenia ciliata). The medicine is masticated like betel nut. Dysentery as we know is
a condition of food poisoning caused by bacteria. The oral administration of the
above-mentioned herbs may have actions similar to antibiotics that are used to combat
dysentery. In Ranitar, they use lalchan or belchanda (Hibiscus sabdariffa), and
rhizomes of kaalo unyu / kaalo nigure (Tectaria macrodonta). Lalchan can be eaten as
such but the rhizomes of kaalo nigure are first rubbed on a stone with some water and
slurry that results is taken orally.
Among other things, belchanda contains gossypetin, hibiscin, anthocyanins, pectic
substances, vitamin C and many other organic acids (Duke, 1983). Elsewhere, this
plant is used for numerous therapeutic purposes, ranging from the treatment of
allergic eczemas to the control of inflammation. The extracts are reported to be
laxative, antibacterial, and antifungal.
Other plant-based medicines reported to be used in both the VDCs are guava (Psidium
guajava) bark and mehel chook (concentrate of Pyrus pashia juice).
Recent researches show that guava contains more than 20 identified components from
leaves, -selinene, guajavarin, quercetin (and a number of flavonoids), to name a few.
Reports validate that quava leaf and bark extracts can be effective against
hypertension and diarrhea (Belemtougri, 2006)
On the whole, people were found to relate acidic or alkaline taste of plants (or their
parts) with the treatment of dysentery.
60
Altitude sickness
Although not very common, people were familiar with altitude sickness. According to
them, chewing ginger or eating saatu (flour prepared from roasted corn) can be
beneficial in altitude sickness.
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis, incorrectly called tonsil by the natives, is the inflammation of tonsils of
the mouth, caused by either bacteria or virus, which makes the throat very sore and
can lead to fever and ear ache. The natives believe that chewing corn seed is
beneficial in tonsil. Abhijaalo (Limbu name: wana or varanthungna) (Drymaria
diandra) can also be chewed to soothe the pain. These medicines most probably work
by destroying/inhibiting the causative organisms, much like the antibiotics used in
allopathic treatment.
Modern treatments involve administration of antibiotics for acute tonsillitis and
surgical treatment (tonsillectomy) for recurrent tonsillitis. Ding et al (2005) have
discussed the presence of 3 cyclic peptides and 4 flavone glucosides (drymareatin A,
B, C, and D) in abhijaalo plant. The plant is also used by the Chinese in the treatment
of acute hepatitis (Ding et al., 2005).
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is a skull disease that occurs due to inflammation (caused by bacterial
infection) of the membrane lining a sinus of the skull. This problem is not very
common but they know what to use in its treatment. A plant called haachhyun jhaar
(Dichrocephala integrifolia) is very popular but this is not a permanent remedy. The
plant induces sneezing, which temporarily relieves the condition. Some people also
said that they administer juice of ban ghiraula (Trichosanthes cucumerina) through
the nostrils (Section 2.2.1). Hot salt water was reported to stabilize the complication.
In modern therapy, acute sinusitis is treated with antibiotics but chronic sinusitis is
difficult to eradicate.
Boils/Abscess
Boils result from staphylococcal infection beneath the skin. In the survey, it was
found that people deliberately made boils more septic by topically applying extracts
from freshwater shrimps called jhinge machha (Machrobrachium sp.), murcha, etc.
Sometimes paste prepared from amliso (Thysanolina maxima) roots is also used.
Bringing about septic condition fills the boils with pus and can be easily squeezed out.
Although this method is risky, particularly for immuno-compromised subjects, people
seem to have no other alternatives. The septic boils are poked with hard thorns or
sharp glass chips to rupture them. The pus is then slowly squeezed out. This practice
appears to be somewhat acceptable compared to using non-sterile needles or similar
materials.
Piles
People have heard eating meat of common mynah called ruppi (Acridoheres tritis)
and kalchundo(Myiophoneus caeruleus) (both are birds) but no one seemed to have
tested it. Some people narrated the hearsay that raw blood of deer can be beneficial. A
few people mentioned use of harro (Terminalia chebula). Some people even
mentioned drinking of raksi made from fox meat. Since these methods are hardly
used by the people, it does not appear sensible to direct research in it. At any rate,
61
modern science attributes piles to several factors such as stress, constipation,
pregnancy, and so forth. The treatments include, among other things, control over
diet, improvement in sitting habit, and use of medications that keep stool soft.
