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After the Civil War, the Reconstruction era brought about hope and change in the form of citizenship and equality in America. Black men were given the right to vote, and in 1870, Hiram Revels became the first African American in the U.S. Congress when he was elected to represent Mississippi in the Senate. What followed included more than 2,000 Black office holders serving at every level of America's political system. Sadly, this progress was short-lived. Black men were denied access to the ballot box and the rights they were granted at the start of the Reconstruction period slowly diminished. In result, a Black presence in Congress was completely eradicated by 1901, and it would take a full generation for it to be restored. We'll discuss the African-American achievements in the political system that were systematically overturned.

Although the 13th Amendment passed the Senate in 1864 and the House in 1865, the loopholes that exist continue to wreak havoc on the African-American population. To ensure the cotton industry would remain unaffected once the slaves were freed, convict leasing - a system that provides prison labor to plantation owners and private corporations - was implemented. The ramifications of this system continue to this day.Those who were arrested - even on minor charges - were locked up and used as free labor while behind bars. This also signaled a shift in the racial makeup of prisoners as more African-Americans were targeted by law enforcement. In this series of Black History in Two Minutes or So, more light is shed on the capitalization of private prisons and how African-Americans are used to fuel the profits for America's criminal justice system.

One of the pioneers of the hair care industry is an African-American woman named Sarah Breedlove. After becoming a widow at the age of 20, the pressures in her day-to-day life as a single mother led to a bad bout of hair loss in her 30s. This prompted Breedlove to find a magical cure to promote hair growth. After testing a formula made by a woman named Annie Turnbo, Breedlove remarried, changed her name to Madame C.J. Walker, and founded her own company, which launched the iconic product, Madam C.J. Walker Wonderful Hair Grower. With her knack for being an expert marketer and a natural door-to-door saleswoman, she acquired a fortune that was valued at an estimated $1 million dollars at the time of her 1919 death. Today, Black History in Two Minutes or so honors Walker as the first black female self-made millionaire.

Born as Marguerite Johnson in 1928, Maya Angelou is a 20th Century renaissance woman who was catapulted into international fame with her best-selling books. However, she is much more than just an author and a poet. During her lifetime, she was able to hone in on her various talents as a singer, actor, dancer, filmmaker, professor, and political activist. Angelou aligned with respected Civil Rights Leaders Malcom X and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. to bring about change in America. In the aftermath of Dr. King's death, she switched gears and penned her memoir, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, which peeled back the layers of her life and shared the turmoil of being a childhood rape victim. It was her complicated life that transformed her into a phenomenal woman with unwavering confidence, poise, and an unparalleled ability to inspire mankind.

In June of 1882, a 30-year-old shoemaker by the name of Homer Plessy of New Orleans led a revolution that aimed to overturn Jim Crow segregation laws. Plessy, who was said to be 1/8 black, entered the white's only car while on a train. When asked to move to the colored car, Plessy refused. Following his arrest, a group of citizens used his arrest to fight Jim Crow segregation laws. Facing defeat at every turn, the battle raged on all the way up to the Supreme Court in the 1896 case, Plessy v. Ferguson.

Fisk University was founded in Nashville, Tenn. in 1866. As an institution for African-American students, their first years of inception were pivotal. In 1871, while facing serious financial concerns, the school's treasurer and music teacher decided to create a tour with a choir known as the Fisk Jubilee Singers.

Fresh off an oil-boom, the black residents of Greenwood, Okla. built a booming community known as The Negro Wall Street. But in May of 1921, that all changed. Word spread that a lynch mob of white people were heading to a courthouse to kill a black man accused of accosting a white woman in an elevator. United, the African-Americans marched, prepared to defend his innocence. The Tulsa Race Riots would soon commence and later be known as one of the most egregious attacks against African-Americans.

Born into slavery as Ida B. Wells in 1862, she was a pioneer of modern investigative journalism during the Reconstruction Era. After the lynching of her close friend, Thomas Moss, in 1892, Wells amplified her efforts on calling attention to the horrific treatment of black people through her investigative report, entitled Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases.

Harriet Tubman is one of the greatest freedom fighters to exist. Enslaved and enraged, Tubman committed to not only freeing herself, but she created a system that would revolutionize slavery and the people who benefited from it most. Harriet's mission was to remove the chains that restrained black people by any means necessary, even when her husband, a free man, refused to join her.

