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Volume 14
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Buildings, Volume 14, Issue 4 (April 2024) – 329 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The rational design and use of the artificial living environment are intended to meet the current and future needs of users. They are also an expression of concern for the natural environment. The task of designers is to achieve technical, functional, and aesthetic perfection of their work. Design achievements are assessed in the context of changing social and technical conditions. These issues are addressed in the New European Bauhaus. The NEB initiative involves people in building a sustainable and inclusive society in a beautiful future environment and creating harmony between the contemporary needs of people and the natural environment. It is an interdisciplinary project in the field of the natural environment, economy, architecture, and a broadly understood culture. View this paper
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17 pages, 9296 KiB  
Article
Pollutant Diffusion in an Infectious Disease Hospital with Different Thermal Conditions
by Ying Yang, Jiayi Hu, Yigao Tan, Kuo Wang and Lian Shen
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041185 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1083
Abstract
In recent years, the outbreak of infectious diseases has highlighted the need for improved planning of hospital buildings. Traditional planning for infectious disease hospitals only considers the impact of wind and pollutant diffusion, without analysing pollutant diffusion under different thermal conditions. To reveal [...] Read more.
In recent years, the outbreak of infectious diseases has highlighted the need for improved planning of hospital buildings. Traditional planning for infectious disease hospitals only considers the impact of wind and pollutant diffusion, without analysing pollutant diffusion under different thermal conditions. To reveal the distribution of pollutants in infectious disease hospitals under different thermal conditions, this study conducted wind tunnel tests and numerical analyses of pollutant diffusion in the environment surrounding an infectious disease hospital in Changsha, China. The results show that the pollutant concentration mainly depends on the local wind speed. In the range of Rb = −1.25 to 1.25, the concentration of pollutants was mainly affected by the disturbance of the flow field in areas with rough surfaces, where the effect of the thermal stability of the atmosphere on pollutant diffusion was relatively small. However, in relatively flat regions, the thermal stability of the atmosphere played a significant role in pollutant diffusion around the buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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<p>Wind tunnel.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Irwin sensors.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Heating device.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Pollutant concentration test devices.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Schematic of pollutant dispersion wind tunnel test. NOTE: 1. Wind tunnel; 2. wedge; 3. roughness element; 4. air pump; 5. methane supply tank; 6. flowmeter; 7. spiral tube; 8. magnetic bead glass bottle; 9. pollutant emitter; 10. building model; 11. fixed frame; 12. collecting rake; 13. monitoring tube; 14. delivery pump; 15. collecting bags; 16. chromatographic analyser; and 17. computer.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Wind tunnel model and test setup.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison of PLW <span class="html-italic">MVR</span> values according to thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Wind profiles at point 16 according to thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Methane concentration profiles for different <span class="html-italic">Rb</span> numbers.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Four cases with different building orientations.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Methane tracer gas concentration at pedestrian level according to thermal condition (points 2–4 in the south-western part of the model, points 12–14 in the eastern of the model).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Methane tracer gas concentration profiles at point 17 according to building orientation.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Calculation domain and meshes.</p> Full article ">Figure 13 Cont.
<p>Calculation domain and meshes.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison of the test’s obtained and simulated wind profiles.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Comparison of the test’s obtained and simulated methane tracer gas concentration profiles.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Pedestrian-height <span class="html-italic">MVR</span> contours according to different thermal conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Temperature distributions along the height direction according to the thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Pedestrian-height pollutant concentration contours according to thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Pollutant concentration contours at plane <span class="html-italic">y</span> = 0 according to thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Pollutant concentrations behind building 3 according to thermal condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Pollutant concentration profile under different thermal conditions.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 3144 KiB  
Article
Suitability of Site Selection for Mountain Railway Engineering Spoil Disposal Areas from a Multi-Scenario Perspective
by Yange Li, Cheng Zeng, Zheng Han, Weidong Wang and Jianling Huang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041184 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1178
Abstract
The current approach to selecting sites for abandoned spoil areas primarily relies on qualitative methods, often overlooking the impact of policy factors on decision-making. Traditional single-site selection strategies may not be flexible enough to accommodate evolving external policy demands. Addressing this challenge is [...] Read more.
The current approach to selecting sites for abandoned spoil areas primarily relies on qualitative methods, often overlooking the impact of policy factors on decision-making. Traditional single-site selection strategies may not be flexible enough to accommodate evolving external policy demands. Addressing this challenge is crucial for ensuring the site selection for abandoned spoil areas is both scientifically sound and policy-compliant. This research integrates various analytical methods, including principal component analysis, complex network theory, the CRITIC method, and the ordered weighted averaging method, to thoroughly evaluate the factors influencing site selection. Utilizing geographic information system (GIS) technology, the study simulates different policy scenarios, such as construction cost, social and ecological concerns, natural security, spatial accessibility, and a comprehensive balance approach. It specifically analyzes the suitability of the spoil site of a segment of the Chongqing ZW Railway under these policy conditions. Based on the actual policy situation in the local area, six potential suitable sites were screened with the help of field investigation. This study can offer a methodological framework and theoretical guidance for optimally locating mountain railway engineering waste disposal sites. In addition, the methodology presented in this study can be adapted to the development and change in policy scenarios. Full article
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<p>The study area.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Technical flow chart.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Suitability indices for site selection of abandoned dreg field. (<b>a</b>) Land use type. (<b>b</b>) Terrain curvature. (<b>c</b>) TPI. (<b>d</b>) Distance from water system. (<b>e</b>) Distance from residential land. (<b>f</b>) Distance from public facilities. (<b>g</b>) Distance from cropland. (<b>h</b>) Soil erosion intensity. (<b>i</b>) Lithological type. (<b>j</b>) Slope. (<b>k</b>) Distance to adverse geology. (<b>l</b>) SPI. (<b>m</b>) Distance from roads. (<b>n</b>) Distance from waste outlet.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Complex network of the site selection indicators.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The suitability division under different policy scenarios. (<b>a</b>) Construction cost type. (<b>b</b>) Social and ecological type. (<b>c</b>) Natural security type. (<b>d</b>) Spatial accessibility type. (<b>e</b>) Comprehensive balance type.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The potential suitable sites.</p> Full article ">
22 pages, 1537 KiB  
Review
Effectiveness of Vibration-Based Techniques for Damage Localization and Lifetime Prediction in Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges: A Comprehensive Review
by Raihan Rahmat Rabi, Marco Vailati and Giorgio Monti
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041183 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3304
Abstract
Bridges are essential to infrastructure and transportation networks, but face challenges from heavier traffic, higher speeds, and modifications like busway integration, leading to potential overloading and costly maintenance. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) plays a crucial role in assessing bridge conditions and predicting failures [...] Read more.
Bridges are essential to infrastructure and transportation networks, but face challenges from heavier traffic, higher speeds, and modifications like busway integration, leading to potential overloading and costly maintenance. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) plays a crucial role in assessing bridge conditions and predicting failures to maintain structural integrity. Vibration-based condition monitoring employs non-destructive, in situ sensing and analysis of system dynamics across time, frequency, or modal domains. This method detects changes indicative of damage or deterioration, offering a proactive approach to maintenance in civil engineering. Such monitoring systems hold promise for optimizing the management and upkeep of modern infrastructure, potentially reducing operational costs. This paper aims to assist newcomers, practitioners, and researchers in navigating various methodologies for damage identification using sensor data from real structures. It offers a comprehensive review of prevalent anomaly detection approaches, spanning from traditional techniques to cutting-edge methods. Additionally, it addresses challenges inherent in Vibration-Based Damage (VBD) SHM applications, including establishing damage thresholds, corrosion detection, and sensor drift. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Resilient Civil Infrastructure)
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<p>Vibration-based structural health monitoring systems.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Simple predictive model of SANN.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Ideal relationship between the observed indicator and the damage measure.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic framework of a Bayesian network representing reliability in terms of Probability of Detection (POD) and Probability of False Alarms (PFA) for alarm systems.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 8674 KiB  
Article
Numerical Study on Permeability of Reconstructed Porous Concrete Based on Lattice Boltzmann Method
by Danni Zhao, Jiangbo Xu, Xingang Wang, Qingjun Guo, Yangcheng Li, Zemin Han, Yifan Liu, Zixuan Zhang, Jiajun Zhang and Runtao Sun
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041182 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1386
Abstract
The reconstruction of the porous media model is crucial for researching the mesoscopic seepage characteristics of porous concrete. Based on a self-compiled MATLAB program, a porous concrete model was modeled by controlling four parameters (distribution probability, growth probability, probability density, and porosity) with [...] Read more.
The reconstruction of the porous media model is crucial for researching the mesoscopic seepage characteristics of porous concrete. Based on a self-compiled MATLAB program, a porous concrete model was modeled by controlling four parameters (distribution probability, growth probability, probability density, and porosity) with clear physical meanings using a quartet structure generation set (QSGS) along with the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) to investigate permeability. The rationality of the numerical model was verified through Poiseuille flow theory. The results showed that the QSGS model exhibited varied pore shapes and disordered distributions, resembling real porous concrete. Seepage velocity distribution showed higher values in larger pores, with flow rates reaching up to 0.012 lattice point velocity. The permeability–porosity relationship demonstrated high linearity (the Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.92), consistent with real porous concrete behavior. The integration of QSGS-LBM represents a novel approach, and the research results can provide new ideas and new means for subsequent research on the permeability of porous concrete or similar porous medium materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Foundation Treatment and Building Structural Performance Enhancement)
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<p>Growth direction of 3D QSGS.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparison of Poiseuille analytical solution and LBM numerical solution.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mesoscopic model of porous concrete model (<span class="html-italic">p</span><sub>c</sub> = 0.01). (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, 3D model. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, 3D model. (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, 3D model. (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, typical slice. (<b>e</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, typical slice. (<b>f</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, typical slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mesoscopic model of porous concrete model (<span class="html-italic">p</span><sub>c</sub> = 0.05). (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, 3D model. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, 3D model. (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, 3D model. (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, typical slice. (<b>e</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, typical slice. (<b>f</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, typical slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 4 Cont.
<p>Mesoscopic model of porous concrete model (<span class="html-italic">p</span><sub>c</sub> = 0.05). (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, 3D model. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, 3D model. (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, 3D model. (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, typical slice. (<b>e</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, typical slice. (<b>f</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, typical slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Mesoscopic model of porous concrete model (<span class="html-italic">p</span><sub>c</sub> = 0.1). (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, 3D model. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, 3D model. (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, 3D model. (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.15, typical slice. (<b>e</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.20, typical slice. (<b>f</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, typical slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Research model for permeability of porous concrete. (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, 3D model. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 0.25, typical slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Slice display of typical position velocity field in porous concrete. (<b>a</b>) Inlet velocity field slice. (<b>b</b>) Middle velocity field slice. (<b>c</b>) Outlet velocity field slice.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Typical velocity field slices and streamline distribution of porous concrete. (<b>a</b>) Typical velocity field slice. (<b>b</b>) Velocity field streamline distribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The relationship curve between the permeability of porous concrete and the change in time step.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The relationship between the permeability and porosity of porous concrete.</p> Full article ">
28 pages, 8014 KiB  
Review
Scientometric Analysis and Visualization of Carbon Emission Studies in the Construction Industry
by Qiming Luo, Depo Yang, Lepeng Huang, Lin Chen, Diyuan Luo, Kang Cheng and Fan Yang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1181; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041181 - 22 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1673
Abstract
The field of carbon emissions in the construction industry has drawn extensive attention from researchers and practitioners due to the issue of global warming. In this study, an in-depth analysis of the research status, trends, and frontiers in the field of carbon emissions [...] Read more.