Whether or not the above mentioned items have relation to this fact needs further
study.
Harro (also called harra) seeds are extensively used in medicinal and non-medicinal
uses. The most important non-medicinal use is in tannery. A good number of
literatures are available regarding its processing. The seed flesh is rich in tannin
(mainly chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, and corilagin). The fruit is credited with
laxative, stomachic, tonic, and alterative properties. The main purgative ingredient of
triphala (a well-known Indian ayurvedic medicine) is harro.
Snake bite
People use black bikhma (Aconitum spicatum syn bisma) as the primary aid. Biting
garlic (Allium wallichi) and sucking out of blood from the wound is a very effective
first aid. Some people mentioned of quasi-universal tourniquets with lachha (artificial
hair braid extension) or siru (Imperata cylindrica). Although this tourniquet
alternative appears sound, it is strongly discouraged by most experts on the grounds
that it increases local complication by increasing tissue anoxia (oxygen deficiency)
and triggering severe systemic envenoming (increasing poisoning) right after its
removal. Garlic and bikhma may be effective as an antitoxin (though not exactly like
an anti-snake venom serum, ASVS). Sucking out of blood from the affected area
seems logical but may be dangerous. The tying of upstream part with flexible cord is
very logical as it delays the spread of toxin. Success stories were also narrated but we
would like to take these reports with some reservation because only about 22 of the 77
species of snakes found in Nepal are really poisonous enough to take our life (Sharma
et al., 2004).
Bikhma contains five diterpene alkaloids: palmatiscine, vakognavine, vakatisine,
vakatisinine, and vakatidine. The root is intensely bitter (like quinine). It is effective
against bowel pains, diarrhea and vomiting. It can be externally used for rheumatism
and cuts or wounds (Chadha, 1976). A number of plants from Aconitum genus are
poisonous. Some contain pseudaconitine (a potent neurotoxic alkaloid). Aconitine is
easily absorbed through skin and poisoning may occur through this route simply by
picking the leaves. Therefore, care must be taken in identifying only the correct plant.
Allium wallichi has a wide range of culinary and medicinal uses. As a medicine, it
finds use in cough, cold, altitude sickness, and so on. It is also used to reduce
cholesterol level (Manandhar, 2002). Bulb part is mostly used. The extract contains
numerous antiseptic chemicals and sulfur compound (e.g., allyl isothiocyanate) that
impart the characteristic flavor.
Worms
Aqueous extracts of firewood ash is used by all. Many people also use lemon juice.
Some people use root extracts of siru (Imperata cylindrica), amliso (Thysanolina
maxima), sallibisalli (Equisetum sp), bhirgaule (Coix lachrymajobi), and ulte kuro
(Achyranthes aspera). The roots are rubbed on a stone and the aqueous dispersion
orally administered. Some people mentioned using fruit decoction of lapsi
(Choerospondias axillaris). Opposing views can be seen in the use of ash and lemon
because ash is alkaline whereas lemon is acidic. The role of root extracts of amliso
62
and siru is unclear but might function, at least in some cases (as there are several types
of worms), very much like deworming drugs.
It is known that rhizomes of siru contain, inter alia, appreciable amounts of
dimethylsulfopropionate and potassium. The moisture absorbing ability of these
components has been commercially exploited by various herbal companies by
including rhizome extracts in lotions and ointments. Elsewhere, siru extract is
combined with other herbs to prepare liver cleansing medicines. It has antibacterial-,
diuretic-, febrifuge-, and anthelmintic properties (Yeung, 1985; Manandhar, 2002).
Fresh wounds/Cuts
People topically apply extracts or juices of kaali jhaar (Eupatorium odoratum), titepati
(Artemisia indica), tinpate (?), and certain lichens. Some people also topically apply
hairs of dhusure (Colebrookea oppositifolia). Under normal health conditions, cuts
and wounds tend to heal themselves but septic condition may develop if the healing
time is longer. The above plants extracts obviously work as disinfectant. Some may
also work as pain reliever. In Ranitar, VDC, some informants were found to use
tender shoots of thaade unyu (Thelypteris appendiculoides) and rhizomes or leaves of
chiple (Pouzolzia hirta). One unknown plant, called Limbuni phul (could not be found
in the study site) and kherabe (a Limbu name) or phachyang (Zingiber cassumunar)
were used by some of the informants. Cinnabar or vermilion (called simrik or
shingraff or hingula in the Indian subcontinent, which is mineral rather than plant) is
believed to be helpful in speedy healing of septic wounds and cuts.
