Journal of Intelligence

13 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

Wait, Where’s the Flynn Effect on the WAIS-5?

by Emily L. Winter, Sierra M. Trudel and Alan S. Kaufman

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110118 - 15 Nov 2024

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The recent release of the WAIS-5, a decade and a half after its predecessor, the WAIS-IV, raises immediate questions about the Flynn effect (FE). Does the traditional FE of points per decade in the U.S. for children and adults, identified for the Full [...] Read more.

The recent release of the WAIS-5, a decade and a half after its predecessor, the WAIS-IV, raises immediate questions about the Flynn effect (FE). Does the traditional FE of points per decade in the U.S. for children and adults, identified for the Full Scale IQs of all Wechsler scales and for other global IQ scores as well, persist into the 2020s? The WAIS-5 Technical and Interpretive Manual provides two counterbalanced validity studies that address the Flynn effect directly—N = 186 adolescents and adults (16–90 years, mean age = 47.8) tested on the WAIS-IV and WAIS-5; and N = 98 16-year-olds tested on the WISC-V and WAIS-5. The FE is incorporated into the diagnostic criteria for intellectual disabilities by the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), by DSM-5-TR, and in capital punishment cases. The unexpected result of the two counterbalanced studies was a reduction in the Flynn effect from the expected value of 3 IQ points to 1.2 points. These findings raise interesting questions regarding whether the three point adjustment to FSIQs should be continued for intellectual disability diagnosis and whether the federal courts should rethink its guidelines for capital punishment cases and other instances of high stakes decision-making. Limitations include a lack of generalization to children, the impact of the practice effects, and a small sample size. Full article

5 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Liu et al. (2023). Testing the Reciprocal Effect between Value of Education, Time Investment, and Academic Achievement in a Large Non-Western Sample. Journal of Intelligence 11: 1333

by Meimei Liu, TuongVan Vu, Nienke van Atteveldt and Martijn Meeter

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110117 - 14 Nov 2024

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Abstract

In a recent paper, while our overall conclusion remains valid, one specific finding—that there are reciprocal relationships between how Korean students value education, the time they invest in their studies, and their academic achievements—requires correction (Liu et al [...] Full article

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The RI-CLPM of value of education, time investment, and class rank. Note. Achievement here refers to self-rated performance in three subjects during the last semester. It is assumed that the achievement in the previous semester influences the motivation in the subsequent semester, which in turn affects the time investment in the current semester. The figures illustrate the reciprocal relationships among motivation (M/m), achievement (A/a), and time investment (t). Im, It, and Ia represent the intercepts of motivation, time investment, and achievement, respectively. Lowercase letters denote the time points from wave 1 to 5. Circles represent latent variables, while rectangles represent observed variables. The cross-lagged parameters are color coded (red, purple, and orange) to indicate different relationships, and autoregressive parameters are shown in green. The autoregressive and cross-lagged parameters are all equally constrained, hence the equal number of lines representing each parameter. The figures exclude the latent structure for error terms (e*) and associated variances and covariances for visual clarity. ** indicates that the p value of significant effects is lower than 0.01, * indicates that the p value of significant effects is lower than 0.05. Full article ">Figure 2
The RI-CLPM of value of education, time investment, and self-rated performance. Note. Conventions as in Figure 8. ** indicates that the p value of significant effects is lower than 0.01, * indicates that the p value of significant effects is lower than 0.05. Full article ">

15 pages, 2016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Raven’s Progressive Matrices Combining Eye-Tracking Technology and Machine Learning (ML) Models

by Shumeng Ma and Ning Jia

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110116 - 13 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Extended testing time in Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) can lead to increased fatigue and reduced motivation, which may impair cognitive task performance. This study explores the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in RPM by combining eye-tracking technology with machine learning (ML) models, aiming [...] Read more.