The field of carbon emissions in the construction industry has drawn extensive attention from researchers and practitioners due to the issue of global warming. In this study, an in-depth analysis of the research status, trends, and frontiers in the field of carbon emissions in the construction industry was carried out. The CiteSpace tool was used to visualize and analyze relevant papers from 1985 to 2023, to describe the overall knowledge structure in the field of carbon emissions in the construction industry using dual-map overlay analysis, journal co-citation network analysis, and keyword co-occurrence network analysis, to apply cluster analysis and burst detection to identify research trends in the field and the frontiers, and to analyze the scientific collaborations in the field. Further, the core issues in the field of carbon emissions in the construction industry were explored and relevant recommendations were proposed. The results are of great significance in identifying and analyzing knowledge systems and research patterns in the field of carbon emissions in the construction industry and help us to discover and understand the current deficiencies, trends, and frontiers in this field, thus providing useful suggestions and reflections for policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and other stakeholders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Analysis and Energy Modeling in Smart and Zero-Energy Buildings and Communities)
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<p>Trends in publication quantity (1997–10 July 2023).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Dual-map overlay of the literature on carbon emissions in the construction sector.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Journal co-citation network.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Keyword co-occurrence network.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Timeline view of keyword co-occurrence network clustering.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Top 30 keywords with the strongest citation bursts.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Institution co-authorship network.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Country co-authorship network of construction-sector carbon-emission literature.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 5106 KiB  
Article
The Extraction of Roof Feature Lines of Traditional Chinese Village Buildings Based on UAV Dense Matching Point Clouds
by Wenlong Zhou, Xiangxiang Fu, Yunyuan Deng, Jinbiao Yan, Jialu Zhou and Peilin Liu
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041180 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1613
Abstract
Traditional Chinese buildings serve as a carrier for the inheritance of traditional culture and national characteristics. In the context of rural revitalization, achieving the 3D reconstruction of traditional village buildings is a crucial technical approach to promoting rural planning, improving living environments, and [...] Read more.
Traditional Chinese buildings serve as a carrier for the inheritance of traditional culture and national characteristics. In the context of rural revitalization, achieving the 3D reconstruction of traditional village buildings is a crucial technical approach to promoting rural planning, improving living environments, and establishing digital villages. However, traditional algorithms primarily target urban buildings, exhibiting limited adaptability and less ideal feature extraction performance for traditional residential buildings. As a result, guaranteeing the accuracy and reliability of 3D models for different types of traditional buildings remains challenging. In this paper, taking Jingping Village in Western Hunan as an example, we propose a method that combines multiple algorithms based on the slope segmentation of the roof to extract feature lines. Firstly, the VDVI and CSF algorithms are used to extract the building and roof point clouds based on the MVS point cloud. Secondly, according to roof features, village buildings are classified, and a 3D roof point cloud is projected into 2D regular grid data. Finally, the roof slope is segmented via slope direction, and internal and external feature lines are obtained after refinement through Canny edge detection and Hough straight line detection. The results indicate that the CSF algorithm can effectively extract the roofs of I-shaped, L-shaped, and U-shaped traditional buildings. The accuracy of roof surface segmentation based on slope exceeds 99.6%, which is significantly better than the RANSAC algorithm and the region segmentation algorithm. This method is capable of efficiently extracting the characteristic lines of roofs in low-rise buildings within traditional villages. It provides a reference method for achieving the high-precision modeling of traditional village architecture at a low cost and with high efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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<p>Technology roadmap. Note: “回” is a Chinese character whose shape is similar to that of a specific courtyard structure in China. The same below.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of the CSF algorithm. Note: the CSF algorithm involves modeling a virtual cloth draped over irregular terrain.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Movement of particles gradually attached to ground points: (<b>a</b>) stage I: the particles are placed above the laser dot; (<b>b</b>) stage II: the particles start to fall due to gravity, and some of them fall below the laser dot; (<b>c</b>) stage III: the particles below the laser are moved to the surface of the laser spot and are set to be unable to move; (<b>d</b>) stage IV: by the gravitational force between the particles, the movable particles are pulled by the neighboring immovable particles, resulting in movement.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic diagram of the slope direction.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Moving window for the slope direction calculation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Extraction results for the building point cloud using the CSF algorithm: (<b>a</b>) scene I; (<b>b</b>) scene II; (<b>c</b>) scene III.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Classification of traditional buildings in Jingping Village and schematic diagram of the 3D model: (<b>a</b>) I-shaped: 2 slopes; (<b>b</b>) L-shaped: 4 slopes; (<b>c</b>) U-shaped: 6 slopes; (<b>d</b>) 回-shaped: 4 slopes.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Extraction effect of I-shaped roofs with different GR values: (<b>a</b>) original point cloud; (<b>b</b>) GR = 1; (<b>c</b>) GR = 0.5; (<b>d</b>) GR = 0.2; (<b>e</b>) GR = 0.1.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Extraction results for building roofs: (<b>a</b>) I-shaped; (<b>b</b>) L-shaped; (<b>c</b>) U-shaped; (<b>d</b>) 回-shaped.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>L-shaped roof initial slope diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Frequency distribution of L-shaped roof slope values.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Confusion matrix for different roof slope segmentations: (<b>a</b>) I-shpaed, (<b>b</b>) L-shaped, (<b>c</b>) U-shaped. The upper left corner of each of (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) represents the number of grids that are actually roofs and classified as roofs. The upper right corner represents the number of grids that are actually roofs but classified as non-roofs. The lower left corner represents the number of grids that are actually non-roofs but classified as roofs, and the lower right corner represents the number of grids that are actually non-roofs and classified as non-roofs.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Comparison of different types of roof slope surface segmentations: (<b>a</b>) using the RANSAC algorithm leads to misclassification and overclassification; (<b>b</b>) using the region segmentation algorithm leads to overclassification; (<b>c</b>) using the slope segmentation algorithm leads to some noise; (<b>d</b>) using the slope segmentation algorithm and noise removal leads to better results.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Extraction effect of different types of roof feature lines: (<b>a</b>) I-shaped; (<b>b</b>) L-shaped; (<b>c</b>) U-shaped.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 6648 KiB  
Article
Study of Fatigue Performance of Ultra-Short Stud Connectors in Ultra-High Performance Concrete
by Ran An, You-Zhi Wang, Mei-Ling Zhuang, Zhen Yang, Chang-Jin Tian, Kai Qiu, Meng-Ying Cheng and Zhao-Yuan Lv
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041179 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1512
Abstract
Steel–UHPC composite bridge decking made of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has been progressively employed to reinforce historic steel bridges. The coordinated force and deformation between the steel deck and UHPC are therefore greatly influenced by the shear stud connectors at the shear interface. [...] Read more.
Steel–UHPC composite bridge decking made of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has been progressively employed to reinforce historic steel bridges. The coordinated force and deformation between the steel deck and UHPC are therefore greatly influenced by the shear stud connectors at the shear interface. Four fatigue push-out specimens of ultra-short studs with an aspect ratio of 1.84 in UHPC were examined to investigate the fatigue properties of ultra-short studs with an aspect ratio below 2.0 utilized in UHPC reinforcing aged steel bridges. The test results indicated that three failure modes—fracture surface at stud shank, fracture surface at steel flange, and fracture surface at stud cap—were noted for ultra-short studs in UHPC under various load ranges. The fatigue life decreased from 1287.3 × 104 to 24.4 × 104 as the shear stress range of the stud increased from 88.2 MPa to 158.8 MPa. The UHPC can ensure that the failure mode of the specimens was stud shank failure. Based on the test and literature results, a fatigue strength design S–N curve for short studs in UHPC was proposed, and calculation models for stiffness degradation and plastic slip accumulation of short studs in UHPC were established. The employment of ultra-short studs in the field of UHPC reinforcing aging steel bridges can be supported by the research findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Techniques Applied in Infrastructure, Engineering and Construction)
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<p>Steel–UHPC composite bridge deck.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Size of specimens (unit: mm): (<b>a</b>) front view; (<b>b</b>) side view; (<b>c</b>) top view; (<b>d</b>) stud dimension.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Fabrication process of specimens: (<b>a</b>) stud welding; (<b>b</b>) formwork and reinforcement rebar assembly; (<b>c</b>) UHPC pouring; (<b>d</b>) formwork removal.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Fatigue push-out test.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Failure modes of ultra-short studs. (<b>a</b>) Stud fracture surfaces. (<b>b</b>) Mode I. (<b>c</b>) Mode II. (<b>d</b>) Mode III.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Failure modes of UHPC. (<b>a</b>) Mode A. (<b>b</b>) Mode B.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>S–N curves of shear studs.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Evolution of the load–slip curves of short studs.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Load–slip curves under full fatigue life cycles. (<b>a</b>) FT-1. (<b>b</b>) FT-2. (<b>c</b>) FT-3. (<b>d</b>) FT-4.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Evolution process of plastic slip. (<b>a</b>) FT-1. (<b>b</b>) FT-2. (<b>c</b>) FT-3. (<b>d</b>) FT-4.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Degradation of mechanical behaviors. (<b>a</b>) Relative plastic slip. (<b>b</b>) Relative elastic stiffness.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 6134 KiB  
Article
Feasibility of Recycled Aggregate Concrete in a Novel Anchoring Connection for Beam-to-Concrete-Filled Steel Tube Joints
by Jianhua Su, Qian Zhao, Li’ao Cai, Xiaohui Li, Hongyin Pu, Wei Dai, Jian Zhang, Deng Lu and Feng Liu
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041178 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1770
Abstract
Owing to the substantial benefits in environmental protection and resource saving, recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is increasingly used in civil engineering; among the different types, RAC-filled steel tubes are an efficient structural form utilizing the advantages of concrete and steel tubes. This paper [...] Read more.
Owing to the substantial benefits in environmental protection and resource saving, recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is increasingly used in civil engineering; among the different types, RAC-filled steel tubes are an efficient structural form utilizing the advantages of concrete and steel tubes. This paper proposed a novel full-bolted beam-to-concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) joint and investigated the anchoring behavior of the steel plates embedded in RAC-filled steel tubes, which represents the behavior of the tensile zone in this joint, to demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing RAC in composite structures. The specimen consisted of a CFST and a connecting plate embedded in the CFST. In total, 18 specimens were tested to study the effects of concrete type (i.e., recycled aggregate concrete and natural aggregate concrete), anchoring type (i.e., plate with holes, notches, and rebars), and plate thickness on the pullout behavior, such as anchorage strength, load–displacement response, and ductility. Based on experimental results, the aggregate type of the concrete does not affect the pullout behavior obviously but the influence of anchoring type is significant. Among the three anchoring methods, the plate with rebars exhibits the best performance in terms of anchorage strength and ductility, and is recommended for the beam-to-CFST joint. In addition, plate thickness obviously affects the behavior of plates with holes and notches, the bearing area of which is proportional to the thickness, whereas the pullout behavior of the plates with rebars is independent of thickness. Finally, design formulas are proposed to estimate the anchorage strength of the connecting plates, and their reasonability is validated using the experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Concrete Materials: Performance Analysis and Research)
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<p>A novel full-bolted beam-to-CFST joint.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Dimensions of the pullout specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Details of the connecting plates with (<b>a</b>) holes; (<b>b</b>) notches; (<b>c</b>) steel bars.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Preparation of pullout specimens: (<b>a</b>) steel tubes; (<b>b</b>) connecting plates; (<b>c</b>) specimen before casting concrete; (<b>d</b>) casted specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Coarse aggregates: (<b>a</b>) RA; (<b>b</b>) NA.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Experimental setup for pullout test.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Layout of strain gauges.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Failure modes: (<b>a</b>) plate with holes; (<b>b</b>) plate with notches; (<b>c</b>) plate with rebars.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Load–displacement curves of tested specimens. (<b>a</b>) Plates with one hole (A1), (<b>b</b>) plates with two holes (A2), (<b>c</b>) plates with B1-type notches, (<b>d</b>) plates with B2-type notches, (<b>e</b>) plates with 8 mm diameter bars, (<b>f</b>) plates with 12 mm diameter bars.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Determination of the yield point and the ductility index.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Strain distributions. (<b>a</b>) A1-T10-F100, (<b>b</b>) A2-T10-F100, (<b>c</b>) B1-T10-F100, (<b>d</b>) B2-T10-F100, (<b>e</b>) C-r8-T10-F100, and (<b>f</b>) C-r12-T10-F100.</p> Full article ">Figure 11 Cont.
