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Parasitologia, Volume 5, Issue 1 (March 2025) – 6 articles

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26 pages, 2753 KiB  
Article
Duplication of a Type-P5B-ATPase in Laverania and Avian Malaria Parasites and Implications About the Evolution of Plasmodium
by Mark F. Wiser
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010006 - 27 Jan 2025
Viewed by 423
Abstract
Two related P-type ATPases, designated as ATPase1 and ATPase3, were identified in Plasmodium falciparum. These two ATPases exhibit very similar gene and protein structures and are most similar to P5B-ATPases. There are some differences in the predicted substrate-binding sites of ATPase1 and [...] Read more.
Two related P-type ATPases, designated as ATPase1 and ATPase3, were identified in Plasmodium falciparum. These two ATPases exhibit very similar gene and protein structures and are most similar to P5B-ATPases. There are some differences in the predicted substrate-binding sites of ATPase1 and ATPase3 that suggest different functions for these two ATPases. Orthologues of ATPase3 were identified in all Plasmodium species, including the related Hepatocystis and Haemoproteus. ATPase3 orthologues could also be identified in all apicomplexan species, but no clear orthologues were identified outside of the Apicomplexa. In contrast, ATPase1 orthologues were only found in the Laverania, avian Plasmodium species, and Haemoproteus. ATPase1 likely arose from a duplication of the ATPase3 gene early in the evolution of malaria parasites. These results support a model in which early malaria parasites split into two clades. One clade consists of mammalian malaria parasites and Hepatocystis but excludes P. falciparum and related Laverania. The other clade includes Haemoproteus, avian Plasmodium species, and Laverania. This contrasts to recent models that suggest all mammalian malaria parasites form a monophyletic group, and all avian malaria parasites form a separate monophyletic group. ATPase1 may be a useful taxonomic/phylogenetic character for the phylogeny of Haemosporidia. Full article
15 pages, 4750 KiB  
Article
Detection of Kelch13 and Coronin Genes in Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594
by Tobili Y. Sam-Yellowe, Antara Roy, Trinity Nims, Sona Qaderi and John W. Peterson
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010005 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
Colpodella species are predatory biflagellates phylogenetically related to pathogenic Apicomplexans. Following the attachment of Colpodella sp. to its prey, cytoplasmic contents of the prey are aspirated into a posterior food vacuole during myzocytosis. Trophozoites also endocytose nutrients as demonstrated by the uptake of [...] Read more.
Colpodella species are predatory biflagellates phylogenetically related to pathogenic Apicomplexans. Following the attachment of Colpodella sp. to its prey, cytoplasmic contents of the prey are aspirated into a posterior food vacuole during myzocytosis. Trophozoites also endocytose nutrients as demonstrated by the uptake of 40 and 100 nm nanoparticles in Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594. This nutrient uptake is actin-mediated. However, the markers of myzocytosis and endocytosis are unknown. Furthermore, the relationship between Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594 and Colpodella sp. identified in arthropods, humans, and animals are unknown. In this study, we investigated the conservation of the coronin and Kelch 13 genes in Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594 using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Kelch 13 distribution in Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594 was investigated using anti-Kelch 13 antibodies by immunofluorescence. Both genes were amplified from Colpodella sp. ATCC 50594. We amplified DNA encoding 18S rRNA with similarity to 18S rRNA amplified using piroplasm primers from the Italian Colpodella sp. identified in cattle and ticks. The detection of the coronin and Kelch 13 genes in Colpodella sp. provides, for the first time, markers for actin binding and endocytosis in Colpodella species that can be investigated further to gain important insights into the mechanisms of nutrient uptake in Colpodella sp. Full article
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Figure 1
<p>Sam-Yellowe’s trichrome staining of formalin-fixed <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 trophozoites (yellow arrows) attached to <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> (red arrows). Trophozoites with enlarged food vacuoles are shown in panels (<b>A</b>–<b>C</b>). <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> pre-cysts no longer attached to prey are shown in panels (<b>A</b>,<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>). (orange arrows). Scale bars: 10 µm.</p>
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<p>Agarose gels (1.5%) of PCR-amplified DNA from <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 targeting coronin and Kelch 13 (<b>A</b>) and 18S rRNA and Kelch 13 (<b>B</b>). A. Lane 1, 1 kb marker; 2, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> nested coronin; 3, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> nested coronin; 4, <span class="html-italic">P. falciparum</span> (HB3) coronin; 5, <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> coronin; 6, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> Kelch 13 nested ACT; 7, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> Kelch 13 nested propeller; 8, <span class="html-italic">P. falciparum</span> (HB3) Kelch nested ACT; 9, <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> Kelch 13; 10, 100 bp ladder. B. Lane 1, 1 kb marker; 2, <span class="html-italic">P. falciparum</span> nested Kelch 13; 3, <span class="html-italic">P. falciparum</span> direct Kelch 13; 4, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> nested Kelch 13; 5, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> nested Kelch 13; 6, 18S rRNA <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span>; 7, <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> 18S rRNA; 8, 100 bp ladder. Template DNA from two different HB3 and <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> DNA extracts were used for PCR.</p>
