Executive Function 101 Ebook
Executive Function 101 Ebook
Executive Function 101 Ebook
Contents
Section I
p.3 p.10
TABLE OF
Introduction
Section II
and Learning
Executive Function
p.21
Executive Function,
Behavior and Emotions
p.25
Executive Function
in Social Situations and Relationships
WHY
This e-Book?
Each of us navigates daily life learning, work, recreation and relationships thanks to intrinsic skills called executive functions.
Children and adults with learning and attention issuesincluding learning disabilities (LD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)often struggle profoundly with many of these skills that most of us take for granted. To better understand and support your kids when they lack certain executive skills, it helps to know about the underlying brain functions that go awry to create such challenges. This e-book is designed to explain executive functions in a clear, understandable way and to help you pinpoint the struggles your child might experience. Its organized into three broad categories where executive skills come into play: learning; behavior and emotions; and social situations and relationships. Each section includes tips for providing support and practice in specific skill areas. Even if your children dont struggle with executive function, you may come to appreciate their executive skills and learn how to help them shore up those that need work!
SECTION I
demands of completing schoolwork independently can trigger signs of a problem with executive function.
Executive function is a set of mental processes that helps us connect past experience with present action.
People use it to perform activities such as planning, organizing, strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details and managing time and space. These are skills and processes each of us use every day to: Make plans Keep track of time and finish work on time Keep track of more than one thing at once Meaningfully include past knowledge in discussions Evaluate ideas and reflect on our work Ask for help or seek more information when we need it Engage in group dynamics Wait to speak until were called on Make mid-course corrections while thinking, reading and writing
There are no simple tests that identify all of the different features of executive function. Educators, psychologists, speech-language pathologists and others use a variety of tests to identify problems. Careful observation and trial teaching are invaluable in identifying and better understanding weaknesses in this area. Your kids may have problems with executive function if they have trouble: Planning projects Comprehending how much time a project will take to complete Telling stories (verbally or in writing), struggling to communicate details in an organized, sequential manner Memorizing and retrieving information from memory Initiating activities or tasks, or generating ideas independently Retaining information while doing something with it, for example, remembering a phone number while dialing
As youll see throughout this e-book, there are specific strategies you can use to help children with executive dysfunction overcome or compensate for their difficulties.
organization and followthrough. Learning and attention issues, though, complicate this development. Children with LD or ADHD nearly always have difficulty with one or more executive skills, which can lead to obstacles in learning and behavior.
MY CHILD...
Has difficulty paying attention Is easily distracted Requires many reminders to stay on task Finds it difficult to set goals Seems to struggle with making decisions Has trouble identifying where to start on assignments Focuses on either details or the big picture at the expense of the other Has difficulty getting started on tasks, often seems to procrastinate Struggles to comprehend how much time a project will take to complete Takes longer than peers to complete homework and other tasks Needs numerous prompts from adults to stay on task Loses track of time or assignment due dates Forgets to turn in completed work Struggles with keeping track of needed materials; often leaves materials at home or school Finds checking his/her work very difficult (and may not do it at all) Has trouble following multiple-step directions Forgets what he/she is saying or doing in the middle of a task Forgets the details of a text while reading or soon after finishing Gets frustrated with changes in schedule or usual routines Has difficulty shifting from one activity to another (especially when the rules/task demands change)
This checklist will help you recognize executive function difficulties in your child.
This list does not diagnose or pinpoint a specific problem, but it can be helpful as a way to capture your observations and concerns and start a conversation with your childs school personnel or other professionals.
On the next page, well look at the overarching executive function categories under which these behaviors fall. This may help you better organize your observations.
Struggles with shifting between information that is literal vs. figurative, past vs. present, etc. Gets stuck on parts of tasks and cant move forward Seems to have difficulty controlling impulseswill say or do things without thinking about them first Is easily frustrated Often talks out of turn and/or interrupts others conversations
EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
BEHAVIORAL CATEGORIES
Impulse Control
the ability to stop and think before acting
For many children with ADHD, lack of impulse control is a fundamental weakness. They often say or do things without using a cushion of time to reflect. Theyll do whatever pleasurable thing comes along without considering their obligations or commitments. Children with this weakness often speed through schoolwork, sacrificing accuracy and completeness along the way.
