Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 15, No 3A, 1422–1433 (2014)
Environmental education and training
ROLE OF THE ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY-BASED
PROJECTS AT THE HIGHER EDUCATION. PERCEPTIONS OF
THE RESEARCHERS
G. SART
Hasan Ali Yucel Faculty of Education, Istanbul University, 34 000 Istanbul,
Turkey
E-mail: gamzegazi@gmail.com
Abstract. In recent years, educational technology and innovative programs have been introduced
to many education systems. Although these technologies have a great potential to improve teaching,
learning and management processes especially at higher education, many obstacles and resistance
hinder their implementation. In order to shift towards an entrepreneurial higher education institution, organisational culture needs to be adapted to the present conditions. Given the importance of
the subject, there is a need for a deeper look into the nature of organisational culture in the context
of its relationships with innovative and technology-based development for educational institutions.
This paper attempts to show and critically analyse the role of organisational culture on the development of innovation and technology-based projects (ITBP) at the higher education; particularly by
considering the perceptions of the researchers. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 34
researchers from different fields. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used in this
study. Academic people (89%) from well-developed organisation in terms of physical components
had better results in developing innovation and technology when compared to the academic people
from non well-developed cultural organisation. Furthermore, values of the organisation are significantly important in order to increase the depthless of the innovation and technology-based projects
development.
Keywords: organisational culture, quality culture, higher education, innovation.
AIMS AND BACKGROUND
This study attempts to analyse critically how the organisational culture takes role
on the development of innovation and technology-based projects at the higher
education from the perspective of the researchers perception.
In the digital society, rapid socio-cultural, economic and technological changes
have forced higher education in terms of improving innovation and technologybased projects in order to empower new generations, to attract more funding and
venture capital, to develop new products and services, to increase the number
of startups and spinoffs, and to raise licensing and royalties. On the other hand,
organisational culture, which is interpreted as ‘shared philosophies, ideologies,
values, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes and norms in organisations’1,
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can be developed in organisations by the people who cope with different problems
and issues of external adaptation and internal integration2.
As shown in the paper, organisational culture and quality culture are seemingly
inseparable concepts. It can also be said that there are three levels of organisational
culture. ‘Facts’ form the first level, which comprise the physical components of the
organisation. ‘Values’ form the second level. The third level refers to the organisation ‘implied assumptions’. Organisational culture is fed and formed in terms of
collaboration, trust and learning, and it can shape the behaviours of people in that
organisation. As Zhu and Engels describe, organisation culture has three levels
that can be shaped over a period of time. The first level is ‘facts’, or the physical
components of the organisation that relay cultural meaning. The second level deals
with ‘values’, or the culture that the members of the organisation possess. The
third level refers to the organisation implicit assumptions. Organisational culture is
nurtured and shaped gradually reflected in terms of collaboration, trust and learning, and it can shape the behaviours of people in that organisation3.
OVERALL PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE
In order to understand organisational culture, it is crucial to define what culture
is. According to Mabawonku4, culture is the ‘definitive, dynamic purposes and
tools (values, ethics, rules, knowledge systems) that are developed to attain group
goals’. Other researchers, such as Kinuthia and Nkonge5 focus on the definitional
concept of culture as knowledge systems by writing they are ‘relevant to people
understanding of themselves, their world, and impacts on education.’ Organisational
culture was first developed as an intellectual concept designed to help, understand
and analyse human forms and systems of interaction. Culture is widely regarded
as an important environmental condition that has an impact on the people living
within it. J. Monnet, one of the leading figures of the European unification process,
stated that if he had to start the European unification process over again from the
beginning, he would have started with the culture and not with the economy6.
The importance of culture can be observed when an analysis or review is
carried out of the varying new strategies that are undertaken by higher education
institutions with regards to quality management. Unfortunately, too many times,
instruments and tools are promoted and introduced to the academic community
and student body without realising the importance of the given cultural situations.
As one education scholar points out, although ‘the quality of teaching and learning
interaction in higher education is affected by a diversity of components, including
attitudes and skills of educators, abilities and motivation of students, organisational
backgrounds, contexts and values and the existing structures, such as rules, regulations and so on, the majority of approaches to assess, assure, manage or develop
quality’ is only to a certain degree taking these factors into consideration. Ehlers7
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also adds that quality approaches are usually conducted in order to improve or regulate ‘organisational processes (in the case of process oriented quality management
approaches), the assessment of the outcomes of activities (in case of assurance or
evaluations approaches) or the development of individual abilities (in case of quality development through professional training approaches)’. In addition, in higher
education quality system there are currently two opposing developments emerging. On the one hand, ‘structures, accreditation, rules and regulations’ are gaining
importance, especially with the rise of ‘New Public Management approaches’8.