Isabella Baumfree was born into slavery in the late 18th century. Despite this, she'd go on to prove that enslavement was only a state of mind. She escaped slavery and landed in New York, where she changed her name to Sojourner Truth. With such a poignant name, she was committed to A name ever so poignant, Truth committed to eradicating racial and gender injustice.

In 1865, after the north won the Civil War, the government opened the Freedman's Bank. This institution was geared towards nearly four million, newly freed black people. The objective was clear: provide a federally protected place for black workers to place their funds.

Robert Smalls was born into slavery and pushed into fighting for the Confederacy during the Civil War. However, at the age of 23, he took a chance to not only free him and his family, but those who vowed to step up and fight against the Confederacy alongside him.

Shirley Chisholm is a political icon who paved the way for politics as we know it today. As an active participant for women's rights and the Civil Rights Movement, her presence and experience would prepare her for a stage unseen by black women before.

In 1872, Booker T. Washington traveled 500 miles on foot to the Hampton Institute in Virginia. That journey, in turn, laid the foundation - not only for his own education - but his life's mission to empower and compel black people to invest in industrial education.

After joining the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X became known as a human rights activist whose teachings led the charge of black progression during the latter parts of the 1960s. Radicalized by a stint in prison, Malcolm X was a warrior who was not afraid to get on the front lines of the Civil Rights Movement. His sharp contrast from the non-violent approach molded by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. meant Malcolm X had a clear agenda against anyone in opposition. He and his followers were determined to fight back against injustices by any means necessary, and his teachings laid the framework for the Black Power ideology and uplifted the black community in ways that promoted dignity and respect.

While Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s influence was large, perhaps his greatest legacy came when he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech on August 28, 1963. As the highly revered activist from the Civil Rights era prepared for the March on Washington, Dr. King worked with his advisors to craft his speech. About half-way through, with the crowd's interest fading, the Baptist minister from Atlanta, Georgia's decision to improvise would lead to a exceptional moment we never saw coming. Dr. King and his speech would awaken not only the estimated quarter of a million people in attendance, but followers who also believed in an inclusive America.

Despite footage of police officers beating the late Rodney King in 1991, justice, for many in South Central Los Angeles, was not served. The acquittal of four white Los Angeles Police Department officers would be the catalyst of the the Los Angeles Riots of 1992.

Electrified by the rhetoric of Malcolm X, founding members Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale created an organization aimed at protecting the Black community from racism and violence. And thus, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in Oakland, Calif., in October of 1966. While history tends to focus on the violence of this group, their influence was more in-depth. From social programs, to community outreach, there was a genuine interest in the practical advancement for African-Americans, while serving and protecting the community from police brutality.

In 1983, Reverend Jesse Jackson launched his bid for president of the United States. This announcement sparked excitement from people who had grown to adore the Civil Rights leader. While he wasn't the first African-American candidate, his presence and decision to run was monumental.

The Double V Campaign was launched by a prominent black newspaper, the Pittsburgh Courier, in 1942. The campaign came in response to buzz generated from a letter written by a young black man, James G. Thompson. His article, entitled, "Should I Sacrifice to Live 'Half-American", broke barriers and started a conversation nationally that many blacks had been having for generations. As the nation claimed victory in World War II, many black veterans carried their excitement back home. The charge was clear: victory over fascism abroad and victory over racism at home. This assertion came in response to decades of expecting African-Americans to choose patriotism in times of war, but not experience equal protection of the law at home.

Born in the heart of New Orleans, Louisiana, jazz made its way onto the scene. With African-Americans at the helm, the red-light district housed this new genre of music and talented artists during what is now known as a monumental moment in American history. Blending various styles, musicians like Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith found their star rising. But as the genre grew, many obstacles came along with it. Controversy around the genre led to the military shutting down the creative hub for good in 1917.

President Lyndon B. Johnson made it clear that a shift was greatly needed in America. No longer could we preach about a land of opportunity, when minorities didn't have the same foundation or access to educational institutions. Thus, Affirmative Action was introduced by President Johnson at Howard University in 1965. In 1977, a white college student found himself denied admission to a medical school and sought justice. Affirmative Action was officially under attack and the courts would have to decide: is this legal? In the end, Affirmative Action remained, but with additional criteria in set in place.

With a Jim Crow south alive and well, many black Americans migrated north. This migration resulted in the formation of a creative urban hub in Harlem, New York, and the Harlem Renaissance became a time where black Americans flourished creatively. From writing to art, blues to jazz, a once suppressed black community greeted this newfound freedom by cultivating artistic expression in ways they were prohibited from doing before. Visionaries like Duke Ellington and Zora Neale Hurston thrived during this cultural revolution, and the Harlem Renaissance symbolized the power of the freed black mind in America.