Emotional Control
the ability to manage feelings by thinking about goals
Children who cant manage their emotions have trouble accepting even constructive criticism. They cant keep their eyes on their goal when upsetting or unexpected things happen. Theyre quick to call a situation unfair. They overreact to losing a game or being called on in class. They have difficulty sticking with schoolwork when theyre distressed about something.
Planning/Prioritizing
the ability to create steps to reach a goal and to make decisions about what to focus on
Children who have difficulty planning and setting priorities are easily overwhelmed by complicated, multi-part tasks. They cant independently impose structure and order on ideas. They have trouble thinking through the steps required to achieve a goal. They tend to underestimate a projects complexity and time requirements.
Flexibility
Working Memory
Self-Monitoring
the ability to monitor and evaluate your own performance
Children who are weak at monitoring themselves may not notice that theyre not following directions until someone points this out. They tend to misjudge their own efforts and have trouble adjusting what theyre doing based on feedback or cues. They are often completely surprised by a low grade on a test or project.
Executive Function 101 5
Task Initiation
the ability to recognize when it is time to get started on something and begin without procrastinating
Children who are weak in this skill have trouble starting homework and put off projects until the last minute. Theyre sometimes seen as lazy or unmotivated; keep in mind that kids like this may procrastinate because they really dont know how to start. Many children who have difficulty getting started also have trouble with planning and organizing. They can get so overwhelmed by everything they have to do that they end up doing nothing at all.
Organization
the ability to create and maintain systems to keep track of information or materials
This skill is closely tied to planning, setting priorities and task initiation. Children who lack organizational skills lose permission slips, assignment sheets, notebooks and library books. They may face consequences for being disorganized (for example, if they lose their homework, they get a failing grade) but dont improve their organizational skills in response to these consequences. Children with poor skills in this area may understand the value of organization but are unable to learn how to keep track of things.
Keep in mind
that progress in executive functioning is developmental and varies from child to child.
Some kids will, through maturation, good teaching and trial and error, independently figure out ways to overcome or compensate for their executive skills weaknesses. Most children with LD and ADHD, though, need extra support to develop or compensate for such deficits. The good news is that you can help your children recognize, improve and work around their areas of executive dysfunction.
As schoolwork gets harder and students are asked to be more independent learners, children with weak executive skills fall further and further behind. Feeling anxious about what to do and how well theyre doing (especially when theyre winging it without a strategy or plan of attack) can easily lead to feeling overloaded and overwhelmed. This in turn leads to exhaustion, inattentiveness and a cycle of insecurity and feeling out of control. Not a great scenario for learning or self-esteem! Parents, in partnership with schools, can be enormously helpful in the improvement of childrens executive skills. Because each child is on a slightly different developmental path and has a unique executive function profile, youll need to work with your childs teacher to personalize strategies that will best address your childs needs. Directly teaching your child these skills, offering frequent reassurance and giving clear, specific feedback are all essential.
Up next, enjoy our Executive Function Around the Clock illustration, which will take you through the challenging day of Josh, a sixth grader who struggles with executive function.
Executive Function 101 6
SECTION II
Long-term projects: Students need to keep track of many details and manage multiple elements of their projects simultaneously. Studying: Students need to organize class notes, homework and other materials to prepare for
Organizing and Prioritizing are important executive functions that all of us use at work and in school.
Organization involves arranging possessions, information or tasks into a structured whole so that the parts are coordinated efficiently. As adults, we use a variety of organizational strategies and tools (e.g., calendars, file cabinets and computers) to schedule and manage tasks and keep track of important information. These techniques help us accomplish tasks. As we organize, we also need to prioritize based on our goals and the level of importance of the tasks. For example, we need to select which tasks to tackle first. Lets look at how children call upon those same skills in school.
tests and quizzes. Writing: Students are required to produce cohesive, integrated, analytical compositions that are well organized and prioritize important details.
Organizing Tasks
Teach your child to think of a long-term project as a mental movie by breaking complex tasks into manageable chunks (like movie scenes). Use a white board or sheet of paper to map tasks into flowcharts. Encourage your child to write down important tasks in a calendar and to allocate time accordingly. You can teach your child to estimate the time each task will take and to track the time while working. Help kids make lists of homework assignments or chores. Let them experience the satisfaction of checking off tasks as theyre completed.