<p>Strain distributions. (<b>a</b>) A1-T10-F100, (<b>b</b>) A2-T10-F100, (<b>c</b>) B1-T10-F100, (<b>d</b>) B2-T10-F100, (<b>e</b>) C-r8-T10-F100, and (<b>f</b>) C-r12-T10-F100.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Effect of plate thickness on the pullout behavior. (<b>a</b>) Anchorage strength and (<b>b</b>) ductility index.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Effect of concrete type on the pullout behavior. (<b>a</b>) Anchorage strength and (<b>b</b>) ductility index.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Dimensions of the notch.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Determination of the empirical coefficient, <span class="html-italic">χ</span>, in Equation (5).</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Comparison of the experimental and predicted anchorage strengths.</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 6329 KiB  
Article
Automated Quality Inspection of Formwork Systems Using 3D Point Cloud Data
by Keyi Wu, Samuel A. Prieto, Eyob Mengiste and Borja García de Soto
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041177 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1842
Abstract
Ensuring that formwork systems are properly installed is essential for construction safety and quality. They have to comply with specific design requirements and meet strict tolerances regarding the installation of the different members. The current method of quality control during installation mostly relies [...] Read more.
Ensuring that formwork systems are properly installed is essential for construction safety and quality. They have to comply with specific design requirements and meet strict tolerances regarding the installation of the different members. The current method of quality control during installation mostly relies on manual measuring tools and inspections heavily reliant on the human factor, which could lead to inconsistencies and inaccurate results. This study proposes a way to automate the inspection process and presents a framework within which to measure the spacing of the different members of the formwork system using 3D point cloud data. 3D point cloud data are preprocessed, processed, and analyzed with various techniques, including filtering, downsampling, transforming, fitting, and clustering. The novelty is not only in the integration of the different techniques used but also in the detection and measurement of key members in the formwork system with limited human intervention. The proposed framework was tested on a real construction site. Five cases were investigated to compare the proposed approach to the manual and traditional one. The results indicate that this approach is a promising solution and could potentially be an effective alternative to manual inspections for quality control during the installation of formwork systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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<p>Typical formwork system and related members.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Proposed framework for the spacing measurement of formwork system members with 3D point cloud data.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Adjustment of the bin interval for removing undesired elements close to the ground (the bin interval is 1 dm (<b>a</b>) or 2 dm (<b>b</b>)).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>RANSAC for plane fitting: (<b>a</b>) three randomly selected points fitting a plane (highlighted in red); and (<b>b</b>) the threshold (t) representation.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Transformation of the coordinate system of formwork system members: (<b>a</b>) detection of the front surface of all studs (highlighted in purple) applying the RANSAC for plane fitting; (<b>b</b>) detection of the front surface of a single stud (highlighted in purple) applying the RANSAC for line fitting; and (<b>c</b>) determination of the transformed coordinate system applying the PCA.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Segmentation of different categories of formwork system members: (<b>a</b>) detection of the front surface of wales (highlighted in green) employing the RANSAC for plane fitting; (<b>b</b>) detection of ties and braces (all highlighted in gray as they are unknown categories by the current step) employing the DBSCAN; and (<b>c</b>) identification of the direction of the third principal axis comparing studs (highlighted in purple) and wales (highlighted in green) from the side view.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Installation layouts of studs (<b>a</b>) and wales (<b>b</b>) from the front view and identification of the number of studs (<b>c</b>) and wales (<b>d</b>) utilizing the multiple peak detection algorithm.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Recognition of studs (<b>a</b>), braces (<b>b</b>), wales (<b>c</b>), and ties (<b>d</b>) from the front view.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Spacing measurement of studs (<b>a</b>), braces (<b>b</b>), wales (<b>c</b>), and ties (<b>d</b>) from the front view.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>General overview of the studied formwork system (<b>a</b>) and detail of test objects 1 and 2 (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>3D point cloud data preprocessing: (<b>a</b>) the raw point cloud; (<b>b</b>) the point cloud after removing the surroundings except for the ground; (<b>c</b>) the histogram of the number of points for the point cloud on the <span class="html-italic">Z</span>-axis; (<b>d</b>) the point cloud after removing the ground; (<b>e</b>) the point cloud after removing the outliers (highlighted in red); (<b>f</b>) the point cloud after performing downsampling; and (<b>g</b>) the point cloud after transforming the coordinate system.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>3D point cloud data processing and analysis: (<b>a</b>) the segmentation of the different categories of formwork system members; (<b>b</b>) the histogram of the number of points for the studs on the second principal axis; (<b>c</b>) the histogram of the number of points for the wales on the first principal axis; (<b>d</b>) the histogram of the number of points for the ties and braces; (<b>e</b>) the recognition of the formwork system members in each category; and (<b>f</b>) the spacing between Stud 1 and Stud 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Comparison of the spacing measurement results: the stud, the wale, and the tie (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>); Case 1 and Case 2 with different test objects (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>); Case 2 and Case 3 with different numbers of scans (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>); and Case 3, Case 4, and Case 5 with different distances of scans (<b>g</b>,<b>h</b>).</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 10959 KiB  
Article
Seismic Isolation of Fragile Pole-Type Structures by Rocking with Base Restraints
by Sheng Li, Yao Hu, Zhicheng Lu, Bo Song and Guozhong Huang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041176 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1875
Abstract
Pole-type structures are vulnerable to earthquake events due to their slender shapes, particularly porcelain cylindrical equipment in electrical substations, which has inherent fragility and low strength in its materials. Traditional base isolation designs configure the bottom of the pole-type equipment as hinges with [...] Read more.
Pole-type structures are vulnerable to earthquake events due to their slender shapes, particularly porcelain cylindrical equipment in electrical substations, which has inherent fragility and low strength in its materials. Traditional base isolation designs configure the bottom of the pole-type equipment as hinges with restraints. It fully relies on the restrainers to re-center the pole-type equipment, posing a risk of tilting and functionality failure after earthquakes. This study proposes a solution to this challenge by introducing a restrained rocking mechanism at the base of the structure. The design leverages the self-centering nature of rocking motion and uses restrainers to control the amplitude of rotation. Hence, it can effectively avoid tilting of the pole-type structures after earthquakes. Experimental investigations conducted on a 1:1 full-scale specimen revealed that the proposed restrained rocking design can achieve a reduction in seismic internal forces of over 50% while maintaining equipment in an upright position. Furthermore, an analytical model for the proposed isolation system of pole structures was developed and validated through comparison with experimental results. This paper introduces a novel solution for seismic isolation of pole-type structures through restrained rocking, specifically addressing the research gap regarding a reliable self-centering mechanism under seismic excitation. This advancement significantly enhances the seismic resilience of fragile pole-type structures and provides practical design methodologies for the seismic isolation of slender structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Structural Vibration Control)
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<p>Example of seismic fragile pole-type equipment in engineering (photo by the author) and damage of an electrical substation within the Sichuan electric power grid during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (cited from [<a href="#B25-buildings-14-01176" class="html-bibr">25</a>]). (<b>a</b>) Pole-type cylindrical equipment; (<b>b</b>) Earthquake damage.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Proposed design of restrained rocking isolation of pole-type cylindrical electrical equipment.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Rocking motion at the isolation device.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mechanical behaviours of rocking restrainers.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Dynamics modeling of the pole-type structure with restrained rocking isolation.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Sequence of rocking.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Energy of the system in rocking vibration.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Test specimen of surge arrester equipment used in a Ultra High Voltage (UHV) electric power substation.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Rocking restrainer adopted in the experimental study.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Input motion.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Acceleration responses in test case #4 and #6.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Strain responses in test case #4 and #6.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Acceleration and bending moment in test case #8.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison between experiment results and analysis results in test case #6.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Comparison between experiment results and analysis results in test case #8.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>A comparison of base moment demand of the pole-type structure with and without rocking isolation under various input excitations.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Relationship between intensity measures of input motion and base moment response (kN.m) of the restrained rocking pole-type structure. The units for PGA, PGV, PGD, PAD, PVD, and PDD are g, cm/s, cm, g, m/s, and m, respectively.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 740 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Building Information Modeling Technology on Cost Management of Civil Engineering Projects: A Case Study of the Mombasa Port Area Development Project
by Allan Nsimbe and Junzhen Di
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041175 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3585
Abstract
Introduction: This study examines the impact of building information modeling on the cost management of engineering projects, focusing specifically on the Mombasa Port Area Development Project. The objective of this research is to determine the mechanisms through which building information modeling facilitates [...] Read more.
Introduction: This study examines the impact of building information modeling on the cost management of engineering projects, focusing specifically on the Mombasa Port Area Development Project. The objective of this research is to determine the mechanisms through which building information modeling facilitates stakeholder collaboration, reduces construction-related expenses, and enhances the precision of cost estimation. Furthermore, this study investigates barriers to execution, assesses the impact on the project’s transparency, and suggests approaches to maximize resource utilization. Methodology: This study employed a mixed-method research design comprising document reviews and surveys. During the document review, credible databases including ScienceDirect and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Xplore were explored. The survey included 69 professionals, among which were project managers, cost estimators, and building information modeling administrators. The mixed-methods approach prioritized ethical considerations and the statistical Package for the Social Sciences and Microsoft Excel were used in the analysis. Results: The results show that building information modeling is a valuable system for organizations looking to reduce project costs. The results note that the technology improves cost estimation accuracy, facilitates the identification of cost-related risks, and promotes collaborative decision-making. Conclusions: Building information modeling is an effective cost-estimating technology that positively impacts additional project aspects such as decision-making, collaboration, performance, and delivery time. Therefore, the Mombasa Port Area Development Project should inspire other stakeholders in engineering and construction to embrace building information modeling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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<p>Methodology flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>A</b>) Shows the target population. These are the multidiscipline professionals who were involved in the study. (<b>B</b>) gives an overview of the level of participation from the participants and (<b>C</b>) shows the combined response rate of all the professionals. The number of those who responded to the questions (88%) was higher than the non-responders (12%).</p> Full article ">
33 pages, 12127 KiB  
Review
Seismic Assessment of Large-Span Spatial Structures Considering Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI): A State-of-the-Art Review
by Puyu Zhan, Suduo Xue, Xiongyan Li, Guojun Sun and Ruisheng Ma
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041174 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3350
Abstract
Soil–structure interaction (SSI), which characterizes the dynamic interaction between a structure and its surrounding soil, is of great significance to the seismic assessment of structures. Past research endeavors have undertaken analytical, numerical, and experimental studies to gain a thorough understanding of the influences [...] Read more.
Soil–structure interaction (SSI), which characterizes the dynamic interaction between a structure and its surrounding soil, is of great significance to the seismic assessment of structures. Past research endeavors have undertaken analytical, numerical, and experimental studies to gain a thorough understanding of the influences of SSI on the seismic responses of a wide array of structures, including but not limited to nuclear power plants, frame structures, bridges, and spatial structures. Thereinto, large-span spatial structures generally have much more complex configurations, and the influences of SSI may be more pronounced. To this end, this paper aims to provide a state-of-the-art review of the SSI in the seismic assessment of large-span spatial structures. It begins with the modelling of soil medium, followed by the research progress of SSI in terms of numerical simulations and experiments. Subsequently, the focus shifts towards high-lighting advancements in understanding the seismic responses of large-span spatial structures considering SSI. Finally, some discussions are made on the unresolved problems and the possible topics for future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Vibration and Soil Dynamics)
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<p>15-story flexural concrete structure without and with considering SSI [<a href="#B113-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">113</a>]: (<b>a</b>) fixed-base model; (<b>b</b>) SSI model.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Finite element model of the tall buildings considering SSI [<a href="#B114-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">114</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Illustration of TSSI with stratified soil layers [<a href="#B29-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Illustration of SSI under different terrain conditions [<a href="#B116-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">116</a>]: (<b>a</b>) SSI; (<b>b</b>) TSSI; (<b>c</b>) TSSSI.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Illustration of the horizontally layered site.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Models of frame–shear wall buildings considering SSI [<a href="#B128-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">128</a>]: (<b>a</b>) end bearing piled foundation-supported structure; (<b>b</b>) classical compensated foundation-supported structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Models of the tall buildings without and with shear walls considering SSI [<a href="#B130-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">130</a>]: (<b>a</b>) a building model; (<b>b</b>) a building model with shear walls.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Numerical models with and without considering SSI [<a href="#B128-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">128</a>]: (<b>a</b>) fixed-base model; (<b>b</b>) flexible-base model.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Numerical models of the cSSSI arrangement in SASSI (<b>left</b>) and LS-DYNA (<b>right</b>) [<a href="#B138-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">138</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Change in acceleration power due to 3D SSSI [<a href="#B139-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">139</a>]: (<b>a</b>) L shape arrangement; (<b>b</b>) a city block of twelve equispaced identical buildings.</p> Full article ">Figure 10 Cont.