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<p>18S rRNA gene sequences retrieved following a BLAST search of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 18S rRNA sequences from the current study (yellow highlight) were aligned for distance tree analysis to show the relationship between <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sequences identified from different vertebrate hosts and other apicomplexa such as <span class="html-italic">Theileria</span> spp. and <span class="html-italic">Cryptosporidium</span> spp.</p>
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<p>18S rRNA gene sequences retrieved following a BLAST search of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 18S rRNA sequences were used to construct a phylogenetic tree to determine the relationship of the genes. Phylogenetic tree analysis was conducted using maximum likelihood using the PhyML (aLRT) program (<a href="https://www.phylogeny.fr/" target="_blank">https://www.phylogeny.fr/</a> (accessed on 30 November 2024) following sequence alignment by MUSCLE. DNA sequence from 18S rRNA from 14 sequences retrieved from the NCBI BLAST search were aligned with the DNA sequence obtained from the current study (Colpodella_18srRNA). Numbers (in red) at the nodes represent posterior probabilities. Branch length scale bar values are shown.</p>
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<p>Coronin gene sequences retrieved from the NCBI database were used to construct a phylogenetic tree to determine the relationship of the genes. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using maximum likelihood using PhyML (aLRT) program (<a href="https://www.phylogeny.fr/" target="_blank">https://www.phylogeny.fr/</a>) following sequence alignment by MUSCLE. The DNA sequence from coronin genes from 5 sequences retrieved from the NCBI BLAST search were aligned with the <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 and <span class="html-italic">P. falciparum</span> (HB3) DNA sequences obtained from the current study (<span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> and HB3). Numbers (in red) at the nodes represent posterior probabilities. Branch length scale bar values are shown.</p>
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<p>DNA sequences from coronin genes retrieved following a BLAST search of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 coronin DNA sequences (yellow highlight) were aligned for distance tree analysis to show the relationship between DNA sequences identified from <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 and coronin genes from <span class="html-italic">Plasmodium falciparum</span>.</p>
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<p>Kelch 13 gene sequences retrieved from the NCBI database were used to construct a phylogenetic tree to determine the relationship of the genes. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using maximum likelihood using the PhyML (aLRT) program (<a href="https://www.phylogeny.fr/" target="_blank">https://www.phylogeny.fr/</a>) following sequence alignment by MUSCLE. The DNA sequence from Kelch 13 genes from 4 sequences retrieved from the NCBI BLAST search were aligned with the DNA sequences obtained from the current study (HB3 and Colpodella_Kelch13). Numbers (in red) at the nodes represent posterior probabilities. Branch length scale bar values are shown.</p>
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<p>DNA sequences from Kelch 13 genes retrieved following a BLAST search of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 Kelch 13 sequences were aligned for distance tree analysis to show the relationship between <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sequences identified from <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 in the present study (yellow highlight) and Kelch 13 genes from <span class="html-italic">Plasmodium falciparum</span>.</p>
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<p>Confocal and differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy of 5% formalin-fixed <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 reacted with Mab K13, clone D9, in IFA. The food vacuole showing cross reactivity with Mab K13, clone D9, is shown in panels (<b>C</b>) and (G). (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>) <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> trophozoite with a large food vacuole (FV) attached to <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> during myzocytosis. The DAPI-stained nucleus (N) and kinetoplast (K) of <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> are shown. The nucleus (n) of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> is also shown. (<b>E</b>–<b>H</b>) A pre-cyst unattached following feeding is shown. The FV in panels (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>,<b>E</b>,<b>F</b>) show the DAPI-stained aspirated nucleus and kinetoplast aspirated from the prey. (<b>I</b>–<b>L</b>) Normal mouse serum negative control. Panels (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>), scale bars, 2 µm; E-H, 1 µm; I-L, 2 µm.</p>
Full article ">Figure 9 Cont.