Extended testing time in Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) can lead to increased fatigue and reduced motivation, which may impair cognitive task performance. This study explores the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in RPM by combining eye-tracking technology with machine learning (ML) models, aiming to explore new methods for improving the efficiency of RPM testing and to identify the key metrics involved. Using eye-tracking metrics as features, ten ML models were trained, with the XGBoost model demonstrating superior performance. Notably, we further refined the period of interest and reduced the number of metrics, achieving strong performance, with accuracy, precision, and recall all above 0.8, using only 60% of the response time and nine eye-tracking metrics. This study also examines the role of several key metrics in RPM and offers valuable insights for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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21 pages, 1259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Major Choices: Students’ Personal Intelligence, Considerations When Choosing a Major, and Academic Success

by Kateryna Sylaska and John D. Mayer

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110115 - 13 Nov 2024

Viewed by 413

Abstract

A student’s choice of major is influenced by their parents and peers, as well as by the quality of the college department that offers the major and by broader cultural and economic issues. The student’s own personality, including their ability to reason about [...] Read more.

A student’s choice of major is influenced by their parents and peers, as well as by the quality of the college department that offers the major and by broader cultural and economic issues. The student’s own personality, including their ability to reason about themselves and their interests, also contributes to the choice and its outcomes. In a preliminary study, we developed a Choice of Major Scale that depicts key aspects of students’ consideration of their major. Then, across three studies (Ns = 304, 466, and 492), we examined the students’ personal intelligence, defined as their capacity to reason about their own and other people’s personalities, as well as a Choice of Major Scale, and the relation of those variables to important academic outcomes. The results depicted a pattern that the students who better understood personality and were more engaged in choosing a major, compared to others, considered more majors initially, chose a major more quickly, and exhibited better academic outcomes subsequently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay of Intelligence and Non-cognitive Constructs in Predicting Achievement)

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14 pages, 1743 KiB

Open AccessReview

Examining Working Memory Training for Healthy Adults—A Second-Order Meta-Analysis

by Maria Syed, Jarrad A. G. Lum, Linda K. Byrne and David Skvarc

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110114 - 12 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Background: Enhancing working memory performance in cognitively and physically healthy individuals is a popular area of research. The results from a large number of studies have now been summarized in multiple meta-analyses. In these reviews, various training methods have been examined, including mindfulness [...] Read more.

Background: Enhancing working memory performance in cognitively and physically healthy individuals is a popular area of research. The results from a large number of studies have now been summarized in multiple meta-analyses. In these reviews, various training methods have been examined, including mindfulness training, adaptive working memory training, physical activity training, and video game training, to examine whether working memory capacity can be improved. This report aggregated the results of these meta-analyses using second-order meta-analytic approaches to ascertain the extent to which working memory functioning can be enhanced in healthy adults. Methods: A total of six meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials that compared working memory interventions to a control group were included in the analyses. These studies were identified after systematically searching three electronic databases: APA PsycInfo, ERIC and Medline. Collectively, the meta-analyses investigated the effects of cognitive programs, mindfulness, video games and physical activity on working memory. Only meta-analyses undertaken with healthy adults aged between 18 and 55 years were included in the report. Results: The results revealed an average improvement in working memory across the included studies compared to the control groups. The findings indicated a small yet significant enhancement in working memory, with a standardized mean difference of 0.335 (95% CI [0.223; 0.447], p < .001). Further analysis tests for superiority effects between the different working memory training programs revealed no significant differences between intervention effect sizes. Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the working memory capacity of healthy adults can be improved through training. However, the effect size is small, so the utility of this type of training in real-life improvements in cognition may be minimal. The evidence does not indicate that one type of working memory training is superior to another. Full article

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15 pages, 1066 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of Intellect in Emerging Adults: Predictors of Longitudinal Trajectories

by Patrick Mussel

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110113 - 8 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Intellect is an important personality trait, especially with regard to the prediction and explanation of intellectual performance, such as occupational or academic success. However, much less is known about the development of Intellect. I present results from a longitudinal study spanning eight years [...] Read more.