<p>Change in acceleration power due to 3D SSSI [<a href="#B139-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">139</a>]: (<b>a</b>) L shape arrangement; (<b>b</b>) a city block of twelve equispaced identical buildings.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Centrifuge model configuration at prototype scale [<a href="#B140-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">140</a>]: (<b>a</b>) Model RG-01; (<b>b</b>) Model RG-02.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Models of shaking table tests [<a href="#B128-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">128</a>]: (<b>a</b>) fixed-base model; (<b>b</b>) SSI model.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Experimental model of TSSI [<a href="#B28-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">28</a>]: (<b>a</b>) dimensions; (<b>b</b>) accelerometer positions.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Schematic 3D view of pile groups and skids on shake table [<a href="#B112-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">112</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Superstructure diagram and test site [<a href="#B142-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">142</a>]: (<b>a</b>) frame structure with independent foundation (unit: m); (<b>b</b>) frame structure with integral box foundation (unit: m); (<b>c</b>) soil container.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Shaking table test models of SFSI and SSSI: (<b>A</b>) setup of Tests 1 and 2 [<a href="#B143-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">143</a>]; (<b>B</b>) setup of Tests 3 and 4 [<a href="#B144-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">144</a>]; (<b>C</b>) diagram of iSSSI (Test 3), aSSSI (Tset 4), and cSSSI (Test 4) (from left to right) [<a href="#B137-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">137</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Configurations of experimental models on shaking table [<a href="#B145-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">145</a>]: (<b>a</b>) block cellular polyurethane foam (soil model); (<b>b</b>) central building model; (<b>c</b>) parallel buildings model.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Geometry of model and experimental setup [<a href="#B146-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">146</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Shaking table test of single-column mass structure–soil interaction [<a href="#B17-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">17</a>]: (<b>a</b>) soil container with experimental model; (<b>b</b>) single-column mass structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Shaking table test of single-layer latticed cylindrical shell structure–pile–soil interaction under vertical incidence of seismic waves [<a href="#B16-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">16</a>]: (<b>a</b>) vertical arrangement; (<b>b</b>) parallel arrangement.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Shaking table test of single-layer latticed cylindrical shell structure–independent foundation–soil interaction under vertical and oblique incidence of seismic waves [<a href="#B16-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">16</a>]: (<b>a</b>) vertical arrangement; (<b>b</b>) parallel arrangement.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Shaking table test of single-layer latticed cylindrical shell structure-independent foundation–soil interaction considering seismic isolation [<a href="#B16-buildings-14-01174" class="html-bibr">16</a>]: (<b>a</b>) soil container with experimental model; (<b>b</b>) layered rubber bearing and its connection.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Model of Lanzhou Olympic Sports Center considering SSI.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 5059 KiB  
Article
Understanding Penetration Attenuation of Permeable Concrete: A Hybrid Artificial Intelligence Technique Based on Particle Swarm Optimization
by Fei Zhu, Xiangping Wu, Yijun Lu and Jiandong Huang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041173 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1686
Abstract
Permeable concrete is a type of porous concrete with the special function of water permeability, but the permeability of permeable concrete will decrease gradually due to the clogging behavior arising from the surrounding environment. To reliably characterize the clogging behavior of permeable concrete, [...] Read more.
Permeable concrete is a type of porous concrete with the special function of water permeability, but the permeability of permeable concrete will decrease gradually due to the clogging behavior arising from the surrounding environment. To reliably characterize the clogging behavior of permeable concrete, particle swarm optimization (PSO) and random forest (RF) hybrid artificial intelligence techniques were developed in this study to predict the permeability coefficient of permeable concrete and optimize the aggregate mix ratio of permeable concrete. Firstly, a reliable database was collected and established to characterize the input and output variables for the machine learning. Then, PSO and 10-fold cross-validation were used to optimize the hyperparameters of the RF model using the training and testing datasets. Finally, the accuracy of the developed model was verified by comparing the predicted value with the actual value of the permeability coefficients (R = 0.978 and RMSE = 1.3638 for the training dataset; R = 0.9734 and RMSE = 2.3246 for the testing dataset). The proposed model can provide reliable predictions of the clogging behavior that permeable concrete may face and the trend of its development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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<p>Penetration attenuation of permeable concrete.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Flow chart of the research process.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Bootstrap method.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Flow chart of the bagging algorithm.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Modeling the clogging behavior using the RF algorithm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Correlation coefficient analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Sensitive analysis of different input variables: (<b>a</b>) proportion of G1 aggregate; (<b>b</b>) proportion of G1 aggregate; (<b>c</b>) proportion of G1 aggregate; (<b>d</b>) proportion of G1 aggregate; (<b>e</b>) sample thickness; (<b>f</b>) clogging sand sizes.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>RMSE values for different fold numbers.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>RMSE values with the increase in the iteration times.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Comparison of the predicted value with the actual value.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Consistency analysis of the predicted value and the actual value.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Comparison between the physical model, the PSO-SVM model, and the proposed model in this study.</p> Full article ">
21 pages, 55594 KiB  
Article
Spatial Silhouette: A Study on the Creation Strategy of Strong Bamboo Architecture with “Negative Space” as the Main Feature—A Case Study of Phu Quoc Island Visitor Centre, Vietnam
by Chaoxian Li, Jiaojiao Ma and Xiaoming Gao
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041172 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1969
Abstract
The Gestalt theory of mental completeness in architecture gave rise to the ideas of “positive space” and “negative space”. This research digs into the sturdy structural building process of bamboo architecture, which is essentially distinguished by “negative space”. It examines how bamboo is [...] Read more.
The Gestalt theory of mental completeness in architecture gave rise to the ideas of “positive space” and “negative space”. This research digs into the sturdy structural building process of bamboo architecture, which is essentially distinguished by “negative space”. It examines how bamboo is articulated in architectural space, while attempting to establish a balance between form and structure, with the goal of discovering the current value and spiritual position that bamboo in architecture represents. Using the Phu Quoc Island Visitor Center in Vietnam as an example, we introduce the strong structure concept and examine its design process in terms of spatial operation technique and strong structural expression logic. The fundamental strategy for creating bamboo architecture under this concept is to take the lead in negative space design and use the material capabilities of bamboo to build structural space prototypes. This further encourages the use of green building materials and offers architects working with bamboo a reference. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creativity in Architecture)
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<p>Research framework diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Development of the relationship between structure and architecture.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Comparison of selected mechanical properties of spruce wood, steel, and bamboo. Source: own elaboration based on the work presented in ref. [<a href="#B23-buildings-14-01172" class="html-bibr">23</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Association of bamboo architecture with the strong structure concepts.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Diagram analyzing the process of translating spatial forms.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Design flow analysis diagram.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 7957 KiB  
Article
A Field Investigation to Quantify the Correlation between Local and Overall Thermal Comfort in Cool Environments
by Xiaohong Liang, Yingdong He, Nianping Li, Yicheng Yin and Jinhua Hu
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041171 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1102
Abstract
The thermal comfort of local body parts is the essential factor that affects people’s health and comfort as well as a buildings’ energy. This study aims to (1) investigate the characteristics of the local thermal comfort of different body parts of occupants in [...] Read more.
The thermal comfort of local body parts is the essential factor that affects people’s health and comfort as well as a buildings’ energy. This study aims to (1) investigate the characteristics of the local thermal comfort of different body parts of occupants in real buildings in winter, (2) quantify the correlation between the amount of local body parts with coolness or discomfort and the overall subjective thermal responses, and (3) validate an easy-to-use local–overall thermal comfort model. A field investigation in the office and study rooms of a university was conducted in winter. The results indicate that the top five percentages of local coolness appeared in the feet (41.02%), the hands (26.58%), the calves (25.18%), the thighs (13.99%), and the head (9.72%) and that the top five percentages of local discomfort appeared in the feet (44.99%), the palms (28.2%), the calves (24.74%), the head (19.66%), and the thighs (16.35%). Moreover, when the whole body felt cool, at least four local body parts had cool sensations; when the whole body felt thermally uncomfortable, at least three local body parts had cool sensations; and when the whole body felt that the ambient environment was thermally unacceptable, at least seven local body parts had cool sensations. Meanwhile, the correlation between local discomfort and whole-body responses was different: when the whole body felt thermal uncomfortable, at least three local body parts had discomfort; and when the whole body felt that the ambient environment was thermally unacceptable, at least four local body parts had discomfort. Further, the local–overall thermal comfort model proposed by the authors exerted high accuracy in predicting overall thermal comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Comfort in Built Environment: Challenges and Research Trends)
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<p>The location of Changsha [<a href="#B36-buildings-14-01171" class="html-bibr">36</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The investigated buildings and rooms: (<b>a</b>) Building A, (<b>b</b>) Building B, and (<b>c</b>) Building C.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The main questions of the questionnaire used in this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Environmental parameters: indoor temperature and relative humidity.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Distributions of participants’ local skin temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Average skin temperatures of different body parts.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Percentages of the top five discomfort body parts under different indoor temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Percentages of the top five cool body parts under different indoor temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Percentages of local discomfort of different body parts.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Percentages of the top five uncomfortable body parts under different indoor temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Percentages of overall cool sensation, discomfort, and unacceptability under different indoor temperatures.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Percentages of overall subjective responses and different amounts of cool body parts.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Percentages of overall subjective responses and different amounts of uncomfortable body parts.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison between the actual and predicted overall thermal sensations.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Comparison between the actual and predicted overall thermal comfort.</p> Full article ">
21 pages, 8987 KiB  
Article
Volume Stability and Mechanical Properties of Cement Paste Containing Natural Fibers from Phragmites-Australis Plant at Elevated Temperature
by Hassan Ghanem, Rawan Ramadan, Jamal Khatib and Adel Elkordi
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1170; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041170 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1264
Abstract
The utilization of bio-fiber materials in building components has become imperative for improving sustainability, controlling global warming, addressing environmental concerns, and enhancing concrete properties. This study is part of a wide-range investigation on the use of Phragmites-Australis (PhA) fibers in construction and building [...] Read more.
The utilization of bio-fiber materials in building components has become imperative for improving sustainability, controlling global warming, addressing environmental concerns, and enhancing concrete properties. This study is part of a wide-range investigation on the use of Phragmites-Australis (PhA) fibers in construction and building materials. In this paper, the volume stability and mechanical properties of paste containing PhA fibers and exposed to high temperatures were investigated. Four mixes were made with 0, 0.5, 1, and 2% fibers by volume. To evaluate the volume stability and mechanical properties, the chemical shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, expansion, ultrasonic pulse velocity, compressive strength, and flexural strength were tested. The curing duration and temperature were 180 days and 45 °C, respectively. The results indicated that an addition of PhA fibers of up to 2% resulted in a reduction in all the shrinkage parameters at 180 days. The presence of PhA fibers in the paste tended to reduce the compressive strength, with the lowest value observed at 2%. Apart from the values at 90 days, the optimal flexural strength seemed to be achieved by the paste with 1% PhA fibers. To further elucidate the experimental results, a hyperbolic model was employed to predict the variation in the length change as a function of the curing age with a high accuracy. Based on the results obtained, PhA fibers can play a crucial role in mitigating the shrinkage parameters and enhancing the mechanical properties of cement paste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable Use of Construction and Structural Materials (to Meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals-SDG))
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Figure 1
<p>PhA plant dimensions.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Process of preparing the PhA fibers.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>CH-S setup.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Samples for length change and mechanical property testing, placed in an oven at a constant temperature of 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Initial length change rate and ultimate length change variables.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>UPV for cement paste at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Compressive strength for cement pastes with different PhA fiber additions at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Flexural strength of pastes with different percentages of PhA fibers at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Estimation of CH-S for cement paste samples at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>CH-S characteristics for pastes at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Estimation of AU-S for cement paste specimens at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>AU-S characteristics for pastes at an elevated temperature.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Estimation of DR-S for cement paste specimens at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>DR-S characteristics for paste at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Estimation of EXP for cement paste specimens at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>EXP characteristics for pastes at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Correlation between CH-S and DR-S for cement paste with PhA fibers at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Correlation between CH-S and AU-S for cement paste with PhA fibers at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Correlation between CH-S and EXP for cement paste with PhA fibers at 45 °C.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 3672 KiB  
Article
Unveiling Gender-Based Musculoskeletal Disorders in the Construction Industry: A Comprehensive Analysis
by Suresh Kumar Paramasivam, Kanitha Mani and Balamurugan Paneerselvam
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1169; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041169 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1657
Abstract
Without physically intensive building, modern infrastructure development would be impossible. Musculoskeletal diseases (MSDs) and other occupational health issues may arise in such a demanding environment. Construction workers often develop MSDs from repeated actions, uncomfortable postures, and heavy lifting. Musculoskeletal disorders may damage muscles, [...] Read more.