<p>Confocal and differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy of 5% formalin-fixed <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> sp. ATCC 50594 reacted with Mab K13, clone D9, in IFA. The food vacuole showing cross reactivity with Mab K13, clone D9, is shown in panels (<b>C</b>) and (G). (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>) <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> trophozoite with a large food vacuole (FV) attached to <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> during myzocytosis. The DAPI-stained nucleus (N) and kinetoplast (K) of <span class="html-italic">P. caudatus</span> are shown. The nucleus (n) of <span class="html-italic">Colpodella</span> is also shown. (<b>E</b>–<b>H</b>) A pre-cyst unattached following feeding is shown. The FV in panels (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>,<b>E</b>,<b>F</b>) show the DAPI-stained aspirated nucleus and kinetoplast aspirated from the prey. (<b>I</b>–<b>L</b>) Normal mouse serum negative control. Panels (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>), scale bars, 2 µm; E-H, 1 µm; I-L, 2 µm.</p>
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7 pages, 3230 KiB  
Case Report
Dioctophyme renale in a 5-Month-Old Puppy from Delta del Tigre, Uruguay
by Alejandra Navratil-Oronoz, María Inés Fernández, Gillian Neumann Wadeer, Federico Machín, Agustín Maggio, Laura Gago and María Teresa Armúa-Fernández
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010004 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
Dioctophyme renale, also known as the giant red kidney worm, is a parasitic nematode that infects various mammalian hosts, including dogs, and is associated with an important renal pathology. This case report describes the first known D. renale parasitism in a 5-month-old [...] Read more.
Dioctophyme renale, also known as the giant red kidney worm, is a parasitic nematode that infects various mammalian hosts, including dogs, and is associated with an important renal pathology. This case report describes the first known D. renale parasitism in a 5-month-old puppy from Uruguay. The animal presented with hematuria and was diagnosed through abdominal ultrasonography, which revealed characteristic ring-like structures in the right kidney, and urine sedimentation, which confirmed the presence of D. renale eggs. The dog underwent nephrectomy to remove the adult female parasite. While D. renale is typically associated with a prepatent period of 3.5 to 6 months in canines, this case is notable for the early presence of a mature parasite in a young dog. This finding suggests the possibility of a shorter prepatent period or alternative transmission routes, such as transplacental or lactogenic transmission. The case highlights the importance of including dioctophymosis in the differential diagnosis of young puppies in endemic areas, especially near freshwater sources. Given the zoonotic potential of D. renale, this case emphasizes the need for surveillance of this parasite, particularly in regions where untreated water and fish consumption pose risks to both animals and humans. Full article
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<p>Satellite map with the location where the puppy was born (red pin).</p>
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<p>Ultrasound showing <span class="html-italic">D. renale</span> (red arrows) in the right kidney.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Dioctophyme renale</span> egg recovered from urine analysis.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Dioctophyme renale</span> retrieved during surgery. (<b>A</b>) parasite length and (<b>B</b>) <span class="html-italic">D. renale</span> and affected kidney.</p>
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11 pages, 1620 KiB  
Article
Ancistrohaptor forficata sp. n. (Monopisthocotyla, Dactylogyridae): A New Parasite of Triportheus signatus (Characiformes, Triportheidae) from the Salgado River, Brazil
by Maria Fernanda Barros Gouveia Diniz, Wallas Benevides Barbosa de Sousa, Priscilla de Oliveira Fadel Yamada and Fábio Hideki Yamada
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010003 - 16 Jan 2025
Viewed by 381
Abstract
The genus Ancistrohaptor was proposed to accommodate monopisthocotylans flatworms parasitic on the gills of species of the genus Triportheus in Manaus, Amazonas state, Brazil. Its main characteristics are (a) an accessory piece of the male copulatory organ composed of two distinct parts; (b) [...] Read more.