Intellect is an important personality trait, especially with regard to the prediction and explanation of intellectual performance, such as occupational or academic success. However, much less is known about the development of Intellect. I present results from a longitudinal study spanning eight years to investigate changes in Intellect during a critical period: the transition from school to vocation. The study is based on a large and heterogeneous sample with up to 1964 participants. Using a facet approach, I investigate predictors of longitudinal trajectories theoretically derived from construct definition, including subjective and objective attributes of education and profession; attitudes regarding the malleability of personality traits; as well as personality traits beyond Intellect, especially intelligence. Results reveal some support for the social investment principle according to neo-socioanalytic theory, as epistemic job demands and epistemic leisure activities predicted the increase in Intellect over time. The study contributes to our understanding of the development of personality traits related to intellectual achievement, including important internal and external predictors of longitudinal trajectories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Motivation)

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19 pages, 1713 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eye Movement Patterns in Russian-Speaking Adolescents with Differing Reading Comprehension Proficiency: Exploratory Scanpath Analysis

by Alexandra Berlin Khenis, Maksim Markevich, Anastasiia Streltsova and Elena L. Grigorenko

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110112 - 5 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Previous research has indicated that individuals with varying levels of reading comprehension (often used as a proxy for general cognitive ability) employ distinct reading eye movement patterns. This exploratory eye-tracking study aimed to investigate the text-reading process in adolescents with differing reading comprehension, [...] Read more.

Previous research has indicated that individuals with varying levels of reading comprehension (often used as a proxy for general cognitive ability) employ distinct reading eye movement patterns. This exploratory eye-tracking study aimed to investigate the text-reading process in adolescents with differing reading comprehension, specifically examining how these differences manifest at the global eye movement level through scanpath analysis. Our findings revealed two distinct groups of scanpaths characterized by statistically significant differences in eye movement parameters. These groups were identified as “fast readers” and “slow readers”. Both groups exhibited similar oculomotor performance during the initial reading. However, significant differences emerged when they reread and revisited the text. Notably, these findings align with prior research conducted with different samples and languages, although discrepancies emerged in saccade amplitude and first-pass reading behavior. This study contributes to the understanding of how reading comprehension levels are reflected in global eye movement strategies among adolescents. However, limitations inherent in the experimental design, particularly the potential influence of the task on reading patterns, warrant further investigation. Future research should aim to explore these phenomena in more naturalistic reading settings, employing a design specifically tailored to capture the nuances of spontaneous reading behavior. Full article

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A scheme of the experimental design. The experiment included 12 expository paragraphs. The recall task included 16 words after each of the two paragraphs (96 words in all). The recall task was repeated 6 times. The true–false task included 30 true and 30 false statements (60 statements in all). The total time for the experiment was approximately 45 min. Full article ">Figure 2
An example of scanpath visualization for one participant while reading a paragraph. The X-axis represents the word number, and the Y-axis represents the reading timeline. The scanpath data represents the pattern of eye movements while reading the paragraph. Horizontal lines in the graphs represented saccadic movements, while vertical lines represented fixation duration. Full article ">Figure 3
Correlation plots for the reading comprehension scores and (A) number of correct answers in the recall task; (B) number of correct answers in the true–false task; (C) reaction times in the recall task; (D) reaction times in the true–false task. The shaded band represents one standard error of the line of the best fit (trendline). Each dot corresponds to an individual participant. Full article ">Figure 4
Examples of typical eye movement patterns during paragraph reading from two clusters we identified based on eye movement parameters during reading. On the left, a scanpath from cluster 1 is presented (A), while on the right, there is a scanpath from cluster 2 (B). The X-axis represents the word number information, and the Y-axis represents the reading timeline. The scanpath data represent the pattern of eye movements while reading the paragraph. Horizontal lines in the graphs represented saccadic movements, while vertical lines represented fixation duration. Full article ">

18 pages, 1584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying a Support Vector Machine (SVM-RFE) Learning Approach to Investigate Students’ Scientific Literacy Development: Evidence from Asia, Europe, and South America

by Jian Li, Jianing Wang and Eryong Xue

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110111 - 5 Nov 2024

Viewed by 498

Abstract

Cultivating scientific literacy is a goal widely shared by educators and students around the world. Many studies have sought to enhance students’ proficiency in scientific literacy through various approaches. However, there is a need to explore the attributes associated with advanced levels of [...] Read more.