Zingiber cassumunar is an aromatic plant. Elsewhere, rhizomes of this plant are used
for curing nausea and headache. A small piece of rhizome may be chewed and
swallowed or paste topically applied for the same. The plant is believed to ward off
evil spirits and repel snakes.
Chemically, cinnabar is a sulfide of mercury. Today, ayurvedic companies prepare
pure shingraff (as used in medicine) by grinding raw cinnabar in goat milk for over
6 hours followed by grinding this mixture in lime juice for 1 hour. Mercury in very
modest amounts increases red blood corpuscles (RBC) but excess can lead to
poisoning. Shingraff is considered to be extremely efficacious in liver complaints
(Anon, 2002). Excess ingestion of this mineral reportedly leads to infertility in both
sexes.
Muscle Sprain
Muscle sprain is treated by applying paste of chitu (Plumbago zeylanica) root. Some
people also use aankh (Calotropis gigantea) leaves. The leaves are baked on fire or
under hot cinders and pressed over the sprain while still hot (the heat may sometimes
become unbearable). The process is repeated for a number of times. The treatment, in
some respects, is similar to radiation therapy used for backaches, sciatica,
rheumatism, etc. People also said that they use ghoda khori (Viburnum cylindricum)
oil and rifle oil (whenever available) to rub over the sprain. This massaging relieves
pain and speeds up healing.
Several uses of aankh have been mentioned in the Wealth of India (Chadha, 1976).
The root bark contains -amyrin, -amyrin, taraxasterol, gigantin, giganteol, etc. The
latex gives cardiac glycosides, calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin, colactin and uscharin.
The calotropin and calotropain comlponent of the latex have anti-inflamatory and
anthelmintic properties. Warmed leaves are bandaged to soothe swellings and sprains.
63
The traditional use of ghoda khori oil for rubbing against pain and backache has been
mentioned by Chadha (1976) and (Widmann, 2003). The oil can also be used for
burning. Extracts from the aerial part of plant show antiprotozoal activity (Chadha,
1976).
Rabid dog bite
Bark of kaphal (Myrica esculenta) tree or stinging nettle or sisnu (Urtica dioica)
root is ground into paste and applied over the affected area. A small amount the paste
is also administered orally. Some people mentioned use bikhma (Aconitum spicatum)
and root extracts of kaali jhaar (Eupatorium odoratum). Tantrik methods are also
used. As we know today, rabies occurs through rabies virus. It is unknown how these
traditional medications work against the virus. However, the villagers use this
approach only as a primary treatment. They all know that allopathic treatment is
available for the treatment of rabies. They also know how to ascertain whether the dog
was rabid after all.
According to Chadha (1976), kaphal bark is astringent, carminative and antiseptic. A
decoction of the bark is useful in asthma, diarrhea, fever, etc. The bark is rich in
tannins. The fruit part is eaten. The active components of the botanicals mentioned
above have been described earlier.
Sore throat
People eat corn seed, pumpkin seeds, and laligurans (Rhododendrom arboreum)
flower to relieve sore throat.
Rhododendron has been shown to possess antiviral properties by Rajbhandari et al
(2007). Rhododendron lepidotum flower in particular is effective against fever, cough,
cold and tonsillitis. Rhododendron arboreum is used in the preparation of a kind of
snuff. Tender leaves are stated to be used as a vegetable, and also applied to the
forehead to relieve headache. They have, however, been reported to produce toxic
symptoms when eaten by livestock, and in view of the poisonous compounds in them,
their utilization as a vegetable appears doubtful. Green leaves contain a glucoside
called ericolin. Eating flowers in large amounts causes intoxication. Petals can be
used in diarrhea and dysentery (Chadha, 1976). There are about 31 species of
rhododendron in Nepal. It must be noted that some Rhododendron species, e.g., R.
campanulatum and R. ponticum, are extremely poisonous. Indiscriminate of
rhododendron is therefore not advisable.