The genus Ancistrohaptor was proposed to accommodate monopisthocotylans flatworms parasitic on the gills of species of the genus Triportheus in Manaus, Amazonas state, Brazil. Its main characteristics are (a) an accessory piece of the male copulatory organ composed of two distinct parts; (b) dextral or dextroventral vaginal openings; and (c) large ventral anchors with elongated shafts. A new species of Ancistrohaptor was found to parasitize the gills of Triportheus signatus collected from the Salgado River, Ceará State, Brazil. A new species of Monopisthocotyla was collected and described. Ancistrohaptor forficata sp. n. is primarily characterized by having a male copulatory organ with less than one turn, the presence of an articulated accessory piece with a concave rod-shaped termination, and a free accessory piece that is clamp shaped and bifurcated, as well as a dorsal bar with shading present in its medial part. This is the fourth species description of the genus Ancistrohaptor for fish of the genus Triportheus and the first record for T. signatus and the aquatic ecosystems of the Caatinga domain. Full article
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Figure 1
<p><span class="html-italic">Ancistrohaptor forficata</span> sp. n. (<b>A</b>) Composite drawing of whole mount (in ventral view) (CHIOC 40464, 40466); (<b>B</b>) copulatory complex (ventral view); (<b>C</b>) ventral bar; (<b>D</b>) dorsal bar; (<b>E</b>) hooks; (<b>F</b>) ventral anchor; (<b>G</b>) dorsal anchor. (Scale bars: A = 100 µm; B–G = 20 µm).</p>
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<p>Photomicrographs of the specimen of <span class="html-italic">Ancistrohaptor forficata</span> sp. n. (<b>A</b>) Copulatory complex; (<b>B</b>) haptorial sclerites (ventral bar and ventral anchor); (<b>C</b>) haptorial sclerites (dorsal bar and dorsal anchor) (CHIOC 40464, 40466). Scale bar: 20 µm.</p>
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15 pages, 2625 KiB  
Article
A New Species of Anthocotyle (Polyopisthocotyla: Discocotylidae) from the Gills of the European Hake Merluccius merluccius (Teleostei, Merlucciidae) with a Revision of the Composition of the Genus
by Chahinez Bouguerche
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010002 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
This study revisits the taxonomy of Anthocotyle merluccii, originally described from the European hake Merluccius merluccius in the northeast Atlantic, addressing discrepancies in clamp morphology across populations. The original description from Belgium noted near-equal anterior clamp sizes, contrasting with populations from Plymouth [...] Read more.