Cultivating scientific literacy is a goal widely shared by educators and students around the world. Many studies have sought to enhance students’ proficiency in scientific literacy through various approaches. However, there is a need to explore the attributes associated with advanced levels of scientific literacy, especially the influence of contextual factors. In this context, our study employs a machine learning technique—the SVM-RFE algorithm—to identify the critical characteristics of students with strong scientific literacy in Asia, Europe, and South America. Our research has pinpointed 30 key factors from a broader set of 162 contextual factors that are indicative of outstanding scientific literacy among 15-year-old secondary school students. By utilizing student samples from the three continents, our study provides a comprehensive analysis of these factors across the entire dataset, along with a comparative examination of the optimal set of key factors between continents. The findings highlight the importance of these key factors, which should be considered by educational policymakers and school leaders when developing educational policies and instructional strategies to foster the most effective development of scientific literacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

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25 pages, 885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Engagement and Subjective Well-Being in Adults: Exploring the Role of Domain-Specific Need for Cognition

by Julia Grass and Anja Strobel

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110110 - 3 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Need for Cognition (NFC) is an investment trait reflecting interindividual differences in intrinsically motivated engagement in cognitive endeavors. While other motivational constructs like the ability self-concept are typically conceptualized domain-specific, NFC was initially conceived to describe domain-general behavior. Building on a previous study [...] Read more.

Need for Cognition (NFC) is an investment trait reflecting interindividual differences in intrinsically motivated engagement in cognitive endeavors. While other motivational constructs like the ability self-concept are typically conceptualized domain-specific, NFC was initially conceived to describe domain-general behavior. Building on a previous study reporting the relevance of domain-specific aspects of NFC in the school context, we investigated the domain-specificity of NFC in predicting various aspects of subjective well-being across three samples with N = 1074 participants and subsamples of students and professionals ranging from n = 140 to n = 346. Our findings reveal positive associations of both domain-general and domain-specific NFC with positive affect, life satisfaction, and job- and study-related satisfaction. In part, domain-specific NFC was more strongly related to domain-specific life satisfaction compared to domain-general NFC. Additionally, we found evidence for small incremental values of domain-specific NFC over and above domain-general NFC in predicting subjective well-being. Confirming previous research, self-control and the emotion regulation strategy reappraisal partially mediated the prediction of well-being by NFC. Our results indicate that additionally considering NFC as domain-specific can meaningfully complement the domain-general conceptualization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Motivation)

21 pages, 1297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Breaking Down the Concept of Students’ Thinking and Reasoning Skills for Implementation in the Classroom

by Liena Hačatrjana and Dace Namsone

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110109 - 1 Nov 2024

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Abstract

Various skills related to critical thinking, reasoning, and scientific reasoning are defined as essential for students in policy documents and curricula around the world as essential both in school and in everyday life. However, these concepts are often too vaguely defined and explained [...] Read more.