However, there is also a growing interest in ‘culture’ as a fundamental theme in
organisational improvement, especially in the sector of higher education9. Essentially, a growing theme in management literature is that there should be increasing emphasis placed on culture, values and norms in analysing the organisational
accountability and performance of an organisation10,11. However, due to a variety
of factors, in the higher education sector the idea of ‘total quality management’
has not had a significant impact yet, mainly due to the large numbers of potential
variables and inputs, such as ‘quality in education, like attitudes and skills of
teachers, abilities and motivation of learners, organisational backgrounds, contexts
and values, and the existing structures, such as rules, regulations, and legislation’7.
Instead, many scholars stress that it is critical to think of this ‘quality’ as a cultural
aspect – a form of culture, in other words – rather than seeing simply in terms of
quantitatively-measured criteria and set, formal processes.
A deeper understanding of the role of ‘quality’ in higher education sector
can consist of a multi-angle analysis. In particular, the ‘constitution, measured
against the needs and expectations of the stakeholder groups’ is compromised of
2 aspects12. These are ‘a structural dimension (quality management handbooks,
process definitions, instruments, tools) and the dimension of values of an organisation (relating to the commitment of its members, the underlying values, skills
and attitudes)’7.
It might be appropriate to continue with a review of various theoretical concepts of organisational culture. Hoy and Miskel13 define organisational culture as
a system of orientations keeping the society or organisation connected and it gives
a distinguishing identity to it. According to Schein14, one of the leading theorists
on the subject, organisational culture is the result of a group having shared experiences. Schein argues that culture is mostly a concealed influence factor. Members
of organisations go about their daily routines without thinking consciously about
the values or structures that underlie them. These characteristics of organisations
become important if we ask the question, ‘Can culture be affected, and if so, how?’
As Ehlers points out, ‘primarily as the presumptions are invisible and unconscious,
while rituals, values and symbols can to some degree be seen…. This characteristic also distinguishes the culture of an organisation from the management or the
quality system of an organisation7. Whereas a system can be over time, described,
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analysed and measured, the culture is developing largely without measures through
interaction and to a large extent unconsciously evolved’. Schein sees culture as a
three-layer phenomenon, consisting of underlying assumptions, espoused values,
and observable behaviour14. The best way to understand underlying assumptions
is to show what they relate to. Underlying assumptions are essentially related to
the solutions a group or community learns in response to obstacles or difficulties
that arise in their environment. According to Schein, these underlying assumptions
are the unconscious basis for many of the behaviours and actions we carry out,
as well as the decisions we make. In addition, an accumulated range of decisions
often ends up shaping a culture further, sometimes pushing it into new directions.
As a result, culture, as a reflection of a ‘shared reality’, is constantly subject to
change and is not static14.
Espoused values form the second layer in this model. These values are visible
in, for example, declared norms operating philosophy and the organisation official
objectives. They guide individual decisions and behaviours in the workplace. Of
course, espoused values are not always perfectly reflected in a company everyday
operations because espoused values are not what people truly value but what they
say they value. Thereby, they do not directly represent an organisation culture.
Instead, they establish the public image that is more desirable to display15. The third
layer of culture, according to this definition, consists of observable behaviour, or
apparent organisational processes and various artefacts. For example, dress codes,
the (enforced) appearance of the employees, and the general cleanliness or even
layout of the workplace are easily noticeable visual and physical markers that can
easily signify to observer different aspects regarding to the organisation culture.
This level is difficult to shed light on, however, because it acts on behalf of the most
superficial cultural phenomena, i.e. only reflections of the true corporate culture14.
Despite the fact that underlying assumptions might direct the actions of organisations members, Schein claims that an organisation underlying assumptions can not
be directly concluded from these actions. There are situation-specific and individual
factors the actions are always affected by. The official rules and espoused norms
may be in disagreement with everyday actions Schein also adds that ‘an organisation
culture is not only a single new variable which describes organisations and which
can be examined separately from the other variables that influence organisations
activities, such as the strategy, market orientation, structure, and the technology it
uses’. Organisational culture interprets activity in the organisation as a whole and
strives to describe organisational culture as a scientific concept16.