Without physically intensive building, modern infrastructure development would be impossible. Musculoskeletal diseases (MSDs) and other occupational health issues may arise in such a demanding environment. Construction workers often develop MSDs from repeated actions, uncomfortable postures, and heavy lifting. Musculoskeletal disorders may damage muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments, etc. The effect of MSDs is well known; occupational health studies increasingly include gender-specific aspects. Despite being in the minority, the number of female construction employees is growing. However, physiological variations and occupational activities and environments may provide distinct obstacles. Thus, identifying gender-specific MSDs in construction is essential for worker safety. This research proposes a gender-specific machine learning (ML)-based musculoskeletal disorder detection framework (GS-ML-MSD2F) in the construction industry. A simple random selection procedure chose 250 female and 250 male rebar workers with at least six months of experience for the dataset. In January and June 2023, face-to-face interviews and ergonomic evaluations were undertaken. The data were analyzed using different machine learning methods, and the effectiveness of the methods was studied. The data showed that 60% of female rebar workers had MSD symptoms. The lower back and shoulders accounted for 40% of cases. Multiple machine learning methods revealed two significant factors related to musculoskeletal disorders: lengthy working hours and uncomfortable postures, and long working hours had an adjusted odds ratio of 8.5%, whereas awkward posture had an adjusted odds ratio of 42.5%. These results emphasize the relevance of working hours and posture in MSD prevention for female rebar workers in the construction sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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Figure 1
<p>Coding structure and related concepts.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Correlations among stresses, buffering factors, and tension outcomes.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>In-depth conceptualization framework.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Methodology for analysis frameworks.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Research approach.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Posture analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Musculoskeletal analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Performance analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Working hours analysis.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Stress analysis.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 4452 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on Erosion Modeling of Architectural Red Sandstone under the Action of the Natural Environment
by Shuisheng Zeng, Jun Zhang, Huanlin Zhang, Rutian Li, Tao Ao and Kunpeng Cao
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1168; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041168 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1109
Abstract
When buildings are exposed to erosion from the natural environment, erosion behaviors such as surface damage and structural instability occur, which greatly affect the aesthetic value and service life of the buildings. The study of erosion behaviors and the establishment of a suitable [...] Read more.
When buildings are exposed to erosion from the natural environment, erosion behaviors such as surface damage and structural instability occur, which greatly affect the aesthetic value and service life of the buildings. The study of erosion behaviors and the establishment of a suitable erosion model are constructive references for the protection and restoration of buildings. In order to establish a suitable erosion model for architectural red sandstone, two types of red sandstone specimens were selected in this paper to carry out dry and wet cycle tests. Combining the theoretical analysis and the actual erosion situation, a unidirectional corrosion model is proposed to describe the erosion of buildings by the natural environment. In this model, it is assumed that only the outer surface of the building is in contact with external erosion factors for a long period of time, so this situation can be considered a unidirectional erosion process. The paper uses XRD, SEM, and ultrasonic methods to record changes in the properties of the red sandstone samples. Finally, the rationality of the unidirectional erosion model was verified numerically. The test results show that the red sandstone specimens subjected to erosion by the natural environment will be accompanied by the development of defects, such as cracks, fissures, and holes, as well as the generation of fresh material. The demarcation point of different erosion stages exists in both the in-service red sandstone specimens and the fresh red sandstone specimens, which is consistent with the results of the unidirectional erosion model. In this paper, a calculation model for the demarcation point of different erosion stages is established, and the model estimation shows that the demarcation point of different erosion stages of the in-service red sandstone sample is 1.1528 cm from the erosion surface, and the demarcation point of different erosion stages of the fresh red sandstone sample is 1.67 cm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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<p>Sponge sheet with red sandstone specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Ultrasonic wave velocity, XRD, and SEM test plots.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>XRD spectrum of red sandstone specimens. (<b>a</b>) XRD spectrum of red sandstone specimen 14. (<b>b</b>) XRD spectrum of red sandstone specimen 24.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>SEM images of red sandstone specimens. (<b>a</b>) SEM image of red sandstone specimen 14 (×100, ×500 and ×2000). (<b>b</b>) SEM image of red sandstone specimen 24 (×100, ×500 and ×2000).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Two erosion models for eroded building elements.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Variation of ultrasonic velocity in red sandstone specimens under acidic dry and wet cycles. (<b>a</b>) Ultrasonic velocity variations in in-service red sandstone specimens. (<b>b</b>) Ultrasonic velocity variations in fresh red sandstone specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for in-service red sandstone specimens. (<b>a</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 11. (<b>b</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 12. (<b>c</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 13. (<b>d</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 14.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for fresh red sandstone specimens. (<b>a</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 21. (<b>b</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 22. (<b>c</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 23. (<b>d</b>) Relationship between ultrasonic velocity and the number of wet and dry cycles for sandstone specimen 24.</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 12699 KiB  
Article
Automated Reinforcement during Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing: Structural Assessment of a Dual Approach
by Hassan Ahmed, Ilerioluwa Giwa, Daniel Game, Gabriel Arce, Hassan Noorvand, Marwa Hassan and Ali Kazemian
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041167 - 20 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1748
Abstract
Automated and seamless integration of reinforcement is one of the main unresolved challenges in large-scale additive construction. This study leverages a dual-reinforcement solution consisting of high-dosage steel fiber (up to 2.5% by volume) and short vertical reinforcements as a complementary reinforcement technique for [...] Read more.
Automated and seamless integration of reinforcement is one of the main unresolved challenges in large-scale additive construction. This study leverages a dual-reinforcement solution consisting of high-dosage steel fiber (up to 2.5% by volume) and short vertical reinforcements as a complementary reinforcement technique for 3D-printed elements. The mechanical performance of the printing material was characterized by measuring the compressive, flexural, and uniaxial tensile strengths of mold-cast specimens. Furthermore, the flexural performance of the plain and fiber-reinforced 3D-printed beams was evaluated in the three main loading directions (X, Y, and Z-directions in-plane). In addition, short vertical threaded reinforcements were inserted into the fiber-reinforced 3D-printed beams tested in the Z-direction. The experimental results revealed the superior flexural performance of the fiber-reinforced beams loaded in the longitudinal directions (X and Y). Moreover, the threaded reinforcement significantly increases the flexural strength and ductility of beams loaded along the interface, compared to the control. Overall, the proposed dual-reinforcement approach, which exhibited notably less porosity compared to the mold-cast counterpart, holds great potential as a reinforcement solution for 3D-printed structures without the need for manual operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the 3D Printing of Concrete)
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<p>Concrete printing system and the nozzle used in this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Developed reinforcement insertion device integrated with the printhead.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Test setup for (<b>a</b>) Compressive strength test; (<b>b</b>) 4-point bending tests according to ASTM C78; (<b>c</b>) Uniaxial tensile test.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Testing 3D-printed beams in X, Y, and Z directions.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>3D-printed specimen for testing in X and Y directions.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) 3D-printed wall specimen for testing in the Z direction; (<b>b</b>) The extraction process of the beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Examples of different reinforcement types and the resulting voids: (<b>a</b>) 10 mm rebar with a flat tip; (<b>b</b>) 10 mm rebar with tapered tip; (<b>c</b>) 6 mm threaded bar with a tapered tip; (<b>d</b>) 6 mm threaded reinforcement (selected for the main experiments).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Dimensions of the stainless steel threaded reinforcement used in this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The designed reinforcement configuration for F2.5-3DP-Z-TR beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>(<b>a</b>) Discontinuous threaded reinforcement insertion during the 3D-printing process; (<b>b</b>) Inserted threaded reinforcement with minimal resulting voids.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>4-point bending tests for beams in (<b>a</b>) X direction, (<b>b</b>) Y direction, and (<b>c</b>) Z direction following ASTM C1609.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>ROI selection and segmentation of 2D slices.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>(<b>a</b>) Mold-cast reinforced specimen; (<b>b</b>) 3D-printed reinforced specimen used for the CT scanning process.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>The effect of nozzle size on the shape stability of plain and fiber-reinforced printing materials.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>The flexural strength of 3D-printed and mold-cast beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Flexural stress vs. deflection curves (<b>a</b>) F2.5-MC; (<b>b</b>) F2.5-3DP-X; (<b>c</b>) F2.5-3DP-Y; (<b>d</b>) F2.5-3DP-Z; (<b>e</b>) F2.5-3DP-Z-TR.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>(<b>a</b>) Flexural toughness <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mrow> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>150</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>100</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo> </mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>and (<b>b</b>) deflection capacity of F2.5 mixtures.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>The cracking pattern of mold-cast and 3D-printed beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Total and connected porosity of mold-cast and 3D-printed specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>2D porosity distribution along the Z axis of the threaded reinforcement (<b>a</b>) CT-MC-TR-1; (<b>b</b>) CT-MC-TR-2; (<b>c</b>) CT-3DP-TR-1; (<b>d</b>) CT-3DP-TR-2.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Illustration of void creation (<b>a</b>) 2D CT slides; (<b>b</b>) 3D volume rendering (top view).</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 5630 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Fire-Damaged RC Beams Reinforced with Carbon Fiber Mesh
by Jinsheng Cheng, Hao Wang, Zhisong Xu, Guanglin Yuan and Qingtao Li
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041166 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1095
Abstract
The bearing capacity of reinforced concrete (RC) beam will be weakened by fire. It is necessary to strengthen RC beams after fire. The carbon fiber mesh (CFM) can be used to reinforce RC beams. In this paper, RC beams were exposed to varying [...] Read more.
The bearing capacity of reinforced concrete (RC) beam will be weakened by fire. It is necessary to strengthen RC beams after fire. The carbon fiber mesh (CFM) can be used to reinforce RC beams. In this paper, RC beams were exposed to varying temperatures, followed by reinforcement with varying layers of CFM. The influence of the heating temperature and the number of CFM layers on the flexural performance of RC beams was investigated. The results indicated that the cracking loads of RC beams were 18.2, 16.4, 16.3, and 15.5 kN when the RC beams were subjected to room temperatures, 150, 350, and 550 °C. Compared to the unreinforced beams at room temperature, the cracking loads of the RC beams were reduced by 9.89%, 10.44%, and 14.84%. As the quantity of CFM reinforcement layers rises, so does the ultimate bearing capacity. For example, when the temperature was 150 °C, the ultimate loads of the beams with one and three layers of CFM were increased by 20% and 31.76% compared to the reference beam. When the temperature was 350 °C, the ultimate loads of the beams with one and three layers of CFM were increased by 19.51% and 28.04% compared to the RC beam without CFM. When the temperature was 550 °C, the ultimate loads of the beams with one and three layers of CFM were increased by 20% and 26.67% compared to the RC beam without CFM. Fire-damaged RC beams can be strengthened by one layer of CFM and mortar if the temperature was below 350 °C. Fire-damaged RC beams can be strengthened by three layers of CFM and mortar if the temperature was below 550 °C. The mechanical properties can be obviously enhanced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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<p>Compressive strength of concrete after exposure to elevated temperature.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Carbon fiber mesh (CFM).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Beam dimensions and reinforcement (unit: mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Thermocouple arrangement in the beam (unit: mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Elevated-temperature test heating device and heating schematic diagram. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of heating on three sides of the beam; (<b>b</b>) photo of heating on the third side of the beam.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Reinforcing diagram for RC beam. (<b>a</b>) Front elevation view of RC beam reinforcement; (<b>b</b>) one-layer section 1-1; (<b>c</b>) one-layer section 2-2; (<b>d</b>) three-layer section 1-1; (<b>e</b>) three-layer section 2-2.</p> Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
<p>Reinforcing diagram for RC beam. (<b>a</b>) Front elevation view of RC beam reinforcement; (<b>b</b>) one-layer section 1-1; (<b>c</b>) one-layer section 2-2; (<b>d</b>) three-layer section 1-1; (<b>e</b>) three-layer section 2-2.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Beam loading device diagram. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of loading device; (<b>b</b>) loading device on-site diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison of failure patterns of RC beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 8 Cont.