This study revisits the taxonomy of Anthocotyle merluccii, originally described from the European hake Merluccius merluccius in the northeast Atlantic, addressing discrepancies in clamp morphology across populations. The original description from Belgium noted near-equal anterior clamp sizes, contrasting with populations from Plymouth (Atlantic) and the Mediterranean, which show marked size differences, questioning their conspecificity. We describe A. radkeaminorum n. sp. from M. merluccius in the western Mediterranean (off Algeria), distinguished from A. merluccii (Belgium) by differing anterior clamp size, genital atrium spine number, and overall anterior clamp dimensions. Populations from Plymouth, previously attributed to A. merluccii, are herein assigned to A. aff. merluccii based on differences in morphometrical traits pending further investigations. Additionally, A. radkeaminorum n. sp. differs from A. americanus in body and clamp size, atrial spine count, and hosts. Based on analysis of morphological and molecular data, we refute the synonymy of A. merluccii and A. americanus, and we reinstate the latter as a valid species. The distinction between A. merluccii and A. americanus was further supported by divergence in cox1 gene sequences analyzed from GenBank (10–11%). Finally, inconsistencies in terminal lappet hook morphology are discussed, cautioning against its use in species delineation. This work highlights the need for continued research to resolve species relationships within this genus. Full article
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Figure 1
<p><span class="html-italic">Anthocotyle radkeaminorum</span> n. sp. ex <span class="html-italic">Merluccius merluccius</span> off Algeria, western Mediterranean. (<b>A</b>) Whole body; (<b>B</b>) discocotylid-type clamp, ventral view; (<b>C</b>) microcotylid-type clamp, ventral view; (<b>D</b>) hooks of terminal lappet; (<b>E</b>) genital atrium; (<b>F</b>) atrial spine; (<b>G</b>) egg.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Anthocotyle radkeaminorum</span> n. sp. ex <span class="html-italic">Merluccius merluccius</span> off Algeria, western Mediterranean. Disposition of clamp sclerites in discocotylid-type clamps. (<b>A</b>) Ventral jaw; (<b>B</b>) dorsal jaw; (<b>C</b>) clamp, dorsal view.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Anthocotyle radkeaminorum</span> n. sp. ex <span class="html-italic">Merluccius merluccius</span> off Algeria, western Mediterranean. Disposition of clamp sclerites in microcotylid-type clamps. (<b>A</b>) Ventral jaw; (<b>B</b>) dorsal jaw; (<b>C</b>) clamp, dorsal view.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Anthocotyle radkeaminorum</span> n. sp. ex <span class="html-italic">Merluccius merluccius</span> off Algeria, western Mediterranean. Anterior end showing relative position of prohaptoral suckers, vaginae, and genital atrium.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Anthocotyle radkeaminorum</span> n. sp. ex <span class="html-italic">Merluccius merluccius</span> off Algeria, western Mediterranean. Detail of the reproductive organs in the region of the ovary, ventral view.</p>
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<p>Tree inferred using the ML method based on the available <span class="html-italic">cox</span>1 sequence data; only bootstrap values higher than 70 are indicated.</p>
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30 pages, 2904 KiB  
Review
Checklist of Medico-Veterinary Important Biting Flies (Ceratopogonidae, Hippoboscidae, Phlebotominae, Simuliidae, Stomoxyini, and Tabanidae) and Their Associated Pathogens and Hosts in Maghreb
by Chaimaa Azzouzi, Noureddine Rabah-Sidhoum, Mehdi Boucheikhchoukh, Noureddine Mechouk, Scherazad Sedraoui and Ahmed Benakhla
Parasitologia 2025, 5(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/parasitologia5010001 - 30 Dec 2024
Viewed by 429
Abstract
Biting flies are hematophagous dipterans belonging to various taxonomic groups, such as the Hippoboscidae, Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, Tabanidae, Muscidae, and Psychodidae families, some of which have significant medical and veterinary importance. They can host and spread various infections to humans and livestock and cause [...] Read more.