According to another prominent figure in this field, Geert Hofstede an universal approach to organisational management does not exist, and therefore can not
be viewed or analysed as an autonomous process independent from other factors
of the organisation being studied17,18. In his research, Hofstede writes that culture
can be viewed as a set of typical attributes/behaviours (manifestations of culture)
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with four different impact depths: symbols, heroes, values and rituals. They are
learnt from the beginning of life and, in contrast to some other anthropological
frameworks on culture, are the most stable element of a person life that are resistant against changes over time. According to this framework, culture consists
first of symbols, or ‘words, gestures, pictures or objects which carry a particular
meaning and only those who share a culture recognizes them’. These symbols
can change, evolve, or even disappear, especially under the influence of symbols
that come from other cultures. Next are heroes, or people who ‘possess features
that are prized in a culture and serve as models for behaviour.’ Next come rituals, or ‘collective activities, technically superfluous to reaching desired ends, but
which within a culture are considered as socially essential.’19. According to this
framework, one of the most prominent and deepest component of a culture is the
values. While evaluating our surrounding environment it can be said that values
serve as the paramount source of it and lead to the basic idea for the way people
should behave and decide in situations. In addition, values set the basic comprehension of what is ‘good and bad’, ‘natural and unnatural’, as well as other moral
and ethical assessments. It is quite accurate to say that members of an organisation
are bringing about a perpetual common, collective, communicative clarification
process. Active impact is being made by the members of an organisation on the
differentiation of the organisation cultural patterns through their discourse. And
in that way, are the new cultural structures and symbols formed7.
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
Now that culture has been analysed from an overall perspective, organisational
culture can be looked at one a more specific level. Organisational culture, according
to Morgan, is ‘an active living phenomenon through which people together create
and recreate the worlds in which they live’. Morgan adds that different societies and
organisations have different patterns of social development, and that it is important
to analyse how meaning is constructed in organisations –in other words, how the
members collectively interpret and make sense of their shared reality– in order to
gain a more thorough understanding of organisational culture. This understanding,
of course, may eventually lead to the ability to affect, change, and perhaps even
manage this internal form of culture in the future20. Ehlers points out that organisational culture and quality culture are ‘always present’ in an organisation, and
incorporate ‘underlying assumptions of what good teaching and learning is’. In
addition, quality cultures have visible and invisible, tangible and intangible parts.
Ehlers writes that culture of quality is best developed when ‘tangible, structural
elements, like quality management mechanisms, tools and instruments are developing in parallel with intangible elements like values commitment, rituals and
symbols’. Organisational culture is, on one hand, a collective social that individu1426
als in an organisation –in the high case of higher education, both administrators,
students, faculty members, and other stakeholders- contribute and constitute to by
negotiating with one another and interacting as a group through shared values and
rituals7. According to Schein, an organisation culture can be defined as the way an
organisation responds to certain challenges in their path14.
There is no certain rule that says that quality culture needs to be a uniform
concept spanning across every higher education organisation. Especially in such
heterogeneous organisations like those found in higher education, quality cultures
can exist in a plurality sense, not a monolithic one. For example, even students
learning properties may differ21 and directly affect other variables. Quality cultures
may even differ from department to department, some having a few common
elements while others being completely different. As Ehlers points out, ‘Quality
culture is always a part of the organisations culture as a whole and is situated in
the organisational context’ He adds that quality culture is a ‘context-specific concept and can only be seen through actual performance in those elements which
are categorised as cultural factors…[it] can be perceived, but not directly placed
in an organisation; it is the outcome of individual and collective involvement and
interaction against the background of an existing quality system’7.
It would be appropriate to say that transforming the culture of an organisation is
‘a very complicated, difficult, and time-consuming process, especially for a mature
organisation’22. However, if organisations want to survive and grow, it is an absolute
must that they learn how to adapt and adjust to changing conditions. This is also
applicable to other kinds of organisations, such as the environmental ones23. At a
time when the external environment is changing unceasingly it can be seen that
there is no choice left for organisations other than change. There are some strategies
recommended by experts to large organisations in helping to manage change. The
first strategy is leadership vision that implies the change initiative has to come from
the leader of the organisation. The leaders need to acknowledge the imperative for
change in the organisation and have to become learners themselves; otherwise this
transformation will never occur or succeed24. Second one is anxiety management.
Changing and unlearning old values and beliefs can be threatening and disturbing.