<p>Comparison of failure patterns of RC beams.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Effect of temperature on the load–displacement curve of RC beams. (<b>a</b>) RC beams without CFM; (<b>b</b>) RC beam reinforced with one layer of CFM; (<b>c</b>) RC beam reinforced with three layers of CFM.</p> Full article ">Figure 9 Cont.
<p>Effect of temperature on the load–displacement curve of RC beams. (<b>a</b>) RC beams without CFM; (<b>b</b>) RC beam reinforced with one layer of CFM; (<b>c</b>) RC beam reinforced with three layers of CFM.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Influence of the number of layers on the load–displacement curve. (<b>a</b>) RC beams at room temperature; (<b>b</b>) RC beams heated to 150 °C; (<b>c</b>) RC beams heated to 350 °C; (<b>d</b>) RC beams heated to 550 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 10 Cont.
<p>Influence of the number of layers on the load–displacement curve. (<b>a</b>) RC beams at room temperature; (<b>b</b>) RC beams heated to 150 °C; (<b>c</b>) RC beams heated to 350 °C; (<b>d</b>) RC beams heated to 550 °C.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 1259 KiB  
Review
Systematic Mapping of Circular Economy in Structural Engineering
by Hanne Rangnes Seeberg, Sverre Magnus Haakonsen and Marcin Luczkowski
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1165; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041165 - 20 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1837
Abstract
Facing increasing sustainability demands, the construction industry is at a turning point where the implementation of circular economy (CE) strategies plays an essential role in driving the necessary transformation aimed at reducing the environmental impact. To facilitate this shift, structural engineering must effectively [...] Read more.
Facing increasing sustainability demands, the construction industry is at a turning point where the implementation of circular economy (CE) strategies plays an essential role in driving the necessary transformation aimed at reducing the environmental impact. To facilitate this shift, structural engineering must effectively integrate circular principles into building design. With the exponential growth of research articles within this field, it is crucial to map the evolution of the research area. The objective of this study is to detail the trends with, challenges to, and research contributions, integration, and material applications of CE principles within structural engineering. Consequently, a systematic mapping of the CE within the field of structural engineering has been conducted in this study. Initially, the mapping process began with the identification of relevant keywords, followed by searches across four databases. Each resulting article was carefully screened against content criteria, culminating in 91 publications that were thoroughly evaluated. The publications were then categorized and analyzed based on attributes such as research type, circular design, materials, and applications. The results are presented through informative figures and tables. The analysis of the research indicates a predominant focus on technical solutions for structural systems, with demountable connections designed to facilitate the future reuse of materials representing more than half of the literature reviewed. A significant portion of the literature also addresses designing from reclaimed elements; these articles reflect a transformation in engineering approaches, incorporating computational design and innovative methodologies. The focus on steel as a structural material is prominent in the reviewed literature. However, there is an increasing focus on timber, which signals a definitive shift toward sustainable structural systems. Recurring challenges identified in the literature regarding the transition to a circular economy (CE) in the construction industry include the need for industry-wide adoption, precise standardization, the integration of digital tools, and the overcoming of related obstacles in policy and market acceptances. Furthermore, the literature demonstrates a significant research gap: the absence of a comprehensive digital framework enabling an effective digital circular structural design workflow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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<p>Flowchart representing the mapping process from start to finish, showing the number of publications at each stage.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Word cloud illustrating the variation of keywords used in the screened publications.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Distribution of attributes in the included papers for all attributes.</p> Full article ">Figure 3 Cont.
<p>Distribution of attributes in the included papers for all attributes.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Distribution of publications by Research Type and Circular Design.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Swarm plot presenting the categorization of publications with respect to Research Type, Circular Design, and Contribution.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Development in yearly publications for each of the five attributes.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 3801 KiB  
Article
Numerical Analysis of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Strip Footing Constructed on Sand-over-Clay Sediment
by Shaziya Banu, Mousa Attom, Farid Abed, Ramesh Vandanapu, Philip Virgil Astillo, Naser Al-Lozi and Ahmed Khalil
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1164; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041164 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1832
Abstract
This paper analyzes the bearing capacity of two-layered soil medium using finite element (FE) software ABAQUS/CAE 2023. Although geotechnical engineers design foundations for layered soil, majorly current geotechnical studies emphasize single homogenous soil. So, this research has significant novelty as it focuses on [...] Read more.
This paper analyzes the bearing capacity of two-layered soil medium using finite element (FE) software ABAQUS/CAE 2023. Although geotechnical engineers design foundations for layered soil, majorly current geotechnical studies emphasize single homogenous soil. So, this research has significant novelty as it focuses on layered soil and adds to the current literature. A nonlinear FE model was prepared and analyzed to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of two-layered soil (sandy soil over clayey soil). The Drucker–Prager and Mohr–Coulomb models were used to represent sandy soil and clayey soil layers, respectively. Strip footing material properties were considered isotropic and linearly elastic. This study performed parametric studies to understand the effects of thickness, unit weight, and the modulus of the elasticity of sandy soil on the ultimate soil bearing capacity. Additionally, it also analyzed the effect of the cohesive strength of clayey soil on layered soil bearing capacity. Results showed that an increase in sandy soil layer thickness strengthens the layered soil, and thus, improves the bearing capacity of soil. Increasing the sandy soil layer thickness over footing width (h1/B) ratio from 0.15 to 2.0 improved the ultimate bearing capacities with elastic settlements of 350 mm and 250 mm by 145.62% and 101.66%, respectively. Additionally, for a thicker sandy soil layer, an increase in the unit weight and modulus of the elasticity of sandy soil led to higher ultimate bearing capacity. Furthermore, it was concluded that an increase in clayey soil’s cohesive strength from 20 kPa to 30 kPa resulted in a 24.31% and 3.47% increase in soil bearing capacity for h1/B = 0.15 and h1/B = 2.0, respectively. So, the effect of cohesion is prevalent in the case of a thicker clayey soil layer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Soil-Structure Interaction in Construction)
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Potential failure mechanism for layered soil [<a href="#B2-buildings-14-01164" class="html-bibr">2</a>]; (<b>b</b>) potential failure in square or rectangular footing on layered soil [<a href="#B27-buildings-14-01164" class="html-bibr">27</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Problem Illustration (Adapted with permission from [<a href="#B40-buildings-14-01164" class="html-bibr">40</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>ABAQUS model representation with the applied boundary conditions and loads.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Various mesh sizes for mesh sensitivity analysis: (<b>a</b>) from 0.45 to 2.00 m (=450 to 2000 mm), (<b>b</b>) 0.30 m (300 mm), (<b>c</b>) 0.25 m (250 mm), and (<b>d</b>) 0.20 m (200 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Bearing capacity and (<b>b</b>) plastic shear strain of soil with clayey soil overlaying sandy soil for FE model validation with [<a href="#B3-buildings-14-01164" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Bearing capacity and (<b>b</b>) plastic shear strain of soil with sandy soil overlaying clayey soil medium.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Ultimate bearing capacity with different sandy soil thicknesses and elastic settlement of (<b>a</b>) 350 mm, and (<b>b</b>) 250 mm for sandy soil overlaying clayey soil model.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Plastic shear distribution for various sandy soil thicknesses: (<b>a</b>) h1/B = 0.5, (<b>b</b>) h1/B = 1.0, (<b>c</b>) h1/B = 1.5, and (<b>d</b>) h1/B = 2.0 in layered soil (sandy soil overlaying clayey soil).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Vertical stress distribution along the soil depth in layered soil (sandy soil overlaying clayey soil) with elastic footing settlement of (<b>a</b>) 350 mm, and (<b>b</b>) 250 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Effect of sandy soil (<b>a</b>) unit weight with h1/B = 1.0, (<b>b</b>) unit weight with h1/B = 2.0, and (<b>c</b>) modulus of elasticity with h1/B = 2.0 on the bearing capacity of layered soil (sandy soil overlaying clayey soil) with settlement of 350 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Effect of clayey soil cohesion on the ultimate bearing capacity of layered soil (sandy soil overlaying clayey soil) for (<b>a</b>) h1/B = 0.15 with a settlement of 300 mm, and (<b>b</b>) h1/B = 2.0 with a settlement of 350 mm.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 5981 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Low-Carbon Pilot Policies on the Land Green Use Efficiency in Adjacent Non-Pilot Cities: An Empirical Study Based on 257 Prefecture-Level and above Cities in China
by Xinle Li, Yangyang Shi, Xin Li and Xiang Luo
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041163 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 993
Abstract
In the context of global climate change, the low-carbon city pilot policy has become an important strategy to promote green development. Based on the panel data from 257 prefecture-level and above cities in China, this study utilized the Super-Efficiency SBM (Slacks-Based Measure) to [...] Read more.
In the context of global climate change, the low-carbon city pilot policy has become an important strategy to promote green development. Based on the panel data from 257 prefecture-level and above cities in China, this study utilized the Super-Efficiency SBM (Slacks-Based Measure) to measure the land green use efficiency and analyzes the impact of the policy on adjacent non-pilot cities using a difference-in-differences model. The findings indicate that the implementation of low-carbon pilot policies can significantly improve the land green use efficiency in adjacent non-pilot cities, which can be primarily ascribed to the spillover effect and catfish effect. A heterogeneity analysis further revealed the positive effects of the policies in the eastern region and non-resource-based cities. This study provides valuable references for relevant legal provisions on environmental regulation and for continuously monitoring and evaluating the policy effects to achieve sustainable development goals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable City Development: Urban Planning and Housing Management)
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<p>Spatial distribution of three batches of low-carbon pilot areas in China.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Distribution map of the study area.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Temporal evolution of land green use efficiency: a kernel density estimation approach.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Spatial distribution of urban land green use efficiency.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Parallel trend test (192); (<b>b</b>) Parallel trend test (192).</p> Full article ">
21 pages, 3188 KiB  
Review
A Science Mapping Approach-Based Review of Construction Workers’ Safety-Related Behavior
by Jing Feng, Xin Gao, Hujun Li, Baijian Liu and Xiaoying Tang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1162; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041162 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2082
Abstract
Promoting safe behaviors among construction workers and mitigating unsafe behaviors is an effective approach to enhancing safety performance in the construction industry. Although progress has been made, the research themes concerning construction workers’ safety-related behaviors (CWSRB) and the detailed progress of [...] Read more.