Various skills related to critical thinking, reasoning, and scientific reasoning are defined as essential for students in policy documents and curricula around the world as essential both in school and in everyday life. However, these concepts are often too vaguely defined and explained for a clear implementation in the classroom. In this conceptual article, the authors propose the following questions: (1) How are the concepts of thinking and reasoning as defined in policy documents reflected in curriculum descriptions across different disciplines? (2) To what extent do reasoning activities and processes overlap across different disciplines? (3) How can reasoning skills (particularly: analysis, evaluation, and creation) be described based on reasoning activities or processes and the outputs or products? Based on the literature review, it is concluded that researchers in various science disciplines have defined the aspects of reasoning that are typical for their respective disciplines, considering content, procedural knowledge, and epistemic knowledge. Meanwhile, looking from the perspective of cognitive psychology, it is concluded that reasoning processes (deductive, inductive, and analogical reasoning) are activated in the mind while students engage in reasoning activities (such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis). Thus, similar cognitive processes occur in the mind, despite a student working in different disciplines. A conceptual framework is offered in this article showing (1) how reasoning processes and activities manifest themselves in different study domains both from a theoretical perspective and in everyday classroom work; and (2) what kind of outputs could be expected from students based on various reasoning activities. The importance of interdisciplinary collaboration is justified so that students develop their reasoning skills holistically, not fragmentarily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

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14 pages, 2644 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Concurrent Validity of Virtual Reality-Based Assessment of Executive Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Si-An Lee, Ji-Yea Kim and Jin-Hyuck Park

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110108 - 31 Oct 2024

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Abstract

This meta-analysis investigated the concurrent validity between virtual reality (VR)-based assessments and traditional neuropsychological assessments of executive function, with a focus on subcomponents such as cognitive flexibility, attention, and inhibition. A total of 1605 articles were identified through searches of PubMed, Web of [...] Read more.

This meta-analysis investigated the concurrent validity between virtual reality (VR)-based assessments and traditional neuropsychological assessments of executive function, with a focus on subcomponents such as cognitive flexibility, attention, and inhibition. A total of 1605 articles were identified through searches of PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect from 2013 to 2023. After removing duplicates, 1313 articles were screened based on their titles and abstracts, with 77 articles selected for full-text eligibility review. Of these, nine articles fully met the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this study. The effect size for overall executive function was assessed, with subcomponents categorized based on the specific assessment tools used in the studies. The effect size for each subcomponent—cognitive flexibility, attention, and inhibition—was then analyzed to provide a more detailed understanding of their relationships with traditional measures. The results revealed statistically significant correlations between VR-based assessments and traditional measures across all subcomponents. Additionally, sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of the findings, even when low-quality studies were excluded. These results support the use of VR-based assessments as a valid alternative to traditional methods for evaluating executive function. Moreover, the study highlights the potential of VR-based assessments as a valid alternative to traditional methods, emphasizing the need to address variability in executive function subcomponents and integrate diverse cognitive and motor metrics for greater ecological validity. Full article

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12 pages, 635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intellectual Differences Between Boys and Girls, 35 Years of Evolution in France from WISC-R to WISC-V

by Jacques Grégoire

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110107 - 30 Oct 2024

Viewed by 549

Abstract

The French adaptation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children, 5th edition (WISC-V) was an opportunity to examine if some common representations of gender differences in intellectual abilities are supported by empirical evidence. The WISC-V standardization sample provided data on a wide range [...] Read more.

The French adaptation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale of Children, 5th edition (WISC-V) was an opportunity to examine if some common representations of gender differences in intellectual abilities are supported by empirical evidence. The WISC-V standardization sample provided data on a wide range of cognitive tests in a large sample of 6- to 16-year-old children representative of the French population. This sample included 517 boys and 532 girls. The WISC-V data were compared to those of the French standardization samples of three previous versions of the WISC (WISC-R, WISC-III, and WISC-IV). These four standardization samples span a 35-year period. The data analysis of the WISC-V standardization sample and the three previous versions of this intelligence scale showed that the performance gaps on intellectual tests between girls and boys have gradually narrowed over time. Almost no gender differences were observed in the WISC-V standardization sample, not only in IQ but also in key facets of intelligence. Data do not support the stereotype that girls are better at verbal tasks and boys are better at visuospatial tasks. However, some statistically significant differences remain, but the magnitude was generally small with no practical implications. The only important difference is in favor of girls and concerns performance on processing speed tasks that require visual discrimination, attentional control, and writing. Full article

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17 pages, 293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Students’ Critical Thinking in Dialogue

by Ruiguo Cui and Lili Zhao

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110106 - 26 Oct 2024

Viewed by 470

Abstract

Critical thinking has been widely considered an important skill in the 21st century. In view of the value attached to critical thinking, various quantitative instruments have been developed to assess critical thinking, which only provide a product of critical thinking and cannot reveal [...] Read more.