Setting up a psychological safety environment; offering opportunities for training
and practice; providing supports, coaching, rewards, and encouragement; legitimising making mistakes – experimenting and taking risks would be motivating and
unfreezing acts. Third strategy includes parallel learning systems. It is important
to create a temporary learning system where new assumptions can be practiced
and tested. A task force that will lead and manage the change process within the
organisation should be involved in this testing ground. Other organisations might
be consulted by the task force. In addition, they undergo training and learn the
process themselves. They also bring in organisational development consultants.
This system provides and encourages opportunities for conversation, conversion
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and reflection upon issues critical to the future of the organisation25. Next one is
the learning process. The task force can begin to design learning processes for
the whole organisation, setting up change targets, developing a transition plan,
creating a set of subgroups that focus on specific aspects and areas of the complete
learning process, while identifying change leaders and agents. The organisational
education is another strategy which refers to encourage change in the ‘technological classroom;’teach teachers not to be afraid of new technologies. Coordinate and
implement programs and plans developed by the task force and its subgroups’22.
In addition, keeping up a commitment to continuous dialogue and being
open to lifelong learning and important markers of an organisation continued
ability to be successful. However, there are ultimately many factors that shape an
institution culture. This becomes even more critical when it comes to European
standards, as Gurel points out26. A list of elements that are combined to create the
culture at an academic organisation was proposed by Tierney. These components
are its environment, the mission, and socialisation to the institution, information
on campus, the college strategy, and leadership27. A school particular traits create
a special character that ‘determines the ways in which participants in budgeting
will interact and helps shape the framework for their interaction’28.
In academy, the reason for failed efforts at institutional change is often cultural
resistance. According to Lick and Kaufman many change efforts at institutions of
higher education fail because of inadequate planning to rearrange the academic
culture, which is very hard to change because of its strength and rigidity29. This
concurs with Chaffee and Tierney, who found that the more congruent the dimensions of a culture are, the easier it will be to do things that go along with the
culture and the harder it will be to make changes that go against it. The cultural
and political aspects of a change determine whether the modifications will be successful or failed, rather than the substantive issues30. One very interesting idea is
to attempt to use a significant change in the university budget system to change
its culture. One of the major reasons for doing this was to change the school
culture into being more entrepreneurial31. As a result, Collins and Porras claim
that those organisations with good cultures should choose new goals that will not
require transforming the culture32. Moreover, one should always be careful before
favouring change on account of the law of unintended outcomes. As Dimen et al.
state33, great changes may be possible in higher education as well by integrating
sustainable development. On the other hand, it also has been noted that the blind
spot of those who want change ‘is their conviction that they can combine all the
benefits of their goals with the best of what they are overthrowing. But the forces
unleashed by a revolution have their own momentum, and the direction in which
they are moving cannot necessarily be inferred from the proclamations of their
advocates’34.
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EXPERIMENTAL
The study group was made up of 34 researchers from two universities. The diversity within educational institutions was taken into account to eliminate the effect
of different sub-cultures in organisations. In order to do these participants were
selected from the engineering departments, medical school, and social sciences
faculties. Stratified sampling method was used for having a representative sample
of target population.
For data analysis Atlas.ti 7 software35 was used. 34 researchers were coded as
R1, R2, R3, etc. and descriptive information was obtained initially. At first, all of
the interviews were transcribed by the author and further control of the documents
was made by comparing them with the voice records. Participants answers were
examined in detail and divided into different categories by content. Interpretative
Phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to analyse the data. IPA provides to
explore how participants make sense of their experiences and it engages with
the meaning of that experiences hold for participants. When using IPA, the best
way to collect data is conducting semi-structured interview36. In this process, the
transcripts were subjected to case by case analysis in detail. Each transcript was
examined a number of times by taking notes including comments. Then, these
comments transferred into themes and connected until reaching a coherent thematic integrity for one participant. After completing case by case analysis, themes
connected across participants and superordinate themes were made for groups in
a table. Finally, the table of analysis translated into a narrative account in order to
provide a reportable format.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
According to the findings of the study the following can be said: First of all the
findings showed that most of the academic people (89%), who were coming from
well-developed organisation in terms of physical components, had better results
in developing innovation and technology comparing to the academic people who
were coming from not well-developed cultural organisation. Furthermore, the
second level, which is related to the values of the organisation, is strategically
important in order to increase the depthless of the innovation and technology-based
projects development. A similarly large proportion of the researchers (91%) agree
that the values, particularly trustworthiness, ethics, transparency, and accountability, improve their commitment and make change attitudes towards their efforts
and achievements. However, in the case of the low cultural values, a majority of
the participants (88%) mention that the lack of values at their institutions, particularly commonly held values such as like academic ethics, transparency, and
accountability, demotivate them and decrease their efficiency and effectiveness
in the workplace. Additionally, measuring the third level, (the organisation tacit
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knowledge and capacity building in technology transfer), a large number of the
participants (80%), who are coming from the well-developed organisational culture, pointed out that if the first two levels are not achieved in a higher education
organisation, then transferring knowledge, particularly tacit knowledge, is made
much more difficult. As a result, a minority yet large portion of the respondents
(46%) said that the transfer of the tacit knowledge at their institutions was ‘limited’
to a noticeable degree.