In 1932 the United States Public Health Service commissioned a study on the effects of untreated syphilis. 600 poor black men from Alabama were selected to be a part of the study and were told that they were being reviewed for "bad blood." From there, the Tuskegee Study took a turn for the worst. Medical professionals were able to successfully diagnose two-thirds of the men in the study, and by 1940, a known treatment was available. But, instead of offering treatment, medical professionals opted to chart the course of the disease versus offer the known cure to the black men. In would take over 40 years before this study officially ended, and even longer before an official apology came from the United States government.

The civil rights movement was an organized effort where African-Americans united and rallied to put black progressiveness at the forefront of a nation that sought to minimize and revoke rights. Many cite 1954 as the beginning of the movement, with the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education. The civil rights movement continued to gain momentum with strategic decisions by leaders, like Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Rosa Parks. President Lyndon B. Johnson also signed multiple pieces of legislation, and each move contributed to expanded success for black rights nationally. While some people mark Dr. King's death as the end of the movement, others recognize it as a major shift.

In 1965, one of the last traceable remnants of Jim Crow ideology were thought to be taken off the books with the passage of the Voting Rights Act. Despite the implementation of the legislation, racial tension remained. Less than a week into the new law, riots broke out in the predominately black neighborhood of Watts after an altercation between a black man and the police. On a quest to re-frame and ignite the Civil Rights movement, Stokely Carmichael rallied people and brought the phrase "Black Power" to life. Seeking more measurable progress, Carmichael and his followers were not afraid or ashamed to require progress. Black Power spread across the US like wildfire, and people felt charged and empowered to cultivate a new vision.

After years of requesting an all-black unit in the National Guard, the governor of New York finally put the order into place. In January 1918, the all-black 369th Infantry Regiment, which would later become known as the Harlem Hellfighters, landed in France to fight in World War I. Bold, brave, and prepared for battle, the men arrived for duty. However, the white US troops on the ground had a different agenda. With pressure coming from France, and no desire to desegregate combat units, the US agreed to hand over the 369th Infantry Regiment to the French to use as they saw fit for the war. The troops ended up fighting for 191 days, longer than any American troops prior, and received praises from the French and American public for their commitment and patriotism.

Black women and their commitment to freedom and equality has often been minimized in history books. However, with black women standing at the front of each decade, the intersectionality of gender, sexual orientation, and class has become a point of grave importance. Working through the Civil Rights era and beyond, black women were instrumental in increasing awareness on a diverse pool of relevant issues. In the 1970s, black women forced the nation to understand the duality of being a woman and black. Angela Davis, Alice Walker, and Toni Morrison pushed a narrative that required people to understand gender thought the context of race.

After graduating from Shaw University, Ella Baker moved to New York City and began her career as a grassroots organizer. Joining the NAACP in 1940, the Virginia native assisted in developing some of the brightest minds in the Civil Rights Movement. Baker charged people like Rosa Parks to stand up and speak out. Through her organizing efforts, she assisted Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. with the creation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which was helping to build the Civil Rights Movement. After a string of sit-ins in the 1960s, she joined a group of students who would go on to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Baker ignited the fight in a generation of young Americans who would go on to risk their own freedom for the advancement and equality of all black people.

In February 1951, a young African-American woman by the name of Henrietta Lacks was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical cancer. Unbeknownst to her, cells from her specific cancer were extracted and sent to a lab to be studied. These cells would be given the name He La and would lead to major advancements in medical research. While the cells helped push the scientific field forward, they were unethically obtained and used. The blatant disregard for Lack's consent echoes a long history of disregard for black bodies in the medical and scientific field.

Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient Katherine Johnson is a powerhouse unlike any other. Entering college at the tender age of 15, Johnson's advanced mathematical skill-set forced her environment to make room for her. She broke racial and gender barriers by integrating West Virginia University's graduate program, and she didn't just stop there. Her irrefutable intelligence gained her access to NASA, where she would lay the foundation for the Freedom 7 mission, amongst other notable explorations. Her undeniable genius whose brilliance left a major mark on the space program of the 20th century.

Born into slavery as Frederick Douglass in 1818, this renowned lecturer and author would become one of the greatest public speakers of his time. After escaping slavery in 1838, Douglass joined the abolitionist movement. As a paid traveling lecturer, people everywhere laid their eyes on a freed, well-spoken black man. Douglass was a visionary well before his time. Ensuring his photo was taken everywhere he went, he hoped to utilize his imagery to humanize black people - enslaved and free - at home and abroad. He is now known as the most-photographed person of the 19th Century.