Constipation
Constipation occurs in these sites only occasionally, in which case they suck the black
coatings of rajbrikhsa or rajbrikcha (Casssia fistula) seed. It is also believed that ghee
from black cow can relieve the condition. Since rajbriksha treatment is popular among
other people also, it is difficult to say when and from where the practice began. In the
Ranitar VDC, people mentioned indreni (Trichosanthes tricuspidata) roots, chewed in
modest amounts, are very effective against constipation. The scientific explanation for
constipation, among other things, is due to faulty dietary habits. Prolonged intake of
food lacking dietary fiber causes constipation. Since the rural diet is seldom poor in
dietary fiber, it is logical to expect low probability of constipation incidence in the
village.
A great deal of literatures are available on Cassia fistula. An extensive review by
Bahorun et al (2005) shows that this plant contains potent phenolic antioxidants such
64
as anthraquinones, flavonoids and flavanol derivatives. Rajbriksha used has purgative,
antipyretic, analgesic and antibacterial properties. It is also widely used in the
treatment of stomach disorder.
Rash due to allergy
People believe in a very peculiar treatment method. Puwalo mala (a type of beaded
necklace) is rubbed against the rashes, which is later pressed with janto (a hand
operated attrition mill made from a pair of circular stone; used to pulverize grain
seeds). Another very effective treatment is to rub phachyang (Zingiber cassumunar)
over the affected area. This plant also supposedly wards off evil spirits.
Common cold
People drink in modest amounts unboiled aqueous extract of titepati. This medication
is also helpful in pneumonia. Some people drink a lot of heavily-seasoned, hot
chicken soup to drive away the cold. It is a general belief that fried (sizzled in a small
amount of oil) raksi can also relieve cold. As such, common cold is a viral disease
with no absolute treatment to this day. Unless complication arises, it passes away after
a few days. The treatments mentioned above may be helpful in moderating the effect.
It is also common to chew ginger rhizomes (hot, baked under cinders) to counteract
the irritation in throat and relieve the coughing. Although less common, lasun (Allium
wallichi) and gurans (Rhododendron lepidotum) are also eaten in modest amounts to
get relief from common cold.
Diarrhea
Diarrhea by itself is not a disease. It is a symptom of numerous disorders, such as
food poisoning from contaminated foods or beverages, infections by viruses and
bacteria, or anxiety. The condition is characterized by frequent passage of abnormally
loose, watery stool, often accompanied by abdominal pains. Severe diarrhea leads to a
condition called dehydration.
In the study sites, immature banana and guava are considered beneficial in the
treatment of diarrhea. Barks extracts of jamuna (Syzygium cumini), gayo (Bridelia
retusa), and ambak (Psidium guajava); fruit extracts of totala (Oroxylum indicum);
tender bud extracts of ainselu; and leaf and root extracts of sugandhawal (Valeriana
jatamansi) were also mentioned as having antidiarrheal properties. Although they are
familiar with home-based electrolytic treatments such as nun-chini-pani (salt-sugar-
water) and jivan jal against dehydration, as anyone knows, these are not their
discoveries. People were found to believe that immature banana owes its medicinal
property to alkaline taste. Guava is supposed to cure diarrhea because of the profuse
seeds (which help harden the stool!).
In general, most discussions about illnesses and plant-based treatments take place
among family members and visiting friends. They talk about diagnoses, etiology and
possible curing strategies. This is also the primary mechanism by which children learn
medicinal plants and by which knowledge is transmitted.
Women spend more time in the households than men, spend more time with other
women than men, and are more likely to discuss childrens health among themselves.
Not surprisingly, the survey showed that women tend to know more about local plants
that grow near households and men are more likely to have learned plants that grow in
other communities. The patrilocal residence system is also very important in the
transmission of knowledge through women.
65
The above results and discussion are based on emic perspective. Pharmacological
analysis to test the efficacy of plant-based treatments is very difficult.
Pharmacological data, especially screenings for bioactivity of phytochemicals, to
determine the relative efficacies of the medicinal plants appears logical but is rather
involved.
During the survey, salient characteristics (e.g., bitterness, sourness, etc.) were found
to be associated with treatment, even when dealing with unfamiliar plants, e.g.,
avoidance of curcumin (yellow colored) with the treatment of jaundice.