Critical thinking has been widely considered an important skill in the 21st century. In view of the value attached to critical thinking, various quantitative instruments have been developed to assess critical thinking, which only provide a product of critical thinking and cannot reveal the critical thinking process of test takers. Hence, this paper proposes a coding scheme facilitating a qualitative analysis of critical thinking exhibited in interaction. The coding scheme consists of five categories of critical thinking skills, i.e., analysis, comparison, evaluation, inference, and synthesis, each of which is coded at low, medium, and high levels. The use of this coding scheme is then illustrated by applying it to authentic classroom dialogue. This coding scheme is hopefully conducive to the assessment of critical thinking in educational settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

19 pages, 816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Internal Structure of the WISC-V in Chile: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses of the 15 Subtests

by Marcela Rodríguez-Cancino and Andrés Concha-Salgado

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110105 - 25 Oct 2024

Viewed by 594

Abstract

The WISC-V is a widely used scale in clinical and educational settings in Chile. Given that its use guides critical decision-making for children and adolescents, it is essential to have evidence of its psychometric properties, including validity based on internal structure. This study [...] Read more.

The WISC-V is a widely used scale in clinical and educational settings in Chile. Given that its use guides critical decision-making for children and adolescents, it is essential to have evidence of its psychometric properties, including validity based on internal structure. This study analyzed the factor structure of the WISC-V through an exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory (CFA) approach considering the age range of 853 children and adolescents between 6 and 16 years. We obtained evidence favoring the four-factor structure in the EFA, which is a clearer organization in the 15–16 age group. In the confirmatory stage, the best four- and five-factor models showed factor loadings greater than 0.4, except for one subtest in the processing speed domain in the 6–8 age group. The internal consistency ranged from acceptable to good estimates for the best two models. The results support the use of hierarchical factor structures of four and five factors, which offer specific advantages and disadvantages discussed in the article. The implications of these findings in both the professional area of psychology and future research are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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22 pages, 1155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crystallized Intelligence, Fluid Intelligence, and Need for Cognition: Their Longitudinal Relations in Adolescence

by Vsevolod Scherrer, Moritz Breit and Franzis Preckel

J. Intell. 2024, 12(11), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence12110104 - 24 Oct 2024

Viewed by 702

Abstract

Investment theory and related theoretical approaches suggest a dynamic interplay between crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence, and investment traits like need for cognition. Although cross-sectional studies have found positive correlations between these constructs, longitudinal research testing all of their relations over time is scarce. [...] Read more.

Investment theory and related theoretical approaches suggest a dynamic interplay between crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence, and investment traits like need for cognition. Although cross-sectional studies have found positive correlations between these constructs, longitudinal research testing all of their relations over time is scarce. In our pre-registered longitudinal study, we examined whether initial levels of crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence, and need for cognition predicted changes in each other. We analyzed data from 341 German students in grades 7–9 who were assessed twice, one year apart. Using multi-process latent change score models, we found that changes in fluid intelligence were positively predicted by prior need for cognition, and changes in need for cognition were positively predicted by prior fluid intelligence. Changes in crystallized intelligence were not significantly predicted by prior Gf, prior NFC, or their interaction, contrary to theoretical assumptions. This pattern of results was largely replicated in a model including all constructs simultaneously. Our findings support the notion that intelligence and investment traits, particularly need for cognition, positively interact during cognitive development, but this interplay was unexpectedly limited to Gf. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Motivation)

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