Many people recognize the passage of the 13th Amendment as an end to slavery in the south. However, slavery was commonplace in all 13 colonies. Mum Bett, the slave of a Massachusetts judge, learned about the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution. After overhearing a crucial piece of the document, she decided to take matters into her own hands. As she understood it, the phrase "all men are born free and equal" applied to her as a black person. Mum went to an attorney, Theodore Sedgwick, and together, they added another enslaved male named Brom to their team. In the end, the dynamic trio would successfully sue for both Mum and Brom's freedom. This precedent led to many other black slaves successful suing for their freedom in other northern states.

Opportunities for freed black children to further their educational journey after high school were limited. As a direct response to minimal options, black people began to seek multiple opportunities on their own in the name of higher education. John Chavis, of North Carolina, is noted as the first African-American college student. Mary Jane Patterson is the first black woman to earn a bachelor's degree. While these students made notable steps towards aiding in access for black people nationwide, it would be the continued discrimination that led to the opening of black colleges like Wilberforce, Lincoln, and Cheyney University.

Religion as we know it infiltrated the black community during slavery. While the objective leaned on pacifying slaves, black people rose against the negative narrative and invested in a community that would be known as the black church. Records indicate that as early as 1794, Richard Allen, a formerly enslaved black man, founded his own denomination and church. Reverend Allen, a man who purchased his own freedom, sought to abolish slavery and help other people escape, as well. As the nation continued to work through the Civil War, Jim Crow, racism, and economic disparity, the black church and its leaders mobilized its followers to speak out and stand up for injustices.

Black innovators and creators have a long history of studying the framework and exploring new ways of advancing modern technology. Take Lewis Latimer and Sarah Boone, for example. They are two inventors who mastered their craft and elevated their industry. Latimer, the son of escaped slaves, became a self-taught mechanical drawer. His relationship with Thomas Edison allowed him to extend the life of the light bulb. While Boone, a dressmaker, recognized the challenges in ironing women's garments and sought out a functional solution. This foresight allowed both Boone and Latimer to utilize their everyday skill set and bring about greater functionality and extended use of products in their field.

While history celebrates the explorations of many white voyagers, there are multiple black people who successfully explored sea, land, and space, and in many instances, are often overlooked. Spanish conquistadors brought an enslaved African by the name of Esteban on a failed trip to the US mainland. Matthew Henson, linked with a renowned Admiral, was able to go all the way to the North Pole. Guion Bluford, Ronald McNair, and Mae Jemison, were accomplished scientists and engineers who were enlisted in the astronaut corps.

Jack Johnson entered the world ready to fight in the most non-conventional way. As the son of slaves, he worked many unskilled jobs, before transitioning into his career as a boxer. He would later transcend the sport and shake up society in a way people had never seen a black man do before. When Jim Crow spreading through America in 1908, Jack Johnson took down white boxer Tommy Burns for the heavyweight title of the world. Riding the wave of his success, he then faced off against Jim Jeffries - whom was dubbed "The Great White Hope" - in an iconic and historical boxing match.

Black inventors have made significant contributions in the name of not only advancing the American brand, but by way of breaking down a system that didn't always allow for their innovative brands to exist. After slavery was abolished, requests for patents rose, and black inventors were able to capitalize off their talents. From folding beds to traffic lights, African-Americans have had a long tradition of improving daily life for everyone. Thomas Jennings and Judy Reed would become the first African-American man and woman to be granted patents for their inventions.

White publications have sought to represent all voices in America since it's discovery. But, in 1827, Samuel Cornish and John Russwurm joined forces and created the Freedom's Journal. This publication created a space for black journalists to speak on issues relevant to black people. From there, we would see other noted publications, like The Colored American, enter the homes of black people across the country. The black press not only spoke on topics like racial injustice and protests, but it delivered news so powerful that it would be tied to the launch of the Civil Rights Movement. As the press grew in distribution, black issues became highlighted and black accomplishments were able to be celebrated nationwide.

In 1963, John Lewis' excitement would meet his life's purpose when he joined the Civil Rights Movement. He is now known as one of the greatest activists and change fighters to enter the arena of social and racial justice reform. Lewis became one of the "Big Six" leaders of the Civil Rights movement and helped organized demonstrations and sit-ins, all while playing an active role in the March on Washington. His efforts would reach new heights after the march in Selma, Alabama lead to President Lyndon B. Johnson passing the Voting Rights Act in 1965.