New and different approaches are slowly being introduced to the higher
education sector, partially as a response to challenging and constantly changing
conditions in the wider economic and societal climate. As highlighted in previous
studies, in this new era, different and more holistic quality approaches in order to
develop an organisational culture of quality, approaches that ‘focusing on change
instead of control, development rather than assurance and innovation more than
standards compliance’. In this process, ‘quality instruments and management systems, competencies, and individual and collective values, are not seen as separate
entities of quality development but are combined into a holistic concept – the
concept of quality culture’7.
However, changing the entrenched culture of an organisation is not an easy
process, and requires strong and sustained will from the management and administration, as well as specific and long-term efforts. While traditional educational
organisations can be ‘notoriously slow to embrace change’, in order to succeed in
increasingly competitive markets and environments they will require ‘visionary
leaders who can also fulfill the role of change master’37. However, as the results
of the current phenomenological study shows, possessing a strong organisational
culture is a must at higher educational institutions if they want to fully take advantage of their academic staff creativity and intellect. Otherwise, as many of
the respondents pointed out, the lack of a strong or encouraging organisational
culture can have detrimental effects on both the quality, quantity, and efficiency
of their work.
In order to develop more effective organisational cultures, the concept of
culture needs to be examined. As mentioned previously, quality culture is often
conceptualised as being comprised of four main parts: (1) a structural component;
(2) enabling factors; (3) cultural factors (such as values, rituals, symbols), and
(4) a strong sense of shared trust, communication, and community amongst the
members of the organisation. It is paramount to highlight that ‘viewing quality
in the light of a cultural perspective means taking a holistic stand point: Quality
culture combines cultural elements, structural dimensions and competences into
one holistic framework, supporting stakeholders to develop visions, shared values
and beliefs’7. It is of crucial importance to understand that quality culture with
regard to expected behaviours and norms can explain why some organisational
units exhibit dysfunctional behaviours that are not in harmony with the organisation
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expressed values or mission, and which hamper efficiency and effectiveness. If
an organisation is suffering from dysfunction or inefficiency, one of the first steps
that is recommended in order to correct is to observe the more tangible, easily
noticeable aspects of the organisation culture, such as what the members believe
are expected of them as members of the organisation and how these expectations
manifest themselves.
To conclude, it is not an easy task to diagnose, understand, and even measure or
observe various aspects of organisational culture, the least of which because there
has still not been a large amount of research carried out on this emerging subject
yet. Observation and measurement may be more easily obtained, but it still not
widely accepted how these observations can be translated into recommendations
for change for organisations suffering from inefficient performance. However, as
the research in this paper demonstrates, for the sake of higher education organisations continued prosperity and success, undergoing a thorough internal review of
this organisational culture may indeed be necessary.
CONCLUSIONS
As previous studies showed organisational culture has a considerable effect on the
people perceptions, attitudes and behaviours towards innovative and technology
based improvements. Current study aims to extend previous works by analysing
the topic in specifically higher education area from the perspective of researchers.
Another important and distinguishing factor for this paper is using IPA as an analysis method to understand researchers’ perception in terms of relationship between
organisational culture and development of Information Technology Best Practices
(ITBP) at higher education from their point of view. With this detailed analysis,
current paper can provide a basis for taking the right steps in the development of
ITBP in educational institutions.
As consistent with the literature data and the current study findings people
who are coming from well-developed cultural organisations are more open to
change which is based on innovation and technology. The people who cope with
different problems and topics of external reconstruction and internal unification
can improve the organisational culture, and in turn, it can foster the development
of ITBP at higher education.
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Received 28 August 2014
Revised 15 September 2014
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