The frequency at which a given illness occurs in a rural setting is rather difficult to
assess because people tend to forget the episodes unless they are very important. Here,
an attempt was made to determine the frequencies of the illnesses by counting the
frequency of a particular word in the text. Based on this method, following results
(Table 4.6) were obtained. The ranking of illness (1 = highest incidence, 8 = lowest
incidence) in Table 4.6 is in general explicable. Agriculture in the hills is obviously
very difficult. It involves a lot of physical work, often in jungles, among thorny
bushes, and eerily steepy slopes. In fact, there isnt a day without cuts and wounds.
The higher incidence of fracture is justifiable for the same reason.
Table 4.6 Occurrence of illness term in the text.
Illness Frequency in text Rank
Cuts and wounds 35-40 1
Fracture 30-35 2
Diarrhea 25-30 3
Worms / helminthes 20-25 4
Piles and jaundice 15-20 5
Sinusitis, scabies, tooth ache, fever, and sore throat 10-15 6
Dysentery, sprains, dog bites, stomachache,
boils/abscess, tonsillitis, snake bite, and constipation
5-10 7
Other illnesses in the list relate mostly to lack of sanitation and faulty food habit.
Although these illnesses appear benign, they do affect a lot in ones ability to work.
An ill person naturally cannot work as well as a healthy one. This in turn will lead to
food insecurity, malnutrition and hence the vicious cycle. Improvement in the food
habit and sanitation can have a significant effect in the lives of these people.
The survey data shows that some of the traditional methods of treatments have rather
questionable or dubious status, the treatments used for piles, snake bite, jaundice, and
rabies in particular. Awareness program that addresses the scientific reasons of these
illnesses, prophylactic measures, and possible treatment methods is very pertinent at
this point. Incidences of diseases such as food poisoning, toothache, constipation,
worms, etc., can be reduced by several simple and effective measures such as
sanitation, personal hygiene, and improved eating habits.
4.5 Case Study
4.5.1 Chokmagu VDC
Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Amritman Tumbapo, a
septuagenarian healer of Chokmagu-3 (Tinmaule village) was selected for the case
study on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistence farming
66
and bone setting as the main occupation. His feat has received wide acclaim, even
outside the VDC. The school teachers of the local high school (Saraswati Ma Vi) also
appeared to know a lot about the miraculous feats of this legend.
Following is a translation of the interview carried out with this respondent:
1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
Yes, but I do not quite remember the number of generations involved in this art. The
story of how our forefathers learnt the secret of bone setting is both miraculous and
interesting. Story has it that our forefathers used to go to the Tamor river for fishing.
One day, as usual, they packed their days collection in some plant leaves and
returned home. When they opened the pack, to their greatest astonishment, they saw
that all the fish had stuck into a lump. After some twiddling, they found that the fish
had been packed in leaves of hitherto unfamiliar plant. They thus concluded that this
particular plant was responsible for the joining of fish bones. It is said that our
forefathers have used this plant [he offers to show the plant the next day as it was
already dusk] for bone setting ever since.
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
I learnt the art from my father, who in turn learnt from my grandfather. I was about 20
at that time.
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
I am running 70 and it is almost two 20 years that I have carried out this practice.
4. Success rate?
One hundred percent [displays a wide grin (of accomplishment)]. I have even cured
animals, mostly pigs.
5. Explanation for failure?
I do not remember my treatment having failed, may be except for some pigs.
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
Yes, I have a successor, my brother (Chhatra Bahadur Tumbapo), who is working
very well. I am getting older day by day and hopefully this young lad (not present in
the scene) will continue the art our forefathers have learnt.
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
No, I have not made discoveries of my own.
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
I guess 2-3 patients a day on average. To this day, it should be several thousands.
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9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional
healing)?
Yes, yes. I have cured several patients already surrendered by doctors. People come
from far and wide and I have successfully dealt with all cases.
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are
currently handling?
I do not have much idea about the allopathic treatments. But what I know is I have
cured a patient that Bir Hospital (Kathmandu) could not take care of.
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of
allopathic alternatives?
No, not till now.
12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?
Umm[becomes uncomfortable]... you see, if I reveal the names of the plants, they
will lose efficacy[however, upon persuasion he reveals the names of some of the
plants he uses for treatment of fracture]. Well, there are four types of plants that I use.