Organizing Time
Use a family calendar to record important commitments. Weekly family meetings can help you coordinate everyones schedules so that you model good planning and organizational strategies. Help your child select calendars (paper or electronic) that can be updated with commitments and tasks whenever you update the family calendar. Encourage your child to review these calendars daily to anticipate new events. Encourage your child to schedule fun activities (such as time with friends) along with important obligations.
Organizing Materials
An organized workspace helps children find the materials they need for homework easily and independently. Storing materials in different sections is helpful. For example, all writing tools should be located together. Keep reference materials, including calculators, dictionaries and atlases, near your childs homework workspace. Help kids identify a regular time during the week for clearing out and organizing their backpack. Work together to make this a pleasant experience so that it becomes a habit! Encourage them to use a brightly colored folder to bring important papers (like homework and permission slips) to and from school, so those items dont get lost.
TECH-SAVVY
Organization Tips
Technology-savvy middle and high schoolers can try: File-sharing software like Dropbox to keep notes handy anywhere theres an internet connection Smartphone apps that serve as digital sticky notes or bulletin boards Digital flashcards, also available as apps on smartphones Password manager software to keep track of passwords
Prioritizing Tasks
Help kids prioritize homework tasks based on due dates, difficulty level or the level of stress they have about the tasks. Encourage them to list the steps needed to complete long-term projects. Help them sequence tasks logically. For instance, before looking up vocabulary words in the dictionary, they could alphabetize the list first. Teach kids to review homework and gather materials before starting work so that everything is collected before they start working. Store the most commonly used items within easy reach in accessible locations.
Partner with your child and the teacher. Collaborate to develop an organization system that works for your kids. Encourage them to express their opinions and preferences. After all, no organization method will work unless your child is willing to use it! Lead by (honest) example. Show your child the importance of organization in your own life. Point out how a shopping list gives direction to a trip to the supermarket. If you rely on lists, a datebook or apps on your smartphone to stay organized, talk with your child about how your personal organizing system works (or falls short). Be honest about your own organizational frustrations, so your child understands that organization is a skill that many peopleeven adultsstruggle to master. Create comfortable routines. All of us develop routines and habits to get us through the day. Your child will benefit greatly from knowing what to expect during a typical school day and week. Keeping track of homework and assignments by writing in a planner every day gives your child a visual reminder of what needs doing.
Prioritizing Materials
Math competency involves shifting between word meanings, procedures and operations.
Science and history require students to use context clues to prioritize and focus on the most relevant information.
Foreign language learning requires students to shift between their native language and the language they are learning.
Studying and test-taking require students to go back and forth between topics or problem types that are presented in different formats.
How Can You Help Your Child Become a More Flexible Thinker?
If your child needs help becoming a more flexible thinker, you could try introducing the strategies on the next page into daily activities at home, including homework and family (or solo) time. Activities that involve multiple-meaning words, word categories and number puzzles can build a childs flexible approach to language and numbers from the preschool years onwards. Visualizing and discussing jokes, riddles, puns and multiple-meaning words can help children recognize that ambiguities in language can affect meaning and reinforce the importance of using context clues when reading. Reading comprehension: When your kids come across words or sentences they dont understand, encourage them to stop reading and ask key questions such as: Is there a word or phrase that could have more than one meaning? Can I emphasize different parts of this sentence to change its meaning? Written language: If your child gets stuck on a writing task, encourage the use of strategies to organize and prioritize the information. Some tools that can assist in this are graphic organizers to help children shift between the main ideas and supporting details, and a three-column note-taking system to record major themes, concepts or questions in the first column, relevant details in the second column, and a memory strategy, such as a picture, in the third column. Math: If kids try to solve math problems in only one way, show them how to look for alternative approaches which may be more
efficient. Multiple math formats help children recognize that the presentation of problems may differ between class work, homework and tests. Encourage them to recognize the need to shift from one operation (e.g., addition) to a different one (e.g., subtraction). Have them ask questions like: Do I know more than one way to solve the problem? Does this look similar to anything Ive seen before? Is this problem the same or different from the last problem? Studying for tests and quizzes: Show your child how to extract and memorize information from many sources, including textbooks, homework and notes. Help kids recognize that:
Working Memory
Remember the day when someone rattled off a phone number, and you hoped youd recall the string of digits as you were dialing?