Promoting safe behaviors among construction workers and mitigating unsafe behaviors is an effective approach to enhancing safety performance in the construction industry. Although progress has been made, the research themes concerning construction workers’ safety-related behaviors (CWSRB) and the detailed progress of each theme remain unclear due to differences in review perspectives and conceptual scopes. This study utilized CiteSpace software (V6.2R3 version) to conduct an analysis of co-authorship networks, co-word networks, and co-citations on 563 published articles in this field from 2013 to 2023. This study’s outcomes highlight several key insights: (1) journals such as Safety Science play a pivotal role in the domain; (2) institutions such as the City University of Hong Kong and Hong Kong Polytechnic University, along with prolific authors like Li, are major contributors to the field; (3) the focus of research has evolved from early organizational factors towards a more diverse range of topics, with deep learning emerging as a significant current research hotspot; (4) this study has identified high-cited literature and 11 primary clusters within the field. Current research focuses on five areas: safety-related behavior concepts, influencing factors and consequences, formation mechanisms, interventions, and applications of new technologies. Establishing clear classification criteria for unsafe behaviors, comprehensively understanding the formation mechanisms of safety-related behaviors, evaluating the effectiveness of intervention strategies, and exploring the practical applications of new technologies are future research directions. This study provides researchers with a holistic view of the present state of research and potential avenues for future exploration, thereby deepening the knowledge and comprehension of stakeholders within this domain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence and Automation in Construction Industry)
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<p>Research design.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Annual publications of CWSRB from 2013 to 2023.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Co-institution network.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Co-authorship network.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Keyword time zone.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Document co-citation cluster.</p> Full article ">
34 pages, 17517 KiB  
Article
A Numerical Investigation of the Influence of Humid Environments on the Thermal Performance of a Phase Change Thermal Storage Cooling System in Buildings
by Xiangkui Gao, Qing Sheng and Na Li
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041161 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1066
Abstract
Phase change thermal energy storage (PCTES) technology has garnered significant attention in addressing thermal management challenges in building HVAC systems. However, the cooling performance of PCTES systems in humid scenarios remains unexplored, which is crucial in subtropical regions, high-humidity underground areas, and densely [...] Read more.
Phase change thermal energy storage (PCTES) technology has garnered significant attention in addressing thermal management challenges in building HVAC systems. However, the cooling performance of PCTES systems in humid scenarios remains unexplored, which is crucial in subtropical regions, high-humidity underground areas, and densely populated spaces. Taking the mine refuge chamber (MRC) as an example, this study focuses on a passive temperature and humidity control system by employing cold storage phase change plates (PCPs) for 96 h. First, an improved and simplified full-scale numerical model including PCPs and MRC parts is established. Then, the model is validated through the experimental results and solved using a numerical method. Finally, the influence of various factors within the system is investigated and an optimization method involving batch operation is proposed. The results indicate that (1) within 40 h, the use of cold storage PCPs leads to an indoor temperature reduction of 4.8 °C and a 7% decrease in relative humidity; (2) the PCPs show asynchronous states in sensible and latent heat transfer rates; (3) for every 50 additional PCPs, the average indoor temperature increases by 0.6 °C and the relative humidity decreases by 1.5%; (4) implementing batch operation of PCPs ensures that the indoor Heat Index drops by 10 °C, which is vital for human survival. The findings will play a crucial role in the global expansion and application (including geographical and functional aspects) of phase change thermal storage technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic New Development for Decarbonization in Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning in Buildings)
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<p>Schematic diagram of the temperature and humidity control system for MRC with cold storage phase change units: (<b>a</b>) system layout diagram; (<b>b</b>) system schematic diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The configuration of the model for MRC with cooling PCPs.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Simplified two-zone model of natural convection heat and mass transfer on the surface of the PCP in MRCs.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic of simplified structure of MRC: (<b>a</b>) before simplification; (<b>b</b>) after simplification.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Schematic of grid division of MRC: (<b>a</b>) PCP sub-model; (<b>b</b>) MRC sub-model.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Flow chart of the numerical solution.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Experimental device: (<b>a</b>) experimental schematic; (<b>b</b>) the picture of the experimental device. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Ref. [<a href="#B28-buildings-14-01161" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. 2022, Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Validation of numerical results with experimental test data: (<b>a</b>) melting rate of PCP; (<b>b</b>) natural convection airflow temperature and humidity; (<b>c</b>) airflow velocity.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Experimental scenery. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Ref. [<a href="#B36-buildings-14-01161" class="html-bibr">36</a>]. 2018, Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Comparison of the numerical and experimental results in the MRC.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison of temperature and relative humidity of the indoor air under seven different time and mesh sizes (The data are obtained from the indoor air at the 10th hour).</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Variation of the melting fraction and average surface temperature of the PCP over 96 h.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Variation of the surrounding rock temperatures at different depths over time.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Natural convection airflow parameters of the PCP: (<b>a</b>) temperature and relative humidity; (<b>b</b>) humidity ratio in mass and velocity.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Indoor air parameters in the MRC: (<b>a</b>) temperature and relative humidity; (<b>b</b>) thermal index.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Variations in the water film thickness and condensate water quantity on the PCP surface: (<b>a</b>) water film thickness; (<b>b</b>) cumulative condensate water quantity.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Variation in surface heat and mass transfer rates of the PCP and the heat and moisture generation rates of individuals.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Variation in parameters of the PCP and MRC at different <span class="html-italic">T<sub>c</sub>/T<sub>m</sub></span>: (<b>a</b>) melting rate of PCP; (<b>b</b>) natural airflow temperature and humidity around PCP; (<b>c</b>) natural flow velocity around PCP; (<b>d</b>) temperature and humidity in MRC.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Variations of HI in MRC at different <span class="html-italic">T<sub>c</sub>/T<sub>m</sub></span>.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Surface heat transfer rate of PCP at different <span class="html-italic">T<sub>c</sub>/T<sub>m</sub></span>: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous values over time; (<b>b</b>) statistical averages during the melting period.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Variation in parameters of the PCP and MRC at different quantities: (<b>a</b>) melting rate of PCP; (<b>b</b>) natural airflow temperature and humidity around PCP; (<b>c</b>) natural flow velocity around PCP; (<b>d</b>) temperature and humidity in MRC.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Impact of different quantities of PCPs on the indoor air HI.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Surface heat and moisture transfer rate of PCP under different quantities: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous values over time; (<b>b</b>) statistically averaged values during the melting period.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Variation in parameters of the PCP and MRC at different quantities: (<b>a</b>) melting rate of PCP; (<b>b</b>) natural airflow temperature and humidity around PCP; (<b>c</b>) natural flow velocity around PCP; (<b>d</b>) temperature and humidity in MRC.</p> Full article ">Figure 24 Cont.
<p>Variation in parameters of the PCP and MRC at different quantities: (<b>a</b>) melting rate of PCP; (<b>b</b>) natural airflow temperature and humidity around PCP; (<b>c</b>) natural flow velocity around PCP; (<b>d</b>) temperature and humidity in MRC.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>Influence of different W/H ratios of PCPs on indoor air HI.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>Surface heat and moisture transfer rate of PCP under different W/H: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous values over time (<b>b</b>) statistically averaged values during the melting period.</p> Full article ">Figure 27
<p>Indoor air temperature and humidity variation under different batch strategies: (<b>a</b>) 1, 2, 3 batches; (<b>b</b>) 4, 5 batches; (<b>c</b>) HI.</p> Full article ">Figure 28
<p>Variations of HI under three scenarios.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 3901 KiB  
Article
Why Are PPP Projects Stagnating in China? An Evolutionary Analysis of China’s PPP Policies
by Yougui Li, Erman Xu, Zhuoyou Zhang, Shuxian He, Xiaoyan Jiang and Martin Skitmore
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041160 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2267
Abstract
The Public–Private Partnership (PPP) model has significantly contributed to global infrastructure and public service provision. The evolution of the PPP model closely aligns with policy directives. China’s PPP policy evolution has included five stages: budding (1986–2000), fluctuating (2001–2008), steady (2009–2012), expanding (2013–2018), and [...] Read more.
The Public–Private Partnership (PPP) model has significantly contributed to global infrastructure and public service provision. The evolution of the PPP model closely aligns with policy directives. China’s PPP policy evolution has included five stages: budding (1986–2000), fluctuating (2001–2008), steady (2009–2012), expanding (2013–2018), and stagnating (2019–present). This study employs bibliometric analysis and co-word analysis to examine 407 policies enacted by the Chinese government from 1986 to 2018. By extracting policy text keywords at various stages and constructing a co-word network matrix, this study delineates the distinctive characteristics of Chinese PPP policies across different epochs. It can be found that critical areas such as “government credit”, “contract spirit”, and “power supervision” are still underappreciated. The challenges confronting China’s PPP model are multifaceted, stemming from policy gaps that have led to substantial project difficulties. Although the government proposed a new mechanism for franchising in 2023, the new mechanism is only for new PPP projects, and the difficulties of existing PPP projects have not been solved. This study advocates for enhancements in project bankability, regulatory clarity, institutional environment improvement, contract spirit defense, and the development of the PPP-REITs model to address these issues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) for Construction Project Deliveries)
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<p>Research framework.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Distribution of the number and intensity of Chinese PPP policies from 1986 to 2018.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Quantitative distribution of Chinese PPP projects from 1986 to 2019.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Social network diagram of subject terms from 1986 to 2000.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Policy topic gatherings from 2001 to 2008.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Policy topic gatherings from 2009 to 2012.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Policy topic gatherings from 2013 to 2018.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 13111 KiB  
Article
Field Testing of an Acoustic Method for Locating Air Leakages in Building Envelopes
by Björn Schiricke, Markus Diel and Benedikt Kölsch
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1159; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041159 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1290
Abstract
Maintaining the airtightness of building envelopes is critical to the energy efficiency of buildings, yet leak detection remains a significant challenge, particularly during building refurbishment. This study addresses the effectiveness of the acoustic beamforming measurement method in identifying leaks in building envelopes. For [...] Read more.
Maintaining the airtightness of building envelopes is critical to the energy efficiency of buildings, yet leak detection remains a significant challenge, particularly during building refurbishment. This study addresses the effectiveness of the acoustic beamforming measurement method in identifying leaks in building envelopes. For this reason, an in-field study employing the acoustic beamforming measurement method was conducted. The study involved testing over 30 rooms across three different multi-story office buildings of varying ages and heterogeneous envelope structures. Numerous leaks were located in the façades, which were subsequently visually confirmed or even verified with smoke sticks. The data, captured using an acoustic camera (a microphone ring array), revealed distinct spectra that indicate the method’s potential for further research. The basic functionality and the significant potential of this methodology for localizing leakages in large buildings were proven. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Airtightness of Buildings)
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<p>The building complex with labels and the approximate year of the most recent modification (photo: adapted with permission from Hahn-Schickard).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Illustration of the measurement setup. (<b>left</b>): Loudspeaker on the inside; (<b>center</b>): Microphone array on the outside; (<b>right</b>): The resulting image of a potential leakage detected.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Representation of the evaluation of sound peaks using the example of Room 206 (east side) in Building D. The colors of circles align with the color code presented in <a href="#buildings-14-01159-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic representation of the iteration process for the determination of the spectral properties of a point of interest.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Room A-101. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 4.9 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 6.4 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> (<b>left</b>). Twig-sized hole in the window panel seal (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Room D-107. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 4.2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 8.2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> (<b>left</b>). Potential leakage due to protruding paneling and window seal (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Room D-203. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 2.6 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 5.2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> (<b>left</b>). Fractured seal in the corner of the window (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Room D-106. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 6.6 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 8.2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> (<b>left</b>). On the right: Leaky cable entry (leak confirmed with smoke sticks and blower door) (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Room D-208. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 6.4 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 9.5 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> (<b>left</b>). Mold growth on window seal (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Room D-112. Photograph superimposed with the sound pressure level within the frequency range of 5.6 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> to 7.1 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Spectral characteristics of a twig-sized hole in a window panel seal (see <a href="#buildings-14-01159-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>). The marked peak is in the frequency range between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>4.9</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>6.4</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Spectral characteristics of two different leakages within a window front (see <a href="#buildings-14-01159-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>). The marked peaks are in the frequency range between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>4.2</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>8.2</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Spectral characteristics of a leaf rustling in the wind and a fractured window seal (see <a href="#buildings-14-01159-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>). The marked peaks are in the frequency range between <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>2.6</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mn>5.2</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="normal">kHz</mi> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 9755 KiB  
Article
Rotational Stiffening Performance of Roof Folded Plates in Torsion Tests and the Stiffening Effect of Roof Folded Plates on the Lateral Buckling of H Beams in Steel Structures
by Yuki Yoshino and Yoshihiro Kimura
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1158; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041158 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1277
Abstract
Non-structural members, such as roofs and ceilings, become affixed to main beams that are known as structural members. When such main beams experience bending or compressive forces that lead to lateral buckling, non-structural members may act to restrain the resulting lateral buckling deformation. [...] Read more.