One is called kokphung in Limbu. I think it is called Aule gurans in Nepalese
language it is a climber with fig-like leaves..white, large flowersroots are
used.. Okay, Id better show you the plant.. [he calls someone, a male, out of the
house and tells him to bring some leaves from a tree (already silhouetted) behind the
cowshed]. Okay, another plant is, you know it, mauwa (a Nepalese name) and its bark
is used[after some reflection].. you know there are three types of mauwa and it is
only the one with very small leaves and thick bark that is used. The next one is
jamuna (a Nepalese name), and from this also, bark is used. The fourth plant is called
mukumba in Lumbu language, I think you call it kainjal in Nepalese language. Here
also, the bark is used.
13. How do you carry out the treatment?
Everything is ground into a thick paste and applied around the affected area. You need
to apply splints to align the bones and support the fractured area.
14. Do you grow medicinal plants?
No. I havent thought about that.
15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
The plants used in bone setting as well as other medications are of course declining.
Some of them have to be fetched from cliffs and steep slopes.
4.5.2 Ranitar VDC
Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Sukpal Nembang, a healer in
his mid seventies was selected from Ranitar VDC (Ward 4, Tamakhe village) for the
case study on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistence
farming and bone setting as the main occupation. He is popularly known as baidang, a
local term used for vaidya (herbal healer). Witnesses to his miraculous bone setting
feat include school teachers, senior citizens, and commercial herb collectors.
68
Following is a translation (with emphasis on verbatim) of the interview carried out
with this respondent:
1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
Yes, I am a son of baidang.
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
I learnt it from my father. The old man is no longer on this earth.
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
Since I was about 35. I am still practicing it.
4. Success rate?
I would say 80 to 90 out of 100 cases. In addition to herbal treatment, I also do tantra-
mantra to ward off evil spirits that may foil the treatment.
5. Explanation for failure?
No failure
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
Yes I had a successor (Rudraraj Nembang, 34, Ranitar VDC, Ward 8) but this guy
helped me for only one year. He is now abroad (doing other jobs).
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
Yes, I have made several discoveries. I have them all in my dreams.
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
At times, I have treated 9-10 patients a day. I have treated several thousands of
them[settles for about 3000 after we insist on his mentioning the exact number].
9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional
healing)?
I have so many of them. I tell you, these people are witnesses, I have cured a boy
whose leg was completely cut off, dangling by mere skin. The case was declared
untreatable by the Ilam hospital. When the case reached me, the wound was almost
septic. Why not now ask me where that boy is? He went to Malaysia in 2004 for
work. He is live and kicking.
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are
currently handling?
I dont have any idea about that
69
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of
allopathic alternatives?
What can I say? People are still coming.
12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?
I use several things, including two herbs [he forgets or does not want to disclose the
names], one animal part, and shingraf (cinnabar or vermilion). Some plants cannot be
found here. I will tell you about them only if you give me gaindako nabi (part of
rhinoceros). I badly need that, you know.. [Even after much coaxing, he does not
disclose the names of these plants].
13. How do you carry out the treatment?
Well, I can tell you that. Wash the affected area, align the bonesshow no mercy
even if the patient screams with pain.., apply the paste over the fracture, and fix it
in place with splints. You will also need some oral medicines, taken twice a day. Then
I cast some spells to ward off the evils. Thats all. If you want to know more, you
need to be my chela (formal disciple).
14. Do you grow medicinal plants?
I have grown only two plants. There are well over 100 plants (and many animal parts)
that I use. Many plants cannot be grown in the kitchen garden.
15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
Still abundantly available.
4.6 Interpretation
The above discursive data show that both the healers (from Chokmagu and Ranitar
VDC) have acquired knowledge of bone setting from their forefathers. The practice of
handing down knowledge (indigenous) is therefore very rooted in these regions. The
data also shows the significance of traditional herbal therapy for primary health care.
And as can be gathered from the interviews, the practice will continue to play a very
important role in the rural areas where modern health care facilities are almost non-
existent. The interviews also reveal the respondents reluctance to disclose the names
of the plants used in the therapy, which could basically be due to their deep-seated
belief that plants and/or methods may lose efficacy if disclosed. However, when
linked to todays concept of intellectual property rights, we need to respect their
tradition. Some of the plants named in the interviews have a Limbu name, which is
probably because these plants are endemic to the region. Although it is important that
such plants be identified and conservation status assessed, we could not obtain the
specimen of a number of them despite our repeated visits to the site. This obviously is
of serious concern, not only to the conservationists but also the natives who directly or
indirectly depend on these plants for primary health care.