That was working memory, which plays a key role in learning in our daily lives. While working memory isnt one of the executive functions, its much like a foundation that supports the executive functions. If working memory is weak, it can trip up just about anyone, especially a child with LD or ADHD. You can take steps to help a child with weak working memory, whether or not learning and attention issues are part of the picture. First you need to understand what working memory is and why it matters.
Its like mental juggling. As information comes in, youre processing it at the same time as you store it.
It helps us keep information in mind while using that information to complete a task or execute a challenge.
Brief by design, working memory involves a short-term use of memory and attention.
memory skills. If theres a weakness, however, they may not be able to keep the instructions in mind while working with them, even when they fully understand what to do. Other tasks that require use of verbal (auditory) working memory are language learning and comprehension tasks. Auditory working memory usually affects learning more than visual-spatial working memory because, since so much information is relayed verbally in school, its harder for students to easily find ways to compensate for it. 2. Visual- spatial working memory is like a visual sketchpad in the brain. It allows you to envision something, to keep it in your minds eye. Students use this skill to do math and to remember patterns, images and sequences of events. They might use it to visualize the layout of the classroom during the first couple of weeks of school. If not identified, a deficit of this type is ripe for misunderstanding. For example, it might seem as though a child is simply not paying attention.
Difficulty with working memory may show up later in school, when executive skills of comprehension and analysis come into play. As you can imagine, then, if a child has a learning disability, weak working memory can add insult to injury. For example, a fifth grader whos still sounding out words while reading is relying heavily on working memory to help compensate. This puts a huge tax on the working memory system. At this stage, you want kids reading to be more automaticfor them to be able to look at a word and recognize it without having to recruit attention or working memory to do the task. So, for a child who needs to compensate but cant rely on working memory, the process can become all the more painful.
If you or your kids teachers have observed these behaviors, perhaps consider formal testing. A school psychologist can assess both forms of working memory for your child.
Self-Monitoring/ Self-Checking
Self-monitoring is an executive skill that requires students to recognize when and how to use specific strategies, check the effectiveness of these strategies and adjust strategies in relation to the task at hand.
Self-monitoring requires students to be mindful of what the task is, how theyre approaching the task, as well as the outcome of their effort.
Math requires students to monitor how they solve problems (such as using the correct operation), understanding concepts, and making sure the final calculations match the questions. Science and history call on students to be aware of their understanding of concepts, vocabulary (like scientific words) and details (like historical dates). Homework involves understanding assignments, monitoring due dates, organizing materials and checking for accuracy. Studying and test-taking involve monitoring what students already know, what they still need to learn and how to do so, and checking over completed work for errors.
How Can You Help Your Child Learn to Self-Monitor and Self-Check?
Self-talk promotes reflection and greater awareness of ones learning and performing process, so encourage your child to think out loud! You can model this behavior by talking through your own checklists, reviewing and revising plans and discussing how to avoid errors. To help your kids self-monitor their schoolwork, try the following strategies:
Reading Comprehension
Encourage your child to read single sentences or small chunks of text, and then check for understanding. Teach your child think carefully about text by discussing the characters, language use and connections between themes and details.
Writing
Help kids review assignments and the outcomes of those assignments to track progress. Help them review their most common errors and, from there, create a personalized list of errors to watch out for. Suggest that they use different colored pens when shifting from the role of writer to that of self-editor. Encourage them to check sentence structure and grammar by reading aloud or using textto-speech technology.
Math
Show kids how to check work for accuracy by checking against an estimate, using the reverse operation, using a calculator, etc. Help them create a personalized checklist by identifying past errors on tests or quizzes. For example: Have I checked the signs? Have I solved all parts of the problem? Help your kids come up with silly phrases or songs as reminders to pack necessary books and folders in their backpack when leaving school or when leaving home in the morning. Encourage them to give finished homework a once over to learn the habit of self-checking. Keep a clock nearby so they can monitor the time spent on each assignment. Review study guides to help them set up a study scheduleone with breaks built in for exercise and enjoyment. Encourage them to create a list of dont forget items, acronyms or reminders to review before tests. Help them create acronyms as reminders to check for specific errors during and after a test. Show your child how to use two- or threecolumn notes to study and check for understanding of major themes. For example: one column for main ideas/terms, one for details and another for memory aids.