Biting flies are hematophagous dipterans belonging to various taxonomic groups, such as the Hippoboscidae, Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, Tabanidae, Muscidae, and Psychodidae families, some of which have significant medical and veterinary importance. They can host and spread various infections to humans and livestock and cause allergic reactions with their saliva. Several species of different families are present in the western Mediterranean region, with new species gradually being discovered. This study focuses on the brachyceran and the nematoceran species; it provides a systematic review listing all reported taxa of biting flies in the Maghreb countries (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia). Additionally, the study includes a geo-historical reconstruction of distribution maps for species of epidemiological importance. The associated pathogens and hosts are also included in the checklists, alongside information on the biology and ecology of these parasitic arthropods, to offer a comprehensive overview of the state of dipteran-borne disease surveillance in North African countries. Overall, this work could serve as an exhaustive reference for entomologists and breeders participating in controlling biting fly and midge populations, whether from a technical or research perspective. Full article
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
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<p>Chord diagrams representing the pathogen–vector–host association of the veterinary and medically important biting flies in the Maghreb region. (<b>a</b>) Hippoboscidae, (<b>b</b>) Ceratopogonidae, (<b>c</b>) Tabanidae, (<b>d</b>) Phlebotominae, and (<b>e</b>) Simuliidae. List of abreviations in the figure: * = <span class="html-italic">H. sapiens</span>, ** = <span class="html-italic">C. dromedarius</span>, AC = <span class="html-italic">Candidatus Anaplasma camelii</span>, AHSV = African Horse Sickness Virus, AKAV = Akaban virus, AP = <span class="html-italic">A. phagocytophilum</span>, ASF = African Swine Fever, Asp = <span class="html-italic">Acinetobacter</span> spp., Ba = <span class="html-italic">Babesia</span> spp., BB = <span class="html-italic">Borrelia burgdorferi</span>, BC = <span class="html-italic">Bartonella chomelii</span>, BLV = Bovine LeukosisVirus, BM = <span class="html-italic">Bartonella melophagi</span>, Bsp = <span class="html-italic">Borrelia</span> spp., Bsp = <span class="html-italic">Brucella</span> spp., BTV = Blue Tongue Virus, BVD = Bovine Viral Diarrhea, CB = <span class="html-italic">Coxiella brunetti</span>, DH = <span class="html-italic">Dermatobia hominis</span>, Eh = <span class="html-italic">Ehrlichia</span> spp., EHDV = Epizootic Hemorragic Disease Virus, EIAV Equine Infectious Anemia Virus, ES = <span class="html-italic">E. scneideri</span>, Fil = Filarioidae, FT = <span class="html-italic">Francisella tularensis</span>, LI = <span class="html-italic">Leishmania infantum</span>, LL = <span class="html-italic">Loa loa</span>, LM = <span class="html-italic">Leishmania major</span>, Lm = <span class="html-italic">Listeria monocytogens</span>, LSD = Lumpy Skin Disease, LT = <span class="html-italic">Leishmania tropica</span>, MP = <span class="html-italic">Mansonella perstans</span>, MV = MVV = Medjerda Valley Virus, NV = SFNV = Sandfly Fever Naples Virus, PV = Punique Virus, RH = <span class="html-italic">R. helvetica</span>, Rsp = <span class="html-italic">Rickettsia</span> spp., SADV = Saddaguia Virus. SFSV = Sandfly Fever Sicilian Virus, Sm = <span class="html-italic">S. marescens</span>, TB = <span class="html-italic">Trypanosoma brucei</span>, TCg = <span class="html-italic">T. congolense</span>, TE = <span class="html-italic">T. evansi</span>, Th = <span class="html-italic">Theileria</span> spp., TOSV = Toscana Virus, Tv = SFTV = Sandfly Fever Turkey Virus, TV = <span class="html-italic">T. vivax</span>, UTIV = Utique Virus, UV = Ukuniemi Flebovirus, and WNV = West Nile Virus.</p>
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<p>Distributional maps of medico-veterinary important biting flies within the Maghreb region. (<b>a</b>) Hippoboscidae, (<b>b</b>) Ceratopogonidae, (<b>c</b>) Tabanidae, (<b>d</b>) Phlebotominae, and (<b>e</b>) Simuliidae. The maps represent a qualitative species range established based on the coordinates of samplings conducted in previous studies.</p>
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