In general, the availability of the plants used in bonesetting does not appear to be
seriously threatened. However, plants whose roots and barks are widely used should
be of some concern. Stripping the plants off their bark or uprooting them can in the
long run lead to decreased availability.
70
The practice of planting the essential (medically) plants is not so widespread and this
could be due to their (most) ready availability.
The method used by these bonesetters for treating the fractures encompasses scientific
as well as intriguing aspects. Alignment of fractured bones and use of splinters is
explicable (as these are done in modern practice also) but the topical application of
herbal concoction and casting spells for a faster cure cannot be outright linked with
the joining of bones. The herbal concoction most probably works as anti-
inflammatory and/or antiseptic, which is essential to prevent microbial infection of the
affected area. However, its role in direct joining of the bones defies modern theories.
It is unknown whether or not the concoction compounds (can) penetrate the epithelial
tissues and induce physiological reactions that hasten healing. Despite this room for
suspicion, people take it for granted because the medication has simply stood the test
of time. At the moment, researching on this aspect can be quite expensive, time
consuming, and may also invite ethical problem. For instance, to design a test for
finding out the efficacy of herbal concoction on fracture healing would require, at the
least, healthy (similar physiological status) homozygous twins of a vertebrate.
Fractures must be inflicted on these poor animals. The degree and pattern of fracture
should be precisely the same in both of them. Finally, the experiment will require
several replications (with control) to obtain statistically valid data.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS
The aim of the present investigation was to document and analyze indigenous Limbu
knowledge on ecology, biodiversity and ethnomedicine taking Ranitar and Chokmagu
VDCs as the representative study sites.
The people of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC were found to have a rich knowledge
system of eco-friendly agricultural practice and forest and landslide management.
Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on an
integration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rational
use of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. Because of the topographical and
microclimatic reasons, these VDCs still suffer from staple cereal deficit. There is
therefore scope of intensive farming. Food security measures must be undertaken to
cope with the increasing population.
Apart from the common vegetables, staple cereals, and condiments, people of
Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC use over 200 botanicals for various purposes (medicine,
food, fodder, religious, veterinary and allied uses). Existence of Limbu names for
almost all the plants studied implies how TEK has permeated the lives of Limbu
people. About 110 medicinal plants are found in various degrees of abundance. These
plants are extensively used for diseases ranging anything from cold and cough to
fracture. Conservation and revival of this knowledge base is very crucial because
traditional medicines are still the most important primary healthcare sources for the
vast majority of the rural mass. People were found to use 28 plants as wild foods.
Additionally, they use 28 plants for veterinary purpose, 37 for religious purpose, and
38 for murcha making. A few plants are also used as biopesticides for storage pest
control. This indicates that some form of integrated pest management is in place. The
modern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.
Some form of awareness program needs to be initiated.
72
CONCLUSIONS
Limbus have remarkable ethnobotanical knowledge. Ethnomedicine is still the most
important system for primary health care. However, there is an urgent need to
disseminate among them some of the recent startling discoveries. For instance, bojho
and gurans (widely used in primary health care) have been found to contain potent
toxins, the cumulative effect of which can be life-threatening.
The sensory attributes of plants were found to have relation in their use for specific
diseases. Contrary to the assumption, abundance of plants showed no association with
their frequency of use or knowledge about them.
Five medicinal plants from the study area could not be scientifically identified. There
is, therefore, significant scope for renewed botanical inventory.
Women were found to possess an astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal
plants and their use, often surpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the
patrilocal residence system has a role to play in the transmission of traditional
knowledge by women. Since this tradition of orally transmitting the knowledge has its
own serious disadvantage, a parallel documentation practice must be encouraged.
The traditional practice at present is sustainable in terms of ecology and environment.
However, some loss of floral diversity (mainly murcha plants) and erosion of
traditional knowledge (use of medicinal plants) that have occurred in the study sites
merits attention.
Some traditional treatment methods (e.g., for piles, jaundice, rabies, etc.) have rather
dubious status and thus merits concern. Adoption of prophylactic measures such as
sanitation, personal hygiene, change in food habit, etc., can be very helpful in
reducing incidences of common illnesses like food poisoning, toothache, constipation,
etc. (and therefore food security).