Homework
Children and teens who develop the ability to self-monitor and self-check can become independent, efficient and successful students.
SECTION III
brain that serves emotional regulation also influences motivation and other executive function skills.
Lack motivation? They understand how to do it but dont care or think theres nothing in it for them. If youve ruled out problems of understanding or skill, then poor motivation is a more likely culprit.
Do Your Kids:
Simply not understand what youre asking them to do? You can check for comprehension by having them repeat instructions back to you. Know what to do, but not how to do itas in, what to do first or second, and how these steps fit together? See what happens when you give a prompt such as, First, you need to do this. Get frustrated and lose motivation easily? This happens because the same part of the
For example: You have two math worksheets one contains 10 simple problems, the other has just a single hard problem. To a child with executive dysfunction, the second worksheet might actually look easier because its just one problem. Focus on tasks that include your kids interests and hobbies, even if they arent school subjects. When possible, offer children choices. This includes what to do as well as how to do it. Autonomy is motivating. If youve ruled out a problem of skill and theyre still not engaged, offer a reward thats personally motivating to them. This could be video-game time or access to the family car.
Consider kids who are known to be troublemakers. They respond excessively to everything, good or bad, and are impulsive and prone to temper tantrums. They dont respond well to change and seem unable to control their emotions. They may lack the executive skills most closely related to social and emotional growth, including impulse control, emotional control, flexibility and self-monitoring. Its important to consider the role executive function may be having on kids behavior. This will help you avoid the trap of blaming them for all of their inappropriate behavior and instead look for ways to help them improver executive function skills and behave in more positive ways. Remember that executive-skill development is gradual and developmental, not automatic.
Praise your childs effort. Be as specific as possible by pointing out a particular task, habit or accomplishment. Dont overdo it and be sincere, since even young children know when they do and dont deserve praise. It takes time, patience and practice to find ways to successfully motivate kids with executive function difficulties, and youll need to adjust your approach as they develop.
dont control our lives. When your child isnt invited to a birthday party or when your teen gets a speeding ticket, frustration, anger or even fear are normal emotional reactions. However, throwing a tantrum, becoming silent and withdrawn or arguing with a police officer are unproductive, self-destructive ways to react. The ability to monitor emotions so they dont spill out and cause embarrassment (or worse) is a crucial executive skill that helps avoid difficulty in all kinds of interpersonal situations. Children who struggle with emotional control may have a low threshold for frustration. They may overreact to obstacles that wouldnt affect other children. Without a strong capacity for emotional control, their overreactions may rapidly escalate, leading to rage, tears or withdrawal. Even happiness may affect them differently, leading to excessive giddiness or silliness.
the same way in a meeting with your boss as you would when youre out to lunch with your co-workers. Children and teens who struggle with this aspect of executive function have trouble shifting their behavior from one situation to the next. For example, while running might be okay at recess, its definitely against the rules in school hallways. Kids with executive dysfunction may have trouble switching from recess behavior to classroom behavior, continue to run when recess is over and get in trouble for doing so.
Make sure kids receive a comprehensive assessmentincluding aspects of executive function and behavior. Based on the results, you and school staff can determine the most important behavioral skills they need to work on. A focus on executive function skills can improve not only kids behavior, but their academic performance as well. If your child has an IEP or 504 plan, be sure that specific executive-skill guidelines are included. Communicate with teachers and other school staff about your efforts to help your child regulate behavior. You and your childs teacher or counselor may decide to work on the same skill at the same time. Home and school need to reinforce each other.
Set clear and consistent rules. Children need to know what language or behavior you wont accept (for example, violence, namecalling, abusive or profane language, doorslamming, harming themselves or others). Discuss consequences for breaking the rules and be consistent in applying them. Beyond this zero-tolerance list, treat any tantrums or meltdowns as problems to be solved cooperatively. Research clearly shows that the best way to see improvements in social skills is to give kids positive reinforcement.
Children and teens with LD or ADHD need extra help in many areas of life, including the development of self-control, resilience and sensitivity towards their own and others feelings. Your efforts to help them develop these skills will serve them now and throughout life.