Lynching was an action used to terrorize the black community for generations, with the first known public display of this injustice taking place in Madison, Mississippi in 1835. Investigative journalist like Ida B. Wells stood on the front lines, documenting and reporting the continued use of lynchings in society. Wells' objective was to counter the belief that lynching was a valid means of justice. Eventually, the NAACP made it a part of its mission to see to it that lynching was put to an end. In 2018, after more than two hundred failed attempts, the United States Congress finally passed a bill making the act of lynching a hate crime.

The events unfolding across the United States today in the wake of the brutal murder of George Floyd, are an eerie repetition of events that marred the history of race relations in this country almost exactly a century ago. The year was 1919, and African American soldiers who came home from the Great War in Europe with hopes that serving their country at last would entitle them to the rights of equal citizenship, found themselves on the lethal end of an outbreak of racial violence so horrific that the civil rights leader James Weldon Johnson called it The Red Summer.

As the Union declared victory over the Confederacy, post-Civil War life seemed to be off to a good start for freed slaves. William Tecumseh Sherman, a former Union general, sat with 20 black ministers to develop a plan to remedy the harsh treatment of black people. The phrase "40 acres and a mule" - a promise to former slaves - would be hatched from this meeting. Unfortunately, President Andrew Johnson would renege on this promise and many families never saw this promise come to fruition. While land ownership would have been a step in the right direction, negotiations robbed black families of an opportunity to invest in an economic future with.

As European countries battled to claim territories in America, the Spanish state - which is now known as Florida - became a haven for slaves who ran away from the British colonies. In 1738, a group of these escaped slaves created the first black town, called Fort Mose. Word spread quickly about the new town, and slaves just north of them created a plan to revolt and make their way to join the freed settlement. A year later, the Stono Rebellion would lead to nearly 100 slaves battling local militia all in the name of freedom. Although While British colonial forces would seize Florida and For Mose would no longer exist, the settlement will always be remembered as the first black town in American history.

In 1861, the south's threats of seceding the union led to the start of the Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln's primary goal was to minimize secession talks. But, as black slaves who were forced to fight for the confederacy escaped to union territory, a shift occurred that worked in the favor of the president. Slave owners in the south found themselves at a disadvantage during the war as their day-to-day operations were disrupted. President Lincoln capitalized on this new strain and created the Emancipation Proclamation. Even though the war wasn't about slavery, the strategic move to formally end slavery, led the union to victory.

Born Henry Louis Aaron, baseball legend Hank Aaron swung his way into the history books in 1974. While the Atlanta Braves enjoyed the benefits of having the talented athlete on their team, actions off the field forced the conversation to transition from celebratory to cautionary. As Aaron's star rose, so did racial tension. With displeasure coming in the form of hate mail and even death threats, he feared for his own safety as he pursued the home run record set by American baseball hero Babe Ruth. But on April 8, 1974, he hit his 715th home run and found himself as the all-time home run record holder for more than thirty years.

Taking cues from American Bandstand, Soul Train became a black cultural phenomena. Created and hosted by Don Cornelius, a Chicago radio reporter and DJ, the show was launched in 1970, but only in Chicago. However, the program became an overnight success story as it quickly swept the nation. From the musical guests to the popular songs playing, Soul Train brought black popular culture to the mainstream in a revolutionary way. But it wasn't just the artists who were on display. The show's dancers became cultural icons, too, as viewers attempted to emulate all of their flashy and artistic dance moves.

During a time when the game of baseball lacked diversity, America's beloved sport was on the brink of a major change when black sport's journalist protested the league's failure to integrate. In response, the Brooklyn Dodgers' owner, Branch Rickey, stepped up and decided to scout a black player from the Negro League. On April 15, 1947, Jackie Robinson tore down the color barrier and became the first black baseball player to play in the Major League arena. His talent, education, and ability to withstand racial issues that were sure to come, made him the ideal candidate. Despite a host of naysayers, Jackie would lead the Brooklyn Dodgers to their only World Series and was named Rookie of the Year. His legacy remains.

In the early 1500s, a West African man named Juan Garrido joined the ranks of Spanish explorers who ventured out in hopes of discovering new parts of the world. With their sights set on locating the fountain of youth, Garrido and other travelers landed in what we now call Florida in 1513. While history books would have us to believe the first black people in America were slaves, Garrido's existence and freedom to explore contradicts those sentiments. He is now etched in the nation's history as the first black man to step foot on American soil.