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX-I
Details of Key Informants
Table A-I.1 Details of the key informants from Chokmagu VDC
S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education
1 Agni Prasad Tumbapo 55 Teaching Chokmagu-8 SLC
2 Amritman Tumbapo 70 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-3 Literate
3 Dhan Raj Tumbapo 26 Teaching Chokmagu-3 B. Ed
4 Ganga Prasad Tumbapo 57 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate
5 Kabindra Tumbapo 66 Social activist Chokmagu-7 B. A
6 Mahendra Tumbapo 55 Farming (VDC
vice president)
Chokmagu-6 Literate
7 Netra Maya Tumbapo 35 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate
8 Purna Kumar Tumbapo 50 Teaching Chokmagu-8 I. A.
9 Rup Kumar Tumbapo 65 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-2 Literate
10 Sita Nembang 27 Teaching Chokmagu-8 B. A.
Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-I.1.
Rabindra Kumar Tumbapo Amritman Tumbapo Agni Prasad Tumbapo
Purna Tumbapo Mahendra Tumbapo Netramaya Tumbapo
Fig.A-I.1 Some key informants at Chokmagu VDC
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Table A-I.2 Details of key informants from Ranitar VDC.
S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education
1 Asal Nembang 45 Teaching Ranitar-4 M. A.
2 Sher Bahadur Nembang 32 Farming Ranitar-6 I. A.
3 Sukpal Nembang 77 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate
4 Man Kumar Nembang 44 Farming Ranitar-4 Literate
5 Mahasher Nembang 75 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate
6 Rudraraj Nembang 68 Farming Ranitar-6 Literate
7 Man Bahadur Wanem 35 Teaching Ranitar-8 I. Sc
8
9
10
Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-
I.2.
Mahasher Nembang Sukpal Nembang Asal Nembang
Man Kumar Nembang Man Bahadur Wanem Rudraraj Nembang
Fig.A-I.2 Some key informants at Ranitar VDC
82
APPENDIX-II
Checklist of questions to be asked to the key informants
Issue: Ethnomedicine
Table provides the selected list of diseases taken for interviewing the people. The
informants were also asked to provide information on the part(s) of plant(s) used for the
treatment of particular disease. The method of preparation, administration, the amount to
be used, and similar related information were also collected during the interview.
Table A-II.1 Selected list of diseases taken for the interview
1 Wounds and boils 2 Head
Cuts
Wounds
Boils and abscess
Fever
Common cold
Sinusitis
3. Orthopedic treatments 4. Stings and bites
Fracture
Muscle sprain
Snake bite
Dog bite
5. Skin problems 5. Ear, nose and throat
Scabies
Rashes/allergy
Wart
Burns
Toothache
Sore throat
Tonsillitis
Epistaxis
6. Gastrointestinal diseases/disorders 7. Others
Stomachache
Worms
Dysentery
Diarrhea
Constipation
Piles
Jaundice
Altitude sickness
Piles
Snake bite
Rabid dog bite
Questionnaires and topics of interview (Focus Group)
Area: Ecology and biodiversity
Pertinent questions
1. Is environment protection necessary? Why?
2. What efforts have been made for the protection of environment using traditional
techniques?
3. How is Limbu community related to biodiversity?
83
4. What traditional techniques are adopted for overcoming natural calamities like
flash floods and landslides?
5. What traditional methods are being used for the protection of forest resources?
6. What is the present status of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing?
Questionnaires for case study on bone setting/fracture treatment
The questions to be asked to the interviewees will be basically the same as those for the
key informants. A checklist of additional pertinent questions to be asked to the
interviewees will be as follows:
1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
4. Success rate?
5. Explanation for failure?
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional healing)?
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are currently
handling?
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of allopathic
alternatives?
12. Do you grow medicinal plants?
13. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
84
APPENDIX-III
Photographs of some medicinal plants
Fig. A-III.1 Budhi okhana (used for fever treatment)
Front Rear
Fig. A-III.2 Aule gurans (used for treating bone fracture)
85
Fig. A-III.3 Chimphing
Fig. A-III.4 Herbarium of tinpate
86
APPENDIX-IV
Miscellaneous photographs
Fig. A-IV.1 Sale of murcha cake in a local market
Fig. A-IV.2 Pakhanbhed on sale in a local market
Fig. A-IV.3 Hadchur on sale in a local market
87
Fig. A-IV.3 Research assistant engrossed in interview at Ranitar VDC