SECTION IV:
overlap with academic performance and behavior. Children who are socially competent exhibit the following characteristics. Are aware of the importance of body language and nonverbal communication Have control of their emotions and impulses
they can stop and think Have the ability to think through a situation and recognize others points of view Show flexibility in the face of changed plans and unexpected situations Can anticipate what will happen as a result of their words or actions Are able to take responsibility for their behavior Executive dysfunction can throw a wrench into all of these skills. For example, kids with weak working memory may struggle to think through a social situation before taking action. Teens who have difficulty with self-monitoring may not be able to judge others reactions to their body language and voice volume and adjust what theyre doing accordingly. Social difficulties such as these can cause a child to feel lonely, have few friends and even suffer rejection or bullying by peers.
Why Can Social Life Be So Difficult For Kids With Executive Dysfunction?
Research has shown that children and teens whose executive skills are underdeveloped are: More likely than their peers to behave in socially unacceptable ways (like saying the wrong thing at the wrong time, running into things and people, talking rapidly and excessively or continuing to roughhouse after peers have stopped). Less able to solve interpersonal problems. Less likely to consider the consequences of their behavior. Less likely to understand nonverbal communication, such as facial expression and tone of voice, or to interpret what others say. Less adaptable to new social situations. Less able to tolerate frustration and failure.
BULLYING
FAST FACTs
The U.S. Department of Education (DOE) defines bullying as behavior that is (1) aggressive, (2) indicative of an imbalance of power and (3) repeated. Bullying can take many forms, from physical attacks to verbal, emotional or social behaviors, to cyberbullying. According to DOE, 60 percent of students with disabilities are bullied or harassed each year (three times higher than the general population of students!). The average bullying episode lasts only 37 seconds. School personnel are reported to notice or intervene in only one in 25 incidents.
2. As you observe, be sure to notice their social strengths as well as weaknesses. Even if you notice something positive only once, remember to mention it to them. 3. Begin a conversation with them. A good way to start talking is to say, Lets see if we can figure out (why that happened, why he said that, why you got so angry). As you talk to them, try hard not to respond judgmentally or angrily. Ask questions that show you value their perception of the problem. Listen to them and make sure you understand their side of things and acknowledge painful, angry or sad feelings.
4. Decide together on one alternative way to handle a similar situation in the future. 5. Invite them to practice the alternative behavior with you. If theyre receptive, try role-playing. While this cant equal the emotional intensity of a real encounter, it does allow them to practice thoughtful responses to difficult real-life situations. 6. After they have a chance to discuss the alternative behavior in a real situation with peers, discuss what happened. Did the situation end better this time? If not, what else could they try?
Generalize Skills
Broaden the circumstances calling for a particular skill so they can apply it more generally. For example, try saying: You really did a good job controlling your anger when your brother borrowed your skates without asking. How would you control yourself if someone borrowed your markers without asking? This helps children who struggle with cognitive flexibility learn how behaviors can be applied in different situations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people contributed to the creation of this e-book, and they deserve our gratitude. Sheldon Horowitz, EdD, offered valuable guidance on both the topic and the creation of the book. Kaleigh Dumbach-Fusco served as both an editor and writer; she also wrote the story depicted in the infographic, Executive Function Around the Clock. Designer Fil Vocasek brought our words to life in the books design and in his rendering of the infographic. Writers Bonnie Goldsmith, Darla Hatton, Kaila Hatton and Annie Stuart carefully researched and wrote many of the articles upon which the book is based. The Research Institute for Learning and Development (ResearchILD) Lynn Meltzer, PhD, Michael Greschler, MEd, Kalyani Krishnan, MA, and Nancy Trautman, MATwrote articles for NCLD upon which some of the content of this e-book is based. ResearchILD is a non-for-profit educational and research organization that works to transform the lives of children, adolescents and adults with learning difficulties including dyslexia, ADHD and executive function problems. -Editors, Laura Kusnyer and Kristin Stanberry
Works Cited
Meltzer, L.J. (2010). Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom. New York: Guilford Press. Meltzer, L.J. (Ed). (2007). Executive Function in Education: From theory to practice. New York: Guilford Press.
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Executive Function 101 28
2013 National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc. All rights reserved.