Non-structural members, such as roofs and ceilings, become affixed to main beams that are known as structural members. When such main beams experience bending or compressive forces that lead to lateral buckling, non-structural members may act to restrain the resulting lateral buckling deformation. Nevertheless, neither Japanese nor European guidelines advocate for the utilization of non-structural members as lateral buckling stiffeners for beams. Additionally, local buckling ensues near the bolt apertures in the beam–roof folded plate connection due to the torsional deformation induced by the lateral buckling of the H beam, thereby reducing the rotational stiffness of the roof folded plate to a percentage of its ideal stiffness. This paper conducts torsional experiments on roof folded plates, and with various connection methods between these plates and the beams, to comprehend the deformation mechanism of roof folded plates and the relationship between their rotational stiffness and the torsional moment. Then, the relationship between the demand values against restraining the lateral buckling of the main beam and the experimentally determined bearing capacity of the roof folded plate is elucidated. Results indicate the efficacy of utilizing the roof folded plate as a continuous brace. The lateral buckling design capacity of H beams that are continuously stiffened by roof folded plates is elucidated via application of a connection method that ensures joint stiffness between the roof folded plate and the beam while using Japanese and European design codes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural and Mechanical Performances of Structures and Materials)
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<p>Beam and roof folded plate for actual structures.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Detail of beam–roof plate joint. (<b>a</b>) Beam length direction and (<b>b</b>) cross-sectional direction: (<b>b-1</b>) cross section A and (<b>b-2</b>) cross section B.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Continuous stiffening for lateral buckling deformation of H beams. (<b>a</b>) Stresses in roof folded plates and (<b>b</b>) stiffness of the spring.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Specimen and loading instrument.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Detail of the specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Connector at the edge of the specimen (a–a′ line). (<b>a</b>) Elevation and (<b>b</b>) ground plan.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Detail of connector (unit: mm). (<b>a</b>) Tight frame: (<b>a-1</b>) TF11 and (<b>a-2</b>) TF21. (<b>b</b>) Rigid block: (<b>b-1</b>) RA11, (<b>b-2</b>) RB12, (<b>b-3</b>) RA21, and (<b>b-4</b>) RA22.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Strain measurement position. (<b>a</b>) Ground plan and (<b>b</b>) elevation.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Hysteresis curves (torsional moment–angle). (<b>a</b>) Thickness, (<b>b</b>) shape of connector, (<b>c</b>) stresses in roof folded plates, (<b>d</b>) number of bolts, and (<b>e</b>) number of joints.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Ultimate statement of specimens (+100 mm). (<b>a</b>) TF11-0.8, (<b>b</b>) RA11-0.8, (<b>c</b>) RB12−0.8, (<b>d</b>) TF21-0.8, (<b>e</b>) RA21-1.0, (<b>f</b>) RA22-1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Bending strain of top flange for CM (<span class="html-italic">z</span> = ±100 mm). (<b>a</b>) Tight frame and connector, (<b>b</b>) Number of bolts, and (<b>c</b>) number of joints.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Deformation mechanism of bolted joints due to different connectors. (<b>a</b>) RA11, (<b>b</b>) RA21, (<b>c</b>) RA22.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Axial strain of the roof folded plate’s top flange (<span class="html-italic">z</span> = +400 mm, +600 mm). (<b>a</b>) Tight frame and connector and (<b>b</b>) number of joints.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Axial strain in <span class="html-italic">z</span> direction (at 0.1 <span class="html-italic">M</span><sub><span class="html-italic">y</span>,<span class="html-italic">r</span></sub>).</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Axial strain in <span class="html-italic">x</span> direction. (<b>a</b>) L side (−100 mm) and (<b>b</b>) R side (+100 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Rotational stiffness and torsional moment at (<b>a</b>) initial stiffness and at (<b>b</b>) secant stiffness.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Required stiffness ratio and bracing moment ratio of roof folded plate at (<b>a</b>) initial stiffness and at (<b>b</b>) secant stiffness.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Lateral buckling mode. (<b>a</b>) First Buckling mode and (<b>b</b>) second buckling mode.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Image of the moment gradient generated in a beam.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Lateral buckling strength curve [<a href="#B46-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>The procedure for computing the lateral buckling design capacity [<a href="#B38-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B46-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>The rate of increase for design bearing capacity in lateral buckling due to rotational stiffness at (<b>a</b>) initial stiffness and at (<b>b</b>) secant stiffness [<a href="#B46-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-buildings-14-01158" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 6816 KiB  
Article
Energy Performance and Comfort Analysis of Three Glazing Materials with Distinct Thermochromic Responses as Roller Shade Alternative in Cooling- and Heating-Dominated Climates
by Thilhara Tennakoon, Yin-Hoi Chan, Ka-Chung Chan, Chili Wu, Christopher Yu-Hang Chao and Sau-Chung Fu
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1157; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041157 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1801
Abstract
Thermochromic (TC) smart windows are a leading passive building design strategy. Vanadium dioxide (VO2), hydrogel and TC-Perovskite glazing, which constitute the main categories of TC materials, modulate different wavelength regions. Although numerous studies have reported on these TC glazings’ energy-saving potential [...] Read more.
Thermochromic (TC) smart windows are a leading passive building design strategy. Vanadium dioxide (VO2), hydrogel and TC-Perovskite glazing, which constitute the main categories of TC materials, modulate different wavelength regions. Although numerous studies have reported on these TC glazings’ energy-saving potential individually, there is a lack of data comparing their energy efficiencies. Moreover, their suitability as an alternative to dynamic solar shading mechanisms remains unexplored. Using building energy simulation, this study found that a hydrogel glazing with broadband thermochromism can save more energy (22–24% savings on average) than opaque roller shades (19–20%) in a typical office in both New York and Hong Kong. VO2 glazing performed comparably to translucent roller shades (14–16% savings), except when used in poorly daylit conditions. TC-Perovskite was a poor replacement for roller shades (~2% savings). The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) that allowed both energy savings and optimal natural light penetration was also identified for each glazing. Hydrogel glazing demonstrated both energy and daylight efficiency in Hong Kong’s cooling-dominated climate when used in 40–50% WWR configurations. In New York’s colder conditions, VO2 glazing did so for higher WWRs (50–70%). Roller shades could also achieve simultaneous energy savings and visual comfort, but only for highly glazed facades (up to 80%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Building Thermal and Energy Management: Novel Materials and Advanced Cooling Strategies)
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<p>Modelled office room measuring 6 m × 6 m × 4 m.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) NoTC reference, (<b>b</b>) thermochromic (VO<sub>2</sub>-based VIGU, hydrogel-based HIGU and TC-Perovskite-based PIGU), and (<b>c</b>) shaded (with opaque/translucent roller shades) window configurations.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Transmittance spectra of VO<sub>2</sub> (V), hydrogel (H) and TC-Perovskite (P) glazing, and (<b>b</b>) thermal reflectance spectra of H in clear/cold (solid line) and tinted/hot states (dashed line). The long-wave properties of V and P are not included as their silicon dioxide substrate is near-opaque to TIR, i.e., thermal tuning is not a feature.</p> Full article ">Figure 3 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>) Transmittance spectra of VO<sub>2</sub> (V), hydrogel (H) and TC-Perovskite (P) glazing, and (<b>b</b>) thermal reflectance spectra of H in clear/cold (solid line) and tinted/hot states (dashed line). The long-wave properties of V and P are not included as their silicon dioxide substrate is near-opaque to TIR, i.e., thermal tuning is not a feature.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Annual site energy use intensity and savings (calculated against NoTC baseline) reported by orientation for (<b>a</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>b</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 4 Cont.
<p>Annual site energy use intensity and savings (calculated against NoTC baseline) reported by orientation for (<b>a</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>b</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Annual heating energy savings in New York; (<b>b</b>) window heat gain and (<b>c</b>) loss during the coldest month in New York (January, occupied hours only); (<b>d</b>) annual cooling energy savings in Hong Kong; (<b>e</b>) window heat gain during the hottest month in Hong Kong (July, occupied hours only). All data reported for south-facing windows.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Annual lighting energy savings in Hong Kong and New York for offices with north- and south-facing windows.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The switching behaviour of the VO<sub>2</sub> (V), hydrogel (H) and TC-Perovskite (P) glazings during working hours in (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>) New York, as a function of ambient temperature and incident solar radiation.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Tinted hours for TC glazings and roller shade engagement reported as annual percentages (of working hours) for north- and south-facing windows in (<b>a</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>b</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Percentage of under-lit (UDI<sub>&lt;500</sub>), well-lit (UDI<sub>500–2000</sub>) and over-lit (UDI<sub>&gt;2000</sub>) office hours for north- and south-facing windows in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 9 Cont.
<p>Percentage of under-lit (UDI<sub>&lt;500</sub>), well-lit (UDI<sub>500–2000</sub>) and over-lit (UDI<sub>&gt;2000</sub>) office hours for north- and south-facing windows in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Annual site energy savings for north- and south-facing windows as a function of WWR and window construction in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) New York.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Daylighting performance for north- and south-facing windows in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) New York measured by Sensor 1 (solid line) and Sensor 2 (dashed line).</p> Full article ">Figure 11 Cont.
<p>Daylighting performance for north- and south-facing windows in (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Hong Kong and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) New York measured by Sensor 1 (solid line) and Sensor 2 (dashed line).</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 7966 KiB  
Article
Influence of Specimen Size on the Compressive Strength of Wood
by Chuan Zhao, Degui Liu, Chuntao Zhang, Yanyan Li and Yuhao Wang
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041156 - 19 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1386
Abstract
This study aimed to discuss the influence of specimen sizes on the compressive strength parameters of wood, specifically focusing on their compression strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Therefore, three different-sized specimens (20 mm × 20 mm × 30 mm, 40 mm × [...] Read more.
This study aimed to discuss the influence of specimen sizes on the compressive strength parameters of wood, specifically focusing on their compression strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Therefore, three different-sized specimens (20 mm × 20 mm × 30 mm, 40 mm × 40 mm × 60 mm, 60 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm) were manufactured and tested in the longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions, following the standard testing method for acquiring the compressive strength of wood. Subsequently, based on the experimental results, compressive parameters, failure mechanisms, load–displacement curves, and stress–strain relationships were systematically analyzed for the three different-sized specimens. Meanwhile, the influence of specimen size on the compressive strength parameters of wood was also evaluated through finite element numerical simulations, utilizing the obtained mechanical parameters. The results revealed a significant correlation between compressive strength and specimen size, indicating a decrease in compressive strength with an increasing specimen size. Conversely, the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio exhibited less sensitivity to specimen size changes. Notably, the compressive strength parameters derived from small-sized specimens (20 mm × 20 mm × 30 mm) exhibited a lack of rationality, while those obtained from medium-sized (40 mm × 40 mm × 60 mm), and large-sized specimens (60 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm) demonstrated greater reliability, providing precise results in finite element numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Seismic Performance of Timber/Bamboo Buildings)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Different compressive strength specimens. The numbers 1, 2, …, 6 are the specimen number in the figure.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Wood diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Material mechanics universal testing machine.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The arrangement of the strain gauges.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Failure process of the longitudinal compressive specimens. The A-N,B-N and C-N(N = 1, 2, …, 6) are the specimen number for small-sized specimens, medium-sized specimens and large-sized specimens respectively for the longitudinal compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Failure process of the radial compressive specimens. The D-N,E-N and F-N(N = 1, 2, …, 6) are the specimen number for small-sized specimens, medium-sized specimens and large-sized specimens respectively for the radial compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
<p>Failure process of the radial compressive specimens. The D-N,E-N and F-N(N = 1, 2, …, 6) are the specimen number for small-sized specimens, medium-sized specimens and large-sized specimens respectively for the radial compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Failure process of the tangential compressive specimens. The G-N,H-N and I-N(N = 1, 2, …, 6) are the specimen number for small-sized specimens, medium-sized specimens and large-sized specimens respectively for the radial compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Load–displacement curves of the longitudinal specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Load–displacement curves of the radial specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Load–displacement curves of the tangential specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Stress–strain curves of the longitudinal compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Stress–strain curves of the radial compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Stress–strain curves of the tangential compressive specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>The simplified stress–strain curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Stress of the radial compressive specimens (MPa).</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The stress of the longitudinal compressive specimens (MPa).</p> Full article ">
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